Deontological Ethics
Immanuel Kant
(1724-1804)
 Moral principles are based on a rational
appraisal
 Morality is based on duty
 Categorical Imperative
 Universal Principles of Conduct
 Moral laws are based on rational principles
that are universally binding
David Hume (1711-1776)
 Sentimentalism
 Moral distinctions are not derived from
reason, but from Emotion
 Our emotions enable us to evaluate the
difference between virtue and vice
• Emotions provide an objective measure for morality
based on a common sentiment towards humanity
• Although moral virtue is rare, persons do not act
purely out of self-interest
Jonathon Haidt
 Julie and Mark are brother and sister. They
are traveling together in France on summer
vacation from college. One night they are
staying alone in a cabin near the beach. They
decide that it would be interesting and fun if
they tried making love. At the very least it
would be a new experience for each of them.
Julie was already taking birth control pills, but
Mark uses a condom too, just to be safe. They
both enjoy making love, but they decide not
to do it again. They keep that night as a
special secret, which makes them feel even
closer to each other.
 What do you think about that? Was it OK for
them to make love?
Morality Story
Jonathon Haidt
 Social Intuitionist Model
 Emotion serves as an intuition that directs our
assessment of a moral situation
 Moral reasoning follows based on the intuition
 Ad hoc explanation based on defending our
intuitions
 Used to influence the intuitions of others
 Thus, one feels revulsion at the idea of incest
in the story
 Then, seeks to find a way to rationally defend
the intuition
Trolley Problem
Trolley Problem
Joshua Greene
 Competing Processes Theory
 Cognitive and emotional processes compete
in moral decision-making
 Impersonal
 Cognitive (Rational) Processes used in
appraisal
 Thought of pulling a lever does not activate
emotional centers of brain
 Personal
 Emotional process used in appraisal
 Thought of pushing someone more
emotionally engaging
Marc Hauser
 Moral Decision-making based on Moral Module
 Similar to Chomsky and Pinker’s view of language
module
 Instinctive Moral Grammar directs analysis of
perceived actions
 Most cognitive processes are unconscious and
implicit
 Moral cognition is largely unconscious
 Not developed through instruction
 Not dependent upon religious institutions
Marc Hauser
 Prior to emotional and cognitive moral appraisals
 Evaluate actions based on three categories
 Permissible
 Obligatory
 Forbidden
 Color our perceptions
 Constrain options for moral decision
 Moral appraisal occurs within specific cultures,
but follows the grammar set by the moral module
Exemplars
 Wesley Autry
 Put his life in jeopardy to save
a stranger
 Jumped onto subway train
tracks to cover a person in
danger
 Later replied, “I don’t feel like
I did something spectacular; I
just saw someone who
needed help. I did what I felt
was right.”
Exemplars
 The Story of Wesley Autry
Exemplars
 Holocaust Rescuers
 Risked their own life to
save Jewish persons
during the holocaust.
 When asked, many
rescuers didn’t feel like
they did anything
extraordinary
 They could not of
imagined doing
anything different
What is a Exemplar?
 Common definitions
 Someone who embodies certain admirable
traits
 Serves as a point of reference
 By observing an exemplary person, one learns
how to exercise a particular trait
 For Virtuous exemplars
 These persons have characteristics that are
essential for the moral life
 These persons are examples for how to behave
morally
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
 Eudaimonia – happiness or the
good life
 Virtues are those those aspects of
character that lead to a good life
 Virtues flow naturally from the
character of moral exemplars
 Exemplars are persons who have
developed certain habits that
embody moral virtues
Aristotle and Virtue Ethics
 Acquiring virtue is not like
other intellectual pursuits
 Requires “phronesis” or
practical wisdom
 Virtues are acquired like the
skills of a master craftsman
 More of an unconscious
process
Aristotle
 Humans are teleological beings
 Live to achieve a certain telos or goal
 Virtues
 Goods which help to achieve a telos
 Virtue of character – live according to reason
 Virtue of thought – contemplate reasons
Virtues
 Internal goods which lead to proper action
 Rule-governed ethics
 Virtue-governed ethics
Doing
Being
Seek the Mean
 Strength of character involves finding the proper balance
between two extremes.
 Excess: having too much of something.
 Deficiency: having too little of something.
 The virtuous person embodies the wisdom of learning
from one’s mistakes
Finding the Mean
Sphere of Existence
Attitude toward self
Deficiency
Servility
Self-deprecation
Ignoring them
Attitude toward
offenses of others Being a Doormat
Attitude toward
good
deeds of others
Suspicion
Envy
Ignoring them
Indifference
Attitude toward our
own offenses Remorselessness
Downplaying
Attitude toward
our friends
Indifference
Mean
Proper Self-Love
Proper Pride
Self-Respect
Anger
Forgiveness
Understanding
Gratitude
Admiration
Agent Regret
Remorse
Making Amends
Learning from them
Self-Forgiveness
Loyalty
Excess
Arrogance
Conceit
Egoism
Narcissism
Vanity
Revenge
Grudge
Resentment
Over
indebtedness
Toxic Guilt
Shame
Possessive
Finding the Mean
Attitude toward our
own good deeds
Belittling
Disappointment
Sense of
Accomplishment
Humility
Selfrighteousness
Attitude toward the
suffering of others
Attitude toward the
achievements of
others
Attitude toward
death
and danger
Attitude toward our
own desires
Attitude toward
other people
Callousness
Compassion
Self-satisfaction
Complacency
Competition
Cowardice
Admiration
Emulation
Pity
“Bleeding Heart”
Envy
Courage
Foolhardiness
Self loathing
Shame
Exploitation
Temperance
Moderation
Respect
Lust
Gluttony
Deferential
Contemporary Virtue Ethics:
Linda Zagzebski
 Exemplars are the starting point for virtue
ethics
 Concrete example of virtue to begin the
development of conceptual definitions
 Exemplars are distinguished by their
exercise of practical reason or phronesis
 Exemplars have the right motive, at the
right time
Contemporary Virtue Ethics:
Linda Zagzebski
 Motives are emotional states that lead to
correct moral actions
 Each emotion has a thick concept that
represents the intentional object of the
emotional state
 Emotions enable a person to see a situation
from a particular moral perspective
 Their emotions ready them for action
Contemporary Virtue Ethics:
Linda Zagzebski
 Emotions form the basic
dispositions of a person’s character
 Enduring moral traits
 Produces reliability and consistency in
moral character despite the context
 Developmental perspective on acquiring
virtue