Jia Xu and Colin Marsh
Curtin University
 Is it necessary and possible to have SBCD at
schools in Australia?
 Is it necessary and possible to use conceptual
frameworks to help us understand and develop
more effective SBCD?
SBCD in China
 SBCD has been a highlight of China’s new curriculum
reform since 1999.
 A curriculum policy change towards devolving partial
power in curriculum decision-making to teachers.
 10% of curriculum is decided by local regions and
individual schools.
 Transforming teachers’ role from “book-knowledge
transmitters” to curriculum developers.
Defining school-based curriculum
development (SBCD) as:
 a slogan,
 a democratic philosophy,
 a practical series of steps.
Caveats
 SBCD is a constantly evolving term. It is very difficult to
come up with a perfect form of SBCD.
 Although it is a desirable process for teachers to become
involved in SBCD yet the hard realities of systems and
governments necessitate limitations.
What is a conceptual framework?
 It provides a structure for curriculum planning.
 It provides a coherent grouping of terms or values.
 It provides ideal goals.
Some preliminary questions
 Is school-based curriculum development alive and well in
2011 in Australia?
 Is there a perfect type of school-based curriculum
development and has it ever existed in a pure form?
 Do ideas about school-based planning change over the
decades, for better or worse?
Some different priorities of SBCD
 A democratic vision to have more teacher involvement
 A way of supplementing student resource materials
 A way of addressing critical problems in an education
system
 A way to support systemic reforms and to enhance the
professional skills of teachers
How successful are current efforts to do
SBCD in Asian countries ?
 An example from Hong Kong
 An example from Singapore
SBCD in action in Hong Kong
 Innovative teachers are selected to be seed teachers
and given special training at head office.
 Creation of new promotional positions of curriculum
leader in each primary school
 Setting up of school-based support team in each
education district
 Celebration of exemplary efforts
SBCD in Singapore
 Intensive workshops on SBCD provided for all primary
schools
 Research activists appointed for each school to support a
specific SBCD project
 Learning journeys to other schools locally & overseas
 Celebration of successes through public
presentations/workshops
The Australian scene in 2011
 Teaching has always been a complicated process.
 Teachers need to be able to do a number of things
almost simultaneously, including
unpacking knowledge and ideas,
making this accessible to others within a caring productive
environment.
New pressures for teachers
 New external pressures & ongoing internal, school
level pressures.
 New external pressures:
Australian Curriculum,
NAPLAN,
MY SCHOOL website,
Professional standards for teachers.
 School-based planning and central planning working
towards educational reform.
General problems for doing SBCD
 Lack of time
 Lack of expertise
 Lack of finance
 Externally imposed restrictions
 Threatening school climate (resistors or lack of
effective leadership) (Marsh,1992).
The arrival of the National Curriculum
 Materials produced so far for the first four subjects
indicate that what ACARA is requiring is more than
just general principles and outcomes for each
subject area.
 There will be a major emphasis upon content and
specifying of what is taught at each grade level.
 This will be reinforced through NAPLAN results in
terms of literacy and numeracy. This will flow over
into other subjects.
Likely impacts
•Teaching will
become more
teacher-directed and
focussed on content
coverage.
OR
•Teachers will try new
initiatives enthused
by the content and
structures of the
Australian
Curriculum.
Curriculum planning models
 These models are typically general and apply
across various subjects and teaching levels.
 Models provide simple procedures for teachers to
go about planning of lessons.
prescriptive models (Tyler, 1949; Taba, 1962).
Naturalistic Model (Walker, 1970).
Understanding by Design model (Wiggins & McTighe,
1998).
SBCD planning models
 In situations where teachers want to get involved in
school-based planning SBCD models need to be
considered.
 It is important to remember that each school
situation is very different and so it makes the task of
developing SBCD planning models all the more
difficult.
Major categories of school-based models
Models that create
typologies of different
variations of SBCD
Models that develop
interlinked explanatory
factors for successful
SBCD
• Brady (1987)
• Wong Yu Lai Wah (2008)
• Marsh et al (1990)
• Lo Yiu Chun (1999)
• Lee (2008)
• Marsh (2009)
Models that create typologies of different
variations of SBCD
Figure 1: Brady's matrix for analysis of SBCD in practice (Brady, 1987)
Advantages
• It indicates a number of
combinations;
• It seems to indicate that any
combination is possible;
• It illustrates three main
processes well.
Disadvantages
• It doesn’t show the influence
of head office and how they
could limit choices;
• It is a static model – just a list
of categories;
• It doesn’t show which factors
are more important than
others.
Figure 1: Brady's matrix for analysis of SBCD in practice (Brady, 1987)
Models that create typologies of different
variations of SBCD
Figure 2: A three-dimensional model of SBCD (Marsh, 1990)
Advantages
• It creates a dynamic, 3D
picture;
• It shows a lot of different
combinations;
• It seems to indicate that any
combination is possible.
Disadvantages
• It doesn't include all the
important factors, only
includes three;
• It doesn't show which factors
are more important than
others;
• It doesn't show the influence
of head office and how this
could limit choices.
Figure 2: A three-dimensional model of SBCD (Marsh, 1990)
Models that develop
interlinked explanatory factors
Figure 3: School-Based Curriculum Project Scheme,
Hong Kong (Lo, 1999)
Advantages
• It demonstrates clear
focus of centrally
controlled SBCD;
• It includes a
Disadvantages
• Only limited SBCD can
occur;
• Teacher empowerment
is limited within
celebration of
planning and
successful efforts.
evaluation.
Figure 3: School-Based Curriculum Project Scheme,
Hong Kong (Lo, 1999)
Models that develop interlinked
explanatory factors
Figure 4: Lee’s model of SBCD (2008)
Advantages
• It is teacher focused and
Disadvantages
• It underestimates
encourages
influences of head
empowerment
office;
• It is pragmatic - finding
spaces/ opportunities.
• It doesn’t clearly
establish constraints.
Figure 4: Lee’s model of SBCD (2008)
Models that develop interlinked explanatory factors
Figure 5: A model of implementing school-based curriculum
in a subject (Wong, 2008)
Advantages
• Highlights importance of
government initiatives;
• Includes a number of major
factors;
Disadvantages
• Processes depicted are
complicated to understand;
• Over-emphasis on government
initiatives.
• Indicates outcomes wanted for
SBCD;
• Highlights the need for
professional development;
Figure 5: A model of implementing school-based curriculum
in a subject (Wong, 2008)
Models that develop interlinked explanatory factors
Figure 6: A Conceptual Model of SBCD (Marsh, 2009)
Advantages
• It highlights major factors,
processes and desired outcomes;
• It includes a number of major
elements;
Disadvantages
• It under-estimates government
constraints;
• Some factors listed are complex
to understand.
• It gives clear indication of steps
involved;
• It highlights the need for
celebration of successful efforts.
Figure 6: A Conceptual Model of SBCD (Marsh, 2009)
Concluding comment
 Making curriculum space available for SBCD is a
major issue and it depends upon levels of
cooperation between centralised and decentralised
forms of curriculum development.
 There are a variety of SBCD approaches. The
conceptual models outlined here provide just some
of the possibilities.
 Because SBCD is closely related to local needs and
priorities it is not possible to come up with one
conceptual model which fits all.