Job Analysis and Job Design
The Challenges of Human Resources Management
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permitted in a license distributed with a certain product or service or otherwise on a password-protected website for classroom use.
1–1
What is a Job?
• Job
– A group of related
activities and duties
Job
• Position
– The different duties and
responsibilities
performed by only one
employee
Job
Job
Job
• Job Family
– A group of individual jobs
with similar
characteristics
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36
What is Job Analysis
• A job analysis is the systematic process of collecting
information about all of the parameters of a job—its basic
responsibilities, the behaviors, skills, and the physical and
mental requirements of the people who do it.
• HR managers use the data to develop job descriptions
and job specifications that are the basis for employee
performance appraisal and development.
• A job analysis should also outline the tools needed to do
the job, the environment and times at which it needs to
done, with whom it needs to be done, and the outcome or
performance level it should produce.
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36
Job Requirements
• Job Description

Statement of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities
(TDRs) of a job to be performed
• Job Specification

Statement of the needed knowledge, skills, and
abilities (KSAs) of the person who is to perform
the job

Since Griggs v Duke Power and the Civil Rights Act
of 1991, job specifications used in selection must
relate specifically to the duties of the job.
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36
HRM Functions Affected by a Job Analysis
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36
Determining Job Requirements
Nature of:
Job Analysis
• What employee does
• Why employee does it
• How employee does it
Basis for:
• Determining job requirements
Job Description
• Summary statement of the job
• List of essential functions of the
job
• Employee orientation
• Employee instruction
• Disciplinary action
Job Specification
• Personal qualifications required
in terms of skills, education and
experience
© 2007 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.
• Recruitment
• Selection
• Development
4–8
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36
Job Analysis and the Law
• Section 14.C.2 of the Uniform Guidelines states:
– “There shall be a job analysis which includes an
analysis of the important work behaviors required for
successful performance. . . . Any job analysis should
focus on work behavior(s) and the tasks associated
with them.”
• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
– Requires that job duties and responsibilities be
essential functions for job success.
– The purpose of essential functions is to help match
and accommodate human capabilities to job
requirements.
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36
Job Analysis and Essential Job
Functions
• Essential Functions
– Statements in the job description of job duties
and responsibilities that are critical for success on
the job.
– A job function is essential if:
• The position exists to perform the function.
• A limited number of employees are available to perform
the function.
• The function is specialized, requiring needed expertise
or abilities to complete the job.
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36
Performing Job Analysis
1. Select jobs to study
2. Determine information to collect: Tasks,
responsibilities, skill requirements
3. Identify sources of data: Employees,
supervisors/managers
4. Methods of data collection: Interviews,
questionnaires, observation, diaries and records
5. Evaluate and verify data collection: Other
employees, supervisors/managers
6. Write job analysis report
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36
Controlling the Accuracy of Job
Information
• Factors influencing the accuracy of job
information
– Self-reporting exaggerations and omissions by
employees and managers
– Collecting information from a representative
sample of employees
– Capturing all important job information
• Length of job cycle exceeding observation period
• Lack of access to job site for personal observation
• Lack of familiarity with the tasks, duties, and
responsibilities of a job
• Ongoing changes in the job
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36
O*NET and Job Analysis
• Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT)
– A systematic occupational classification structure
based on interrelationships of job tasks and
requirements.
– Contains standardized and comprehensive
descriptions of twenty-thousand jobs.
• O*NET Database
– A online database of all DOT occupations plus an
update of over 3,500 additional DOT occupations.
– Data are collected and published continuously.
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36
Methods Used to Collect Job Analysis Data
• Five of the more popular methods are
1. The functional job analysis
2. The Position Analysis questionnaire system
3. The critical incident method
4. A task inventory analysis
5. A competency-based job analysis.
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36
Approaches to Job Analysis
• Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ)
– A questionnaire covering 194 different tasks that, by
means of a five-point scale, seeks to determine the
degree to which different tasks are involved in
performing a particular job
• Critical Incident Method
– Job analysis method by which job tasks are identified
that are critical to job success.
– Information about important job tasks can be
collected through interviews or self reporting by
employees and supervisors.
– The job analyst writes five to ten important task
statements for each job under study.
– This method is important because it teaches the
analyst to focus on employee behaviors critical to job
success.
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36
Approaches to Job Analysis (cont’d)
• Task Inventory Analysis
– Is an organization-specific analysis developed by
identifying—with the help of employees and
managers—a list of tasks and their descriptions
that are components of different jobs.
• Competency-Based Analysis
– Involves constant development of job profiles of
current worker tasks, duties, and responsibilities
that are “key” competencies for use in creating
job descriptions, setting recruitment
requirements, and in performance evaluation.
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36
Figure 4–3
A Sample Page from the PAQ
Source: Position Analysis Questionnaire, copyright 1969, 1989 by Purdue
Research
Foundation, West Lafayette,
47907.
Reprinted with permission.
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All Ind.
rights
reserved.
4–17
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Preparing the Job Description
Interview
Questionnaire
Supervisor
Securing
consensus
Job
Analyst
Interview
Questionnaire
Observation
Employees
Combine and
reconcile data
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Final
Draft
Tentative
draft
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Key Elements of a Job Description
• Job Title

Indicates job duties and organizational level
• Job Identification

Distinguishes job from all other jobs
• Essential Functions (Job Duties)

Indicate responsibilities entailed and results
to be accomplished
• Job Specifications

Skills required to perform the job and physical
demands of the job
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Job Descriptions
• Job Title
– Provides status to the employee.
– Indicates what the duties of the job entails.
– Indicates the relative level occupied by its
holder in the organizational hierarchy.
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36
Job Descriptions (cont’d)
• Job Identification Section
–
–
–
–
–
–
Departmental location of the job
Person to whom the jobholder reports
Date the job description was last revised
Payroll or code number
Number of employees performing the job
Number of employees in the department where
the job is located
– O*NET code number.
– “Statement of the Job”
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1
Job Description for an Employment Assistant
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4–23
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Job Descriptions (cont’d)
• Job Duties, or Essential Functions, Section
– Statements of job duties that:
• Are arranged in order of importance that indicate the
weight, or value, of each duty; weight of a duty is
gauged by the percentage of time devoted to it.
• Stress the responsibilities that duties entail and the
results to be accomplished.
• Indicate the tools and equipment used by the employee
in performing the job.
• Should comply with law by listing only the essential
functions of the job to be performed.
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Highlights in HRM
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Job Descriptions (cont’d)
• Job Specifications Section
– Personal qualifications an individual must
possess in order to perform the duties and
responsibilities
• The skills required to perform the job:
– Education or experience, specialized training,
personal traits or abilities, interpersonal skills or
specific behavioral attributes, and manual
dexterities.
• The physical demands of the job:
– Walking, standing, reaching, lifting, talking, and the
condition and hazards of the physical work
environment
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Problems with Job Descriptions
1. If they are poorly written, using vague rather
than specific terms, they provide little guidance
to the jobholder.
2. They are sometimes not updated as job duties
or specifications change.
3. They may violate the law by containing
specifications not related to job success.
4. They can limit the scope of activities of the
jobholder, reducing an organization’s flexibility.
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Job Design
• Industrial Engineering

A field of study concerned with analyzing work methods
and establishing time standards
• Job Design

An outgrowth of job analysis that improves jobs through
technological and human considerations in order to
enhance organization efficiency and employee job
satisfaction
– Job design is concerned with changing, modifying, and
enriching jobs in order to capture the talents of employees
while improving organizational performance.
• Ergonomics

The process of studying and designing equipment and
systems that are easy and efficient for people to use and
that ensure their physical well-being.
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Basis of Job Design
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Behavioral Concerns
• Employee concerns in job design seek to include the intrinsic
needs of employees.
• These needs encompass feelings of self-esteem, selfactualization, and social interactions.
• Problems with overspecialization, work simplification, and
division of labor have led employers to emphasize behavioral
concerns.
• It is believed that when employees can make meaningful
contributions to their work, then their quality of life will
improve.
• Behavioral concerns in job design efforts consist of making
work more rewarding psychologically while attempting to
reduce the anxieties and stresses involved in work.
• Three methods of job design that specifically focus on
behavioral concerns are job enrichment, job
characteristics, and employee empowerment.
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36
Job Enrichment Model
• Job Enrichment (Herzberg)
– Enhancing a job by adding more meaningful tasks
and duties (vertical expansion) to make the work
more rewarding or satisfying.
– Factors described as key to enriching jobs:
• Providing opportunities for achievement, recognition, growth,
responsibility, and performance.
– In spite of the benefits, it must not be considered a
panacea for overcoming production problems and
employee discontent.
– They are not the solution to such problems as
dissatisfaction with pay, with employee benefits or
with employee security.
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36
Job Enrichment Factors
Increasing the level of difficulty and
responsibility of the job
Allowing employees to retain more
authority and control over work outcomes
Providing unit or individual job performance
reports directly to employees
Adding new tasks to the job that require
training and growth
Assigning individuals specific tasks, thus
enabling them to become experts
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36
Job Characteristics
• Job Characteristics Model
(Hackman and Oldham)
– Job design theory that purports that three
psychological states (experiencing
meaningfulness of the work performed,
responsibility for work outcomes, and
knowledge of the results of the work
performed) of a jobholder result in improved
work performance, internal motivation, and
lower absenteeism and turnover.
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36
Job Characteristics Model: Designing Jobs to
Motivate Employees
Job Characteristics

Skill variety

Task identity

Task significance

Autonomy

Feedback
Psychological States
 Meaningfulness of
the work performed

Responsibility for
work outcomes

Knowledge of the
results of the work
performed.
Job Outcomes
 Improved work
performance

Increased Internal
motivation

Lower
absenteeism and
turnover
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36
Job Characteristics (cont’d)
1. Skill variety: The degree to which a job entails a variety of different
activities, which demand the use of a number of different skills and talents
by the jobholder
2. Task identity: The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole
and identifiable piece of work, that is, doing a job from beginning to end with
a visible outcome
3. Task significance: The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on
the lives or work of other people, whether in the immediate organization or
in the external environment
4. Autonomy: The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom,
independence, and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in
determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out
5. Feedback: The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by
the job results in the individual being given direct and clear information
about the effectiveness of his or her performance
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36
Employee Empowerment
• Employee Empowerment
– Granting employees power to initiate change, thereby
encouraging them to take charge of what they do
– Organizational conditions favoring empowerment:
• Participation and autonomy
– Employees must be encourages to take control of their work.
• Innovation and acceptance of risk-taking
– Employees must be encouraged to innovate.
• Access to information
– Employees must have access to wide range of information.
• Accountability for results
– Employees must be held accountable for results.
• Cultural openness to change
– Organization culture must be open and receptive to change.
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36
Designing Work for Group/Team
Contributions
• Employee Involvement Groups (EIs)
– Groups of employees who meet to resolve
problems or offer suggestions for organizational
improvement
– Also known as “Quality Circles”
– Success with EIs requires:
•
•
•
•
Comprehensive training for group members
Recognition of the group’s contributions
Continuing input and encouragement by management
Use of a participative/democratic leadership style
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36
Enlargement, Rotation, & Enrichment
• Job enlargement

The process of adding a greater variety of tasks
to a job.
• Job rotation

a process whereby employees rotate in and out
of different jobs.
• Job enrichment

Enhancing a job by adding more meaningful
tasks and duties to make the work more
rewarding or satisfying
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36
Empowerment, Crafting, & Engagement
• Employee Empowerment

Granting employees power to initiate change, thereby
encouraging them to take charge of what they do
• Job Crafting

A naturally occurring phenomenon whereby
employees mold their tasks to fit their individual
strengths, passions, and motives better
• Employee Engagement

A situation in which workers are enthusiastic and
immersed in their work to the degree that it improves
the performance of their companies
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36
Designing Work for Group/Team Contributions
• Employee Involvement Groups (EIs)

Groups of employees who meet to resolve problems
or offer suggestions for organizational improvement

Also known as quality circles (QCs)

Success with EIs requires:
–
–
–
–
Comprehensive training for group members
Recognition of the group’s contributions
Continuing input and encouragement by management
Use of a participative/democratic leadership style
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Employee Teams
• Employee Teams
– An employee contributions technique
whereby:
• Work functions are structured for groups rather
than for individuals
• Team members are given discretion in matters
traditionally considered management
prerogatives, such as process
improvements, product or
service development, and
individual work assignments.
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36
Benefits of Employee Teams
• Increased integration of individual skills
• Better performance (quality and quantity)
solutions to unique and complex problems
• Reduced delivery time
• Reduced turnover and absenteeism
• Accomplishments among team members
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36
Teamwork and Synergy
• Synergy
– Occurs when the interaction and outcome of team
members is greater than the sum of their
individual efforts.
– Synergistic team member behavior
characteristics:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Is supporting and inclusive
Listens and clarifies
Disagrees but remains nonjudgmental
Engages in consensus building
Is accepting of others
Is focused on quality and continuous improvement
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Synergistic Team Characteristics
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Forms of Employee Teams
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Characteristics of Successful Teams
• A commitment to shared goals and objectives
• Motivated and energetic team members
• Open and honest communication
• Shared leadership
• Clear role assignments
• A climate of cooperation, collaboration, trust,
and accountability
• The recognition of conflict and its positive
resolution
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Benefits of Employee Teams
• Increased integration of individual skills
• Better performance (quality and quantity)
solutions to unique and complex problems
• Reduced delivery time
• Reduced turnover and absenteeism
• Accomplishments among team members
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Obstacles to Effective Team Function
•
•
•
•
•
Overly high expectations
Group compensation
Training
Career movement
Power
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36
Flexible Work Schedules
• Flextime

Working hours that permit employees the option of choosing
daily starting and quitting times, provided that they work a set
number of hours per day or week.
• Compressed Workweek

Shortening the number of days in the workweek by
lengthening the number of hours worked per day.
• Job Sharing

The arrangement whereby two part-time employees perform a
job that otherwise would be held by one full-time employee.
• Telecommuting

The use of personal computers, networks, and other
communications technology such as fax machines to do work
in the home that is traditionally done in the workplace.
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Flexible Work Schedules
• Flextime
– Working hours that permit employees the option
of choosing daily starting and quitting times,
provided that they work a set number of hours per
day or week.
– All employees are required to be present during a
designated “core period.”
– Flexible hours reduce absenteeism and tardiness.
– Employees can schedule their working hours for
the time of day when they are most productive.
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36
6
Flextime
Core Time
(arrival)
(everyone
present)
7
8
9
10
11
Lunch
Sentry Insurance Company’s Flextime
Schedule
12 12:30
Core Time
Flextime
(everyone
present)
1:30
(departure)
2:30
4:30
5:30
HOURS
• Employees arriving at 6:00 a.m. would leave at 2:30 p.m.
• Employees arriving at 9:00 a.m. would leave at 5:30 p.m.
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4–52
Flexible Work Schedules
• Compressed Workweek
– Shortening the number of days in the
workweek by lengthening the number of hours
worked per day.
• The four-day, forty-hour week, generally referred to
as 4/10 or 4/40.
• Reducing weekly hours to 38 or 36 hours or
scheduling 80 hours over nine days (9/80), taking
one day off every other week.
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36
Flexible Work Schedules
• Benefits
– Recruitment and retention
of employees39
– Coordinating employee
work schedules with
production schedules
– Accommodating the
leisure-time activities of
employees while
facilitating employee
personal appointments
• Disdavantages
– Overtime payments
required by the Fair Labor
Standards Act for
employees working over
40 hours in one week.
– The additional stress on
managers and employees,
and long workdays can be
exhausting.
– Improvements in employee
job satisfaction and morale
© 2007 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.
4–54
© 2012
Learning.
All Rights
Reserved.
May not
be not
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scanned,scanned,
or duplicated,
in whole or in
in whole
part, except
useexcept
as
©
2012Cengage
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Learning.
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May
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or duplicated,
or in for
part,
for use as
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Flexible Work Schedules
• Job Sharing
– The arrangement whereby two part-time
employees perform a job that otherwise would be
held by one full-time employee.
– Job sharers may work three days a week,
creating an overlap day for extended face-to-face
conferencing.
• Telecommuting
– The use of personal computers, networks, and
other communications technology such as fax
machines to do work in the home that is
traditionally done in the workplace.
© 2007 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.
© 2012
Learning.
All Rights
Reserved.
May not
be not
copied,
scanned,scanned,
or duplicated,
in whole or in
in whole
part, except
useexcept
as
©
2012Cengage
Cengage
Learning.
All Rights
Reserved.
May
be copied,
or duplicated,
or in for
part,
for use as
permitted
distributed
withwith
a certain
product
or service
or otherwise
on a password-protected
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use.
permittedinina alicense
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distributed
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4–55
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36
Keys for Successful Telecommuting
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in whole
part, except
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©
2012Cengage
Cengage
Learning.
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Reserved.
May
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or duplicated,
or in for
part,
for use as
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withwith
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Daily Quiz 4
1. A job specification is:
a.
a group of related activities and
duties.
b.
the different duties and responsibilities
performed by one employee.
c.
a statement of the knowledge, skills,
and abilities required to perform work.
d.
a statement of the tasks, duties and
responsibilities associated with work.
© 2007 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.
4–57
2. Employers must be able to show that job
specifications:
a.
relate specifically to the duties of the
job.
b.
describe fully the actual tasks, duties,
and responsibilities of the job.
c.
are non-related to job descriptions.
d.
contain the criteria for evaluating the
performance of the holder of the job.
© 2007 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.
4–58
3. The process of obtaining information about jobs
by determining their duties, tasks, or activities is
called:
a.
job design.
b.
job evaluation.
c.
job analysis.
d.
job search.
© 2007 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.
4–59
4. The statements in a job description covering
job duties or essential job functions are usually
arranged in:
a.
alphabetical order.
b.
numerical order.
c.
order of importance.
d.
sequential order.
© 2007 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.
4–60
5. The factors Herzberg describes as key to
enriching jobs are:
a.
pay, promotion, pension, purpose, and
perks.
b.
achievement, recognition, growth,
responsibility, and performance of the
whole job.
c.
safety needs, social needs, selfesteem needs, and self-actualization.
d.
skill variety, task identity, task
significance, autonomy, and feedback.
© 2007 Thomson/South-Western. All rights reserved.
4–61
Key Terms
critical incident method
dejobbing
employee empowerment
employee teams
ergonomics
flextime
industrial engineering
job
job analysis
job characteristics model
job crafting
job description
job design
job enlargement
job enrichment
job rotation
job specification
position analysis questionnaire
(PAQ)
task inventory analysis
telecommuting
virtual team
© 2012
Learning.
All Rights
Reserved.
May not
be not
copied,
scanned,scanned,
or duplicated,
in whole or in
in whole
part, except
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2012Cengage
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Learning.
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May
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Chapter 4 - Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcome Statements
Related Outcomes from Body of the Text
1
Explain what a job analysis is, the parts that comprise it and
how the information it generates is used in conjunction with
a firm’s HRM functions.
Are there any HR functions that are not affected by the job analysis
process? If so, what are they?
2
Explain how the data for a job analysis typically is collected.
Answer the questions in Highlights in HRM 1 based on the job you
currently hold or most recently held. Do the answers give you enough
information to create a job analysis?
3
Identify and explain the various sections of job descriptions.
Using your answers to the questions asked in Highlights in HRM 1, write a
job description for your job or the job you most recently held. Are there
elements of the job that are not reflected in the job description?
4
Provide examples illustrating the various factors that must
be taken into account when designing a job.
Explain how industrial engineering and ergonomics can both clash with
and complement each other in the design of jobs.
5
Discuss the various job characteristics that motivate
employees.
Can a firm’s managers control the process of job crafting? What
challenges does it present for them?
6
Describe the different group techniques used to broaden a
firm’s job functions and maximize the contributions of
employees.
Describe the types of teams you have worked in. Were some more
successful than others? If so, why? How might what you have learned
from being a team member be applied in an HR context?
7
Identify the different types of work schedules organizations
are using today to motivate their employees.
Name some of the jobs people do at your school. Which of the jobs do
you think could effectively incorporate flexible work schedules? Which
could not?
© 2012
Learning.
All Rights
Reserved.
May not
be not
copied,
scanned,scanned,
or duplicated,
in whole or in
in whole
part, except
useexcept
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©
2012Cengage
Cengage
Learning.
All Rights
Reserved.
May
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or duplicated,
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part,
for use as
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