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Demonstrating State Memory
The Politics of Tribe and Counterinsurgency in Mizoram and Chhattisgarh
Vasundhara Sirnate
University of California, Berkeley
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INSURGENCY DEFINED…
“An organized movement aimed at the overthrow of a
constituted government through the use of subversion and
armed conflict”.
US Army, COIN Manual
Counterinsurgency in India
Vasundhara Sirnate
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COIN personnel speak…
Chhattisgarh
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“They eat grass…Tribes have
no medicines. Their average
survival age is 40 years at the
maximum. They still go to local
“jhad-pooch” wallahs (witch
doctors).”
“How will they handle things
on their own?”
Mizoram
“We could never have won
against the Mizos, we can never
win against the Nagas. They are
too well disciplined. Like an
army.”
“They have their own institutions,
justice systems, people believe
in them.”
(signalling primitivity)
Counterinsurgency in India
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Pacting in Mizoram and Chhattisgarh?
Chhattisgarh
Mizoram
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“May not work”
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“Good warriors”
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“How can you pact with these
people?”
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“They know how to negotiate”
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“Well organized”
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“What else can you do,
fighting with them is tough”
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“They already have local
parliaments.”
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“Out of the question”
“Need to be kept in line”
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Countering Insurgency
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Why does the Indian state pursue different
counterinsurgency strategies in different regions of India?
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Use heavy coercion (Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir)
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Pact with insurgents (Tripura, Mizoram, Nagaland)
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Sub-contract force to private militias (Chhattisgarh)
Counterinsurgency in India
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Research Design
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Qualitative, two years, deep-tissue fieldwork.
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120 interviews, snowball sample.
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Extensive interviews with counterinsurgency personnel
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Paired comparisons, comparative historical analysis
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Lok Sabha debates, Constituent Assembly Debates, NDC
dissertations, Census from 1891, anthropological works on
tribes.
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Research Design- II
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Data collection from Asian Recorder and the Asian News
Digest (1955-2008). Currently doing this from The Hindu
newspaper.
300
30
200
20
100
10
Attacks and Deaths By Year
600
60
500
50
400
40
0
0
Attacks
Killed by
Insurgents
70
1009
700
9
Total Killed
Security Killed
Attacks
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
1987
1985
1984
1983
1982
1981
1979
1978
1975
1974
1973
1972
1970
1969
1968
1967
1966
1965
1963
1962
1958
1957
1956
1955
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
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Countering Insurgency
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Why does the Indian state pursue different
counterinsurgency strategies in different regions of India?

Use heavy coercion (Punjab, Jammu and Kashmir)

Pact with insurgents (Tripura, Mizoram, Nagaland)

Sub-contract force to private militias (Chhattisgarh)
Counterinsurgency in India
Vasundhara Sirnate
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Explaining variation
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State-memory
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Location of state (border or not)
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State Memory
Perception of groups by the state maintained over time.
“beliefs, perceptions, histories and ideas about groups”
“territory” (how has a group been located geographically over
time, Eg. “frontier” tribesmen)
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Demonstrating State Memory
Do tribes located in different geographical regions receive
different political treatment?
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‘Ungovernable’ Tribes
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Idea of ‘primitivity’ allows for legislations like the Criminal
Tribes Act.
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127 ‘communities’ notified. (across India and Pakistan).
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Perceiving ‘Tribe’
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State ‘identifies’ tribes (groups located in inaccessible areas,
nomadic)
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Tribe as a residual category in the Census.
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Anthropologists see tribe as a concept in opposition to
‘civilization’.
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Tribes are in an intermediate state of civilization.
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Primitive, inferior, lacking skills or alternatively ‘noble
savages’.
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“People from time immemorial have been pursuing the caste
system defined job-positions: weaving, carpentry and such
were hereditary jobs. So there must have been hereditary
criminals also who pursued their forefathers’ profession…”
- James Fitzjames Stephen
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Tribes in India
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But not all tribes are thought of as
primitive
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How do we know this?
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Two Constitutional Schedules – the Fifth and Sixth
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Sixth Schedule
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Provides for Autonomous District Councils
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Highest expression of tribal sovereignty
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Has allowed many groups to scale down their demands
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Mostly for northeastern states (save Manipur)
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Fifth Schedule
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Allows for only a Tribes Advisory Council (no territorial
powers given)
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Applicable to central India (and Manipur)
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Counterinsurgency in Mizoram
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Operation Jericho in 1966 by the Mizo National Front
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Political negotiations on the cards almost immediately after
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Pact in 1987 with the center.
Counterinsurgency in India
Vasundhara Sirnate
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Counterinsurgency in
Chhattisgarh against Maoists
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Predominantly based on force
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Subcontracted force to the Salwa Judum (purification hunt)
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Case 2: Chhattisgarh
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+ Brigadier Ponwar
Counterinsurgency and Jungle
Warfare college
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Theoretical contributions of
project
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State memory affects political treatment
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Insurgent group contagion
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States function in competitive institutional environments,
generated by‘credible rivals’ (different from threats).
Counterinsurgency in India
Vasundhara Sirnate