INTRODUCTION
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
• What is good about children today?
• What is bad about children today?
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT?
Systematic changes and continuities in the individual that
occur between conception and death or pattern of change
that begins at conception and continues through death.
Dimensions of Development
• Biological
• Cognitive
• SocioEmotional
BioPsychoSocial Development
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 1.3 - CHANGES IN DEVELOPMENT ARE
THE RESULT OF BIOLOGICAL, COGNITIVE, AND
SOCIOEMOTIONAL PROCESSES
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal period
Infancy
Early childhood
Middle and late childhood
Adolescence
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
AGE AND COHORT EFFECTS
• Cohort effects – generational effects
• Today’s children are the Millennials
• Chacteristics:
•
•
•
•
•
Ethnic diversity
Connection to technology but not tech savy
Socially responsible
Stressed, pressured
Special, sheltered, narcissistic
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
ISSUES IN DEVELOPMENT
• Nature vs. nurture
• Continuity vs. discontinuity
• Early vs. later experience
• Stability vs. change
• Active vs passive
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
THEORIES OF CHILD
DEVELOPMENT
• Psychoanalytic theories:
• Freud and Erikson
• Behavior is a surface characteristic
• Need to understand the symbolic workings of
the mind
• Early experiences with parents are emphasized
?
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
FREUD’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSEXUAL
DEVELOPMENT
• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
• Parts of personality
• Id
• Ego
• Superego
? ?
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
Fixation: Too much or
too little gratification
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
ERIKSON’S THEORY OF PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
• Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
• Modified and expanded Freud’s theory
• Psychosocial crises
• Identity
• Differences from psychosexual development
•
•
•
•
Social interactions
Conscious
Active actions
Eight stages
?
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
EVALUATING THE
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
• The contributions of psychoanalytic
theories include these ideas:
•
•
•
•
Early experiences
Family relationships
Developmental understanding of personality
Conscious and unconscious
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Focuses on children’s mental processes
• How children perceive and mentally represent
the world
1. Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
Cognitive-developmental theory
2.Information-processing theory
3.Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
? ?
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
PIAGET’S COGNITIVE -DEVELOPMENTAL
THEORY
• Worked with Binet on IQ tests for
children
• Children’s wrong answers
• Children are “natural physicists” –
• They test hypotheses about the world
• Developmental
• Think different at different ages
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
PIAGET’S FOUR STAGES OF
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
PIAGET’S BASIC CONCEPTS
Scheme:
An organized understanding of something
Adaptation:
Organize our world by interacting with the
environment
1. Assimilation
Fitting something new into an existing scheme
2.Accommodation
Adjusting scheme to a new object or event
Equilibration
Restore cognitive balance
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORY
Influenced by the concepts of computer
science
• Input, Storage, Processing, Output
• Encoding
• Memory
• Retrieval
• Software and Hardware
• Mental processes
• Brain
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
LEV VYGOTSKY’S
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY
• Vygotsky’s theory:
• Culture and social interact to guide
cognitive development
• Thoughts are “created” by the culture we
live in and the tools we use
• Cognitions are created and live in our social
world
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
EVALUATING THE COGNITIVE
THEORIES
• Primary contributions:
• Emphasize conscious thinking
• Active construction of understanding
• Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories: Developmental
changes in children’s thinking
• Information-processing theory: Detailed
descriptions of cognitive processes
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL
COGNITIVE THEORIES
• Behaviorism - John B. Watson
• Classical conditioning - Ivan Pavlov
• Operant conditioning - B. F. Skinner
• Observable Behavior; individual passively learn behaviors
• Social Cognitive Theory
• Observational learning – Albert Bandura
• Active participants in learning
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
BEHAVIORAL THEORIES
• Pavlov’s classical conditioning
• A neutral stimulus acquires the ability to produce a
response originally produced by another stimulus
• Skinner’s operant conditioning
• The consequences of a behavior produce changes in the
probability of the behavior’s occurrence
• A behavior followed by:
• A rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur
• A punishing stimulus is less likely to recur
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
• Albert Bandura
• Added Social and Cognitive influences to
behaviorism
• Observational Learning
• Reciprocal Determinism (B  E  P)
• Child is an active learner
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 1.9 - BANDURA’S SOCIAL
COGNITIVE MODEL
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
EVALUATING THE BEHAVIORAL
AND SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORIES
• Contributions:
• Importance of scientific research
• Environmental determinants of behavior
• Social Cognitive Theory: Person/cognitive
factors
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
ETHOLOGICAL THEORY
• Ethology:
• Biology, evolution and critical/sensitive periods
• Instinctive behavior patterns
• Charles Darwin & Konrad Lorenz
• Pre-wired
• Fixed action patterns (FAPs)
• Example
• Lorenz’s work on attachment during the first year
• Imprinting
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
THE ECOLOGICAL THEORY
Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005)
• Reciprocal interactions between individual
and their environment.
• Not a Developmental Theory!
• Focuses on systems children participate in
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 1.10 - BRONFENBRENNER’S
ECOLOGICAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 1.12 - A COMPARISON OF THEORIES
AND ISSUES IN CHILD DEVELOPMENT
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
• Scientific research is objective, systematic, and
testable
• It reduces the likelihood that information will
be based on personal beliefs, opinions, and
feelings
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
• Scientific research is based on the scientific
method
• Scientific method: An approach that can be
used to obtain accurate information
• It includes these steps:
•
•
•
•
Conceptualize the problem
Collect data
Draw conclusions
Revise research conclusions and theory
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH
• Theory: An interrelated, coherent set of ideas
that helps to explain and make predictions
• Hypothesis: A specific assumption or prediction
that can be tested to determine its accuracy
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
OBSERVATION
• To be effective, observations have to be
systematic
• Where should be observations made?
• Laboratory: A controlled setting in which many of the
complex factors of the “real world” are removed
• Naturalistic observation: Observing behavior in realworld settings
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
OTHER RESEARCH METHODS
•
•
•
•
Survey and interview
Standardized test – uniform procedures
Case study – in-depth on individual
Physiological measures
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Descriptive research: A research design that
has the purpose of observing and recording
behavior
• Correlational research: A research design
whose goal is to describe the strength of the
relationship between two or more events or
characteristics
• Correlation coefficient: A number based on statistical
analysis that is used to describe the degree of
association between two variables
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Experiment: A carefully regulated procedure in
which one or more of the factors believed to
influence the behavior being studied are
manipulated, while all other factors are held
constant
•
•
•
•
•
Independent variable (gets manipulated)
Dependent variable (gets measured)
Control group (forms baseline measure)
Experimental group (gets manipulated)
Random assignment (assignment by chance)
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 1.16 - PRINCIPLES OF
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
TIME SPAN OF RESEARCH
• Cross-sectional approach: A research strategy
in which individuals of different ages are
compared at one time
• Longitudinal approach: A research strategy in
which the same individuals are studied over a
period of time, usually several years or more
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
RESEARCH CHALLENGES
• Conducting ethical research
• Protect rights of research subjects
• Do not cause any harm
• Adhere to code of ethics
• Informed consent
• Confidentiality
• Debriefing
• Deception
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
MINIMIZING BIAS
• Gender bias
• Preconceived ideas about female and male abilities,
magnifying differences found
• Cultural and ethnic bias
• Excluding minorities, preconceived ideas of not being
‘average’
• Ethnic gloss: Use of ethnic label portraying
ethnic groups as more homogeneous than they
really are
© 2013 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.