1.
Aerodrome Information
 Characteristics
 Traffic Control Boundaries
 Instrument Landing Aids
2.
Radio Facilities : Beacons, Control Tower Frequencies,
VOR, ILS
3.
Aeronautical Lights
 White – Green :Civil Airfield
 2 White – Green : Mil Airfield
 White – Yellow : Water airfield
 White – red : significant land mark
4.
Miscellaneous : Caution, Danger area, Isogonics Lines

• Scale = Chart Length / Earth Length
– Small Scale : Large Area Less Detail
• 1:600,000 or smaller
– Middle Scale
• Bigger than 1:600,000 but smaller than 1:75,000
– Large Scale : Small Area More Detail
• 1:75,000 and bigger
• Distance : measure between parallel of latitude by measuring meridian
– 1 minute = 1 NM.

• Basic operations in Dead Reckoning.
• Plotting is the location of points or courses on chart by their coordinates of latitude and longitude.
• Measuring is the determination of distance and direction between points on a chart.
• Tools: pencil, eraser, dividers, and plotter

• A device for drawing and measuring courses and distances
• Weems Aircraft Plotter Mark II, MK IIN
• The principal use of a plotter is the measurement of true course, which is line on a chart representing the path over which the aircraft to travel.
• Its direction is determined by the angle it make with the meridians, which run north and south

1. Straight edge aligned with True Course (TC)
2. Center hole over meridian or parallel
3. Scale indicated by arrow
4. Read direction on scale over meridian or parallel
 A course between 0 º and 180º is measured along the outer scale;
 A course between 180 º and 360º is measured along the inner scale
5. It is wise to estimate the direction roughly prior to exact measurement as “a commonsense check”

• The graticule of a Lambert chart, is characterized by converging meridians.
• The error will be at a maximum for east-west courses and at a minimum for north – south courses
• For distance of 200-300 miles, it is advantageous to make one course measurement for entire route at mid-longitude ;
• For longer runs it is wiser to break the course into segments, changing to new course with each new segment encountered

• On Lambert charts the plotters may be convenient than dividers as a means of measuring distance.
• Since the Lambert charts was seen to be uniformity of scale over rather large areas
• Hence, dividers spanned to 100 miles on one Lambert would measure 100 miles on any part of any Lambert of the same scale

• On a Mercator, meridians are parallel lines. Any straight line cutting them will be a transversal, cutting across each at the same angle.
• Direction from true north may be measured accurately at any meridian and not only at mid-longitude as on a
Lambert.
• Scale of distance on a Mercator is constantly changing.
The scale along any Mercator course is relatively contracted on the portion nearest the equator, and expanded toward the pole.
• The true Mercator distance of the entire course can be measured only against a scale chosen along a portion of course where an average scale exists .

• Track (TR) is the actual horizontal direction made by the aircraft over the earth (due to wind) or actual path
• Course (C) is the intend horizontal direction or travel. There are TC, MC, CC (Compass Course) = Track Made Good
– True Course (TC) : The intended or actual path over the ground measured from true north
• Heading (HDG) is the horizontal direction in which the A/C is pointed. There are TH, MH, CH
– True Heading (TH): the direction from true north in which the aircraft is pointed
• Ground Speed (GS) Speed in relation to a fixed point on the earth. Knots, MPH, km/hr
• True Airspeed (TAS) Speed of an aircraft through a mass of air

• Wind has direct and speed
• Wind direction “ from ”
• The lateral displacement effected by wind is “drift”,
• The angle between intended and actual track is
“ drift angle”
• The number of degrees that an aircraft is turn into wind in order to fly a desired path over the ground is called “ the drift-correction angle ”
• The drift-correction angle is the same as drift angle but opposite direction
• In making a drift correction, the pilot has not prevented drift but corrected for it.

In Dead Reckoning there are six basic measures with concerned:
1. True Air Speed (TAS): Speed of an aircraft through a mass of air
2. True Heading (TH): The direction from true north in which the aircraft is pointed
3. &4. Wind Direction / Velocity (W/V)
5. Ground Speed (GS) Speed in relation to a fixed point on the earth.
6. True Course (TC) : The intended or actual path over the ground measured from true north

• The six measures listed always pair together as the following vectors:
• Wind Direction – Wind Speed
• True Heading – True Air Speed
• True Course – Ground Speed

• Forecast Winds:
– Winds are measured and predicted by weather experts
(Balloons and analysis of pressure system)
– Winds at flying altitudes for use in planning a flight
– Winds change with altitude and with the nature of the terrain over which they pass
• Direct Observation: at altitude of a few throusand feet , wind direction can sometimes be checked by watching smoke plumes; over water, by the washback of foam from whitecaps. The number of whitecaps is also an indication of wind speed.
– Winds change in both speed and direction with altitude
– The passage of cloud shadows across the ground is usable at times as a check on wind direction
– In fast, high flying aircraft none of these devices is value

• Winds Between Two Positions : it is average wind between two position
– The average True Heading (TH) and True Airspeed
(TAS) derived from the aircraft’s instruments,
– The Ground Speed (GS) and Drift Angle, are entered on the wind face of the computer and unknown wind vector is solved
• Drift Angle is the difference between Track (TR) and TH ; if TH is greater, drift is left, if TR is greater, drift is right

1. Air Vector (Air Plot)
 TH : direction of the vector
 TAS: magnitude of the vector
2. Wind Vector (W/V)
 Wind Direction
 Speed
 The tail of wind vector always connected to the head of the air vector .
3. Cross Vector or Ground Vector
 GS: Ground Speed
 TR: Track

Air Vector
Track-Ground Speed

• Drift Angle is the difference between Track
(TR) and TH ; if TH is greater, drift is left, if
TR is greater, drift is right
TR 350 º
TH 360 º
TH 360 º
TR 005
º
Drift Angle 5 ºL
TH is greater, drift is left
Drift Angle 5 ºR
TR is greater, drift is right

TN
TH:045 º
Wind from
330
TR / GS

• Any distance between the ground position and air position must represent wind effect
• An arrow drawn from air position to ground position will be a wind vector

• Dalton E-6B/MB-4

• LOP is a line connecting all possible geographic positions of an aircraft at a given instant
• The line can be straight or curved, depending on the source of information:
– A true bearing from a mountain peak will be a Straight line Of Position;
– Distance from an object will be a circle of radius equal to the distance
– Lines of position determined by loran are hyperbolas

• A fix is an established geographic position of an aircraft for a given instant time. It is a point, not a line.
• A fix can be found only by crossing two or more LOP’s independently determined
• Any two LOP’s intersecting at an angle greater than 30 º will normally provide reliable fixing, the best results are obtained when they cross at right angles

Altitude
• Indicated Altitude : is read directly from altimeter when it is directly adjusted to the local altimeter setting
• Pressure Altitude : is displayed on altimeter when it is set to the standard sea level atmospheric pressure of 29.92 in.Hg
– At or above transition altitude
– Called Flight Level
• Density Altitude : is pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature used to determine aircraft performance
• True Altitude : is the actual height of an object above mean sea level
– True altitude and Pressure Altitude are equal only when standard atmospheric condition exist
• Absolute Altitude : is the actual height of the airplane above the earth’s surface
– Height above ground level (AGL)
– Height Above Airport (HAA)
– Height Above Touch Down Zone (HAT)
– Threshold Crossing Height (TCH)

Altitude
• 1 inch Hg = 1,000 ft
• 1 mb = 30 ft
• When flying from high to low (Press), or hot to cold , look out below.

• กำรบินอย่ำงถูกต้อง
• กำรวำงแผน
• สมรรถนะของเครื่องบิน
• กำรค ำนวณ
• กำรวิเครำะห ์ และอ่ำนแผนที่
• กำรใช้วิทยุ และเครื่องช่วยเดินอำกำศ

• Heading +/- 2 °
• Speed +/- 5 %
ของ
TAS
• Altitude +/- 200 feet

• กำรเตรียมแผนที่
• รำยละเอียดของเส้นทำงบิน
• ข่ำวอำกำศ
• กำรค ำนวณหำค่ำต่ำงๆ ตำม
Flight plan
• กำรค ำนวณน ้ำมัน
• กฎกำรบินต่ำงๆ
• กำรเขียน
Flight log

• ถ้ำบินเดินทำงต ่ำ ควรใช้แผนที่มำตรำส่วน
ใหญ่
• ถ้ำบินเดินทำงสูง ควรใช้แผนที่มำตรำส่วน
เล็ก
• มำตรำส่วนเล็ก เช่น 1: 600,000 จะคลุม
พื้นที่ได้มำกแต่มีรำยละเอียดน้อย
• มำตรำส่วนใหญ่ เช่น 1: 75,000 จะคลุม
พื้นที่ได้น้อยแต่มีรำยละเอียดปลีกย่อยมำก
• ดังนั้นแผนที่ที่มีขนำดเท่ำกัน แผนที่
มำตรำส่วนเล็กจะคลุมพื้นที่ได้มำก ส่วนแผน

• Variation
มุมที่ต่ำงกัน
ระหว่ำง
True
North
กับ
Magnetic
North

• It is suggested that you cross mountain passes at an altitude at least 1,000 feet above the pass elevation.
• The cloud clearance requirement is at least 1,000 feet below the clouds.
• You should make sure that you have at least a 2,000 foot ceiling over the highest pass you will cross

•
•
Magnetic Heading 350
0:45
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height (RED) 3500
22
23
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Actual Fuel Remaining

•
TAKHLI
ATA
ETA

•
–
40
30
20
10

•
–
–
CHECK POINT

ATA
ETA
Magnetic Heading 15
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height
10
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Actual Fuel Remaining
ATA
ETA
5
ATA
ETA
Check Point
10
Magnetic Heading
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Actual Fuel Remaining
5

Magnetic Heading
Estimate Time Interval
Safety Height
Calculated Fuel Remaining
Actual Fuel Remaining
10
5