Describing Research Activities
Phenomenology
Case Studies
Field Studies
Archival Study
Qualitative Research
What are nonexperimental approaches?
Nonexperimental approaches do not create
levels of an independent variable nor randomly
assign subjects to these levels.
They are used where experiments are not ethical
or possible, or where we want to test hypotheses
in realistic conditions.
Describing Research Activities
What is internal validity?
Internal validity is the degree to which a
researcher can establish a causal relationship
between the independent and dependent
variables.
Describing Research Activities
What is internal validity?
An experiment has high internal validity when
we can demonstrate that only the antecedent
conditions are responsible for group differences
in behavior.
An internally valid experiment allows us to draw
cause-and-effect conclusions.
Describing Research Activities
Why do experiments often achieve higher internal
validity than nonexperimental studies?
Laboratory experiments are often higher in
internal validity because of their control of
extraneous variables.
Researchers create levels of the IV and use
procedures like matching and random
assignment to conditions.
Describing Research Activities
What is external validity?
External validity is the degree to which
research findings can be generalized to
other settings and individuals.
Describing Research Activities
Why might nonexperimental studies achieve higher
external validity than laboratory experiments?
Nonexperimental studies are more frequently
conducted in real-world settings with a more
diverse sample of participants than experiments.
Describing Research Activities
What is the degree of manipulation of antecedent
conditions?
The degree of manipulation of antecedent
conditions concerns assignment of subjects
to antecedent conditions created for the
experiment.
Describing Research Activities
What is the degree of imposition of units?
The degree of imposition of units is how much
you limit a subject’s responses on the DV.
Describing Research Activities
Explain phenomenology.
Phenomenology involves a subject's
description of personal subjective experience.
Phenomenology is low in manipulation of
antecedent conditions and low in imposition
of units (low-low).
Phenomenology
What are case studies?
In case studies, a researcher compiles a
descriptive study of a subject's experiences,
observable behaviors, and archival records kept
by an outside observer.
Case studies range from low-low to low-high.
Case Studies
What are the strengths of the case study approach?
Case studies have several advantages:
 source of inferences, hypotheses,
and theories
 source of therapy techniques
 allow study of rare phenomena
Case Studies
What are the strengths of the case study approach?
 provide exceptions to accepted ideas,
theories, and practices
 persuasive and motivational value
(advertising)
Case Studies
What are the limitations of the case study approach?
Case studies have several limitations:
 representativeness of sample
 completeness of data
 reliance on retrospective data
Case Studies
How do deviant case analyses extend evaluative
case studies?
In a deviant case analysis, researchers
examine differences between deviant and
normal individuals to identify etiological factors.
This approach may also be applied to nonclinical
issues such as social trends and adult morale.
Case Studies
What are retrospective data?
Retrospective data are recollections of past
events that are collected in the present.
While your childhood memories constitute
retrospective data, your undergraduate portfolio
does not since it was collected in the past.
Case Studies
What are the risks of using retrospective data?
This information may be compromised by faulty
memory, current mood, and the retrieval cues
that are present when you are asked to recall an
event.
Case Studies
What are field studies?
Field studies are nonexperimental studies
conducted in the field (real-life settings). The
experimenter does not manipulate antecedent
conditions.
Field studies range from low-low to low-high.
Field Studies
What is naturalistic observation?
Naturalistic observation examines subjects’
spontaneous behavior in their actual
environments and may obtain more
representative behavior than experiments.
This method can achieve high levels of external
validity.
Field Studies
Explain the problem of reactivity.
In reactivity, subjects alter their behavior when
they know that they are being observed.
For example, your baby sister stops saying
“Gramma” when you place the phone near her
mouth.
Field Studies
What is a participant-observer study?
A participant-observer study involves field
observation in which the researcher is part of
the studied group.
This approach contrasts with naturalistic
observation, where the researcher does not
interact with research subjects to avoid reactivity.
Field Studies
Which ethical problems complicate participantobserver studies?
The main problems are invasion of privacy, not
telling people that you are studying their
behavior, and pretending to be a group member.
Pretending to be a group member (e.g., a
researcher pretending to be a weight lifter) is a
serious problem that requires careful planning.
Field Studies
How do field experiments differ from field studies?
Field experiments are experiments conducted
in real-life settings.
Field studies are nonexperimental designs
used in real-life settings and include naturalistic
observation, unobtrusive measures, participantobserver studies, and surveys.
Field Studies
What is an archival study?
An archival study is a descriptive method
where researchers reexamine data that were
collected for other purposes.
For example, universities collect a wealth
of data through surveys like the Graduating
Senior Questionnaire (GSQ) and interviews.
Archival Study
What defines qualitative research?
Qualitative research obtains data consisting
of words instead of numbers.
This information is obtained through self-reports,
personal narratives, and expression of ideas,
memories, feelings, and thoughts.
Qualitative Research
Why is the rise of qualitative research important?
The increased use of qualitative research
may represent a paradigm shift—a change
in attitudes, values, beliefs, methods, and
procedures accepted during a specific time
period.
Qualitative Research
How is qualitative research helpful?
Qualitative research is invaluable in studying
contextual phenomena, behavior that can only
be understood within its context.
For example, we might examine the meaning
of religious faith for patients facing impending
surgery.
Qualitative Research
Which information sources does empirical
phenomenology use?
Empirical phenomenology might rely on an
experimenter’s private experiences or other
experiential data:
1.
the researcher’s self-reflection on relevant
experiences
Qualitative Research
Which information sources does empirical
phenomenology use?
2. participants’ oral or written descriptions of
their experiences
3. accounts from literature, poetry, visual art,
television, theatre, and previous
phenomenological (and other) research
Qualitative Research