PSYCHOLOGY
MEANING OF PSYCHOLOGY
 Definitions
Psychology and scientific procedures
Etymological definition
 It is derived from Greek words; psyche and logos.
 Psyche-mind, we get psych/iatry, psych/osis,
psycho/linguistic, psycho/metric,
 Logos-study, we get socio/logy, zoo/logy, bio/logy,
anthropo/logy or axio/logy
 When we combine two originally separate words, we get
the study of mind or mental processes.
 During Greek times psychology was part of philosophy
so they studied mind as they studied philosophy.
Meaning of psychology
 Methods used to study philosophy in Greek times are
speculation, reflection, observation (not systematic) and
examination of people’s actions.
 No rigorous methods were used to study mind; processes
and functions.
 Psychology gradually detached from philosophy and became
a distinct discipline when there was attempt to study human
behavior through scientific methods.
Psychology as a distinct discipline
 A German Psychologist, Wilhelm Wundt started to study
mental processes scientifically in 19th century.
 Then, the definition changed a little bit to be the study of
mental life as per the influence of Wundt’s studies (Myers
1990;2 & Shaughnessy, J et al 2000).
 His studies focused on covert experiences and
consciousness, sensations, feelings and thoughts.
 The basic method he used was introspection (looking
within).
Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
 The examination of your own thoughts or feelings’ (Oxford
English Dictionary 6th edit.)
 The investigator examines the description of
people’s thoughts, feelings and reasons of their
behaviors.
 Definition of psychology took another different
direction in the early 20th century with the
emergence of Behavioral psychology in America
associated with an American psychologist, John
Watson.
 It was then defined as the science of behavior sticking
on overt rather than covert behavior.
Another shift of definition
 In 1960s, psychology shifted again on conscious
and unconscious state of mind.
 It studies how our mind takes in, processes and
retains information.
 Hence the definition took another swing. It
included overt (actions) and covert behavior
(feelings and thoughts) .
 Overt behavior: visible behavior that can be directly
observed and measured.
 Covert behavior: internal processes; thinking,
memorizing, relating, planning and imagining; Feelingssadness, hate, love, joy, disappointment or disgust.
 Myers (1990:2) points out that this has led psychology to
be defined as ‘the science of behavior and mental
processes’.
 (Passer, M & Smith, R;2001:4) define it as ‘The
scientific study of behavior and the factors that
influence it’
Behavior
 In the ordinary sense, behavior is used to mean
any observable action.
 In psychology, ‘‘behavior’ has a wider sense. It
includes observable actions and unobservable
thoughts and feelings. So, behavior includes
doing actions, feeling and thinking.
Psychology as a scientific study
 Psychology is different from philosophy.
 Philosophy deals with creating ideas, developing
assumptions, speculating and reflecting on issues
for finding out truth.
 Other ways to find truth: tenacity based on
beliefs; authority based on trust and intuition
common sense method.
 Psychological truth is not based on either one of
the three.
Psychology and Science
 It is based on scientific studies or procedures.
 Basic scientific methods: experiment, observation,
case studies, survey, correlation
 As a scientific study, psychology requires precision
and accuracy, relies on truth rather than opinion.
 Science, according to Omari, I (1976:17) is driven by
three forces: curiosity, skepticism, and openmindedness.
Characteristics of scientific procedures
It is:
 Systematic: follows a certain order, logical sequence
and interrelation of activities, issues, ideas and
concepts at all the stages of the investigation.
 The steps: problem identification, hypotheses
formulation, study design, sampling, determining
methods and strategies, data collection, analysis,
interpretation and drawing of conclusions.
Characteristics of scientific procedures
 Controlled: It limits and restricts un-required data.
It ensures that the investigator includes only needed
data in the study.
 Control begins at the level of design of the
determining investigator’s needs.
 A researcher should make careful choice of
subjects/respondents, methods, measurement
procedures, rationale, how to minimize errors
(measurement, sampling) in order to get specific data
needed.
Characteristics of scientific procedures
Empirical:
It looks for empirical evidence, the data that can be:
 verified and proved by human senses;
 known through observation and experience.
Objective:
Obtaining data that are not based on:
 opinion or one’s subjective ideas or biasness.
 from one’s sensations, feelings, emotions or common
sense
Characteristics of scientific procedures
 The results are only justified by its methods and
operationalization.
Verifiable and replicable:
Verifiable: Methods and procedures should provide
room for check and verification at every step to:
 know how the results have been obtained.
 Validate and prove the results
So, they must be:
 precise and accurate
 clearly and objectively presented
Characteristics of scientific procedures
Replicable: Ability of the study to correct itself
when repeated again. Any study must be repeated
in a number of times in order to approve the
results of the initial investigation.
Measurement:
 To measure is to describe data, events or behavior
using numbers. Description of using numbers is
done at every stage; statement of the problem,
design, sampling, collection and analysis of data.
Logical:
Logic: The ability to reason correctly.
Deductive and Inductive logical explanations and
arguments are necessary in conducting any scientific
study.
Theoretical:
 Theory: ‘a logically organized set of propositions
(claims, statements, assertions) that serves to define
events (concepts), describe relationships among
these events, and explain the occurrence of these
events’ (Shaughnessy, J et al, 2000:30).
Theory :
 guides framework of the problem of the study;
 displays data systematically and orderly;
 guides interpretation of data;
 generates predictions in a situation where no data
has been obtained.
Importance of studying human behavior
scientifically
 Complexity and instability of human behavior
which becomes uneasy to determine it.
 There are many interactive factors that shape and
change behavior.
 There are many specific aspects of behavior to be
studied: abilities, attitudes, thought, experiences.
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Psychology: the scientific study of human and
animal behavior.
 Its major focus is to study and formulate
principles about human and animal behavior.
 Education can be defined as the process of
facilitating acquisition of knowledge,
skills and values.
 Major concern of education is practice
What is educational psychology?
 Rosser, R & Nicholson (1987:3) believe that
educational psychology is devoted to help
teachers apply principles and knowledge of
psychology to educational concerns.
 Reilly and Lewis (1983:6) define it as the
application of psychology to teaching and
solving educational problems
Meaning of Educational psychology
 Durojaiye, M.O (1976:4) defines it as the study
of the ways in which the learner can be most
effectively brought in to successful interaction
with the material to be learnt, the learning
situation and the teachers who provide the
learning opportunity.
 Slavin, R (1988:3): the study of learners,
learning and teaching.
Meaning of Educational psychology
 The definitions show that: Educational
psychology is an applied branch of psychology.
 It focuses on understanding teaching, learning
and learners.
 It facilitates the work of the teacher by enabling
him or her to choose, decide and do what is
appropriate for teaching and learners.
 It combines theory and practice; psychology
deals with theory and education with practice.
Meaning of Educational psychology
Educational psychology’s major focus is on:
 Learner
 Learning
 Teaching
Characteristics of the learner
 Physical characteristics
 Mental ability and health
 Emotional characteristics
 Social characteristics
 Moral characteristics
 These children’s characteristics affect their
learning in various ways, therefore the teacher
must understand how they affect learning.
Learner
 The learner must be understood because he is the
target in the teaching and learning process.
 Understanding the learner will enable the teacher
to provide meaningful learning experience in
terms of:
Designing effective learning strategies
Involving learners in the learning process
Motivating learners
Designing learning materials
Formulating learning objectives
Learning process
 Psychological principles suggest that children
learn in various ways. They learn by:
Observing, inferring, experimenting, practicing,
asking and answering questions, manipulating
objects, imitating, acting, listening and inquiring.
These modes of learning are promoted by
teachers’, parents’ or any other person’s
motivation, encouragement and challenges.
Teaching
 It is the process of facilitating learning by putting
the learner in the most conducive environment
for learning. In facilitating learning the teacher
must do many things like:
 Guiding, supporting, instructing, giving good
treatment, help students to solve problems,
appraising, encouraging, leading and observing.
Teaching
 It is believed that understanding the learner and
the learning process, teaching can be facilitated
through:
 Good organization of the lesson
 Effective motivation of students
 Creation of effective learning environment
 Appropriate choice of materials and strategies
 Appropriate assessment of students
Teaching
 The knowledge of learner and learning process
will moreover enable the teacher to understand:
 his or her professional responsibilities
 How to behave
 How to interact with students
 How to organize himself or herself
 How to organize learning experiences
Application of psychology in education
Psychology is applied in Education in the following
main areas:
 Curriculum plan and design
 Educational and School leadership
 Educational Measurement and Assessment
 Classroom management
 Educational research
 Devising and using Teaching and Learning
methods and materials
 Educational Guidance and Counseling
 Planning lessons
References
 Durojaiye, M. O. (1976): An Introduction to Educational Psychology. Evans Brothers:
London.
 Elliott, S et al (2000): Educational Psychology: Effective Teaching, Effective Learning;.McGraw
Hill, Boston.
 Myers, D. (1990): Exploring Psychology;Worth Publishers, New York
 Passer, M & Smith, R (2001): Psychology: Frontiers and Applications, McGraw Hill Boston.
Reilly, R and Lewis, E (1983): Educational Psychology: Application For Classroom Learning and
Instruction, McMillan Publishing, New York.
 Rosser, R & Nicholson, G (1987): Educational
psychology: Principles and Practice. Little Brown and
Comp. Boston.
 Slavin, R (1988): Educational Psychology:Theory into
Practice, Prentice Hall Englewood Cliffs
Sample of Exam Questions
Explain how you can apply psychology in choosing and using:
1. Learning materials
2. Managing classroom during teaching