Road Safety and Health
David L. Wiesenthal
davidw@yorku.ca
www.psych.yorku.ca/davidw
Road Safety Statistics
World Health
Organization (2005)
• 1.2 million die in road traffic
crashes each year
• Approximately 50 million are
injured or disabled by
collisions each year
• Every day 3,500 die in a road
crash
• Speed contributes to at least
30% of crashes and deaths
The United Nations has declared 20112020 as the Decade of Action for Road
Safety
• For every 1 km/hr reduction in
average speed, there’s a 2%
reduction in crashes
Road Safety Statistics
• 90% of road casualties are
from developing countries
• 1.9 million road deaths
forecast for 2020
• Traffic injuries are the #1
cause of death for young
people worldwide
• Economic cost to developing
countries approx. $100
billion/yr.
• By 2015, traffic injuries will
be the leading health burden
for children over 5 yrs.
Road Safety Statistics
• Unless action is taken, by
2020, traffic injuries are
predicted to be the 3rd
leading health issues
ahead of malaria, TB, and
HIV/AIDS
• Economic costs:
High income countries
US$518 billion
• Low & middle income
countries US$65 billion
Source: Peden, M. & Sminkey, L. (2004). World Health Organization
dedicates World Health Day to road safety. Injury Prevention, 10, 67.
Road Safety Statistics
Transport Canada
(2008)
•
2,425 fatalities (2008)
•
Speeding was a contributing factor
in 23% of the incidents
•
9.1% decrease in collisions from
2007
•
12.2% decrease in fatalities from
2007
•
7.9% decrease in injuries
•
In 2007, accidents and suicide
ranked first and second respectively,
as leading cause of death for the
young people aged 15 to 34, a trend
observed since 2000
Source:http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/84-215-x/2010001/hlfs-eng.htm
www.tc.gc.ca/eng/roadsafety/
tp-tp15145-1201.htm
Road Safety Statistics
National Highway
Traffic Safety
Administration
(NHTSA)
• Motor vehicle-related injuries are
the leading cause of death among
children and young adults
• More than 41,000 die in motor
vehicle crashes each year
• 3.5 million suffer non-fatal injuries
• Motor vehicle deaths & injuries cost
$230 billion each year
• $61 billion in lost productivity
• $33 billion in medical expenses
• Alcohol related crashes are
estimated to cost $51 billion (2000)
Road Safety Statistics
2008
National Highway
Traffic Safety
Administration
(NHTSA)
•
•
•
•
Fatal crashes = 34,172
Drivers
= 19,279
Passengers = 7,441
Unknown
=
71
• Motorcyclists = 5,312
• Pedestrians = 4,414
• Bicycles
= 718
• Other/?
= 188
_____________________
Total
= 37,423
Pedestrian Injury
• Pedestrian-vehicle crashes responsible for > 1/3 of
injuries & fatalities worldwide (Crandall, Bhalla, &
Madeley, 2002)
• Lower limb trauma is most common injury, head injury
leading cause of death (Crandall, Bhalla, & Madeley,
2002)
Pedestrian Injuries in Canada (1992-2001)
• Average of 416 fatalities/yr and decreased 24.1% over
this period
• Injuries averaged 14, 252/yr and decreased 10.2%
• Males represented 61% of injuries, females 39%
• 65+ age group males = 27%, females = 39% male
decrease = 12.7%, female decrease = 30.4%
• 95% of injuries occurred in urban areas
• 69.5% of fatalities occurred in urban areas
Source: http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/roadsafety/tp-tp2436-rs200401-menu-165.htm
Prevention Strategies for Pedestrians
• Education of road users, especially
children
• Vehicle design changes
• Road/street modifications for better
visibility
• Use of reflective clothing
• Prohibit play in driveways, streets, parking
lots, etc.
• Enforcement of traffic laws
Motorcycle Injuries & Fatalities
• Total US traffic deaths
increased by only 2% (19962006), motorcycle deaths
doubled (from 1995)
• Per vehicle mile traveled,
motorcyclists are about 35
more likely to die in a crash
than passenger car
occupants
• Touring motorcycles (>1000
cc engines) have lower
fatality rates than sport bikes
with smaller engines
Source:Source: Padmanaban, J. & Eyges (2009)
Data based on US Fatality Analysis Reporting
System (FARS)
Source: Padmanaban, J. & Eyges (2009)
Cycling Injuries & Fatalities in Canada
Transport Canada
(2005)
• Estimated 7,500 seriously
injured each year
• 40-70 fatalities per year
• 1,361 bicyclists hospitalized
in Ontario (2002, Ontario
Trauma Registry)
• 1,268 hospitalized in British
Columbia
• ≈950 cyclists received
ambulance calls in Montreal
Source: Cyclingincities, UBC,
www.cher.ubc.ca/cyclingincities/injuries.html
Cycling/Pedestrian Injuries & Fatalities in
Canada
• 28 children aged 5-14 died from
pedestrian injuries (2001)
• 13 aged 5-14 died from cycling
injuries (2001)
• 1,681 children aged 5-14 were
injured as a result of cycling
crashes and 632 suffered
injuries as pedestrians (19992000)
• Bicycle injuries are the most
common cause of children’s
brain injuries
• Helmets reduce serious injuries
but are not mandatory in all
provinces
Cycling Injuries & Fatalities in the
USA
• 500,000 emergency
rooms visits due to
bicycle-related injuries
• 700+ deaths
Source: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
National Center for Injury Prevention and Control
www.cdc.gov/homeandrecreationalsafety/bikeinjuries.html
• Children 15 yrs. &
younger accounted for
59% of all bicycle- related
injuries
Cycling Injuries & Fatalities in Canada
• Injury risk is greater for Canadian
cyclists than Europeans
• Cyclists are 7-70 times more likely
to be injured/trip or per kilometer
traveled than car occupants
• Cyclists in North America are 2
times more likely to be killed and 8
times more likely to be seriously
injured than German cyclists
• 3 times more likely to be killed and
30 times more likely to be
seriously injured than Dutch
cyclists
Research Topics: Driving & Health
Impaired driving
Fatigue, sleep deprivation, sleep apnea
Alcohol
Cannabis
OTC medications
Elderly drivers
dementia
vision problems, cataracts
Distracted drivers/Attention issues
Cell phone usage
Informatics
Research Topics: Driving & Health
ADHD
Stress
Aggressive driving
Epidemiological studies of driver,
passenger, and pedestrian
injuries/fatalities
Main Findings
• Trait X State stress interaction: congestion does not
affect everyone the same since high trait stress drivers
reacted more strongly to high congestion situations
• No gender differences
• No difference in coping responses across congestion
conditions
• Drivers preferred direct coping responses, but used both
direct and indirect behaviours equally
• Compared to other responses, aggressive behaviours
dramatically increased as traffic congestion increased
Frequency of Individual Violent Driving Behaviours
(Hennessy, Ph. D dissertation)
Behaviour
Frequency
Chasing another driver/vehicle
Verbal roadside confrontation
Vandalizing another vehicle
Throwing objects at another vehicle
Physical roadside confrontation
Purposeful contact with another vehicle
Drive-by shootings
40% (58)
23% (33)
14% (20)
11% (16)
7% (10)
4% (6)
1% (2)
Suggestions for Reducing Stress & Highway
Aggression
• Tension reduction strategies:
–
–
–
–
–
Use cell phones to inform others of delays
Listen to traffic reports and use alternative routes where possible
Listen to self-selected music, books-on-tape in cars while driving
Use deep breathing exercises
Physical exercise
• Anger management
– Screen all drivers
– When a given demerit point level is reached, provide anger
management workshops
• Enforcement of Highway Traffic Act
– Tailgating
– Signaling of lane changes
– Use of left lane as passing lane
Suggestions for Reducing Stress &
Highway Aggression
• Promotion of mass transportation
• Deindividuation reduction:
– Paint driver’s names/towns on doors and
backs of vehicles
– Ban deep tints
– Promote vanity licence plates
Safety/Health Promoting Interventions
• Mandated safety equipment in vehicles (ESC
standard in 2011 Canadian automobiles)
• Graduated licencing
• Improved driver training
• Better designed highways/clear signage
• Mandatory bicycle & motorcycle helmets for all
cyclists (not just children)
• Encouragement of carpooling & mass
transportation
Psychological Strategies for
Reducing Mishaps: Behaviour
Modification
• To discourage one behaviour,
encourage another
• Examine the rewards and costs of
engaging in various behaviours
Encouraging & Discouraging
Behaviours: Examples
• Provision of free nonalcoholic beverages and
pub food to designated driver
• Free public transportation all night during
celebration evenings
• Free pub buses from university residences
• Coupon distribution for taxi rides
• Promotion of coffee houses rather than alcohol
culture on campus
Psychological Strategies for Reducing
Mishaps
• Complex behaviour may have a variety of
motivating factors, so no approach
targeting a single factor is likely to
eliminate all forms of risky driver
behaviour.
• Changing the balance between rewards
and costs in risky driving. What is the
value of risk for those drivers?
Risky Driving
Rewards:
• Fun, excitement, exhilaration
• Self definition as an adventurous person
• Display of competence
Risky Driving
Costs:
• Injury, death
• Arrest/punishment--the perception of the
likelihood of apprehension rather than the
severity of penalties may be more of a
deterrent
• Property damage
• Higher insurance costs
• Loss of driver licence
• Seizure of vehicle
Psychological Strategies for Reducing
Mishaps
• Change attitudes towards unsafe and
aggressive driving
• Encourage stress reduction techniques
towards unacceptable behaviour
• Role of the media in the modelling of both
positive and negative driving
• Broaden the notion of the “problem driver”
Intervention Strategies
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Varied response may be necessary
Community level approach
Identify nature and extent of the problem
Interventions based upon the assessment of the
problem
• Evaluate costs & benefits of the intervention
strategy
• Design a programme evaluation prior to
implementation
Intervention Strategies & Evaluation
Research
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Analysis of the exact nature of the problem
Development of interventions/initiatives
Community involvement in the process
Defining the assessment measures
Cost/benefit analysis of the intervention
Publicizing the results of the intervention
Documenting the intervention
Enhanced Enforcement of Highway
Traffic Act
Stricter alcohol bans/reduction in BAC levels
Year ‘round enforcement of alcohol checks
Discourage Media Glorification of Speed
• Speeding vehicles are commonly depicted in both
automobile commercials & advertisements with
dominance and intimidation as themes
• Frequent depictions of car chases and illegal racing in
recent motion pictures. Hero is often portrayed as initiating
the chases, engaging in reckless driving or pursuing
others
• Ever since Bullitt (1968), the car chase has become a
Hollywood standard
• Will public opinion influence the media?
• Ontario’s new stunt driving legislation with harsh penalties
for excessive speed
Media Effects on Driver Behaviour
• Media might emphasize the role of alcohol in the
causation of collisions and the failure to wear
seatbelts
• Media has the power to influence attitudes and
make drunk driving socially unacceptable
Acknowledgements & Thanks
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Dwight Hennessy
Christine Wickens
James Roseborough
Sara Howard
Chris Mesquida
Michèle Lustman
Deanna Singhal