Human Adjustment
John W. Santrock
Chapter 12:
Gender
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12-2
Chapter Outline
Perspectives on Gender
Gender Comparisons
Women’s and Men’s Lives
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Learning Goals
1. Define gender and explain evolutionary, social, and
cognitive theories of gender
2. Discuss gender comparisons and classifications
3. Characterize women’s and men’s lives
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PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER
Defining Gender
Evolutionary Psychology Theory
Social Theories
Cognitive Theories
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Defining Gender
Gender = the psychological and social dimension of
being female or male
Gender roles = sets of expectations that prescribe how
females or males should act, think, or feel
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Evolutionary Psychology Theory
 Evolutionary psychology theory - because of their
differing roles in reproduction, adaptation during the
evolution of humans produced psychological
differences between males and females
– Multiple sexual liaisons improves likelihood males will pass
on their genes
– Females’ contributions to gene pool was improved by
securing resources for offspring
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Social Theories of Gender
 Social role theory - gender differences result from the
contrasting roles of women and men
– In most cultures, women have less power and status than
men and they control fewer resources
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Social Theories of Gender
 Psychoanalytic theory - preschool children develop
sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent, then renounce
attraction because of anxious feelings, and
subsequently identify with same-sex parent
 Social cognitive theory - children’s gender
development occurs through observation and imitation,
and through rewards and punishments for gender
appropriate and inappropriate behavior
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12-9
Cognitive Theories of Gender
 Cognitive developmental theory - children’s gender
typing occurs after they think of themselves as boys
and girls
 Gender schema theory - gender typing emerges as
children gradually develop gender schemas of what is
gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their
culture
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12-10
Review - Learning Goal 1
– How can these two terms be defined: gender and gender
roles?
– What is the evolutionary psychology theory of gender
differences?
– What are three social theories of gender?
– What are two cognitive theories of gender?
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GENDER COMPARISONS
Gender Stereotypes
Gender Similarities and Differences
Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
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Gender Stereotypes
Gender stereotypes = general beliefs about females
and males
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Gender Stereotypes
 Broverman looked at traits that college students in the
1970s believed were characteristic of males and
females
 Instrumental traits were associated with males independent, aggressive, power-oriented
 Expressive traits were associated with females being warm and sensitive
– These traits are unequal in terms of social states and power
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Stereotyping and Culture
 Research study in 1982 found stereotyping of females
and males prevalent in thirty countries
– Males were believed to be dominant, independent,
aggressive, achievement oriented, and enduring
– Females were believed to be nurturing, affiliative, less
esteemed, and more helpful in times of distress
 More recently, traditional gender stereotypes and
gender roles have been challenged, and social
inequalities between men and women have diminished
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Gender Stereotypes and Ethnicity
 We have stereotypes of age as well as gender
 We have stereotypes of gender and ethnicity
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Sexism
Sexism = prejudice and discrimination against
an individual because of his or her sex
 Prejudice and discrimination against women has a long
history
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Physical Similarities and Differences
 There are many physical differences between males
and females
– Females have a longer life expectancy than males
– Males have higher levels of stress hormones
– Some brain differences have been found between males
and females
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Cognitive Similarities and Differences
 Some research suggests boys are better at math and
science
 Girls are better students, and significantly better in
reading
 Janet Hyde (2004) argues that cognitive differences
between females and males are exaggerated
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Socioemotional Similarities and Differences
 Boys are more physically aggressive than girls
 Girls are as verbally aggressive as boys
 Girls show more relational aggression (behaviors such
as spreading rumors)
 Males usually show less self-regulation of emotions
and behavior than females
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Interpretation of Gender Differences
 Traditionally, differences between males and females
were interpreted as biologically-based deficiencies in
females
 Feminists fear research finding differences will promote
stereotypes that women are inferior to men
 Alice Eagly argues this fear has biased research
interpretation
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Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Androgyny = presence of a high degree of feminine
and masculine characteristics in the same individual
 Sandra Bem (1974) developed the Bem Sex-Role
Inventory to measure androgyny
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Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
 Individuals can be classified as having one of four
gender-role orientations on Bem’s scale:
– androgynous
– feminine
– masculine
– undifferentiated
 Androgynous women and men are more flexible and
more mentally healthy than either masculine or
feminine individuals
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Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny
Gender-role transcendence = thinking about
ourselves and others as people, not as
masculine, feminine, or androgynous
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Review - Learning Goal 2
– What is gender stereotyping and how extensive is it?
– What are some physical, cognitive, and socioemotional
differences in gender?
– What are some alternatives to classifying behavior and
traits as masculine or feminine?
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WOMEN’S AND MEN’S LIVES
Women’s Lives
Men’s Lives
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Women’s Lives
 In much of the world, people’s lives are governed by
traditional gender roles that assign a subordinate
status to women
– In politics, especially in developing countries, women are
treated as burdens rather than assets
– Women’s work around the world is more limiting and narrow
than men’s
 Canada, the United States, and Russia have the
highest percentages of educated women
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Ethnic Minority Women in the United States
 For Asian-American women, gender roles found in the
mainstream clash with traditions of ancestors
 African-American women take time for consideration
before solving problems
 Mexican women assume the expressive role of
homemaker and caretaker of children
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Psychological Health
 U.S. women face some special stressors because they
are women:
– domestic violence
– rape
– sexism
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Psychological Health
 Although men have increased involvement in family
roles, women still bear the largest burden for
housework and childcare, even when they work
outside the home
 Women have more dissatisfaction with their bodies
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Adjustment Strategies
for Women
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1. Recognize your competencies
2. Pay attention to developing your self as well as your
relationship
3. Don’t put up with sexism
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Men’s Lives - Ethnic Minority Males
 African-American men are more likely to live in poverty
 Asian cultural values are reflected in traditional,
patriarchal Chinese and Japanese families
 Mexican men traditionally assume role of provider, with
exaggerated masculinity and aggression
 Some Native American tribes are patriarchal
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Role Strain
 Men face role strain because male roles are
contradictory and inconsistent
 Men’s roles can cause strain in areas such as:
– health
– male-female relationships
– male-male relationships
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Adjustment Strategies for Men
1. Understand yourself and your emotions
2. Improve your social relationships
3. Lower your health risks
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Review - Learning Goal 3
– What are characteristics of women’s lives?
– What are characteristics of men’s lives?
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