The development
of supplementary educational institutions
and educational mobility in Greece
by
Nikolaos I. Liodakis
nliodakis@wlu.ca
Department of Sociology
Wilfrid Laurier University
Waterloo, ON, Canada
1
This presentation will provide:

A terminology useful for examining Supplemental
Education (SE) in Greece

An analysis of the types of SE

Information on the size and cost of SE

Explanations for the development, entrenchment and
expansion of SE

A discussion of SE effects on student educational
mobility which is based upon:
 their parents’ socio-economic status
 their parents’ educational level
 students’ place of residence and gender.
2
Useful Terminology

Παραπαιδεία (para-pedia) = para – education,
or “shadow” educational system

Φροντιστήριο (frontistirio) = the physical
space/building where private (for profit)
supplemental education takes place

Φροντιστήριο (frontistirio) = the process of
delivering private supplemental education


Supplemental Education (SE) in Greece =
Frontistiri-a (plural)
+
Private lessons - Ιδιαίτερα (idietera)

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Types of private supplemental education
More than 3,500 organized frontistiria country-wide, depending
on subject and level of education

On foreign languages (mostly English, French, German, Italian,
Russian, Spanish, etc).

On regular school subjects other than foreign languages (mostly
mathematics, physics, chemistry, modern and ancient Greek
language, biology, economics, etc.), for two interrelated reasons:
 To improve school grades
 To do well in university entrance exams

For 3 educational levels: elementary (grades 1-6), junior high
school (gymnasium, grades 7-9), and high school (lyceum,
grades 10-12).

Important distinction: private schools not considered frontistiria
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Size and cost of supplemental education

The size of the supplemental education sector in Greece is
huge, in terms of:
 The number of teachers it employs
 It is estimated that 50% of all employed teachers are
employed in supplemental education institutions

The % of students who attend
e.g., At the high school (Lyceum) level:
Frontistiria
1984
54,6%
1993
65%
Private Lessons
09,4%
30%
Total
64%
95%
Today: almost all Grade 12 high school students attend SE
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Size and cost of supplemental education

SE in Greece is a huge (profitable) industry.
Recent reliable data (2007) on educational expenditures:

National (state) expenditures, in €:
7,034,294,592

All private household expenditures:
4,924,411,934

European Union annual contributions:
1,510,045,263
Supplemental education costs for households are estimated at
€1,7 billion per annum.
It is 35% of all private household educational expenditures.
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Size and cost of supplemental education
State educational expenditures as % of GNP
2005: 3.19%
2007: 3.07%

Expenditures on supplemental education as % of family income
1994-1999: 4.79%
2000-2005: 5.19%

Family expenditures by type and level of supplemental
education:
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Why frontistiria in Greece?
Causes for the emergence and continued expansion of SE in
Greece include:

The nature of the Greek educational system, in terms of its
structure and orientation (entrance exams), (dys-) functions
and outcomes (“results”)

The role of the state as educational provider and employer

The prevalent ideology on the socio-economic role of
education (cultural obsession)

The nature and (perceived) effectiveness of SE in accessing
post-secondary education and in knowledge acquisition

The actual relationship between educational attainment,
employment, income and social status
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The Greek Educational System

The nature of the Greek educational system is very
competitive, especially at the high school level (Lyceum)

Also: highly “unstable”, i.e., educational reforms are frequent
(one Minister per annum), but not necessarily successful

System is exam-centred, not knowledge-centred. Main
problem is the country-wide, annual university entrance
exams

Fewer positions than applicants

Unbalanced, irrational distribution of available university
positions in terms of student demand (not of the market) for
certain fields of study and supply of available positions in
those fields. This leads to increased competition among
students.
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Regional Educational Imbalances

Regional distribution of positions and quality of Universities:

Available university and college positions in high demand
fields (medicine, law school, teachers’ college, computers,
business) are fewer than the student demand (not necessarily
fewer than the market demand)

These are found in urban, prestigious Universities (Athens,
Salonika, Crete, Patras, etc.)

Greater numbers of university and college positions are
available in regional universities and colleges (Aegean,
Thessaly, Ionian Islands, Epirus, etc.), but in fields that are not
in high demand, so students do not want to go there. E.g.,
floriculture and landscaping, textile studies, aquaculture,
livestock studies, early childhood education, folk music, etc.
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The Greek State,
Education and Employment

Since 1960s, role of the state as provider of employment has
increased, expected given the size of the private sector

Today, state has to deal with immense socio-political and
economic pressures to provide employment for qualified
university graduates (considered a right of graduates)

Size of SE creates employment opportunities for graduates,
eases demands on state employment (working conditions a
different issue)

State policy on SE contradictory: rhetoric of dismantling
parapedia, policies that encourage it and increase its
necessity and size, e.g., difficult entrance exams, more
subjects, intensification of educational process, competition.
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Ideology on Education:
a cultural obsession?

Clear class and political character of education prior to 1964
reforms (free education, accessible to all)

Historically, post-secondary education associated with higher
social status, prestige, employment in the public sector, higher
income, etc.

Competition for access to post-secondary education great, so
a scarce and valuable resource

Nature of Greek economy, regional disparities, agricultural and
urban economies

The Greek (lower and middle class) dream or better,
obsession: “I want my kids to go to University and become
doctors, lawyers, teachers”
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The Nature and Effectiveness of SE

SE is well-organized as a system, more functional than the
state (public) system

More flexible and more adaptive than the formal state
system (e.g., class size, adoption of non-text based
materials, use of computers, internet, other technologies,
study of interesting subjects, etc.)

More effective in improving grades and in preparing
students for university entrance exams (84.7% SE yes,
2.5% public yes)
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The Nature and Effectiveness of SE

More effective in advising students about immediate
university field choices and future employment opportunities
(called “vocational orientation”)

SE has become more important in educational mobility than
the public system

Not all SE institutions are effective. Usually, the higher the
fees the better the quality of SE provided

SES of parents is important for students’ accessing better
SE institutions, and therefore accessing university positions

Geography is also important. There is a clear gap between
rural areas and urban centres in both access to and quality
of SE institutions
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The Nature and Effectiveness of SE

Parents’ education is also important. The higher their
education the higher their kids’ educational success

Gender of students does not matter in university access, but
it does matter in field of study choices

SE part of larger society and economy

Not egalitarian

Reproduces initial SES inequalities

Tends to increase the gap between urban/rural students that
is usually also an income and social class gap

Post-secondary education is more likely to lead to
employment, higher income, prestige, etc.
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The Future of SE

Evidence of decrease of intensification of entrance exams

New government proposes 4 instead of 6 exam subjects,
less material to cover

Also proposes to increase value of secondary diploma,
disassociate secondary education and entrance exams,
give more authority to Universities to decide entrance
process

Economic burden on families increasing, given the current
situation; political pressures on government increasing, but

Unless some drastic and effective socio-political action
takes place, no immediate or substantial changes are
foreseen
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