The Mental Side of
Human Performance
Chapter 14
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INTRODUCTION
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History of Sport Psychology

Chinese and Greek Civilizations
– “Healthy mind in a healthy body”

1800’s
– First sport psychology research
– Effects of audience on cyclist performance

Past Three Decades
– Recognition and growth of sport
psychology discipline
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Growth of Sport Psychology

Sport psychology has only recently
developed and grown due to:
1. Expansion of scientific knowledge and
emergence of different branches
2. Increased media attention
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Outline

In this section you will be introduced to
the following sport psychology issues:
– Influence of personality on performance
– Effect of sport on personality
– Relationship between anxiety and
performance
– Effect of motivation on sport performance
– Effects of the audience on athletic
accomplishments
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PERSONALITY AND THE
ATHLETE
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Personality:
Pattern of characteristic thoughts,
feelings, and behaviours that distinguish
one person from another and persist
over time and situations.
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
The study of personality in sport psychology
can help us answer the following questions:
Do athletes possess different personality
characteristics than non-athletes?
Do winners possess different personality profiles
than losers?
Does personality determine sport preference, or
does a particular sport mould our personality
accordingly?
Can personality be changed, or does it remain
relatively fixed throughout involvement in sport?
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Personalities of Athletes
vs. Non-Athletes
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Personalities of Athletes vs. NonAthletes

Compared to non-athletes, athletes are more:
Stable
Extroverted
Competitive
Dominant
Self-confident
Achievement-oriented
Psychologically well-adjusted
Conservative with respect to political views
Authoritarian
Persistent
Display higher levels of self-esteem
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Personalities of Athletes vs. NonAthletes
Although differences exist,
clear pattern of differences
has yet to emerge
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Personality Profiles of Athletes
Differing in Skill Level
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Definitions

Personality traits: psychological characteristics of the
athlete which remain relatively stable over time

Personality states: “right now kinds of feelings” which
are situation-specific

State-trait controversy: disagreement of the relative
merits of studying states versus traits

Interactional theory: the best state-trait approach,
which considers personality traits and states, as well
as situation-specific factors
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
It is NOT yet possible to distinguish
between successful and unsuccessful
athletes using personality traits

However, it is possible to distinguish
between the elite athletes and the
lesser skilled in terms of mood states
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Mood States of Elite vs. NonElite Athletes

Mood states of elite athletes vs. lesser
skilled athletes are below in:
Tension
Depression
Anger
Fatigue
Confusion

And are markedly higher in:
Vigor
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Iceberg Profile
This mood state profile resembles an iceberg and is
therefore often referred to as the iceberg profile
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T-SCORE

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Successful Athletes
Unsuccessful Athletes
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Tension
Depression
Anxiety
Vigor
Fatigue
Confusion
PROFILE OF MOOD STATES
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Developmental Effects of Sport
on Personality
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Are personality differences due to the athletic
experience?
Or
Do certain personality traits cause the individual
to go out for sports (gravitational hypothesis)?

Evidence tends to support the gravitational
hypothesis
 HOWEVER, participation in sports can also
enhance personality development
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Personality and the Athlete:
Conclusions

Athletes tend to be more extroverted, independent,
and self-confident than non-athletes; they also tend
to be less anxious

Elite athletes can be distinguished from lesser skilled
athletes by means of the iceberg profile; it is not
possible, however, to distinguish between winners
and losers

Individuals with certain personality traits tend to
gravitate toward sports; sport also has the potential to
enhance certain personality traits
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ANXIETY AND ATHLETIC
PERFORMANCE
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Arousal

Physiological state of readiness and
psychological activation

Involves the autonomic nervous system

Body’s way of preparing you for “fight or
flight”
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Stress

Non-specific response of the body to any
demand made upon it
 Unemotional bodily response to some type of
stressor
 Can be either good or bad, depending upon
the individual’s personal interpretation
– Eustress (e.g., winning a lottery)
– Distress (e.g., receiving a failing grade on a
midterm test)
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Anxiety

Tension and worry that results from distress
 A negatively charged emotional state
characterized by discomfort and nervousness
 Two forms of anxiety:
– Trait anxiety: a personality characteristic
– State anxiety: a “right now” kind of anxiety
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Anxiety Cont’d

Two components of state anxiety:
– Cognitive state anxiety (psychological component)
• Caused by fear of failure
• Result of worrying
• “I am afraid I am going to lose”
– Somatic state anxiety (physical component)
• perception of physiological responses
• “I feel nervous before a major contest”
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Anxiety and Athletic
Performance Relationship
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Pre-Competitive Anxiety
Temporal changes in cognitive and somatic state
anxiety as competition approaches:
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C o m p e titiv e sta te a n xie ty

C o g n itiv e
18
S o m a tic
12
1 -w k
2 -d a y s
1 -d a y
2 -h r s
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3 0 -m in
Exv e n t
b e g in s
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The Effect of Pre-competitive
Anxiety on Performance

Relationship between
somatic anxiety and
performance takes the
form of an inverted-U

Relationship between
cognitive anxiety and
athletic performance
has been shown to be
linear and negative
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Implications

Increases in somatic anxiety are associated
with improved athletic performance up to a
certain optimal level; therefore, athletes should
attempt to increase their somatic anxiety up to
an optimal level by “psyching-up”

The lower the level of cognitive state anxiety,
the better the athlete will perform; therefore,
athletes must learn to deal with the symptoms
of cognitive anxiety
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Symptoms of Cognitive State
Anxiety
The Symptoms of Distress Checklist
Cold, clammy hands
______
Increased heart rate
______
Cotton mouth
______
Faster breathing
______
Unable to concentrate
______
Trembling hands
______
Desire to urinate often
______
Tense muscles
______
Diarrhea
______
Nausea
______
Feeling of fatigue
______
Voice distortion
______
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Relaxation Interventions to
Lower Cognitive State Anxiety

Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR)
– Takes time initially, but with practice can be
completed in a matter of minutes
– Especially valuable night before
1. Lie or sit in a comfortable position
2. Inhale and tense a specific muscle group for
approximately 5 seconds
3. Exhale and release the tension from the muscles,
concentrating on the feeling of relaxation
4. Repeated for a number of muscle groups
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Relaxation Interventions Cont’d

Positive Imagery
– Requires practice to be effective
1. Close eyes and picture yourself
performing well in the specific anxietycausing performance environment
2. Imagine the positive feelings associated
with this successful imagery
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Relaxation Interventions Cont’d

Positive Self-talk
– Reassuring oneself with positive thoughts
and statements
– Example: “I’m a good free throw shooter,”
vs. “What will the coach think of me if I
blow this shot?”
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MOTIVATION AND SPORT
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Motivation determines the reasons for an
athlete’s behavior.
It is defined as the direction, energy, and
intensity of behavior.
It is synonymous with inspiration,
enthusiasm, or the will to win.
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Achievement Motivation
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
Athlete’s predisposition to approach or avoid
a competitive situation

Includes the concept of desire, or desire to
excel

Not an innate drive, but is likely learned in the
sporting environment
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McClelland-Atkinson Model

McClelland-Atkinson Model suggests
that achievement motivation is a
function of:
1. The motive to achieve success
• An athlete’s intrinsic motivation to engage in
an exciting activity
2. The fear of failure
• A psychological construct associated with
cognitive state anxiety
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Achievement Motivation =
intrinsic motivation – cognitive state anxiety
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Extrinsic Motivation

McClelland-Atkinson model of achievement
motivation could NOT predict athletic success
 Therefore, extrinsic motivation was added to
the original model
– Example: praise, money, trophies, and other forms
of reward

This modified model acknowledges that
factors external to the athlete may influence
individual’s overall motivation
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Factors Affecting Achievement
Motivation

The following factors affect achievement
motivation:
1. Self-confidence
2. Self-efficacy
3. Goal setting
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Improving Achievement
Motivation
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1. Self-Confidence
Discriminating factor between
individuals high and low in achievement
motivation
 Similar to the motive to achieve
success:

– The confident athlete has a high motive to
succeed and a high expectation for
success
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2. Self-Efficacy
Based on Bandura’s Model
 Individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
succeeding at a particular task
 i.e., situation-specific self-confidence
 Used in sport psychology (vs. self-confidence)
because the sporting environment represents
a very specific situation

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2. Self-Efficacy Cont’d

Self-efficacy (and subsequently
achievement motivation) can be
enhanced through:
(a) successful performance
(b) vicarious experience
(c) verbal persuasion
(d) emotional arousal
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Improving Self-efficacy

Successful Performance
–
–
–
The most important factor in improving selfefficacy
Raises expectations for future successes; while
failure lowers these expectations
For best results:
1. Break down skill learning into small steps to
insure success early
2. Practice, practice, practice
3. Highlighting successes and downplaying setbacks
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Improving Self-efficacy

Vicarious Experience
– Demonstrating repeated success through
participatory modeling
• i.e., the subject first observes a model perform a task
– For best results:
1. Employ participatory modeling before the athlete
attempts the skill on his/her own
2. Utilize only models who are technically correct in
their execution
3. Ensure successful execution by the athlete in the
early stages of learning
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Improving Self-efficacy

Verbal Persuasion
– Constant provision of encouragement, as
well as specific skill instructions
– For best results:
1. Provide specific rather than general feedback
2. Have the athlete repeat your instructions back to
you before beginning
3. Focus on the positive aspects of the athlete’s
performance
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Improving Self-efficacy

Emotional Arousal
– An optimal level of arousal is required to develop
self-efficacy
– Too much or too little arousal will impact
negatively on the development of self-efficacy
– For best results:
1. In the early stages of learning, keep things relaxed.
2. Get to know athletes one-on-one. Some will need more
arousal, while others less.
3. Help athletes recognize when they need to “psych-up
or calm-down.”
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3. Goal Setting

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Last way to improve achievement motivation
is to employ effective goal setting strategies
Goal Setting Strategies for Maximum Motivation
Set goals that are observable, measurable, and
achievable.
Set realistic, yet challenging goals.
Set positive goals, not negative goals (such as don’t lose).
Coaches and teachers should negotiate goals for their
athletes or students, not mandate them.
Set short-term as well as long-term goals.
Set goals for your practices, as well as your actual
competitions.
Set goals related to the athletes performance or technical
execution, not contest outcome (win vs. lose).
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CAUSAL ATTRIBUTION IN
SPORT
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Attribution theory is a cognitive approach
to motivation.
It assumes that people strive to explain,
understand, and predict events based
upon their own perceptions.
What the athlete believes to be true is
important for future motivation.
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The Development of Causal
Attribution Theory
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
Outcomes can be attributed:
– Internally to the person (personal force)
• Composed of ability and effort
– Externally to the environment; i.e.
(environmental force)
• Composed of task difficulty and luck
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Classification Scheme for Causal
Attribution
Stable
Ability
Task Difficulty
Unstable
Stability
Locus of Control
Internal
External
Effort
Luck
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Stability Dimension

Stable attributions: relatively unchanging from
one day to the next (ability and task difficulty)
 Unstable attributions: vary markedly from time
to time (effort and luck)
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Locus of Control Dimension

Internal attributions: include attributes
perceives as controllable (ability and effort)
 External Classification
attributions: perceived
be outside
Scheme for to
Causal
the athlete’s
control (task difficulty and luck)
Attribution
Stable
Ability
Task Difficulty
Unstable
Stability
Locus of Control
Internal
External
Effort
Luck
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Implications

Before competition the athlete should be
encouraged to focus on effort vs. ability
– Both effort and ability are within athlete’s control,
but effort is unstable from game to game

Athletes must focus on preparing strategies
that will be effective against task difficulty
(e.g. an opposing team) vs. luck
– Both luck and task difficulty are beyond athlete's
control, but task difficulty is stable and predictable.
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Affective Responses Associated
with Casual Attributions
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Affective Responses Associated with Casual
Attributions
Greatest
affect
Effort
Ability
Task Difficulty
Luck
Internal
Attribution
External
Attribution
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Lowest
affect
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Implications

After a victory, an athlete is going to feel
more pride if he/she believes that the
win was a result of an effort or ability
rather than an opponent’s poor ability or
a lucky call from the referee.
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Cause-and-effect Relations Among
Attributions, Outcome, and Affect

Different emotions are experienced with
different causal attributions and outcomes
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Implications

If after a success athletes attribute the
success:
– Internally, they typically respond with pride,
confidence, and satisfaction
– Externally, they will likely feel gratitude and
thankfulness

After a success, regardless of attribution,
affect tends to be positive and enthusiastic
 The affect for failure usually is negative and
possibly subdued
 What is the affect after failure for internal and
external attribution?
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The Relationship Between Causal
Attributions, Future
Expectations, and Motivation
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Causal Attributions, Future
Expectations, and Motivation
Causal
Attributions
Future
Expectation
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Motivation
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Causal Attributions, Future
Expectations, and Motivation

Whenever an outcome is different than what
was expected based on past experience, the
athlete tends to endorse an unstable
attribution (e.g., effort or luck).

When an outcome is as expected, based on
past performances, a stable attribution (e.g.,
ability or task difficulty) is endorsed.
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Predicting Future Expectations
From Present Attributions
Attribution to Loss
Future expectation
Lack of
Ability
Expect Same
Result

vs.
Attribution to Loss
Future expectation
Lack of
Luck
Expect
Different Result
Therefore, it is beneficial to ascribe failures to
unstable causes, since it does not imply
repeated failure.
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Predicting Future Expectations
From Present Attributions Cont’d

Implications:
– Athletes should attribute a failure to
unstable and internal cause; i.e., lack of
effort
– This suggests that more effort can change
the next outcome from failure to success
– And it teaches the athlete to accept
responsibility for the results
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Predicting Future Expectations
From Present Attributions Cont’d

In summary, future expectancy depends
on stability of the attributions
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Promoting Self-efficacy Through
Attribution and Expectancy

Promotion self-efficacy and motivation for
future performance depends on both
expectancy and locus of control:
Positive
Expectancy
Negative
Expectancy
or/&
or/&
Internal
Attribution
External
Attribution
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High
self-efficacy
Low
self-efficacy
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Promoting Self-efficacy
Cont’d

Implications
– Athletes who succeed should be
encouraged to attribute the success to both
stable and internal factors
• A stable attribution will improve the athlete’s
expectancy for future success
• An internal attribution will enhance the athlete’s
self-confidence
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Putting it all together:
Present
Attribute
Locus of control
Future
Expectancy
Promotion of SelfEfficacy for
Future Event
Promotion of
Motivation for
Future Event
S
U
C
C
E
S
S
Good ability
Internal
Success


High effort
Internal
Success/
failure
Partially
Partially
Easy task
External
Success
Partially
Partially
Good luck
External
Success/
failure


F
A
I
L
U
R
E
Poor ability
Internal
Failure
Partially
Partially
Low effort
Internal
Failure/
success


Difficult task
External
Failure


Bad luck
External
Failure/
success
Partially
Partially
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Promoting Self-efficacy Cont’d

Attributional training strategies leading to improved selfefficacy in future events:
1. Record and classify attributions after
performances
2. After each outcome make attributions that will
lead to promotion of self-efficacy (see previous
table)
3. Provide an attributional training program for
athletes who consistently utilize undesirable
attributions
4. For best results, combine planned goal-setting
with attributional training
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AUDIENCE EFFECTS IN
SPORT
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Spectator Effect


An important social-psychological
effect on athletic performance
Influences athlete’s performance
through:
1. Social facilitation—enhancement of
performance due to presence of others
2. Rivalry—a desire to beat the other
opponent
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Social Facilitation

Can be further broken down into:
1. Audience effects--a situation involving the
mere presence of other individuals in the
same room or area
2. Coaction effects--other people are
present, but are performing the same
task
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
In summary:
Spectator
Effect
Social
Facilitation
Audience
Effects
Rivalry
Coaction
Effects
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Evaluation Component

Whether or not the audience is perceived as
important for the athlete
 If the athlete perceives the audience to be:
– Important and/or knowledgeable, then drive level
is increased
– Unimportant and/or not knowledgeable, then drive
level is decreased
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Audience Effects on Performance
Simple task:
performance
improved
Audience
perceived
as critical
Audience
&/ coactor
Drive level
heightened
Complex
task:
performance
impeded
Evaluation
Audience
perceived
as noncritical
Drive
Lever
lowered
Simple task:
performance
impeded
Complex
task:
performance
improved
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Appropriate Timing for Spectator
Effect
LEARNING STAGE
SPECTATOR EFFECTS
STRATEGIES
“Over learning”
Initial
Learning
Skill is
overlearned
Skill is
utilized
into game
&
Negative
Arousal-lowering
strategies in the presence
of audience
Positive
Allow
audience access to
practices
Arousal-increasing
strategies
in the presence of
audience
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Audience Characteristics and
Team Performance

The presence of supportive audience is
presently the most popular explanation for
home advantage
 Research has established the following
audience characteristics leading to a greater
home advantage:
– Large
– Supportive
– Close to the playing arena
(i.e., high intimacy and density)
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The End
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