Meat in a Green World
An overview of sustainability and farming.
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Information
1. Overview of Climate Change
2. Causes
3. The Consequences of Global
Warming
4. Sustainable Development
5. Overview of Livestock Farming
Questions
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6. The Challenge for Livestock
Farmers
7. How are Emissions Measured?
8. Reducing GHG Emissions from
Livestock Farming
9. Improvement Strategy
10. Changing Consumers’ Behaviour
End
1. Overview of Climate Change
The ‘greenhouse’ effect is essential to life on
earth. Greenhouse gases (GHGs) naturally
make up about 1% of the earth’s atmosphere
and help to regulate our climate. However,
as a result of population growth and
industrial development, human activity is
responsible for releasing more GHGs into
the atmosphere than would normally occur.
This has affected the natural regulation of
the earth’s temperature resulting in
increased climate change that is
unpredictable with variations and extremes
of temperature and weather conditions.
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2. Causes
Globally many human activities are
responsible for GHG emissions: energy
production and usage, transport, industry,
agriculture and forestry.
Food production is responsible for around a
fifth of the UK’s greenhouse gas emissions,
of this figure a third comes from agriculture
and land use.
The other two thirds from processing,
retailing and consumer use of food and
food waste (Pigs and The Environment, A
Kleanthous 2009).
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2. Causes
The majority of GHG emissions are in the form of carbon dioxide (CO2)
from fossil fuel use and deforestation (the destruction of forests that help
trap CO2 and replenish oxygen in the atmosphere), but methane (CH4) and
nitrous oxide (N2O) from agriculture also make a significant contribution.
The global warming potential (GWP) of Methane and Nitrous oxide are
much higher per tonne than that of Carbon Dioxide, although the effects
may not last as long in the atmosphere.
Methane
21 x greater Global Warming Potential than CO2
(over 100 years)
Nitrous oxide
296 x greater Global Warming Potential than CO2
(over 100 years)
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3. The Consequences of Global Warming
“Climate is what you expect, weather is what we
get.” (Mark Twain)
There is evidence that the climate is changing, but
the big question is whether this a natural event or
driven by human behaviour. The impact of changing
climate is complex with variability in different
regions at different times. Variable weather patterns
should not be confused with long term trends which
take over 30 years to track and record.
It is thought that long term effects of climate change
are likely to be: increased areas affected by
drought; increased intense tropical cyclones;
increased incidence of high sea levels; melting of
polar ice caps; warming of oceans.
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4. Sustainable Development
Currently, our consumption of natural resources
is faster than the rate at which they can be
created or replaced. No production system can
be sustained in the long term if it exceeds the
Earth's overall ability to process waste and
provide for a stable climate, flood regulation,
pollination and many other essential
environmental services.
There are many definitions of sustainable
development. The most widely used is: “Meeting
the needs of the present generation without
compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their needs” (Brundtland Commission's
1987 report for the United Nations, Our Common
Future).
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4. Sustainable Development
Achieving sustainable development requires
a balance between expanding economic
opportunity, reducing hunger and poverty,
whilst preserving the planet.
“ Improving life while living within the capacity
of the ecosystem” (World Wildlife Fund
1991).
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5. Overview of Livestock Farming
Introduction
Livestock farming in the UK is a
large, complex and highlyinterdependent industry. 2.9 million
cattle, 16.7 million sheep and 9.2
million pigs supply the human food
chain with a nutrient dense product
that has been at the heart of the
national diet for thousands of
years.
But we do not produce all we eat,
imports are a significant part of the
market, such as for pig meat where
we are only 48.0% self sufficient.
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5. Overview of Livestock Farming
More than 60% of British agricultural land is
grassland and much of it is unsuitable for
crop production. There are large areas of
the UK which cannot reasonably produce
food for people unless cattle or sheep are
grazed.
Livestock farming plays an important part in
landscape management. The traditional
small hedge-bounded field structure that
characterises English hills and uplands is
maintained by grazing livestock.
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5. Overview of Livestock Farming
Furthermore, rough grazing plays an important
role in locking up carbon dioxide in plant material
and soil organic matter and regulating the flow of
rain into water courses. Without livestock farming
the landscape could look very different.
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6. The Challenge for Livestock Farmers
To meet the carbon targets made legally
binding in the 2008 Climate Change Act, the
Government has published the UK Low
Carbon Transition Plan.
This sets out a comprehensive strategy to
reduce national GHG emissions by 18% of
estimated 2008 levels by 2020.
As part of this plan, English farmers are
required to continue making reductions in their
annual GHG emissions. The immediate priority
is for emissions estimated in 1990 to be at
least 11% lower than the level predicted for
2020 – a saving of some 3 million tonnes per
year of CO2.
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6. The Challenge for Livestock Farmers
The global warming potential (GWP)
for meat is the sum of methane
emissions from rumen fermentation
and manure breakdown, nitrous
oxide from the fertilisers used to
grow feed and carbon dioxide
emitted from transport, processing,
packaging, and cooking the end
product.
The GWP per tonne produced is
6 for pig meat, compared with 16 for
beef, 17 for lamb and 5 for poultry.
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7. How are Emissions Measured?
Calculating the level of GHG emissions produced by livestock
farming is a complex task. The tool adopted by experts is called Life
Cycle Analysis (LCA).
LCA is a method of accurately assessing the burden placed on the
environment by the production or manufacture of a product. The
analysis takes into account how much energy and raw materials are
used and the amount of products and waste generated at each
stage of a product’s life.
For example, for pigs this might include:
> On farm : source and type of feed, housing, manure storage
> Abattoir/Meat plant : transport, use of energy and water in the
plant, meat waste, refrigeration
> Retailer: transport, packaging, refrigeration
> Consumer: transport, refrigeration, cooking, waste disposal
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7. How are Emissions Measured?
The following measures are used to make comparisons of the
impact:
Global warming potential – greenhouse effect caused by
emissions of greenhouse gases
Eutrophication – oxygen depletion of water and reduction in
water quality due to increased nitrates, phosphates and ammonia
in the ecosystem as a result of chemical fertiliser use.
Acidification – emissions causing extremes of pH in habitats e.g.
acid rain
Abiotics – depletion of natural resources that cannot be
preplaced for example fossil fuels.
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7. How are emissions measured?
These are quantified and used to identify
possible improvements or changes in
production patterns or methods. LCA is a
rapidly developing science and
methodologies often do not compare like
with like.
By considering all the individual
components, experts have been able to
establish national benchmarks for primary
energy consumption and overall GHG
emissions for food production.
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8. Reducing GHG Emissions from Livestock Farming
Achieving Targets
To play their part in ensuring that British
farming meets its UK Carbon Reduction
Plan target, farmers must continue to
reduce their annual GHG emissions by
at least 11% from 1990 levels by 2020.
The industry works on the
measurement of emissions per
kilogramme of meat as the benchmark
for efficiency.
Reductions in stock numbers would, if
consumption stays the same, cause the
transfer of production, and therefore
emissions, to other parts of the world.
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8. Reducing GHG Emissions from Livestock Farming
Over recent years profitability through
efficiency has led to a decline in
livestock numbers, which has led to a
decrease of GHG emissions of 17%
since 1990. However, with a growing
population output needs to be
increased to meet world food needs.
The ongoing challenge of reducing
emissions and providing sufficient
meat for consumption will be met by
further improvements to productivity.
However, the United Kingdom is not
totally self sufficient in meat production
and imports play a major part in
fulfilling demand.
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We also export parts of the
carcase which other nations prefer
consuming. This helps maximise
carcase ultilisation and therefore
reduces the GHG per unit of meat.
9. Improvement Strategy
Within the beef, sheep and pig industries,
the following areas have been identified
as opportunities for efficiency and
improvement.
Select better animals
Genetic selection can improve growth
rates in pigs, cattle and sheep with
subsequent increase in yield of meat.
Improvement of reproductive
performance will reduce the numbers of
breeding animals required and in addition
increase the number of live healthy
offspring.
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9. Improvement Strategy
In the pig industry genetic characteristics
are also important for the efficient
conversion of feed into meat muscle (feed
conversion ratio) and increasing
prolificacy i.e. the number of animals born
and reared per sow.
Similarly, disease resistance and longevity
of life are all ‘heritable’. These genetic
traits are key to efficiency; however,
efficient production must not be at the
expense of high animal welfare.
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9. Improvement Strategy
Change the feed
Improving the formulation of rations fed to
livestock can impact upon the level of
emissions. Matching the energy and protein
needs of the animal to the diet in beef cattle
rations encourages lower methane
production per kg of beef produced.
New forage crops are being developed that
offer a better nutrient balance to livestock for
example high sugar ryegrasses for cattle and
sheep.
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9. Improvement Strategy
Soya is an important source of protein for
farmed livestock in the UK. Inclusion
rates in the diet range from 30% for
chickens, 10% for pigs and 3% for
ruminants. Much of the soymeal used is
imported from North and South America.
The Round Table on Responsible Soy
(supported by WWF) is an international
platform to support the production of
sustainable, ethically produced soya. A
number of livestock stakeholders have
agreed to encourage increased use of
sustainable soya. The pig industry is
currently undertaking research to replace
soya in the diet of pigs.
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9. Improvement Strategy
Fertiliser and Waste management
Over the past 10 years, the overall nitrogen, phosphate and potash
applications to grassland in England and Wales have been halved.
In terms of agricultural practice in the UK, beef and sheep farmers are the
lowest users of artificial fertilisers on grass.
Urine and faeces from livestock contain useful nutrients for use by grass
and crops. Farmers use manures from housed animals to grow crops. If
the grass or crop does not capture and use all of the nitrogen in the
manure or urine deposited by the animals in the field this surplus can be
leached out by rainwater as it travels through the soil to streams and
lakes or underground reservoirs. Surplus nitrogen form manures or
fertilisers remaining in the soil during winter may from nitrous oxide a
very potent greenhouse gas. There are some chemicals, called denitrification inhibitors which can be used on land to reduce the problem,
but they are currently too expensive for widespread use.
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9. Improvement Strategy
Ammonia is an issue with all housed
livestock, but modern housing and feeding
management can reduce the impact on the
environment.
Covering a slurry store reduces the
emissions of ammonia and methane into the
atmosphere.
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9. Improvement Strategy
Use of anaerobic digesters, whilst not
widespread, will manage a naturally
occurring process through the conversion
of methane into bio-gas energy and
produce high volumes of fertiliser as a byproduct which can be used as a
replacement to chemical fertilisers.
As well as managing methane and
carbon dioxide emissions from livestock
production, anaerobic digestors can save
money by potentially providing the farmer
with energy, fuel and sustainable fertiliser.
The energy maybe in the form of heat or
electricity, or both.
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9. Improvement Strategy
Pollutants from livestock farming can be
reduced but not eradicated. More
research is required to help farmers
manage the waste that is an inevitable
by-product of livestock production.
Sustainable production is the sum of
the parts: genetics, feed , housing,
technology adoption, systems
management ( including slurry
management) and acquisition of
knowledge on the part of all individuals
involved in livestock production.
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10. Changing Consumers' Behaviour
Human Diet and Health
A healthy balanced diet is vital to our
well being. Meat contains a range of
beneficial nutrients some of which are
more freely available than from a
vegetarian diet.
Some meat and meat products,
however, can contain high levels of
saturated fat, associated with heart
disease and diabetes.
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10. Changing Consumers' Behaviour
The average consumption of red meat in this
country is around 76g per day – a moderate
amount. The majority of people in Great
Britain consume a very varied and
cosmopolitan diet which will not necessarily
include red meat every day.
Consumers whose diet is more reliant on
processed meat products, which by their very
nature will involve greater contribution to
GHGs, should be encouraged to choose
fresh lean red meat instead.
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10. Changing Consumers' Behaviour
Waste
UK households throw away 6.6 million
tonnes of food waste every year. Of this,
nearly a fifth – 4.1 million tonnes – could
have been eaten if it had been stored or
managed better. Families with children
create the greatest proportion of
avoidable food waste.
Fresh, rapidly perishable foods such as
bread, salad, and fruit tend to be wasted
in a higher proportion than meat. This
may be because of the relative expense
of meat.
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10. Changing Consumers' Behaviour
WRAP has a target to reduce consumer food
waste by 100,000 tonnes by April 2011. More
than 30 retailers have signed up to this
commitment.
Reducing the amount of packaging used for food
is not the only consideration for sustainability.
Innovative packaging technologies such as gas
flushing, interactive films, re-sealable packages
can all increase shelf life and therefore food
waste.
For unavoidable food waste WRAP recommends
home composting or the use of local authority
recycling.
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Questions
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Question 1
What is the greatest source of greenhouse gas
emissions in the UK ?
1. Farming and food production
2. Fossil fuel use and deforestation
3. Nuclear fuel use and deforestation
4. Car fuel use and food production
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Question 2
How much is food production responsible for the UK’s
greenhouse gas emission?
1. One-third
2. Two-thirds
3. One-fifth
4. One-sixth
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Question 3
Name three main consequences of global warming.
1. Drought, disease and pest infestation.
2. Deforestation, more ice caps and rain.
3. Low sea levels, melting polar ice and disease.
4. Drought, melting ice caps and warming oceans.
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Question 4
What is the percentage of pig meat which the UK
produces for its own needs?
1. 38%
2. 48%
3. 58%
4. 83%
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Question 5
Which of the following is locked-up in plant material
as a result of rough grazing?
1. Methane
2. Carbon dioxide
3. Nitrogen
4. Nitrous oxide
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Question 6
What reduction in GHG emissions are English farmers required to
make?
1. 5% lower than in 1990 by 2020
2. 11% lower than in 1990 by 2020
3. 21% lower than in 1990 by 2020
4. 31% lower than in 1990 by 2020
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Question 7
For a product, Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) takes into account:
1. The amount of energy used, recycling potential and waste produced.
2. The amount of transport and materials used, as well as recycling.
3. The amount of energy and raw materials used, as well as waste generated.
4. The amount of energy and money used, as well as waste recycled.
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Question 8
Name three improvement strategies for meat production.
1. Animal selection, feed change and waste management.
2. Animal selection, increased roaming and water management.
3. Waste selection, change in animal type and waste management.
4. Land selection, increased methane production and water use.
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Question 9
What is the average amount of red meat
consumption in Great Britain?
1. 176g per day
2. 136g per day
3. 106g per day
4. 76g per day
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Question 10
Which type of household creates the biggest
proportion of food waste?
1. Singles
2. Families with children
3. Retired couples
4. Young couples
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