• Theories of Motivation
• Motivation and Behavior
• Components and Theories of Emotion
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Things You’ll Learn in Chapter 10
Q1
Why might paying students to get good grades be
a good idea?
Q2
How can just looking at pictures of high-fat foods
make you feel hungry?
Q3
Why is motivation a better predictor of math
success in children than IQ?
Q4
How can simply smiling reduce stress?
Q5
Why do emotional expressions of Olympic
athletes appear the same across all cultures?
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Movere
Latin meaning
“to move”
Motivation:
set of factors that
activate, direct and
maintain behavior,
usually toward some
goal
Emotion:
subjective feeling
that includes
arousal, cognitions,
and expressed
behaviors
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Major Theories of Motivation
Biological
1. Instinct
2. Drive reduction
3. Optimal arousal
Psychological
4. Incentive
5. Cognitive
As you learn each
theory, try to identify
which theory best
explains your personal
behaviors.
Biopsychosocial
6. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biological Theories: Instinct
• Instincts = a fixed, unlearned response pattern
found in almost all members of a species
• Williams McDougall (1908) proposed the first
instincts (repulsion, curiosity, selfassertiveness) and the list grew to 10,000+ by
1920s.
• Sociobioligists believe instincts,
like competitiveness, are
genetically transmitted
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biological: Drive-reduction
Drive-reduction theory =
motivation begins with a
physiological need that
elicits a drive toward
behavior that will satisfy
the original need; once
that need is met, a state
of balance (homeostasis)
is restored, and
motivation
What needs to
decreases
humans have – both
biological and
psychological?
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biological: Optimal-arousal
• Optimal-arousal theory =
Organisms are motivated
to achieve and maintain
an optimal level of
arousal
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Psychological: Incentive
• Incentive theory = motivation results from
external stimuli that “pull” an organism in
certain directions.
– Opposite of drive-reduction theories, which say
internal factors “push” people in certain directions
Hunger pushes
us to eat
Sight of apple pie
pulls us toward
continued eating
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Q1
Why might paying students to get good
grades be a good idea?
• Paying middle-school students $2 daily for each
goal met (increasing grades, following rules,
attendance) produced higher reading test scores
(Fryer, 2010)
• Stay tuned for how using an extrinsic
reward (pay for goal achievement)
may create problems.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Psychological: Cognitive
• Cognitive theories: motivation is affected by:
• Attributions = the way we think about our own
and others’ actions
Do you attribute your success to your hard work
or to luck? What difference might this
attribution make to your motivation?
• Expectancies = what we think will happen
Does your expectation of success affect
your motivation?
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biopsychosocial Theories
• Hierarchy of needs = Maslow’s view that basic human
motives form a hierarchy; the lower motives (such as
physiological and safety needs) must be met before
advancing to higher needs (such as belonging and selfactualization)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOR
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Hunger and Eating: Biology
• Stomach: receptors in stomach and intestines detect level of
nutrients; pressure receptors in wall of stomach signal feelings
of emptiness or satiety (fullness); chemical signals also play a
role
• Biochemistry: neurotransmitters, hormones, enzymes and
other chemicals affect hunger and satiety
• Brain: hypothalamus regulates eating, drinking and body
temp; lateral hypothalamus stimulates eating while
ventromedial hypothalamus signals satiety – but, just like
other behaviors, hunger and eating are governed by
numerous neural circuits
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Hunger and Eating: Psychology
How can just looking at pictures of highQ2
fat foods make you feel hungry?
• Simply looking at high-fat foods can stimulate
parts of the brain in charge of appetite, thus
increasing feelings of cravings for sweet and
salty foods (Luo et al., 2013)
• Cultural influence – when, what, where and
why we eat is culturally conditioned
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Eating Disorders
• Eating disorders have both
genetic/biological causes and
psychological causes
• Obesity = having a body mass index
(BMI) of 30 or above, based on height
and weight
• Binge-eating disorder = an eating
disorder characterized by recurrent
episodes of consuming large amounts
of food in a discrete period of time,
while feeling a lack of control, but not
followed by purge behaviors
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
What
environmental
factors might
encourage
obesity and
binge-eating?
Eating Disorders
• Anorexia nervosa = an eating
disorder characterized by
severe loss of weight resulting
from self-imposed starvation
and obsessive fear of obesity
– Distorted body image: even
emaciated body is seen as fat
– Extreme malnutrition leads to
bone fractures, loss of
menstruation, loss of brain
tissue
• Bulimia nervosa = an eating
disorder characterized by
recurrent episodes of
consuming large quantities of
food (bingeing), followed by
purging: self-induced
vomiting, extreme exercise,
laxative use, and other
medications
– Vomiting damages teeth, throat,
stomach; leads to digestive
disorders and heart problems
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Q3
Why is motivation a better predictor of math
success in children than IQ?
• Need for achievement (nAch) or Achievement
motivation = the desire to excel, especially in
competition with others (Henry Murray)
– Prefer moderately difficult tasks − not too easy (boring!) and
not too hard (risk failure!)
– Competitive
Motivation for
– Prefer clear goals and feedback
academic success,
– Regulate their efforts
plus study skills, are
– Persistent toward goal
better predictors of
long-term math
– Accomplish more in school and work
achievement than IQ
(Murayama et al., 2012)
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Sexuality
• Sexual response cycle = Masters and
Johnson’s description of the four-stage bodily
response to sexual arousal, which consists of
excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Sexual Orientation
• Sexual orientation = a primary erotic
attraction toward members of the same sex
(homosexual, gay, lesbian), both sexes
(bisexual), or the other sex (heterosexual)
• Genetics and biology play the dominant role in
determining sexual orientation
• Sexual prejudice = a negative attitude toward
an individual because of his or her sexual
orientation. Formerly “homophobia”
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation
• Extrinsic motivation = motivation based on
external rewards or threat of punishment
• Intrinsic motivation = motivation resulting
from internal, personal satisfaction from a task
or activity
Do you study for the grade or
for love of learning?
Did you parents pay you for grades?
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
• When given an extrinsic reward (money,
praise) for an activity that should be
intrinsically motivating (helping, visiting a
park, watching TV), enjoyment, interest, and
likelihood of continuing the activity DECREASE
(Hennessey & Amabile, 1998; Kohn, 2000; Cini, Kruger, & Ellis, 2013).
• Extrinsic rewards should inform about
superior performance and be
given with “no strings attached”
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
COMPONENTS AND THEORIES
OF EMOTION
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Emotions
• Emotion = a complex pattern of feelings that
includes arousal (heart pounding), cognitions
(thoughts, values, and expectations), and
expressive behaviors (smiles, frowns)
• Emotions have three components:
1. Biological
2. Cognitive
3. Behavioral
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Biological (arousal) Component
• What happens in your body when you get a
sudden surprise?
• Changes in heart rate, perspiration, breathing
are controlled by brain and ANS
– Limbic system, especially amygdala
– Thalamus sends signal to cortex for processing
AND to amygdala for immediate response
– Autonomic nervous system prepares for (and
recovers from) fight or flight
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cognitive (Thinking) Component
• What you experience as pleasurable may be
boring or aversive to another
• Self-report measures (surveys, interviews)
measure what people think about their emotions
• But sometimes people are unwilling or unable to
accurately report emotions
• The other two components of emotions
(biological and behavioral) are used in research
to supplement cognitive measures
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Behavioral (Expressive) Component
• Facial expressions are an important form of
emotional communication
• When verbal message and nonverbal message
don’t match, we believe the nonverbal
message
Which one is the
real smile and
which one is the
Duchenne
smile?
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Three Major Theories of Emotion
• James-Lange = the subjective experience of
emotion results from physiological changes
rather than being its cause (“I feel sad because
I’m crying”)
• Cannon-Bard = emotions and physiological
changes occur simultaneously (“I’m crying and
feel sad at the same time”)
• Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory =
emotion depends on two factors –
physiological arousal and cognitive labeling
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Comparing 3 Theories of Emotion
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Q4
How can simply smiling reduce stress?
• Facial-feedback hypothesis = movements of
the facial muscles produce and/or intensify
our subjective experience of emotion
• Smiling while holding hand in ice water
produced lower heart rates
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Evolution, Culture, and Emotion
• Universal emotions like happiness, surprise,
sadness, anger, fear, and disgust appear in all
cultures
Q5
Why do emotional expressions of Olympic
athletes appear the same across all cultures?
• In both US and S. Korea, participants correctly
rated expressions as “triumph” and “pride”
• Each culture has its own display rules
governing how, when and where emotions are
expressed
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Polygraph as Lie Detector
• Polygraph = the instrument that measures
sympathetic arousal (heart rate, respiration,
blood pressure, and skin conductivity) to
detect emotional arousal, which in turn
supposedly reflects lying versus truthfulness
• Based on theory that when people lie they
feel guilty and anxious
• Polygraph error rates between 25 and 75%
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.