Where Did Agriculture Originate?
• Origins of agriculture
– Agriculture = deliberate modification of Earth’s
surface through the cultivation of plants
and/or rearing of animals
– Cultivate = “to care for”
– Crop = any plant cultivated by people
Where Did Agriculture Originate?
• Origins of agriculture
– Hunter-gatherers
• Perhaps 250,000 remaining today
– Invention of agriculture
• When it began = unclear
• Diffused from many hearths
Crop Hearths
Figure 10-2
Animal Hearths
Figure 10-3
Where Did Agriculture Originate?
• Commercial and subsistence agriculture
– Subsistence = produced mainly for the farm
family’s survival
• Most common in LDCs
– Commercial = produced mainly for sale off the
farm
• Most common in MDCs
Agriculture and Climate
Figure 10-4
Where Did Agriculture Originate?
• Commercial and subsistence agriculture
– Five characteristics distinguish commercial
from subsistence agriculture
•
•
•
•
•
Purpose of farming
Percentage of farmers in the labor force
Use of machinery
Farm size
Relationship of farming to other businesses
Agricultural Workers
Figure 10-5
Area of Farmland Per Tractor
Figure 10-6
Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?
• Shifting cultivation
– Most prevalent in low-latitude, A-type climates
– Two features:
• Land is cleared by slashing and burning debris
– Slash-and-burn agriculture
• Land is tended for only a few years at a time
– Types of crops grown vary regionally
– Traditionally, land is not owned individually
Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?
• Pastoral nomadism (herding domesticated animals)
– Found primarily in arid and semiarid B-type
climates
– Animals are seldom eaten
• The size of the herd indicates power and prestige
– Type of animal depends on the region
• For example, camels are favored in North Africa and
Southwest Asia
– Transhumance practiced by some pastoral
nomads
Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?
• Intensive subsistence
– Found in areas with high population and
agricultural densities
• Especially in East, South, and Southeast Asia
• To maximize production, little to no land is wasted
– Intensive with wet rice dominant
– Intensive with wet rice not dominant
Rice Production
Figure 10-12
Where are Agricultural Regions in LDCs?
• Plantation farming
– Found in Latin America, Africa, and Asia
– Products are grown in LDCs but typically are
sold to MDCs
– Plantations specialize in one or two cash crops
• Important crops = coffee, sugarcane, cotton, rubber,
and tobacco
– A large labor force is usually needed in sparsely
settled regions
Where are Agricultural Regions in MDCs?
• Mixed crop and livestock farming
– Most land = devoted to crops
– Most profits = derive from the livestock
• Dairy farming
– Regional distribution: the milkshed
– Two primary challenges
• Labor-intensive
• Expense of winter feed
Corn (Maize) Production
Figure 10-15
Milk Production
Figure 10-17
Where are Agricultural Regions in MDCs?
• Grain farming
– The largest commercial producer of grain = the United
States
• Livestock ranching
– Practiced in marginal environments
• Mediterranean agriculture
– Based on horticulture
• Commercial gardening and fruit farming
– Truck farms
Wheat Production
Figure 10-19
Meat Production
Figure 10-21
Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?
• Challenges for commercial farmers
– Access to markets is important
• The von Thünen model (1826)
– The choice of crop to grow is related to the proximity to the
market
Figure 10-24
Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?
• Challenges for commercial farmers
– Overproduction
• Agricultural efficiencies have resulted in
overproduction
• Demand has remained relatively constant
– As a consequence, incomes for farmers are low
– Sustainable agriculture
• Sensitive land management
• Integrated crop and livestock
Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?
• Challenges for subsistence farmers
– Population growth
– International trade
– Drug crops
Drug Trade
Figure 10-27
Why Do Farmers Face Economic Difficulties?
• Strategies to increase food supply
– Expanding agricultural land
• Desertification
– Increasing productivity
• The green revolution
– Identifying new food sources
• Cultivating oceans, developing higher-protein
cereals, and improving palatability of foods
– Increasing trade
Agricultural Land and Population
Figure 10-28
Grain Imports and Exports
Figure 10-32
Where is Industry Distributed?
• Origin of industry
– From cottage industries to the Industrial
Revolution
– Impact of the Industrial Revolution especially
great on iron, coal, transportation, textiles,
chemicals, and food processing
Diffusion of the Industrial Revolution
Figure 11-2
Where is Industry Distributed?
• Industrial regions
– Europe
• Emerged in late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries
– North America
• Industry arrived later but spread faster than in
Europe
– East Asia
Industrial Regions
Figure 11-3
Industrial Areas in Europe
Figure 11-4
Industrial Areas in North America
Figure 11-5
Why Are Situation Factors Important?
• Proximity to inputs
– Bulk-reducing
industries
– Examples:
• Copper
• Steel
Figure 11-8
Why Are Situation Factors Important?
• Proximity to markets
– Bulk-gaining industries
– Examples:
• Fabricated metals
• Beverage production
– Single-market
manufacturers
– Perishable products
Figure 11-10
Why Are Situation Factors Important?
• Ship, rail, truck, or air?
– The farther something is transported, the
lower the cost per km/mile
– Cost decreases at different rates for each of the
four modes
•
•
•
•
Truck = most often for short-distance travel
Train = used to ship longer distances (1 day +)
Ship = slow, but very low cost per km/mile
Air = most expensive, but very fast
Why Are Site Factors Important?
• Labor
– The most important site factor
– Labor-intensive industries
• Examples: textiles
– Textile and apparel spinning
– Textile and apparel weaving
– Textile and apparel assembly
Cotton Yarn Production
Figure 11-16
Woven Cotton Fabric Production
Figure 11-17
Production of Women’s Blouses
Figure 11-18
Why Are Site Factors Important?
• Land
– Rural sites
– Environmental factors
• Capital
Figure 11-20
Why Are Location Factors Changing?
• Attraction of new industrial regions
– Changing industrial distribution within MDCs
• Interregional shift within the United States
– Right-to-work laws
– Textile production
• Interregional shifts in Europe
– Convergence shifts
– Competitive and employment regions
Changing U.S. Manufacturing
Figure 11-21
Manufacturers of Men’s and Women’s
Socks and Hosiery
Figure 11-22
European Union Structural Funds
Figure 11-23
Why Are Location Factors Changing?
• Attraction of new industrial regions
– International shifts in industry
• East Asia
• South Asia
• Latin America
– Changing distributions
– Outsourcing
World Steel Production
Figure 11-24
Global Production
Figure 11-25
Apparel Production and Jobs in the
United States
Figure 11-26
Why Are Location Factors Changing?
• Renewed attraction of traditional industrial
regions
– Proximity to skilled labor
• Fordist, or mass production
• Post-Fordist, or lean production
• Just-in-time delivery
Electronic Computing Manufacturing
Figure 11-28
Women’s and Girls’ Cut and Sew Apparel
Manufacturing
Figure 11-29
Services
• Service = any activity that fulfills a human
want or need
• Services are located in settlements
– Location of services is important for
profitability
– Affluent regions tend to offer more services
– Local diversity is evident in the provision of
services
Where Did Services Originate?
• Three types of services
– Consumer services
• About 44 percent of all jobs in the United States
– Business services
• About 24 percent of all jobs in the United States
– Public services
• About 17 percent of all jobs in the United States
– In the United States, all employment growth
has occurred in the services sector
Percentage of GDP from Services, 2005
Figure 12-1
Employment Change in the
United States by Sector
Figure 12-2
Where Did Services Originate?
• Services in early rural settlements
– Early consumer services met societal needs
• Examples = burial of the dead, religious centers,
manufacturing centers
– Early public services probably followed
religious activities
– Early business services to distribute and store
food
Where Did Services Originate?
• Services in early urban settlements
– Services in ancient cities
• Earliest urban settlements (e.g., Ur), Athens, Rome
– Services in medieval cities
• Largest settlements were in Asia
• European cities developed with feudalism
Where Are Contemporary
Services Located?
• Services in rural settlements
– Half of the world’s population lives in rural
settlements
– Two types
• Clustered rural settlements
– Circular or linear
– Clustered settlements in Colonial America
• Dispersed rural settlements
– In the United States
– In Great Britain
» Enclosure movement
Rural Settlement Patterns
Figure 12-10
Where Are Contemporary
Services Located?
• Services in urban settlements
– Differences between urban and rural
settlements
• Large size
• High density
• Social heterogeneity
– Increasing percentage of people in cities
– Increasing number of people in cities
Percentage of Population Living in
Urban Settlements
Figure 12-14
Urban Settlements With Populations
of at Least 3 Million
Figure 12-15
Why Are Consumer Services
Distributed in a Regular Pattern?
• Central place theory
– First proposed by Walter Christaller (1930s)
– Characteristics
• A central place has a market area (or hinterland)
– Size of a market area
• Range
• Threshold
“Daily Urban Systems”
Figure 12-16
Central Place Theory
Figure 12-17
Market Areas, Range, and Threshold for
Kroger Supermarkets
Figure 12-18
Why Are Consumer Services
Distributed in a Regular Pattern?
• Market-area analysis
– Profitability of a location
• Compute the range
• Compute the threshold
• Draw the market area
– Optimal location within a market
• Best location in a linear settlement
• Best location in a nonlinear settlement
Optimal Location for a Pizza-Delivery Service
Figure 12-20
Why Are Consumer Services
Distributed in a Regular Pattern?
• Hierarchy of services and settlements
– Nesting
• Market areas in MDCs = a series of hexagons of
various sizes
– Rank-size distribution of settlements
• Primate city rule
– Primate cities
– Periodic markets
Central Place Theory
Figure 12-21
Rank-Size Distribution in the
United States and Indonesia
Figure 12-23
Why Do Business Services Cluster in
Large Settlements?
• Hierarchy of business services
– Services in world cities
• Business: clustering of services is a product of the
Industrial Revolution
• Consumer: retail services with extensive market
areas
– May include leisure services of national importance due
to large thresholds, large ranges, and the presence of
wealthy patrons.
• Public: world cities are often the center of national
or international political power
World Cities
Figure 12-25
Why Do Business Services Cluster in
Large Settlements?
• Business services in LDCs
– Offshore financial services
• Two functions:
– Taxes
– Privacy
– Back offices
• LDCs are attractive because of:
– Low wages
– Ability to speak English
Why Do Business Services Cluster in
Large Settlements?
• Economic base of settlements
– Two types:
• Basic industries
• Nonbasic industries
– Specialization of cities in different services
– Distribution of talent
Economic Base of U.S. Cities
Figure 12-28
Geography of Talent
Figure 12-29
Why Do Services Cluster Downtown?
• CBD land uses
– Central business districts (CBDs)
– Retail services in the CBD
• Retailers with a high threshold
• Retailers with a high range
• Retailers serving downtown workers
– Business services in the CBD
CBD of Charlotte, NC
Figure 13-1
Why Do Services Cluster Downtown?
• Competition for land in the CBD
– High land costs
• Some of the most expensive real estate in the world
= Tokyo
• Intensive land use
– Underground areas
• Skyscrapers
– “Vertical geography”
Why Do Services Cluster Downtown?
• Activities excluded from the CBD
– Lack of industry in the CBD
• Modern factories require large, one-story parcels of
land
– Lack of residents in the CBD
• Push and pull factors involved
• CBDs outside North America
– Less dominated by commercial considerations.
Where Are People Distributed
in Urban Areas?
• Models of urban structure
– Are used to explain where people live in cities
– Three models, all developed in the city of
Chicago
• Concentric zone model
• Sector model
• Multiple nuclei model
Concentric Zone Model
Figure 13-4
Sector Model
Figure 13-5
Multiple Nuclei Model
Figure 13-6
Where Are People Distributed
in Urban Areas?
• Geographic application of the models
– Models can be used to show where different
social groups live in the cities
• Census tracts
• Social area analysis
– Criticism of the models
• Models may be too simple
• Models may be outdated
Where Are People Distributed
in Urban Areas?
• Applying the models outside North America
– European cities
– Less developed countries
• Colonial cities
• Cities since independence
• Squatter settlements
Income Distribution in the Paris Region
Figure 13-10
Model of a Latin American City
Figure 13-14
Why Do Inner Cities Face
Distinctive Challenges?
• Inner-city physical issues
– Most significant = deteriorating housing
• Filtering
• Redlining
– Urban renewal
– Public housing
– Renovated housing
• Gentrification
Racial Change in Chicago
Figure 13-16
Why Do Inner Cities Face
Distinctive Challenges?
• Inner-city social issues
– The underclass
• An unending cycle of social and economic issues
• Homelessness
– Culture of poverty
Why Do Inner Cities Face
Distinctive Challenges?
• Inner-city economic issues
– Eroding tax base
• Cities can either reduce services or raise taxes
– Impact of the recession
• Housing market collapse
Foreclosures in Baltimore
Figure 13-18
Why Do Suburbs Face
Distinctive Challenges?
• Urban expansion
– Annexation
– Defining urban settlements
• The city
• Urbanized areas
• Metropolitan statistical areas (MSAs)
– Metropolitan divisions
– Micropolitan statistical areas
Annexation in Chicago
Figure 13-19
City, Urbanized Area, and MSA of
St. Louis
Figure 13-20
Why Do Suburbs Face
Distinctive Challenges?
• Urban expansion
– Local government fragmentation
• Council of government
• Consolidations of city and county governments
• Federations
– Overlapping metropolitan areas
Why Do Suburbs Face
Distinctive Challenges?
• Peripheral model
– Edge cities
– Density gradient
– Cost of suburban sprawl
• Suburban segregation
– Residential segregation
– Suburbanization of businesses
Density Gradient
Figure 13-23
Suburban Stress
Figure 13-25
Why Do Suburbs Face
Distinctive Challenges?
• Transportation and suburbanization
– Motor vehicles
• More than 95 percent of all trips = made by car
– Public transit
• Advantages of public transit
– Transit travelers take up less space
– Cheaper, less pollutant, and more energy efficient than an automobile
– Suited to rapidly transport large number of people to small area
• Public transit in the United States
– Used primarily for rush-hour community for workers into and out of
CBD
– Small cities-minimal use
– Most Americans prefer to commute by automobile
Subway and Tram Lines in Brussels, Belgium
Figure 13-28
Why Are Resources Being Depleted?
• Energy resources
– Animate versus inanimate power
– Energy supply and demand
• Five-sixths of the world’s energy supply comes from
coal, natural gas, and oil
– Finiteness of natural resources
• Renewable versus nonrenewable resources
– Proven reserves
– Potential reserves
Per Capita Energy Consumption
Figure 14-1
U.S. Energy Consumption
Figure 14-2
Outlook for World Petroleum Production
Figure 14-3
Coal Production
Figure 14-4
Proven Reserves of Fossil Fuels
Figure 14-5
Why Are Resources Being Depleted?
• Energy resources
– Uneven distribution of fossil fuels
• Location of reserves
– Consumption of fossil fuels
– Control of world petroleum
• OPEC
• Changing supply and demand
Why Are Resources Being Depleted?
• Mineral resources
– Metallic or nonmetallic
• Nonmetallic = 90 percent of extraction is for
building stone
• Ferrous metallic minerals = iron ore, chromium,
manganese
• Nonferrous metallic minerals = aluminum, copper,
zinc
– Precious metals = gold, silver, platinum
Why Are Resources Being Polluted?
• Air pollution
– Global scale
• Global warming
– Greenhouse effect
– The ozone layer and CFCs
– Regional scale
• Acid precipitation and acid deposition
– Local scale
• Carbon monoxide
• Hydrocarbons and photochemical smog
• Particulates
Global Warming
Figure 14-15
Acid Deposition in North America & Europe
Figure 14-18
Smog in Mexico City
Figure 14-19
Why Are Resources Being Polluted?
• Water pollution
– Sources
• Agriculture
• Water-using industries
• Municipal uses
– Impact on aquatic life
• Biochemical oxygen demand
• Wastewater and disease
Why Are Resources Being Polluted?
• Land pollution
– Solid-waste disposal
• Sanitary landfills
– Two alternatives to landfills: incineration and recycling
– Hazardous waste disposal
• In 2007 = about 47 million tons disposed of in the
United States
Why Are Resources Being Polluted?
• Renewing resources
– Nuclear energy
•
•
•
•
•
Potential accidents
Radioactive wastes
Bomb material
Limited uranium reserves
High cost
Percentage of Electricity Generated
from Nuclear Power
Figure 14-23
Why Are Resources Being Reused?
• Renewing resources
– Leading renewable energy resources
•
•
•
•
•
Biomass
Hydroelectric power
Wind power
Geothermal energy
Solar energy
– Active
– Passive
• Renewable energy in motor vehicles
Electricity From Hydroelectric
Power
Figure 14-26
Why Are Resources Being Reused?
• Recycling resources
– In the United States recycling has steadily
increased since 1970
– Recycling collection
• Pick-up and processing
– Recyclables are collected in four ways: curbside, drop-off,
buy-back, and/or deposit
• Manufacturing of recycled products
Sources of Solid Waste
Figure 14-30
Why Are Resources Being Reused?
• Recycling resources
– Other pollution reduction strategies
• Reducing discharges
• Increasing environmental capacities
– Comparing pollution reduction strategies
• It seems clear that consumers must learn to
use/waste less for a safer, cleaner environment
A Coking Plant
Figure 14-32
Why Should Resources Be Conserved?
• Sustainable development
– Improving quality of life while preserving
resources for future generations
– Conservation
• Sustainable use and management of resources
– Preservation
• Maintenance of resources in their present condition
– Impact on economic growth
Sustainable Development
Figure 14-33
Pollution Compared to a Country’s Wealth
Figure 14-34
Why Should Resources be Conserved?
• Biodiversity
– Geographic biodiversity versus biological
biodiversity
• Biologists = most concerned with genetic diversity
• Geographers = most concerned with biogeographic
diversity
– Biodiversity in the tropics
• Occupy 6 percent of Earth’s land area but contain
more than 50 percent of all species