Summing up
What now?
What is science?
• Explanations of the material world
• Based on observation and testing of theories
against nature (facts, hypotheses, laws,
theories)
• Importance historically
• Importance in a modern society
water
Why Science?
food
climate
energy
health
Why does science matter?
• Science for all
– Scientific literacy important in a democracy
• Science for future scientists
– Important for EU – economic growth,
competition, prosperity
What is the Nature of Science?
NOS
Nature of Science (NOS) refers to the
epistemology of science, science as a way of
knowing, or the values and beliefs inherent to
the development of scientific knowledge
(Lederman, 1992).
The nature of scientific knowledge is a more
suitable way to discuss this topic
General assumption that understanding NOS is
important in science teaching and learning
NOS
• Scientific knowledge is simultaneously reliable and tentative.
Having confidence in scientific knowledge is reasonable
while realizing that such knowledge may be abandoned or
modified in light of new evidence or re-conceptualization of
prior evidence and knowledge.
• Although no single universal step-by-step scientific method
captures the complexity of doing science, a number of
shared values and perspectives characterize a scientific
approach to understanding nature. Among these are a
demand for naturalistic explanations supported by empirical
evidence that are, at least in principle, testable against the
natural world. Other shared elements include observations,
rational argument, inference, skepticism, peer review and
replicability of work.
NOS
• Creativity is a vital, yet personal, ingredient in
the production of scientific knowledge.
• Science, by definition, is limited to naturalistic
methods and explanations and, as such, is
precluded from using supernatural elements
in the production of scientific knowledge.
• A primary goal of science is the formation of
theories and laws, which are terms with very
specific meanings.
NOS
• Contributions to science can be made and have
been made by people the world over.
• The scientific questions asked, the observations
made, and the conclusions in science are to some
extent influenced by the existing state of
scientific knowledge, the social and cultural
context of the researcher and the observer's
experiences and expectations.
• The history of science reveals both evolutionary
and revolutionary changes. With new evidence
and interpretation, old ideas are replaced or
supplemented by newer ones.
How does the nature of science (NOS)
relate to scientific inquiry?
• Inquiry is what drives the scientific endeavor
and is a process of discovery. It begins with
the formation of questions that are testable,
scientific investigations allow scientists to
collect evidence, explanations are made based
on the evidence and finally results are
communicated to peers.
How is scientific inquiry related to
teaching science in schools?
• Inquiry based science teaching (IBST) has it
roots in curriculum development projects
characteristic of the post sputnik era. The
central idea is of course to use elements of
inquiry in science teaching that are also
present in scientific inquiry.
Science as Inquiry
• Bybee describes science as inquiry as
comprising three main elements:
1. Skills of scientific inquiry (what students should
be able to do)
2. Knowledge about scientific inquiry (what students
should understand about the nature of scientific
inquiry
3. A pedagogical approach for teaching science
content
Inquiry Based Science
• Inquiry is the intentional process of diagnosing
problems, critiquing experiments, and
distinguishing alternatives, planning
investigations, researching conjectures,
searching for information, constructing
models, debatng with peers and forming
coherent arguments.
Linn, Davis and Bell, 2004
Inquiry Based Science is characterized by:
• Authentic and problem based learning
activities where there may not be a correct
answer
• A certain amount of experimental procedures,
“hands-on” activities
• Self regulated learning sequences where
student autonomy is emphasized
• Discursive argumentation and communication
with peers (talking science)
Describing Scientific Literacy
• Scientific processes, Scientific method,
Experimental approach, Problem solving,
Conceiving problems, Formulating hypotheses,
Designing experiments, Gathering and analyzing
data, Drawing conclusions, Deriving conceptual
understandings, Examining the limitations of
scientific explanations, Methodological strategies,
Knowledge as “temporary truths”, Practical work,
Finding and exploring questions, Independent
thinking, Creative inventing abilities, Hands-on
activities
• From and emphasis on individual science lessons
that demonstrate concepts to science lesson
sequences that promote reasoning with and about
concepts
• From the study of science topics that examine
current scientific thinking without regard for social
context to the study of science topics in social
contexts
• From a view of science that emphasizes observation
and experimentation to a view that stresses theory
and model building and revision
Duschl
Teacher Professional Development
• Cognitive dissonance is created, which disturbs the existing
equilibrium between the practices and beliefs of teachers
and their experiences with the subject matter, learning and
teaching.
• Discussion, reading, writing and revised thinking can lead to
resolution of such dissonance when teachers are given the
appropriate context, time and support
• The professional development experiences are connected
to the teachers’ particular context and their own students
• A means is provided for the teachers to develop new
classroom practices that are consistent with the new
understandings they are developing
• As new issues and problems arise, teachers are given the
support needed to understand them and put these new
understandings into classroom practice
Thompson & Zeuli, 1999
The Inquiry Continuum
• Confirmation Inquiry
– The question and procedure are provided, results
are known in advance.
• Structured Inquiry
– The question and procedure are provided,
students generate an explanation supported by
the evidence they collect
The Inquiry Continuum 2
• Guided Inquiry
– The teacher provides the research question,
students design the procedure
• Open Inquiry
– Students ask questions, design procedures, carry
out investigations and communicate results
5E model
•
•
•
•
•
Engaging
Exploring
Explaining
Elaborating
Evaluating
Engaging (Teacher)
•
•
•
•
Creates interest
Generates curiosity
Raises questions
Elicits responses
uncovering what
students are thinking
• Explains concepts
• Provides definitions and
answers
• States conclusions
• Provides closure
• lectures
Engaging (Student)
• Asks questions such as,
Why did this happen?
What can I find out
about this? What do I
already know about
this?
• Asks for the correct
answer
• Seeks one solution
Explore (teacher)
• Students working
together without direct
instruction
• Observes and listens to
student interaction
• Asks probing questions
to help students
• Allows students time to
think through problems
• Acts as a consultant
• Provides answers
• Tells or explains how to
work on problems
• Provides closure
• Tells students they are
wrong
• Provides facts to solve
problems
• Leads step by step to
solutions
Explore (student)
• Thinks freely but within
limits of the activity
• Forms new predictions
and hypotheses
• Tries alternatives and
discusses them with
others
• Records observations
and ideas
• Lets others do the
thinking (passive)
• Works quietly with no
involvement
• Plays around with no
goal in mind
Explain (teacher)
• Encourages students to
explain in own words
• Asks for justification
(evidence) and
clarification
• Uses students’ previous
experiences as basis for
explaining concepts
• Accepts explanations
that have no
justification
• Neglects to solicit
students’ explanations
Explain (student)
• Explains possible
solutions or answers to
others
• Listens critically to
other explanations
• Refers to previous
activities
• Uses recorded
observations in
explanations
• Proposes explanations
from thin air with no
relationship to previous
experiences
• Beings up irrelevant
experiences and
examples
• Accepts explanations
without justification