The Curricular Process
6
ASSESSMENT
1
OBJECTIVE
& GOALS
2
5
IMPLEMENTATION
4
INSTRUCTION
SELECTION
OF CONTENT
STRUCTURING OF
CONTENT
3
Goals and Objectives
Society
Students
Disciplines
Goals
&
Cognitive
objectives
Affective
Domains
Psychomotor
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Cognitive Domain
Knowledge-Recall
knowledge of
information
Low
Comprehension
(understanding)
Application
applying scientific
principles to other
situations
all the
calculations in
science
Level
Skills
Analyzing
break down
material to its
fundamentals.
(identification of
a compound in
chemistry)
Synthesis
Formation of new
understanding.
Bringing together the
parts into a new whole
Evaluation
making judgment
based on evidence
and external criteria
High
Level
Skills
Affective Domain
Receiving
Responding
Curiosity
Valuing
In addition:
Joy, attitude, interest
Classroom learning
environment
Psychomotor
* Manipulation
* Imitation
* Articulation - Sequencing
* Precision
Basic Goals of Science Education
1. Goals should be comprehensive enough to include
the generally accepted objectives of teaching science
2. Goals should be understandable for other teachers,
administrators and parents.
3. Goals should be neutral; that is, free of bias and
not oriented toward any particular view of science
teaching.
4. Goals should be few in number.
5. Goals should be differ in concepts and abilities
from each other.
6. Goals should be easily applicable to instructional
and learning objectives.
Science Content in National
Standards for the United States:
 Science as Inquiry
Content
Abilities
 Science Subject Matter
 Science and Technology
 Science in Personal and Social Perspectives
 History and Nature of Science
 Unifying Concepts and Processes
Content of Science
The High School Science
1960s’ and early 1970s’
Golden age of Science Curriculum
History of Science Curricula
Development and Implementation
The 60s’
Main Goal:
Preparing the next generation of:
 Scientists;
 Medical Doctors; and
 Engineers
Goals for Teaching Science in the 60 s’
AAAS 1962
1. Science Education should present to the learner
a real picture of Science to include theories and
models.
2. Science Education should present an authentic
picture of a scientist and his method of research.
3. Science Education should present the scientific
method, research method and its limitations.
4. Present Science as a “Structure of Discipline”.
As a result:
The Structure of the Discipline
PSSC - Physical Science Study Committee
HPP - Harvard Project Physics
BSCS - Biological Sciences Curriculum Study
SMSG - School Mathematics Study Group
CBA - Chemical Bond Approach
CHEMS - Chemical Education Materials Study
SCIS - Science Curriculum Improvement Study
ESS - Elementary Science Study
Nuffield Projects - in the UK
Some Features
In Physics (PSSC) ~ 1960s’
 Fewer topics at greater depth,
 Greater emphasis on laboratory work,
 More emphasis on basic physics,
 Less attention to technological applications,
 Development approach showing origins of
basic ideas of physics, and
 Increased difficulty and rigor of the course.
Harvard Project Physics ~ 1970s’
The philosophy of this course is emphasized
in eight points.
1. Physics is for everyone.
2. A coherent selection within physics is possible.
3. Doing physics goes beyond physics.
4. Individuals require a flexible course.
5. A multimedia system simulates better learning.
6. The time has come to teach science as one of
the humanities.
7. A physics course should be rewarding to take
8. A physics course should be rewarding to teach.
Chemistry
Programs: CBA & CHEMSTUDY 1960s’
Schools:
10%
40%
of schools
CHEMStudy: Highly based on Experimental
Work
ASSUMPTIONS 1950-1960
If science is presented in a way it is known
to scientists, it will be inherently interesting
to all students.
Any subject can be taught effectively in
some intellectually honest form to any child
at any stage of development.
Common Elements of
the “Golden-age” Curricula
1. There was less emphasis on social and personal
applications of science and technology than in
the traditional courses.
2. There was more emphasis on abstractions, theory,
and basic science - the structure of scientific
disciplines.
3. There was increased emphasis on discovery the modes of inquiry used by scientists.
4. There was frequent use of quantitative techniques.
5. There were newer concepts in subject matter.
Common Elements of
the “Golden-age” Curricula
6. There was an upgrading of teacher competency in
both subject matter and pedagogical skills.
7. There were well integrated and designed teaching
aids to supplement the courses.
8. There was primarily an orientation toward
college-bound students.
9. There were similarities in emphasis and structure
in the high school and junior high school programs.
IAC:
Interdisciplinary Approach to Chemistry
Units (Modules)
 Reactions and Reason (Introductory),
 Diversity and Periodicity (Inorganic),
 Form and Function (Organic),
 Molecules in Living Systems (Biochemistry),
 The Heart of the Matter (Nuclear),
 Earth and its Neighbors (Geochemistry),
 The Delicate Balance (Environmental), and
 Communities of Molecules (Physical).
Early 80s’: “A Nation at Risk”
300 different Reports were published
raising a Concern about School Science:
 Content (Knowledge)
 Practice (experiences provided)
 Goals
 Equity (minorities and Gender issues)
Yager and Harris in
“Project Synthesis” Call for:
Identifying new Goals for
Teaching and Learning Science
Science for:
 Personal needs
 Societal issues
 Career awareness
 The preparation of Future Scientists
Historical Overview of Goals
for Science Teaching; The 80s’
Teaching Science for:
 Scientific Knowledge
 Scientific Methods (Process)
 Societal Issues
 Personal Needs (Personal Development)
 Career Awareness
The process of chemistry
e.g. Inquiry
The conceptual structure
of chemistry
The technological
manifestations of chemistry
Chemistry as a personally
relevant subject
The societal role and
implications of chemistry
O2(g)
UV
O(g) + O(g)
O(g) + O2(g)
O3(g)
O3(g) + O(g)
2O2(g)
The cultural aspects
of chemistry
It took more than 15 years for a new reform
Major differences between the 60s’ & 90s’
The 90s’: Scientific Literacy for All
One of the Key features STS
”Science and Technology are enterprises
that shape, and are shaped by, Human
thought and social actions”
National Standards and
Scientific Literacy
New Standards in:
 Content (K-12)
 Pedagogy
 Assessment
 Professional Development
 Organization of Teaching and
Learning Science
Standards for Science Education
Towards the 21st century
Less emphasis on:
 Knowledge of concepts just for the
presentation of; “Structure of a certain
discipline”.
 Learning subject with out connections
(separation of chemistry and biology
chemistry and physics).
 Separation of Knowledge from process
(inquiry).
More emphasis on:
Learning concepts in the context of:
 STS (Science -Technology - Society)
 Integration of key scientific concepts
(e.g. Energy, Food, Natural Resources)
 Learning Science using inquiry
(asking questions, hypothesizing)
 Science as personal and societal issues
 History and nature of science
Global Science
1. The Grand Oasis in Space
Students build an understanding of ecosystems.
2. Basic Energy/Resource Concepts
Students develop an understanding of the laws
governing energy and mineral resource use.
3. Mineral Resources
Students learn how mineral deposits are formed,
where they are located, and how they are mined.
4. Growth and Population
Students learn about exponential growth and
population issues.
5. Food, Agriculture and Population Interactions
Students examine nutrition and the fundamentals
of food production, modern agricultural practices,
and the world food situation.
6. Energy Today
Students build understandings of the energy
sources for modern societies.
Recommendations : 2061
The National Council’s recommendations address the basic dimensions of
science literacy, which, in the most general terms are:
Being familiar with the natural world and recognizing both its diversity and
its unity
Understanding key concepts and principles of science
Being aware of some of the important ways in which science, mathematics
and technology depend upon one another
Knowing that science, mathematics, and technology are human enterprises and
knowing what that implies about their strengths and limitations.
Having a capacity for scientific ways of thinking
Using scientific knowledge and ways of thinking for individual and social
purposes
Content
Scientific Inquiry
Abilities
Discovery vs. Inquiry
Discovery is included in the inquiry
Discovery
•Observing
•measuring
•Predicting
•Inferring
•classifying
Inquiry
•Formulating a problem
•Hypothesizing
•Design an experiment
•Synthesizing knowledge
•Demonstrating attitudes
(curiosity)
Welch: “A general process by which human
beings seek information or
understanding. Broadly conceived,
inquiry is a way of thought”.
Inquiry teaching is a way of developing the
mental process of curiosity and investigation
Content
 Unifying Concepts and Processes
 Science as Inquiry
 Physical Science
 Life Science
 Earth and Space Science
 Science and Technology
 Science in Personal and Social
Perspectives
 History and Nature of Science
Disciplines and tools of forensic science
FORENSIC
SCIENCE
Decision making on:
•
Health
• Population
•
Resources
•
Environment
Changes of ideas
•
Evidence
•
Scientific arguments
•
Criticism
•
Endeavor
STSP
Science
Personal
Personal
Technology
Society
Questions
Science:
What do I want to discover?
Technology:
What will I do with it?
Society:
How would we use it?
Personal:
How would it affect me?
Science for all Americans: Benchmarks
for Scientific Literacy – Project 2061
- More emphasis on the content
- Covers an array of topics
- “The more is less”
The treatment of topics (cell, structure of
matter, communication) differs from
traditional approach by:
 Softening boundaries
 Connections are emphasized through the use
of important conceptual themes:
- Systems
- Evolution
- Energy (in chemistry, biology, physics,
technology)
More specifically it includes: - Benchmarks
 The nature of science
 The nature of mathematics
 The nature of technology
 The physical science
 The living environment
 The human organism
 Human Society
 The designed world
 The mathematical world
 Historical perspectives
 Habits of mind
Recommendations : 2061
The National Council’s recommendations address the basic dimensions of
science literacy, which, in the most general terms are:
Being familiar with the natural world and recognizing both its diversity and
its unity
Understanding key concepts and principles of science
Being aware of some of the important ways in which science, mathematics
and technology depend upon one another
Knowing that science, mathematics, and technology are human enterprises and
knowing what that implies about their strengths and limitations.
Having a capacity for scientific ways of thinking
Using scientific knowledge and ways of thinking for individual and social
purposes
Integrated vs Disciplinary Science
Why integrate?
- DNA what is it? A concept in Biology? Chemistry? Forensic
science?
- Energy, is it a different concept in Chemistry, Biology, Physics?
- Are we refering to nature of Biology, Physics, Chemistry or
Nature of Science?
- How can we teach Photosynthesis without Physics and
Chemistry?
- Making science more relevant for our students – working with
meaningful problems and issues in the real world or in the lab
setting.
The U.S National Science Education Standards emphasize:
Problem solving
reasoning
Making connections with other disciplines
and prior learning
The need for effective communication of ideas and
results.
The need for integration of various areas.
The integrated approach
vs
Disciplinary Approach
Questions asked
 Which one is more interesting for students? (close
to their personal life?)
 Which one is more difficult for the teacher? (difficult
to implement and organize in a coherent manner)
 Which one presents a more valid picture of science?
(nature of science)
 Which one provides us with more opportunities to
vary the classroom learning environment?
 What are the difficulties in teaching science by the
integrated approach?
First Option
Applications
_______________________________________
disciplines in science (concepts)
_______________________________________
Second option
Concepts
__________________________________________
Application – issues
__________________________________________
Disciplines and tools of forensic science
FORENSIC
SCIENCE
Questions
Science:
What do I want to discover?
Technology:
What will I do with it?
Society:
How would we use it?
Personal:
How would it affect me?
Reasons (Sources) for Misconceptions –
Learning Difficulties
 Microscopic nature of phenomenon. (as opposed to macroscopic).
 Prior-knowledge (indigenous)
 Overload of information on memory
 Developmental stage
concrete
vs
formal
 Models and simulations (abstraction, nature of modelsit’s limitations)
 Misconceptions transferred from books or teachers
 Laboratory (practical work)
Typical Misconceptions
- Structure of matter (particulate nature)
- Optics
- Galaxy
- Structure of molecules
- Bonding
- Cell and its structure
Matter can be represented in three levels
(Johnston,1991)
Macroscopic (physical phenomena)
Microscopic (particles)
Symbolic (scientific language)
macro
micro
A model for learning
symbolic
Learning Models
1. 1960s’ and 1970s’, Piaget. Learning occurs when the
individual:
- Interacts with the environment
- Passes through different stages of development – each
characterized by the ability to perform a cognitive task
(concrete Vs formal)
In middle school many students are operating at
the concrete level
2 Constructivism: Students construct knowledge by
interpreting new experiences in the context of their prior
knowledge.
Teachers and students might have different interpretations
regarding words and concepts
Instructional techniques in
Science education
In teaching science:
 Students obtain opportunities to interact
physically with learning materials
 Teachers provide materials for instruction
(concreteness)
 Teachers vary instructional techniques with the
goal in mind to increase effectiveness of
teaching
Instructional strategy refers to the way in which a
science teacher uses:
 Materials
 Media
 Settings
 Behaviors
To
Create a learning environment that fosters
desirable outcomes
Instructional techniques
I
I
Student
centered
Teacher
centered
 Laboratory work (activities)
 Teacher’s demonstration
 PBL
 Small group activities
 Whole class discussions
(lectures)
 Inquiry learning
 Computer simulations
 Field - trips
 Questions – answers - sessions
Teacher’s role in different instructional techniques
Teacher’s Roles
Lecturing
Providing
Information
Demonstrating
Conventional
teaching
+
+
(+)
Demonstration
+
Instructional
Strategy
Classroom
discussion
Managing
Guiding
And
Facilitating
+
+
(+)
Laboratory
class
Helping to
Analyze
Data and
Results
(+)
+
+
+
+
+
+
Group learning
+
+
+
Inquiry
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Field trip
+
Computer
simulation
Individual
learning
+
+
APTITUDE
1. Ability
2. Development
3. Motivation
b
INSTRUCTION
a
4. Amount
5. Quality
c
ENVIRONMENT
6. Home
7. Classroom
8. Peers
9. Television
x
y
LEARNING
Affective
Behavioral
z
Cognitive
Literature contains suggestions about how, in
the context of school science education
student’s motivation to learn can be enhanced:
 Suggestions relating to the nature,
structuring and presentation of subject
matter

Suggestions concerning the nature of
pedagogical procedures and techniques
and of the classroom learning
environment
 Achiever
 Curious
 Conscientious
 Social
Motivation
 The need to achieve:
Type of
Motivation
“the achiever”
 The need to satisfy one’s
curiosity:
 The need to discharge duty:
“the curious”
“the conscientious”
 The need to affiliate with
other people
“the social”
This is a call for varying Instruction
Most of the teaching of science is
conducted in heterogeneous
classes
We must cater for a variety of students of
different needs and different motivations
This calls for use of a variety of
instructional procedures and techniques
Relating Instructional Features to Students’
Motivational Characteristics
Type of Activity
Examples
Comment on Suitability/Unsuitability
Discovery/inquiry – oriented
learning methods and
Problem-solving
Advocated in many science
programs developed in the
USA and UK during the 1960s
and by NSES
Suitable mainly for students with
‘curiosity’-type motivational pattern
Open-ended learning activities
(student-centered)
Learning activities without
clearly specifiable objectives
Strongly preferred by the ‘curious’,
but not other motivational groups
which prefer clear teacher direction
regarding educational goals
Formal teaching with emphasis
on information and skill
transfer
Conventional ‘traditional’
instructional procedures,
involving frontal teaching (e.g.
with clearly defined goals and
objectives
Preferred by ‘achievers’ and
conscientious’ students because only
low level of risk-taking is needed
Collaborative learning activities
Games, simulations, PBL
Suitable for learners with a strong
social motivation pattern. However,
’achievers’ are likely to be opposed to
an involvement in this type of
learning activity
Questioning Techniques in Science Education
 Questioning , like hitting a baseball, is
both an art and a craft.
 Questioning could transfer classroom
from
Traditional lecture setting
Into
Live student – centered community
Teachers’ Questioning
behavior Technique
Taxonomies of questioning.
Penick, et. al., suggested a practical approach.
HRASE
History
Explanation
Relationships
Speculation
Applications
Compare
ideas,
activities,
findings
Based on
students’
experiences
(e.g. experience
in the lab)
Apply
knowledge to
new situation
Finding evidence,
critical thinking,
control over
variables
Nature of
phenomena:
“how” does
it work?
Theoretical Approach
Using Bloom’s and Krathwohl’s Taxonomies To Classify Questions
Classification
Sample Question
Knowledge
1. How many legs has an insect
Synthesis
2. What hypotheses would you
make about this problem?
Application
3. Knowing what you do about
heat, how would you get a
tightly fitted lid off a jar?
Analysis
4. What things do birds and lizards
have in common?
Comprehension
5. Operationally define a magnet
Evaluation
6. If you were going to repeat the
experiment, how could you do it better?
Receiving
7. Do you watch science shows on
television?
Responding
8. Do you talk to your friends about
science?
Valuing
9. What is your interest in earth science now
compared to when you began the course?
Valuing
10. What do you value about this film?
Organizing
11. Can you argue using scientific facts,
evidence, and data?
Characterizing
12. Do you use problem solving
techniques for solving problems at
school or at work?
Convergent vs Divergent Questions
Allowing for a limited
number of responses
“yes” or “no”
Usually the
Ratio is:
Allowing for a number
of responses
(e.g. in inquiry)
2:1
Allows wrong answers
Provide enough time to answer
WAIT - TIME
Low Level vs High Level Techniques
Low – Level Student Inquiry
Teacher
Student
Student
Student
Student
Higher Level Student Inquiry
Teacher
Student
Student
Student
Allows collaboration
Student
Student
Comparison of Traditional Classroom
with Students’ – Central Classroom
Comparison of a traditional Lecture
Classroom with a Student-Centered
Classroom
Where We Were
Where We Should Be
• Telling the facts
• Listening and questioning
• Stating the theories
• Conceptual understanding
• Laboratories as selffulfilling exercises
• Laboratories as openended investigations
• Teacher as sage on stage
• Teacher as facilitator
• Fact validation
• Inferences
• Classical lectures
• Inquiry and investigation
• Group indoctrination
• Individual instruction
• Boot camp-like,
threatening atmosphere
• Positive setting; risk-free
atmosphere
Critical
reading of an
article
Primary work of
a scientist
Secondary
newspaper
poster media
Guidelines
 The materials should be appropriate to
students’ abilities and interests.
 Use materials aligned with your goals for teaching.
 Assign a variety of reading sources:
- Text books
- Magazines
- Articles (historical and societal
significance)
- Newspapers (scientific articles)
Research Findings: Reading
Scientific articles
- Enhance critical thinking
- Enhance ability to solve a problem
- Develop creativity
- Develop metacognition
control
awareness
- Students who were involved in inquiry-type
laboratories developed the ability to ask
more and better questions resulting from
reading a scientific article.
Assessment of Student Learning
- Measuring the quality of the experiences provided for the
students
- Assessment should have purpose in mind
- Focused on data and content which is most important to the
student
- Assessment task should be authentic
- Assessment should be fair
- All the students experiences should be assessed
- Students should understand (and be involved in) the
assessment
- Students should be aware of the criteria for assessment (weighting)
- Assessment should be part of the development of P.C.K.
(Pedagogical Content Knowledge)
Evaluation involves the total assessment of
Students’ learning to include:
- Understanding of NOS
- Subject matter (knowledge & understanding)
- Multiple talent
- Attitudes & interests
- Skills and abilities (e.g. laboratory)
- Motivation
Assessment as a tool for
improving instruction –
e.g. Action Research
Purpose of assessment:
Learning difficulties
Diagnostic
Placing students
Advise
Prior knowledge
How well the material is taught
Formative
Improve Methods of Instruction
Modification of techniques
Were the goals attained?
Summative
Grading (final)
Decision making
Decision making on:
 Programs (laboratory, etc.)
 Instructional technique
 A book to be selected
Assessment methods used:
 Paper and pencil test (objective testing)
 Oral tests
 Essay-type tests
 Practical tests
Experiment
Following
Instructions
10%
Handle
dexterity
35%
Pre-inquiry
stage
Conclusions Inquiry
Inquiry
stage
Questioning
Hypothesizing
20%
Planning
Presenting
results
10%
Conclusions
Social Skills
Criticism and
Summary
10%
Communication
skills
Cooperation
in groups
Interest and
curiosity
Assessment of practical skills
Continuous Assessment of Students Inquiry Laboratory
in Chemistry Observations and “Hot reports”
Observing Conducting
Experiment
15%
1
2
3
4
5
6
Different Tests
Type
Validity
Reliability
Oral
Very low
Very low
Essay
High if
defined
clearly
Low
Usability
no
-Easy to administer
-Difficult to assess
-Difficult to prepare
Completion
test
High
Very high
-Easy to answer
-Easy to grade
A good test:
Multiple
choice
(American)
High
Very high
-Difficult to prepare
-Easy to answer
-Good for diagnostics
- Guessing factor
Other assessment techniques: not tests
Alternative assessment techniques:
- Concept mapping: Organize ideas to find
relations between concepts
- Reading a journal (Method discussed in
previous lesson)
-Portfolio: Port – to carry or move
Folio – paper
The portfolio includes all the student’s
documents, tests, concept- maps, and
lab assignments.
It is:
 Very comprehensive
 Highly individualized
 Includes all the student’s achievements
 Continuous
 Dynamic (regarding teacher-student interactions)
 Helps the student to identify weaknesses
 Increases the student’s responsibility and awareness
 Students can be involved in building the content and criteria
 Can include personal reflection
Problems with the portfolio:
A lot of work for the teacher
The bigger the class the more the work
Characteristics of a good
assessment method
differentiate
valid
reliable
motivating
objective
fair
usable
Learning Environment as an
Assessment Tool
Central Question in the Affective Domain
 Do students like what they do?
 Are their feelings affecting their learning?
 How do we develop curiosity?
Receiving
Responding
valuing
Curriculum
Learning
Environment
Aptitude
Students
Learning
Learning Environment is constructed from the
following three interceptions
 Teacher - student
 Student - student
 Student – learning materials
Research on Classroom Learning
Environment
What does research say about classroom
learning environment?
It influences:
 Achievement
 Attitude and interest
 Students’ behavior.
Measures of classroom
learning environment
Provide “eyes behind the classroom”
Are sensitive to:
 Different instructional techniques:
 Inquiry VS non-inquiry approach
 Student-centered VS teacher-centered
classroom
 Big and small classes
LEI
Assesses the classroom learning
environment using
Student’s Perception
Scales
 Cohesiveness
 Diversity
 Formality
 Speed
 Goal-direction
 Satisfaction
 Organization
 Competitiveness
Instruments
LEI
Science
classroom
SLEI
Science
laboratory
SOLEI
Outdoors
Learning
environment in
science
The Use of L.E. Measures by the
Science Teacher
My Class Inventory – includes:
 Satisfaction
 Friction
 Competitiveness
 Difficulty
 Cohesiveness
Features of my Class Instrument
 Easy to administer and respond (yes/no)
 Actual VS preferred L.E
 The Δ measures students’ satisfaction
with current L.E
Stages in Action-Research
Identification
of problem
1
Planning
2
Second
evaluation
6
Collecting
evidence I
3
Collecting
evidence II
Making
changes
5
4
Learning
environment
Student ability
Teacher
Achievement
Learning
environment
Student ability
Teacher
Achievement