Measurement
&
Sources
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
1
Energy and Units
Work
Heat
Energy
 Relations between energy units are described by the
1st Law of Thermodynamics
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REV4
2
Energy: Common Units
• Joule- equal to the energy expended (or work done) in
applying a force of one newton through a distance of one
meter (1 newton-meter or N·m).
• Calorie- traditional definition, one calorie is the amount of
heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by
1°C, from 14.5 °C to 15.5 °C.
• Kilowatt-hour (kWh)- a unit of energy equal to 1000 watt
hours. A heater rated at 1000 watts (1 kilowatt), operating for
one hour uses one kilowatt-hour.
• British Thermal Unit (Btu)- is the amount of heat energy
needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water by
one degree F.
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
3
Test Your Knowledge:
Common Energy Units
• Which are common units of measurement for energy? (List all that
apply)
a. Btu
b. Megapascal
c. kilowatt hour
d. joule
e. gallon
Btu, kilowatt hours and joules are
all common energy units. A
megapascal (answer c) is a metric
unit for pressure, and a gallon (e)
is a unit for liquid capacity.
• What can energy units represent ? (List all that apply)
a. heat
b. pressure
c. work
d. specific density
Energy units can be measures of
heat or work but not pressure or
specific density.
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
4
Energy: Equivalence Factors
1 Btu = 1,055 Joules
1 Btu = 252.16 Calories
1 Btu = 0.293 Wh = 0.000293 kWh
1 kWh = 859,845 Calories
1 kWh = 2.78 x 10-7 Joules
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
5
Energy: Unit Conversions
To obtain
Multiply
By
Joule
Btu
1054.8
Joule
Calorie
4.186
Joule
kWh
3,600,000
Calorie
Btu
252
Calorie
Joule
0.239
Calorie
kWh
859,845
kWh
Btu
0.00029
kWh
Calorie
1.16 X 10-6
kWh
Joule
2.78 X 10-7
Btu
Calorie
0.00397
Btu
Joule
0.00095
Btu
kWh
3412
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
6
Consistency of Units
How to Combine?
Energy System
A
Energy System
B
1,000 Btu
80 kWh
NO: 1,000 Btu + 80 kWh
When combining different units
YOU MUST CONVERT TO LIKE UNITS
In this example, either convert Btu to kWh
Or
Convert kWh to Btu
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
7
Consistency of Units
How to Combine?
YES: 1,000 Btu
x .00029 kWh / Btu +
.29 kWh
80 kWh
x 1 kWh / kWh
80 kWh = 80.29 kWh
OR
YES: 1,000 Btu
x 1 Btu / Btu +
1,000 Btu
80 kWh
x 3412 Btu / kWh
272,960 Btu = 273,960 Btu
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
8
Test Your Knowledge:
Energy Unit Conversions
1) How many Btu’s are
equivalent to 1 kilowatthour? _____
1 kilowatt –hour is
equivalent to 3412 Btu
2) What operation would you
first need to perform
before adding joules and Convert energy units to
calories?
common units
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
9
Energy: Primary and Secondary
• Primary energy- refers to energy sources in their basic,
unconverted form as found in nature.
• Secondary energy- refers to a converted form of a primary
energy source.
• Note: any change in form of a primary source of energy results in
secondary energy.
*According to ISO 50001, electricity is a primary energy source.
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
10
Energy Sources : Primary and Secondary
Primary
Secondary
Electricity*
Chilled Water
Natural Gas
Hot Water
Propane
Steam
#2 Fuel Oil
Compressed Air
#6 Fuel Oil
Hot Air
Gasoline
Cold Air
Coal
Peat
Wood
*For the purposes of this course, and according to ISO 50001, electricity is a primary energy source.
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REV4
11
Primary and Secondary Energy Analysis
• Every conversion of primary energy into
secondary energy involves a loss due to the
transformation
• Energy conversion efficiency is defined as:
SecondaryOutput
PrimaryInput
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REV4
12
Test Your Knowledge:
Energy Sources
Combustion of natural gas is
used to heat water and
create steam.
Natural gas is a primary
source because it is in an
unconverted state.
Identify which is:
1) The primary source
2) The secondary source
Steam is a secondary
source because it requires
combustion of a primary
source (like natural gas) to
be produced.
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REV4
13
Energy Content, also called Heat Content
Energy Source
Measured Quantity
Energy Content
Natural gas
Cubic foot
1000 - 1050 Btu / cu ft
Fuel Oil
Gallon
140,000 Btu / gal
Coal
Lbs or Tons
8,000 - 14,000 Btu / lb
Peat
Lbs or Tons
8,600 - 9,900 Btu / lb
Wood
Lbs or Tons
4,500 - 9,200 Btu / lb
Solar
Energy per unit area
2.25 - 6.0 kWh/m2/day
(Atlanta, GA
Jan and Jul)
Electricity
kWh
3,412 Btu / kWh
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REV4
14
Energy Content: Equivalence Factors
1 Btu/lb = 0.5558 kcal/kg
1 Btu/lb = 0.002326 MJ/kg
1 Kcal/kg = 0.004184 MJ/kg
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
15
Energy Content: Unit Conversions
To obtain
Multiply
By
Btu/lb
Kcal/kg
1.79915
Btu/lb
MJ/kg
430
Kcal/kg
Btu/lb
0.5558
Kcal/kg
MJ/kg
239
MJ/kg
Btu/lb
0.002326
MJ/kg
Kcal/kg
0.004184
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REV4
16
Power and Energy Analogy
• Measuring POWER is analogous
to measuring speed on
speedometer.
– 100 mph at this moment
– instantaneous value
• Measuring ENERGY is
analogous to measuring
distance on an odometer.
– 3,413 miles
– cumulative value
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REV4
17
Power and Energy:
• Power Units (instantaneous value):
–
–
–
–
kW
Btu/hr
ft-lb/sec
hp
• Energy Units (occurs over time, cumulative):
–
–
–
–
kWh
Btu
ft-lb
hp-hr
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REV4
18
Power/Energy: Equivalence Factors
Power Equivalents
•
•
•
•
1 hp = 0.746 kW; 1 hp = 746 W
1 kW = 1.34 hp; 1 W = 0.00134 hp
1 W = 3.412 Btu/hr; 1 kW = 3,412 Btu/hr
1 Btu/hr = 0.293 W; 1 Btu/hr = 0.000293 kW
Energy Equivalents
• 1 ft-lb = 0.001285 Btu
• 1 Btu = 778 ft-lb
• 1 kWh = 3,412 Btu
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REV4
19
Power/Energy: Unit Conversions
To obtain Multiply
Power
Energy
By
kW
Horsepower
0.746
kW
Btu/hr
0.000293
Btu/hr
Horsepower
2545
Btu/hr
kW
3,412
Horsepower
Btu/hr
0.0003929
Horsepower
kWh
1.34
Btu
ft-lb
0.0012854
Btu
kWh
3,412
ft-lb
Btu
778
ft-lb
kWh
2,655,200
kWh
Btu
0.000293
kWh
ft-lb
3.799x10-7
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
20
Utility Power and Energy
Power
Electricity
Natural Gas
kW*
MMBtu
Per hour
kWh
MMBtu
Instantaneous
Energy
Cumulative
* Some electric utilities measure power in kVA (kiloVolt Amps)
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
21
Test Your Knowledge
Energy/Power Unit Conversions
1)
a)
b)
c)
d)
2)
How do you convert kilowatts to horsepower ?
x 0.746
x 1.34
 0.746
x 3.412
1 kW equals 1.34 hp, answer b) is
the correct conversion factor
How do you convert Btu / hr to horsepower?
Multiply Btu/hr x 0.0003929 get hp. Note that this is a
combination of two other factors: Btu/hr to kW and hp to kW.
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REV4
22
Reading Electric Bills
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REV4
Definitions of Terms
• Utility companies
– “usage” = how much is consumed
• ISO 50001
– “use” = what kind of application
– “consumption” = how much is consumed
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REV4
Common Electric Rate Types
• Flat Rates
– Common for Residential & Small Commercial
• Block Rates (kW and Energy)
– Common for Commercial & Industrial
• Time of Use Rates (TOU)
– Different Prices for Different Periods of Time
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REV4
Flat Rate – How to Calculate
Base + Excess + Fuel Recovery = Total Cost
+32 kwh at 1.6875 cents = $ 0.54 Fuel Recovery
35
30
+7 kwh at 8.327 cents = $ 0.58 Excess
25
20
+ Base Cost (incl. 25 kWh) = $13.25 Base
15
10
Total Cost = $14.37 for 32 kWh used
5
0
Elec Used
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REV4
What a Flat Rate Schedule Looks Like
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REV4
Flat Rate –Where to Find the Price
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REV4
What a Flat Rate Bill Looks Like
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REV4
Flat Rate Bill
Where to Find Consumption
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REV4
Block Rate*
• First energy consumed is most expensive
• The more you consume, the less expensive it gets
• Your rate is based on HUD*
*Hours Use of Demand = no. hours to consume monthly kWh when
drawing at billing demand kW
Hours Use of Demand (hr)= monthly kWh/billing kW
higher HUD = lower cost
• Always add Fuel Recovery Costs
*sometimes called “Declining Block Rate”
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REV4
Declining Rates
Block Rate = Base + Fuel Recovery
NOTE: Rates have been simplified here; they usually go to three decimal places.
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REV4
What a Block Rate Schedule Looks Like
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REV4
Where to Find the Price
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REV4
What a Block Rate Bill Looks Like
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REV4
Block Rate
Where to Find Consumption
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REV4
CALCULATE HUD
How to Calculate HUD:
HUD = Consumption/BilledDemand
HUD = 237,360 kWh/ 677 kW
HUD = 351 hours
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REV4
PLL Short Cut Sheet
PLL RATE SHORT FORM
UNDER 200 HUD
kWh Range
Correction Factor
1 -3,000
$17.00
3001 - 10,000
$48.05
10,000 - 200,000
$199.75
OVER 200,000
$4,073.75
$/kWh
$0.11199
$0.10164
$0.08647
$0.06710
200 - 400 HUD
kW Range
500 - 1,000
OVER 1,000
Correction Factor
$ 199.75
$4,073.75
$/kW
$15.21
$11.13
$/kWh
$0.01143
$0.01143
400 - 600 HUD
kW Range
500 - 1,000
OVER 1,000
Correction Factor
$ 199.75
$4,073.75
$/kW
$15.96
$12.08
$/kWh
$0.00904
$0.00904
OVER 600 HUD
kW Range
500 - 1,000
OVER 1,000
Correction Factor
$ 199.75
$4,073.75
$/kW
$17.47
$13.58
$/kWh
$0.00653
$0.00653
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
APPLY RIDERS WHEN
APPLICABLE.
ADD FCR AND EXCESS
REACTIVE DEMAND @ $0.27
PER KVAR.
SALES TAX: ADD SALES
TAX WHEN APPLICABLE.
MINIMUM BILL: $8.00 PER
KW OF BILLING DEMAND
PLUS $15.75 PER METER
PLUS EXCESS REACTIVE
CHARGE PLUS FCR.
PLL Short Cut Sheet
PLL RATE SHORT FORM
UNDER 200 HUD
kWh Range
Correction Factor
1 -3,000
$15.75
3001 - 10,000
$43.14
10,000 - 200,000
$175.74
OVER 200,000
$3,703.74
$/kWh
$0.10099
$0.9186
$0.0786
$0.06096
200 - 400 HUD
kW Range
500 - 1,000
OVER 1,000
Correction Factor
$ 175.74
$3,703.74
$/kW
$13.640
$10.112
$/kWh
$0.01040
$0.01040
400 - 600 HUD
kW Range
500 - 1,000
OVER 1,000
Correction Factor
$ 175.74
$3,703.74
$/kW
$14.512
$10.984
$/kWh
$0.00822
$0.00822
OVER 600 HUD
kW Range
500 - 1,000
OVER 1,000
Correction Factor
$ 175.74
$3,703.74
$/kW
$15.880
$12.352
$/kWh
$0.00594
$0.00594
Short cut costs derived from rate schedule
$175.74 + ($13.64/kW x 677 kW)
+ ($0.0104/kWh x 237360 kWh)
+ ($0.016897/kWh x 237360 kWh) =
$15,889.24
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
39
PLL Short Cut Sheet
$175.74 + ($13.64/kW x 677
kW)
PLL RATE SHORT FORM
UNDER 200 HUD
kWh Range
Correction Factor
1 -3,000
$15.75
3001 - 10,000
$43.14
10,000 - 200,000
$175.74
OVER 200,000
$3,703.74
+ ($0.0104/kWh x 237360 kWh)
$/kWh
$0.10099
+ ($0.016897/kWh x 237360
$0.9186
$0.0786
$0.06096
200 - 400 HUD
kW Range
500 - 1,000
OVER 1,000
Correction Factor
$ 175.74
$3,703.74
$/kW
$13.640
$10.112
$/kWh
$0.01040
$0.01040
400 - 600 HUD
kW Range
500 - 1,000
OVER 1,000
Correction Factor
$ 175.74
$3,703.74
$/kW
$14.512
$10.984
$/kWh
$0.00822
$0.00822
OVER 600 HUD
kW Range
500 - 1,000
OVER 1,000
Correction Factor
$ 175.74
$3,703.74
$/kW
$15.880
$12.352
$/kWh
$0.00594
$0.00594
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
kWh) =
$15,889.24
Time of Use (TOU) Rate
• Price based on
season, day, and
time used
• Different prices for
different blocks of
time
• Rate is more
forgiving when
trying to reduce
peak costs
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REV4
41
Time of Use Rate - kilowatt costs
• Summer (Jun – Sept)
On-Peak (2pm to 7pm workdays)
Off-Peak (all other hours)
- 14.009 ¢/kWh
- 6.312 ¢/kWh
• Non-Summer (Oct – May)
First 1,500 kWh
Over 1,500 kWh
- 6.312 ¢/kWh
- 2.420 ¢/kWh
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REV4
Time of Use - Example Bill
Mixed on-peak
and off-peak
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REV4
Time of Use - Bill Details
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REV4
Test Your Knowledge
Typical Billing Concepts
1. Which of the following does NOT affect
the cost of electricity for a customer?
a)
b)
c)
Season d) Fuel
Demand e) Time of use
Distance from generator
c) Distance from
generator does
NOT figure in the
price charged for
electricity.
2. Which rate charges less the more you
use?
b) Block rate reduces the
a)
b)
c)
Flat rate
Block rate
TOU rate
charge per unit as the
number of units increases.
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REV4
Reading Natural Gas and
Other Energy Bills
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REV4
Natural Gas - Rate Types
• Firm: guaranteed delivery, higher price
• Interruptible: gas delivery is diverted to other
essential consumers and back-up fuel is
substituted, ensures lower gas price
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REV4
Natural Gas
Consumption and Billing Information
• Collect at least 12 months of natural gas bills
• Identify or calculate:
 Annual dollars spent
 Consumption (annual/monthly/daily)
 Burner Tip cost
 $/MMBtu, $/therm, $/DT
 MDQ (maximum daily quantity)
GRAPH IT!
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REV4
Natural Gas - Municipality Billing
Natural Gas - Municipal Supplier
Rate Code
Facility Charge
Per Meter/Month
Large General Service $150
(hundred cubic feet)
Nov to Mar
0.56501
Block
Charges
Rate Per Therm
Usage in ccf
Apr to Oct
First 1,000
Next 4,000
0.72001
0.67501
Next 10,000
Over 15,000
0.60001 0.48501
0.58032 0.44501
Usage: 20,676 mcf = 206,760 ccf
Base charge=
$150.
First 1,000 @ $0.72
$720.
Next 4,000 @ $0.675
$2,700.
Next 10,000 @ $0.60
$6,000.
Next 191,760 @ $0.58032
$111,282.29
Calculated Bill = $120,853.29 = same as Actual Bill
Unit Cost = $120,853.29  (20,676 mcf x 1.03 MMBtu/mcf)
= $5.675 per MMBtu
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REV4
0.61501
Natural Gas - Commodity Cost
Example 1
(cost per DT)
Firm Interruptible
Commodity
Transport Basis
Interstate $0.32
$0.30
$0.92
$0.50
Intrastate
$0.08
$0.08
$3.095
$2.655
Commodity cost is 57% to 67%
of the total cost..
Other
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REV4
Natural Gas - Commodity Cost
Example 2
(price per DT)
Firm
Interruptible
Commodity
Transport Basis
Interstate $0.80
$0.37
Intrastate/
LDC
$1.25
$1.25
Other
$0.36
$4.82
$0.36
$3.93
Commodity cost is 50%
of the total cost.
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REV4
Natural Gas
Spot Prices / Transportation Costs
The two largest components of
natural gas costs are:
 Commodity Cost
 Transportation Cost
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REV4
Natural Gas
Transportation Costs
Two types of transportation:
 Interstate
 Intrastate
(LDC delivery charges)
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REV4
Intrastate Distribution Costs
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REV4
Other Fuels
• Fuels such as coal, wood, propane and fuel oil
are not provided by a regulated utility
• Fuel price includes a commodity charge
based on quantity purchased and may
include a transportation or delivery fee
• Fuel prices often vary seasonally
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
Example Fuel Bill - Propane
United Propane Service
Delivered to: (address)
Delivery date: 2-11-2011
Commodity Amount
Propane 250 gal
(LPG)
Delivery
Total
Feb. 11
Unit Price Total
$1.05
$262.50
$25.00
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
$25.00
$287.50
Energy: Primary and Secondary
• Primary energy refers to energy sources in their basic,
unconverted form
– cubic feet of natural gas, or
– kilowatt-hours of electricity
– Remember that for the purposes of ISO 50001, electricity
is a primary energy source.
• Secondary energy refers to a converted form of a primary
energy source such as
– electricity converted to chilled water, or
– natural gas converted to steam
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REV4
Secondary Energy Sources
Chilled water
Hot water
Steam
Compressed air
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
Primary and Secondary Energy Analysis
• Every conversion of primary energy into
secondary energy involves a loss due to the
transformation
• Energy conversion efficiency is defined as output
 input
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REV4
Secondary Energy Billing
• Contract terms developed by user and supplier
• Normally based on mutually agreeable quantity such as cfm
of compressed air or pph steam
• Length of contract, measurement methods, billing and
payment, and commodity price agreed to by both parties
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
Test Your Knowledge:
Typical Billing Concepts
1.
Which of the following does NOT affect the cost of natural gas
for a customer?
a)
b)
c)
2.
Season
Demand
Distance from the gas well
d) Commodity
e) Time of use
e) Time of use does NOT
figure in the price charged
for natural gas delivery.
Why is secondary energy more costly than primary energy?
a)
b)
Transformation involves a loss in the conversion process.
Regulations for secondary energy pricing are more stringent.
a) Transformation involves a
loss in the conversion
process.
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REV4
Impact of Variables
on Energy Consumption
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REV4
What Is Energy Consumption?
Energy consumption = quantity (amount) of energy
applied
The concept of energy consumption relates to how
much energy is used
Measured in kWh, Btu’s, therms, etc.
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
What Is Energy Use?
Energy use = application of energy
The concept of energy use refers to the purpose to
which it is applied
Ventilation, lighting, heating, cooling, etc.
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REV4
What Is Energy Performance?
Energy performance = measurable results related to
efficiency, use, and consumption
The ISO 50001 intent is improvement in both energy
use and consumption, in an efficient manner
Examples:
 Utilizing waste energy
 Reducing peak demand
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REV4
Energy Performance Indicator
Energy Performance Indicator (EnPI) = quantitative
value or measure of energy performance as defined by
the organization
Examples = kWh/100 cfm for compressed air
= Btu/1,000 lbs steam produced
= an equation that models process behavior
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REV4
Simple-Ratio EnPI
EnPI
(Simple
Ratio)
Annual
=
Energy
Consumption
Annual
Production
÷
(e.g. lbs/yr, tons/yr, units/yr)
(MMBtu/year,
kWh/year)
 Easiest to use and calculate, but not
always accurate predictor
 Only sufficient when other variables don’t
impact energy consumption
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
Example Performance Indicators:
■ Facility Level:
• Mining - From 3.995 kWh/Ton to 3.722 kWh/Ton
• 6.8% Reduction in 5 years
■ Process- Unit Level:
■ Pharmaceutical –
■ Production Line “A” from 478 Btu/lb to 430 Btu/lb
■ 10% Reduction in 5 years
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
Test Your Knowledge:
Definitions
• What does ISO 50001 and EnMS intend to improve?
Choose all that apply.
a. Energy Use
b. Energy Consumption
c. Energy Efficiency
d. Energy Fuel Content
Energy use, energy
consumption AND energy
efficiency
• At what levels can EnPI’s be developed? Choose all
that apply.
a. Region level
b. Facility level
c. System level
d. Process level
Facility level, system
level AND process level
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REV4
What Can Vary?
• Weather
• Production
• Other
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Weather Impacts
Weather is generally an important component of
energy consumption
 Increase in natural gas or heating fuel consumption in
winter months for heating
 Increase in electrical consumption in summer months
for cooling
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REV4
Example of Weather Impact - Gas
Winter
Summer
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REV4
Example of Weather Impact - kWh
Winter
Summer
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REV4
Other Weather-Related Variables
Humidity
Precipitation
Cooling degree days
Heating degree days
Dewpoint temperature
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
Test Your Knowledge:
Weather Impacts
• What is the most common weather variable?
a. Humidity
b. Temperature
c. Precipitation
d. Dewpoint
Temperature
• What happens when relevant variables aren’t
accounted for?
Energy consumption isn’t
accurately represented
a. Energy use is misrepresented.
b. Energy consumption goes up.
c. Energy use changes with weather.
d. Energy consumption isn’t accurately represented.
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
Production Impacts
Production effects are indicated by a
change in energy consumption associated
with a change in production
Addition of a process line
Change in raw material
Change in equipment
 Extra effort for rush orders
Increase or decrease in line output
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
Other Potential Variables
Operating schedule
 number of shifts/day
 number of days/week
Variation in types of production
 models
 versions
 finishing
Production rate (units/hr)
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
Test Your Knowledge:
Production & Other Impacts
• Which are variables that are most likely to be
relevant to energy consumption?
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
Reduced load on steam boiler
Marketing network boundary
Longer drying times
Raw material properties
Increased worker salaries
Produce more product
Blue model instead of red model
Number of shifts per week
Process voltage
A, C, D, F, G, and H
are all variables that could
be relevant to energy
consumption.
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4
Test Your Knowledge:
Production & Other Impacts
• What variables might be relevant to making
bricks?
•Oven drying equipment
• new burner
• more insulation
• Moisture content of clay
• Type of clay used, color of product
• Precipitation levels
• Humidity of storage area
• Number of bricks per batch
• and others . . .
© DOE and GaTech Research Corporation
REV4