School Based Accountability and the
Distribution of Teacher Quality
Across Grades in Elementary Schools
SARAH FULLER
HELEN LADD
DUKE UNIVERSITY
SANFORD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC POLICY
Purpose
 To determine how high quality teachers are
distributed between upper and lower
elementary school
 To determine the role of accountability in the
distribution of high quality teachers
Motivations
 Concern that children in early elementary are
receiving low quality teachers

Reduced effectiveness of investments in early
childhood programs
 Accountability systems that test only upper
grades incentivize principals to strategically
place best teachers in the upper grades
Previous Literature
 Role of Teacher Preferences
 Boyd, Lankford, Loeb, & Wyckoff, 2008
 Bigger Role of Strategic Behavior by Principals
 Cohen-Vogel, 2011
 Chingos and West, 2011
Data
 North Carolina administrative data for the
school years 1995-2009
 Accountability Programs
 1995-1996: No Accountability
 1997-2002: North Carolina ABCs
 2003-2009: No Child Left Behind (NCLB)
Measures of Teacher Quality
 Teacher Licensure Test Scores


Standardized by test type and year taken
Averaged across all tests taken by teacher
 Value-Added Index


Value-added calculated for upper grades (3-5)
Value-added regressed on qualifications including:
Less than 3 years experience
 Licensure test score
 College selectivity
 Master’s degree
 Lateral entry


Value-added index predicted for all teachers
Descriptive Results
N
Licensure Test
Score
Value-Added
Index
Lower
13,827
-0.008
0.012
Upper
12,350
0.090
0.103
1,285
-0.100
-0.087
Lower
9,507
-0.079
-0.125
Upper
8,590
-0.016
-0.111
Within School
Difference
1,016
-0.059
-0.018
PANEL A. 2009
Within School
Difference
PANEL B. 1995
.1
Teacher Test Scores Over Time
ABCs
-.1
-.05
0
.05
NCLB
1995
2000
2005
Fiscal Year
Early Grades Test Score
Late Grades Test Score
2010
.1
Value-Added Index Over Time
ABCs
-.15
-.1
-.05
0
.05
NCLB
1995
2000
2005
Fiscal Year
Early Grades VA Index
Late Grades VA Index
2010
School Level Regressions
 Outcomes
 Lower Grade Shortfall:

Difference between lower grade average and upper grade
average
 Independent Variables
 Accountability Regimes
 School Level Free/Reduced Price Lunch Quintiles
Shortfall by Free/Reduced Price Lunch Quintile
All
Schools
Lowest
FRL
Medium
Highest
Low FRL
FRL
High FRL
FRL
Teacher Quality Shortfall in
Lower Grades
0
-0.02
-0.04
-0.044
-0.06
Teacher Test
Scores
Value-Added
Index
-0.08
-0.083
-0.1
-0.12
Note: Empty bars are not statistically different from zero.
Shortfall by Accountability Regimes
Teacher Test Scores
Value-Added Index
Teacher Quality Shortfall in
Lower Grades
0
-0.02
-0.04
Pre-accountability
-0.06
-0.08
-0.1
-0.12
Note: Empty bars are not statistically significant.
ABCs
NCLB
Teacher Test Scores by Free/Reduced Lunch
Quintile and Accountability Regime
Teacher Quality Shortfall in the
Lower grades
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-0.02
Pre-Accountability
-0.04
ABCs
-0.06
NCLB
-0.08
-0.1
-0.12
-0.14
All Schools
Lowest FRL Medium FRL Highest FRL
Value-Added Index by Free/Reduced Lunch
Quintile and Accountability Regime
Teacher Quality Shortfall in the
Lower Grades
0.15
0.1
0.05
Pre-Accountability
0
ABCs
NCLB
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
All Schools
Lowest FRL
Medium FRL Highest FRL
Teacher Movement
 Moving teachers between grades is a potential
mechanism for sorting by teacher quality
 Moving Up
 Expect teachers with higher qualifications to be more
likely to move up to the upper grades
 Moving Down
 Expect teachers with higher qualifications to be less
likely to move down to the lower grades
Movement of Teachers by Test Scores
Teacher Test Score
Moving
Down
Moving
Down
Moving Up
Moving Up
-0.003**
(0.001)
0.000
(0.004)
-0.003
(0.004)
-0.002
(0.003)
0.008***
(0.001)
0.000
(0.003)
0.015***
(0.003)
0.007*
(0.003)
ABCs
NCLB
ABCs*Teacher Test Score
-0.006
NCLB*Teacher Test Score
(0.004)
-0.001
(0.004)
Observations
99,957
99,957
0.005
(0.004)
0.011**
(0.004)
122,654
122,654
Note: Coefficients expressed as marginal effects calculated at the mean of the independent variables.
Movement of Teachers by Value-added
Reading Value-added
Moving
Down
-0.015***
(0.001)
Moving
Down
-0.012***
(0.003)
Math Value-added
ABCs
Moving
Down
-0.018***
(0.001)
-0.012***
(0.003)
-0.009**
(0.003)
-0.006*
(0.003)
-0.004
(0.003)
-0.006*
(0.003)
97,647
97,647
-0.009**
(0.003)
-0.006*
(0.003)
-0.003
(0.003)
-0.003
(0.003)
NCLB
ABCs*Value-added
NCLB*Value-added
Observations
Moving
Down
97,618
97,618
Note: Coefficients expressed as marginal effects calculated at the mean of the independent variables.
Summary
 Consistent shortfall in teacher quality in the
lower grades compared to the upper grades
 The introduction of NCLB increases shortfall in
teacher quality in the lower grades

The increase is larger in the most disadvantaged
schools