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PowerPoint slides prepared by Leonard R. Mendola, PhD
Touro College
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Chapter 11: Achievement, Work, and Careers
Outline
• ACHIEVEMENT
–
–
–
–
The Importance of Achievement in Adolescence
Achievement Processes
Social Relationships and Contexts
Some Obstacles to Achievement
• WORK
–
–
–
–
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Work in Adolescence
Working While Going to College
Work/Career-Based Learning
Work in Emerging Adulthood
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Chapter 11: Achievement, Work, and Careers
Outline
• CAREER DEVELOPMENT
– Developmental Changes
– Personality Styles
– Cognitive Factors
– Identity Development
– Social Contexts
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Achievement
As adolescence and emerging
adulthood unfold, achievement
takes a more central role in
development, work becomes a
major aspect of life, and careers
play an increasing role.
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Achievement
• The Importance of Achievement in
Adolescence
– Adolescence is a critical juncture in achievement
(Eccles & Roeser, 2009; Reksten, 2009).
– Achievement becomes a more serious business.
– How effectively adolescents adapt to these new
academic and social pressures is determined, in
part, by psychological, motivational, and
contextual factors (Anderman & Mueller, 2009).
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Achievement
• Achievement Motivation Processes
– Intrinsic Motivation
• Internal factors such as self-determination,
curiosity, challenge, and effort.
– Extrinsic Motivation
• External incentives such as rewards and
punishments.
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Achievement
• Self-Determination and Personal Choice
– Adolescents have control over what they are
doing because of their own will, not because of
external success or rewards.
• Interest
– Has been proposed as more specific than intrinsic
motivation (Hulleman & others, 2008).
– A distinction has been made:
• Individual interest
• Situational interest
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Achievement
• Interest (Continued)
– Individual interest
• Thought to be relatively stable.
– Situational interest
• Believed to be generated by specific aspects of a task
activity.
• Research on interest has focused mainly on
•
how interest is related to learning.
Linked to measures of deep learning (Wigfield &
others, 2006).
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Achievement
• Cognitive Engagement and SelfResponsibility
– Phyllis Blumenfeld and her colleagues (2006a,b)
have proposed another variation on intrinsic
motivation:
• Creating learning environments that encourage students
to become cognitively engaged.
• Have students take responsibility for their learning.
– The goal is to get students to become motivated to
expend the effort to persist and master ideas
rather than simply doing enough work to just get
by and make a passing grade.
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Achievement
• Attribution
– Attribution theory states that individuals are
motivated to discover the underlying causes of
their own performance and behavior.
– Attributions are perceived causes of outcomes.
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Achievement
• Attribution (Continued)
– Adolescents are like intuitive scientists, seeking to
explain the cause behind what happens (Weiner,
2005).
– The best strategies for teachers to use in helping
students is to get adolescents to attribute their
poor performance on internal factors such as a
lack of effort rather than on external factors such
as bad luck or blaming others.
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Achievement
• Mastery Motivation and Mindset
• Becoming cognitively engaged and self-motivated
to improve are reflected in adolescents with a
mastery motivation.
• They have a growth mindset that they can produce
positive outcomes if they put forth the effort.
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Achievement
• Mastery Motivation
• Developmental psychologists Valanne Henderson
and Carol Dweck (1990) found that adolescents
often show two distinct responses to difficult or
challenging circumstances:
• Mastery orientation
• Helpless orientation
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Achievement
• Mastery-oriented adolescents
• Instruct themselves to pay attention.
• Remember strategies that have worked for them in
previous situation.
• Report feeling challenged and excited by difficult
tasks, rather than being threatened by them
(Anderman & Wolters, 2006).
• Winning isn’t everything.
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Achievement
• Helpless Orientation
– Individuals focus on their personal
inadequacies, attribute difficulty to lack of
ability, and display negative affect.
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Achievement
Behaviors That Suggest Helplessness
Fig. 11.1
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Achievement
• Performance-oriented adolescents
• Are focused on winning, rather than on
achievement outcome.
• Believe that happiness results from winning.
• Skill development and self-efficacy take a
backseat to winning.
Students can be both mastery and performanceoriented, and researchers have found that mastery
goals combined with performance goals often benefit
students’ success (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008).
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Achievement
• Performance Orientation
– Individuals are concerned with
performance outcome rather than
performance process.
– Winning is what matters.
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Achievement
• Mindset
– Carol Dweck’s (2006, 2007) most recent analysis of
motivation for achievement stresses the
importance of adolescents developing a mindset.
– Defined as the cognitive view individuals develop
for themselves.
– Individuals have one of two mindsets:
1. Fixed mindset
–
Individuals believe that their qualities are carved in stone
and cannot change.
2. Growth mindset
–
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Individuals believe their qualities can change and
improve through their effort.
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Achievement
• Mindset (Continued)
– A fixed mindset is similar to a helpless orientation.
– A growth mindset is much like having mastery
motivation.
– Dweck (2006) argued that individuals’ mindsets
influence:
• Whether they will be optimistic or pessimistic.
• Shape their goals and how hard they will strive to reach
those goals.
• Many aspects of their lives, including achievement and
success in school and sports.
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Achievement
• Self-Efficacy
– The belief that one can master a situation
and produce favorable outcomes.
– A critical factor in whether or not
adolescents achieve (Bandura, 1997, 2004, 2007,
2008, 2009).
– Has much in common with mastery
motivation.
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Achievement
• Expectations
• Can exert a powerful influence on adolescents’
motivation (Eccles, 2007).
• How hard adolescents work can depend on how
much they expect to accomplish.
• Eccles (1987, 1993) defined expectations for students’
success as “beliefs about how well they will do on
upcoming tasks, either in the immediate or long-term
future” (Wigfield & others, 2006).
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Achievement
• Expectations (Continued)
• Eccles identified three aspects of ability:
• Students’ beliefs about how good they are at a particular
activity.
• How good they are in comparison to other individuals.
• How good they are in relation to their performance in other
activities.
• In Eccles’ view, the culture’s achievement
orientation also plays a role in influencing students’
expectations.
• How hard students work also depends on the value
they place on the goal.
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Achievement
• Parents’ and Teachers’ Expectations
• Parents’ expectations are linked with children’s and
adolescents’ academic achievement (Burchinal &
others, 2002).
• Teachers’ expectations influence students’
motivation and performance.
• Teachers often have more positive expectations for
high-ability than for low-ability students, and these
expectations are likely to influence their behavior
toward them.
• It is more beneficial to set standards that challenge
adolescents and expect performance at the highest
levels they are capable of achieving.
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Achievement
• Goal Setting, Planning, and Self-Monitoring
– Self-efficacy and achievement improve when
adolescents set goals that are specific, proximal,
and challenging (Bandura, 1997).
– Adolescents can set both long-term (distal) and
short-term (proximal) goals.
– It is not enough to simply set goals.
– Adolescents need to learn to plan how they will
reach their goals.
– Being a good planner means managing time
effectively, setting priorities, and being organized.
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Achievement
• Purpose
– William Damon (2008) proposed that purpose is the
missing ingredient in many adolescents’ and
emerging adults’ achievement.
– For Damon, purpose is an intention to accomplish
something meaningful to one’s self and to contribute
something to the world beyond the self.
– Damon concludes that most teachers and parents
communicate the importance of such goals as
studying hard and getting good grades, but rarely
discuss what the goals might lead to—the purpose
for studying hard and getting good grades.
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Achievement
•
•
Social Relationships and Contexts
– Adolescents’ relationships with parents, peers, teachers, and
mentors can be key aspects of their achievement.
Parents
– Some additional positive parenting practices that result in
improved achievement in adolescents (Wigfield & others, 2006):
• Knowing enough about the adolescent to provide the right amount
of challenge and the right amount of support.
• Providing a positive emotional climate, which motivates
adolescents to internalize their parents’ values and goals.
• Modeling motivated achievement behavior: working hard and
persisting with effort at challenging tasks.
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Achievement
•
•
•
Social Relationships and Contexts (Continued)
Peers
– Can affect adolescents’ achievement through social goals,
social comparison, and peer status.
Teachers
– Play a key role in adolescents’ achievement.
– Effective, engaging teachers provide support for adolescents’
to make good progress and encourage them to become selfregulated achievers (Pressley & others, 2007a,b).
– The encouragement takes place in a very positive environment,
one in which adolescents are regularly being guided to become
motivated to try hard and develop self-efficacy.
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Achievement
•
•
Social Relationships and Contexts (Continued)
Mentors
– Are usually older and more experienced individuals who are
motivated to improve the competence and character of a young
person.
– Mentoring can involve:
•
•
•
•
Demonstration
Instruction
Challenge
Encouragement
– As a positive mentoring experience proceeds, the mentor and
the youth develop a bond of commitment and the youth
develops a sense of respect and identification with the mentor
(Hamilton & Hamilton, 2006).
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Achievement
•
•
Social Relationships and Contexts (Continued)
Mentors
– Mentoring may take place naturally or through a mentoring
program (Hamilton & Hamilton, 2006).
– Mentoring programs are increasingly being advocated as a
strategy for improving the achievement of secondary school
and college students who are at risk for failure (Hill, 2008;
Lindley, 2009; Rhodes & Lowe, 2009; Rowley, 2009).
– College students can play important roles as mentors for atrisk children and adolescents (Schmidt, Marks, & Derrico, 2004).
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Achievement
Socio-cultural Contexts
•
Ethnicity and Socioeconomic Status
– The diversity that exists among ethnic minority adolescents is
evident in their achievement (Hudley, 2009; Lee & Wong, 2009).
– Too often the achievement of ethnic minority student—
especially African American, Latino, and Native American
students—has been interpreted as deficits by middlesocioeconomic-status non-Latino white standards, when they
simply are culturally different and distinct.
– Many investigations overlook the socioeconomic-status (SES)
of ethnic minority students (Graham & Taylor, 2001).
– Many studies have found that SES predicts achievement better
than ethnicity.
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Achievement
Culture
•
Since the early 1990s the poor performance of
American children and adolescents in math and
science has become well publicized.
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Ethnicity and Culture
International Comparison of 8th Grade Students’
Math Achievement: 2007
Fig 11.2
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Ethnicity and Culture
Mothers’ Beliefs About the Factors Responsible for
Children’s Math Achievement in Three Countries
Fig 11.3
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Achievement
Some Motivational Obstacles to Achievement
•
•
Achievement problems can surface when individuals:
– Don’t set goals.
– Don’t plan how to reach them.
– Don’t monitor progress toward the goals.
Problems can also arise when individuals:
– Procrastinate.
– Become overwhelmed by anxiety.
– Try to protect their self-worth by avoiding failure.
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Work
•
Socio-Historical Context of Work in Adolescence
– What kinds of jobs are U.S. adolescents working at today?
• About 17 percent work in fast-food restaurants waiting on
customers and cleaning up.
• About 20 percent work in retail stores as cashiers or
salespeople.
• About 10 percent in offices as clerical assistants.
• About 10 percent as unskilled laborers.
• The weight of the evidence suggests that spending large
amounts of time in paid labor has limited developmental
benefits for youth, and for some it is associated with
risky behavior and costs to physical health (Larson,
Wilson, & Rickman, 2009).
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Work
•
Socio-Historical Context of Work in Adolescence
– Part-Time Work in Adolescence
• When adolescents spend more than 20
hours per week working, there is little time
to study for tests and to complete
homework assignments.
• Working adolescents feel less involved in
school, are absent more, and reported that
they did not enjoy school as much as their
nonworking counterparts did.
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Work
•
Work Profiles of Adolescents Around the World
– In many developing countries boys often spend
more time in income-generating labor than girls
do while girls spend more time in unpaid labor
than boys (Larson, Wilson, & Rickman, 2009).
– Spending large amounts of time in paid labor has
limited developmental benefits for youth, and for
some it is associated with risk behavior and
costs to physical health (Larson, Wilson, &
Rickman, 2009).
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Work
•
Working While Going to College
• The percentage of full-time U.S. college students who
were employed increased from 34 percent in 1970 to 46
percent in 2006 (National Center for Education Statistics,
2008c).
• Working can pay or help offset some costs of
schooling, but working can also restrict students’
opportunities to learn and negatively influence grades.
• As the number of hours worked per week increased for
those who identified themselves primarily as students,
their grades suffered and the number of classes, class
choice, and library access became more limited
(National Center for Education Statistics, 2002).
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Work
•
Working While Going to College (Continued)
– College (Continued)
• College students need to carefully examine the number
of hours they work and the extent the work is having a
negative impact on their college success.
• Although borrowing to pay for education can leave
students with considerable debt, working long hours
reduces the amount of time students have for studying
and can decrease the likelihood that these students will
do well or even complete their college degree.
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Work
The Relation of Hours Worked
Per Week in College to
Grades
Fig. 11.4
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Work
•
Work/Career-Based Learning
– High School
• Work/career-based learning increasingly has become
part of the effort to help youth make the transition from
school to employment.
• Today’s high school diploma provides access to fewer
and fewer stable, high-paying jobs.
• New forms of career-related education are creating
options for many students.
• Among the new models are:
– Career academics
– Youth apprenticeships
– Tech prep programs
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Work
•
Work/Career-Based Learning (Continued)
– College
• College students can participate in cooperative
education programs, or part-time or summer work
relevant to their field of study.
• This experience can be critical in helping students
obtain the job they want when they graduate (Martinez,
2006).
• A co-op is a paid apprenticeship in a career that a
college student is interested in pursuing.
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Work
•
Work in Emerging Adulthood
– The work patterns of emerging adults have
changed over the course of the last 100 years
(Hamilton & Hamilton, 2006).
– Changing economic conditions have made the
job market more competitive for emerging adults
and increased the demand for more skilled
workers (Gauthier & Furstenberg, 2005).
– A diversity of school and work patterns
characterize emerging adults (Fouad & Bynner,
2008; Hamilton & Hamilton, 2006).
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Work
•
Work in Emerging Adulthood (Continued)
– The nature of the transition from school to work
in emerging adulthood is strongly influenced by
the individual’s level of education.
– In the last two decades, the job market for
emerging adults with only a high school
education has worsened.
– The MacArthur Foundation Research Network on
Emerging Adults recently concluded that for
emerging adults who don’t go to college, the
problem is not jobs but a lack of good jobs.
(Setterson, Furstenberg, & Rumbaut, 2005).
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Career Development
• Developmental Changes
– Many children have idealistic fantasies
about what they want to be when they
grow up.
• Personality Types
– Personality type theory is John
Holland’s view that it is important to
match an individual’s personality with a
specific.
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Career Development
• Personality Types
(Continued)
– Holland proposed six basic careerrelated personality types:
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Realistic
Investigative
Artistic
Social
Enterprising
Conventional
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Career Development
Holland’s Model of Personality Types and Career Choices
Fig. 11.5
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Career Development
• Cognitive Factors
– Germeijs & Verschueren (2006) identified three
important roles in adolescent’s career choices:
• Exploration
• Decision making
• Planning
– Adolescents often approach career exploration
and decision making with considerable
ambiguity, uncertainty, and stress.
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Career Development
• Cognitive Factors (Continued)
– Many of the career decisions made by youth
involve floundering and unplanned changes.
– Many adolescents do not adequately explore
careers on their own and also receive little
direction from guidance counselors at their
schools.
– In many schools, students not only do not know
what information to seek about careers, they do
not know how to seek it.
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Career Development
• Identity Development
– Career development is related to the adolescent’s
and emerging adult’s identity development (Murrell,
2009).
– Career decidedness and planning are positively
related to identity achievement (Wallace-Broscious,
Serafica, & Osipow, 1994).
– Vocational identity development plays a leading
role in identity development.
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Career Development
Identity Status Development in Different Domains
Fig. 11.6
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Career Development
• Social Contexts
– Among the important social contexts that
influence career development are:
•
•
•
•
•
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Socioeconomic status
Parents and peers
School influences
Gender
Ethnic minority adolescents
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RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
Mindset by Carol Dweck. (2006). New York: Random
House.
Extensive information and examples are provided about
how adolescents can develop a growth mind set that will
improve their achievement.
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55
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
Motivation in Education edited by Dale Schunk, Paul
Pintrich, & Judith Meece. (2008).
An authoritative, detailed review of many aspects of
achievement discussed in this chapter and their
application to education.
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56
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
“Mentoring in Adolescence” by Jean Rhodes and
Sarah Lowe. (2009).
In R.M. Lerner & L. Steinberg (Eds.), Handbook of
Adolescent Psychology (3rd Ed.). New York: Wiley.
Leading experts describe research on mentoring and
highlight the aspects of mentoring that are most
successful in improving adolescents’ achievement.
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57
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
What Color Is Your Parachute? by Richard
Bolles. (2009). Berkeley, CA: Ten Speed Press.
This is an extremely popular book on job hunting.
McGraw-Hill
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58
RESOURCES FOR IMPROVING THE LIVES OF ADOLESCENTS
What Kids Need to Succeed by Peter Benson,
Judy Galbraith, and Pamela Espeland. (2003).
Minneapolis: Search Institute.
This easy-to-read book presents
commonsense ideas for parents, educators, and
youth workers that can help youth succeed.
McGraw-Hill
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59
E-LEARNING TOOLS
To help you master the material in this
chapter, visit the Online Learning Center
for Adolescence, 13th edition at:
http://www.mhhe.com/santrocka13e
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