The Nigerian Civil War
By Alyssa Miller, Sydney Moorhead,
and Gary Au
The Nigerian Civil War
The Nigerian Civil War
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Also known as the Nigerian-Biafran War
July 6, 1967 – January 15, 1970
Political conflict
Nigerian Victory
Approximately 100,000 military casualties
500,000-2,000,000+ civilian casualties (mostly
from starvation)
The Nigerian Civil War
• The Opposing Forces:
 Nigeria & Egypt (air force) vs. Biafra & Benin
 Nigeria was supported by: UK, Soviet Union,
Syria, Sudan, Chad, Niger, and Saudi Arabia
 Biafra was supported by: Israel, South Africa,
Rhodesia, France, and Portugal
CAUSES OF THE NIGERIAN
CIVIL WAR
The Tribal and Regional Tensions
• More than 50 years prior to the war, Great
Britain carved out Nigeria from the rest of
West Africa
This area contained hundreds of different ethnic
groups
The Tribal and Regional Tensions
• Hausa-Fulani (North)
 65% of the population in the north
• Yoruba (West)
 75% of the population in the southwest
• Igbo (East)
 60-70% of the population in the southeast
The Tribal and Regional Tensions
• Hausa-Fulani (North)
 Semi-Fedual and Islamic
 Traditionally ruled by an autocratic, conservative
Islamic hierarchy
 The Islamic hierarchy consists of approximately 30
Emirs (leaders) which owed their allegiance to the
Sultan
 Sultan
 “The source of all political power and religious
authority.”
The Tribal and Regional Tensions
• Yoruba (West)
 Consisted with series of monarchs (referred to as
Obas)
 Less autocratic than the Hausa-Fulani
 Social/Political systems allowed for people to
move up the hierarchal system to a greater extent
through acquired wealth/title than inherited
wealth/title
The Tribal and Regional Tensions
• Igbo (East)
Mostly autonomous, in about 600 democraticallyorganized communities/villages
Decisions made in Igbo communities were made in
a general assembly in which men could participate
Monarchs were simply figureheads
Britain’s Colonial Influence
• British political ideology carved up Nigeria
into three regions: North, East, West
• The divide increased the already dominate
economic, political, and social competition
among Nigeria’s ethnic groups
Britain’s Colonial Influence
• Along with the political divide, the North was
divided in such a way in which it had slightly
more population than the other two regions
combined
Thus, the North was allocated more seats in the
Federal Legislature (established by colonial
authorities)
Britain’s Colonial Influence
• The Federal Legislature
Made up of three political parties, each supported
by a region
The Northern People’s Congress (NPC) – North
(led by Nnamdi Azikiwe)
The Action Group (AG) – West (led by led by
Ahmadu Bello)
The National Conference of Nigerian Citizens
(NCNC) – East (led by Obafemi Awolowo)
Britain’s Colonial Influence
1940s and 1950s
• The Igbo and Yoruba parties were in the forefront of the
fight for independence from Britain
 Promoted an independent Nigeria to be organized to a several small
states
• The North feared that independence would mean
political and economic domination from more
Westernized elites in the South (thus, preferring British
rule)
 As a condition of independence, demanded the country to be divided
into three regions (the North with a clear majority)
• Igbo and Yoruba leaders accepted the North’s demands
since they wanted to be an independent country
Oil?
• Discovery of vast oil reserves in the Niger
River delta
• Prior to oil discover, Nigeria’s revenue wealth
depended on agricultural products from the
south and minerals from the north
• The Easterner’s fear that the North was going
to strip eastern oil reserves for the benefit of
the North (since the North held the majority in
the Federal Legislature)
Political Crisis
• Census 1962-63
The general census of 1962: “riddled with malpractices
and inflation of such astronomical proportions that the
Eastern Region refused to accept the result.”
The second census (1963): the figures were accepted
with some reservations; the Igbo thought the census
overestimated the number of Hausa-Fulani in order to
give the Northern region more representation in the
federal parliament
The Tiv, one of the majortribes in the Middle Belt,
openly rioted for almost three years (1962 - 1965)
Political Crisis
• Electoral Fraud
 The general election of 1964: “the election was alleged to
be neither free nor fair; all devices imaginable were said to
have been used by the ruling parties in the regions to
eliminate opponents”
 The rigged results made President, Dr Nnamdi Azikiwe
refuse to appoint a Prime Minister though many expect him
to appoint the incumbent Prime Minister, Sir Abubakar
Tafawa Balewa
 Law and order broke down completely leading to an almost
complete state of anarchy. Arson and indiscriminate
killings were committed by a private army of thugs of
political parties. Law abiding citizens lived in constant fear
of their lives and properties.
Political Crisis
• Military Coup
 January 15, 1966
 Main goal: to establish a strong, unified and prosperous nation,
free from corruption and internal strife
 “Major Nzeogwu's (the leader of the coup) aims for the coup
was not borne out of its method, style and results. All the
politicians and senior military officers killed were from the
North and Western Region except a political leader and a senior
Army officer from the Mid – West and the East respectively.”
 Lead to: North disliking coup due to Eastern roots; Major Gen.
J.T.U. Aguiyi Ironsi’s lack of action and decisiveness, the
North’s “wait and see” attitude changed into resentment
culminating in the May 1966 riots throughout the North (many
Easterners residing in the North were attacked and killed)
Political Crisis
• Counter Coup
 Staged by the Northern military officers on July 29 1966
 Two goals: Revenge on the East; the break up of the
country
 The Head of State, Maj. Gen. Aguiyi Ironsi and many other
senior officers of Eastern origin were killed
 After three days of anarchy, Lt. Col. Yakubu Gowon, at the
time the most senior officer of the North and then the Chief
of Staff, Nigerian Army, emerged as the new Nigerian
political leader
 Effect: Chaos, confusion and unnecessary killings of
Easterners throughout the country
Political Crisis
• Secession of Biafra
 May 30, 1967 the Igbo-majority province declared its independence as
the Republic of Biafra
 Cause: Gowon moved to split the 4 existing regions into 12 states in
1967
 Nigeria then blocked food and supplies from entering Biafra, which
resulted in a humanitarian crisis of huge proportion; images of the
suffering reached the global community via the media, attracting a
large relief effort
 Some founders of Doctors Without Borders took part; brought about the
establishment of this NGO
 Biafra surrendered on January 13, 1970
 One of the first post-World War II tragedies that the media took “into
living rooms across the globe and it gave momentum to the
development of humanitarian responses to complex emergencies,
whether caused by natural calamity or by human hand.”
STRATEGIES/PRACTICES OF
THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR
Mobilization
• The breakaway of the southeastern region as
the Republic of Biafra- May 30, 1967
• Nigerian side had already been mobilizing
since May- around 4 battalions were formed,
consisting of about 7,000 men
• The Nigerian people were organized in civil
defense duties
• “To keep Nigeria one is a task that must be
done”
Nigerian Mind Set
• Nigerian Army Headquarters (NAHQ)
• Four phases of operation
1. Capture Nsukka
2. Capture Ogaja
3. Capture Abakaliki
4. Capture Enugu (Biafran capital)
Assessing the Rebels
• Nigeria suspected the rebels would have a
difficult time mobilizing
• They knew the importance of the sea to the
Biafrans
• They planned to halt the supply of arms and food
coming into the region through a blockade by the
Nigerian Navy on the southern Atlantic ocean
region
• Would use the Air Force to stop supplies coming
into the air
- Two Pronged Attack
Diplomatic strategy
• Federal government talking to the major
superpowers
• Making other nations believe their cause was to
re-unite the nation of Nigeria
• Discredit the Biafrans
• Continue in peace talks with other nations
• Dropped propaganda leaflets on the eastern sidediscrediting the Biafran leader and promises of
peaceful, non prosecuting resolves
Biafra Military
• The Nigerians were wrong in their assessment
of the Biafra
• Mobilizing since Nigerians left Enugu- August
1966
• No sufficient arms and only about 240
Nigerian soldiers
• Spain, Portugal, and France aid ammunitionsMay 1967
- Formation of the 9th and 14th battalions
Strengthening Biafra
• Nigerian Air Force members of Eastern origin
formed the Biafra Air Force (BAF)
• Old B25 and B26; Minicon aircrafts
• Small Navy formed in Calabar
• Biafra Militia
- Educate the population
- Provide immediate assistance to the army
• The Administration Support – Food Directorate,
Transport Directorate, Petroleum Management
Board
Looking for Aid
• Biafra knew that they would need heavy aid
and services from other nations
• Began an international propaganda campaign
in search of support
• Open support- Gabon, Tanzania, Zambia,
Ivory Coast, and Haiti
• Secret support- France, West Germany, Spain,
Portugal, Switzerland, and Sweden
Comparing Abilities
• The Nigerian Army was much larger than the
Biafra Army – 4:1
• Yet, both nations were very aware of the other
nations fighting style, since they both originated
from the same army
• Biafran army defensive
- Major High ways
- “Exercise Checkmate”
- Strategic bombing (fuel Nigerian nationalism)
Nigerian Offensive
• Began their attack in the North- led by Colonel
Shuwa
- Two fronts, two brigades, three battalions
- Ogugu, Ogunga, Nsukka, and Gakem, Obudu,
Ogaja roads
• Nigerian intelligence operations
• July 10, 1967- Biafrans flee to protect the capital;
weakening point early on
• July 12, 1967- Obudu, Gakem, and Ogaja
captured
Nigerian Offensive (cont.)
• July 26, 1967- opening of a second front in the
south; division formed from the Lagos
Garrison Organization (LGO)
- Established a beach head and exploited the
North
- Unexpectedly high numbers of casualties
Biafran Initiative
• August 8, 1967- Biafra moves into the Midwestern region of Nigeria
- Pressure the north
- Edge closer to the capital of Lagos
- Stopped at Ore (130 miles east of Lagos)
• Nigerian offensive suspended in the north, and
moves to Escravos with two battalions
• Another division formed to support the clearing of
the rebels out of the Mid-western region
Biafran Initiative (cont.)
• Led by Lietenant Colonel Banjo
• Still, the Biafran were met with little opposition and the
Mid- Western region was easily overtaken
- Due to Mid-West Igbo reluctant to return to their
division of the region
- Thus, a second infantry division had to be formed by
the Nigerians
• The Biafra declared the Republic of Benin (in the
former Benin City) on September 19
- It was easily taken back by Nigerians on September
22
Tougher than Anticipated
• Although the Republic collapsed, the Biafran
had met their goal of occupying enough of the
Nigerian military as possible
• With a third infantry division formed, the
Nigerian army tried three times to cross the
Niger River in October, losing a great deal of
soldiers
• October 12- 5,000 soldiers killed or wounded
during the first attempt to cross
Long Stalemate
• In 1968 began the stalemate that would last
until the end of the war
- Nigerian forces couldn’t make significant
advances into key Biafran areas
• A second Nigerian offensive plan
- Two northern fronts
- Capture Port Harcourt on May 19, 1968
• Humanitarian crisis- overplayed
Skepticism and More Stalemate
• Volunteer bodies organize blockade relief flightsfood, medicine, and arms?
- Extending the war and causing 180,000 deaths
- Arms carrying aircrafts shadowing aid aircrafts
• Biafran use of mercenaries?
• Nigerians using Egyptian mercenaries- attacking
civilians and the Red Cross
- Red Cross order of neutrality
Biafrans Fight Back
• Thousands of civilians and volunteers killedlooking the other way
• June 1969- desperate offensive against Nigerians
• Aid of foreign mercenary pilots
- Swedish Count Carl Gustav von Rusen: military
airfields in Port Harcourt, Benin City, Enugu, and
Ughelli
• Surprised but Nigerians had a fast recovery
• Only threw off the Nigerian Air Offensive for a
few months
Coming to a Close
• December 23, 1969- Final Nigerian offensive
(Operation Tail Wind)
- Large push by the 3rd Marine Commando
Division
- Split the Biafran forces in two by December
31st
• January 7, 1970- 3rd Marine along with 1st
infantry in the North and 2nd infantry in the
South
How It All Ends
• Biafran towns begin to fall
- Owerri: January 9th
- Uli: January 11th
- Amachi (last Biafran town): January 13th
• Biafran leader Ojukuwu goes into exile in Cote
d’Ivoire
LESSONS LEARNED FROM
THE NIGERIAN CIVIL WAR
Population Outcome
• It has been estimated that up to three million
people
May have died due to the conflict, most from
hunger and disease
Actual number of casualties are unknown
Reconstruction
• Reconstruction was quick
Helped by oil companies – Shell Oil Company is
still making the headlines in Nigeria
• Old ethnic and religious conflicts were/are still
present
The Government
• Military government continued in power in
Nigeria for many years, and people in the oilproducing areas claimed they were being
denied a fair share of oil revenues.
The Political Process
• Laws were passed saying that political parties
couldn't be ethnically based
This is too hard to monitor thus is not followed
thoroughly
The Igbos
• Igbos returned to find that their jobs had been
taken over.
The government didn't care to give them back their
positions.
This went with their houses and property too;
people from other regions took them over quickly.
• Nigeria government said that the property was
abandoned.
• Led to a feeling of an injustice
The Igbos (cont.)
• Further feelings of injustice were caused by
Nigeria: changing its currency so that Biafran
supplies of pre-war Nigerian currency were no
longer honored
This was seen as a deliberate policy to hold back
the Igbo middle class, leaving them with little
wealth to expand their business interests.
Worldwide Effects
• The NGO Médecins Sans Frontières (Doctors
Without Borders) was created in 1971
• The creation of many NGOs that worked in the
Biafra relief program, such as INTERTECT
• Humanitarian awareness
• Brought about the view that people deserve to lie
in the graves they dig for themselves influenced
some policymakers; while donor- and disasterfatigue makes others wary of giving as generously
when they think that the wound being treated is
somehow self-inflicted