MORPHOLOGY The wordland What is morphology? • the study of the structure and content of word forms • the part of linguistic that deals with the study of words, their internal structure. • It is also interested in how the users of a given language understand complex words and invent new lexical items. • It is the subdiscipline of grammar. What is lexicon? • A collection of linguistic knowledge that cannot be captured by rules • The collection of words--the internalized dictionary--that every speaker of the language has. • An understanding of the rules that govern the formation of words • Similarities and differences in the behavior of words • The function of words By the end of the class, you will have the linguistic background to answer the following questions: • What is morphology? • What is a morpheme? • How are morphemes classified? • How are words structured in Turkish? • What is an allomorph? • Why is karşılıksız acceptable, but sevgiliksiz outrageous? • What makes evdeler different from evlerde? • Why is evdemler terrible, but dedemler perfectly fine? • Key words: • Morphology • Morpheme • Free morpheme • Bound morpheme • Derivational morpheme • Inflectional morpheme • Morpheme ordering • Allomorphy THE STRUCTURE OF WORDS Syllable structure vs Morpheme structure Free morphemes vs Bound morphemes Derivational morphemes vs Inflectional morphemes Two ways of analysing word structure • Through syllable structure • Through morpheme structure Syllable structure • Table 1: Morpheme structure • Table 2: • Table 3: morpheme and syllable boundaries • Table 4: compatibility between morphemes and syllables: hastalandım • Table 5: compatibility between morphemes and syllables: yaşlandım The gist here: • Simply coding the syllables of a word is not reliable way to code the morphemes of that word. So, • What is a morpheme? • What is the criterion to identify a morpheme? • Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units that construct words in a language. Our examples are constructed in the following way: (1) Yaş Yaş-lan Yaş-lan-dı Yaş-lan-dı-m (2) Hasta Hasta-lan Hasta-lan-dı Hasta-lan-dı-m Eg. babama (3) Eg. gözcüler (4) Göz+ cü+ Stem 1st morph. Organ of seeing ler 2nd morph. unit of grammatical function form Ns from Ns not mean göz anymore Remark • Morphemes might have different meanings, functions and morphological standing. • Although morpheme and syllable boundaries of a word may sometimes overlap, lack of correspondence between these boundaries is common. • A single morpheme may be composed of more than one syllable. • A single syllable may include more than one morpheme. IT IS YOUR TURN 1 In terms of their morphological stand,ng, morphemes in gözcü can be classified into two groups • Free morphemes • Bound morphemes Why is c grammatical while a and b are not? (5) Morphemes Free morphemes Content morp. Ns ADJs ADVs Vs Bound morphemes Functional morp. postpositions conjunctions determiners pronouns, etc. IT IS YOUR TURN 2 • Affixation: the attachment process of a bound morpheme to another morpheme. • Affixes: the attached bound morphemes. • Roots: words that are not affixed. • An overwhelming number of roots in Turkish are monosyllabic: • More than one syllable in a root is also permissible: Stem: the root or roots of a word, together with any derivational affixes, to which inflectional affixes are added. They are morphologically complex. Eg. Yaş-lı stem yaş-lı-lar stem Çağ çağ-daş çağ-daş-lık root stem, stem Complex words are formed through 3 types of affixation in a language: • Suffixes: placed after stem • Prefixes: before stem • Infixes: within stem What about affixation in Turkish? • Sev-gi • Sev-gi-li • Sev-gi-li-ler Loan words: • Anti-propaganda • Gayri resmi • Bihaber • Postmodern > > > > propaganda resmi haber modern Back to the case of gözcüler Göz- cüFree morphemes ler bound morphemes content morpheme : derived N from a N having a meaning different from that of the stem That is, some suffixes can change both the meaning and the syntactic class of the stem Derivation: a process of forming new words by using bound morphemes Derivational morphemes: the morphemes which add to or change the meaning of a stem word or the syntactic class of it. Eg. Sat-ıcı -ICI: a derivational morpheme forming Ns from Ns What other derivations are possible in Turkish? • Table 6: examples of derivational suffixes 4 types of stems formed through derivation Suffixes that attach to verbs Deverbal nominal stems: Deverbal verbal stems: V>N V>V Suffixes that attach to nominals Denominal nominal stems: N>N Denominal verbal stems: N>V Other derivational suffixes in Turkish note that some suffixes are more productive than the others • V>N: Kaz-I, güldür-Ü, kay-AK, sev-ECEN, san-AL, diz-GE • V>V: dürt-ÜKLE, şaş-ALA, kaç-IN, ara-ŞTIR, Consider the semantic differences –(I)ş provides • Koşuş-: denotes an unorganised manner • Bölüş-, kırış-: denotes a shared act • Kokuş-: denotes the intensity of a property of the root verb Other derivational suffixes in Turkish note that some suffixes are more productive than the others • N>V: tür-E-, kara-R-, şakır-DA, göz-ÜK-, güneş-LEN-, haber-LEŞ-, kir-LET-, su-SA• N>N: ana-Ç, sol-AK, yer-El, kök-En, dört-GEN, Consider semantic differences –lI provides: • Atlı, sevgili, hızlı, akıllı : denotes the attribute of something • Üniversiteli, köylü: indicates a person belonging to or coming from • Üçlü, altılı: indicates groups made of items containing that number of objects Another productive suffix -lIk (1) Ns from Ns, adjectives or adverbs to indicate: • İyilik, çabukluk : the state relating to a particular concept • Askerlik, krallık: institutionalisation of the concept • Gözlük, başlık: an object associated with the body • Kitaplık, odunluk: a storage place • Zeytinlik, mezarlık: a place where the entity denoted by the N is found collectively • Analık, evlatlık: a person whose relationship is analogous to the blood relation (2) Adjectives which indicate: • Dolmalık, elbiselik: suitability for the type of entity • Günlük, aylık: periods of time • Ellilik: approximate age of a person (3) Bir kiloluk, üç saatlik: express weight, length, capacity, value, price. Is the lexicon composed of only free lexical morphemes and derivational bound morphemes? Consider this: * Bu sınıf öğrenci hep öğretmen kız. • Which noun is the subject above? • How are the other nouns and the verb related to it? Modified sentence with grammatical inflection: • Bu sınıfta öğrenciler hep öğretmeni kızdırırlar. Spatial relation plural direct obj. temporal structure of event person agreement with subj These morphemes did not create new words but mark grammatical relations: inflectional morphemes. Number, case, tense and agreement markers in Turkish are inflectional morphemes. How different characteristics can combine in a single morpheme? • Let’s test «insan-lık» following the chart to discover type of the morpheme Another test to discover the type of the morpheme • Consider the use of the infinitive marker –mAk • Claim: whatever precedes the infinitive marker –mAk should be considered as the stem; therefore anything in it as derivational Eg. Koşuş-tur-du The infinitive form: koş-uş-tur-mak What precedes –mAk: koş-uş-tur Derivational morphemes IT IS YOUR TURN 3 ORGANISING PRINCIPLES OF TURKISH MORPHOLOGY Morpheme ordering Allomorphy Morpheme ordering Why are a and c are possible but not b? Kalınlaştırılmamışlardanmışmş b) *Kalıntırlaş c) kalınlaştırılmamıştanmışmışlar a) ! Considering that Turkish is an agglunative language, the order of morphemes in a sentence is fixed and each morpheme is used in the position specified for it. b)Ungrammatical: causative-DIr is used after -lAş If the morphemes are in right order, you can produce the followings grammatically • öl-üm-süz-leş-tir-t-tir-il-e-me-yebil-in-en-ler-de-ki-ler-den- mi-ymis-ler-ce-sin-e • Gör-üş-tür-ül-e-me-ye de bil-iyor-mu-ydu-nuz? • *kes-ler-im vs kesimler ! Inflection follows derivation as derivational morphemes are more firmly attached than inflectional ones: • Root+Derivation+Inflection Turkish inflectional suffixes 1. nominal inflectional suffixes Those marking number, possession, case Eg: çocuk-lar- ın- a 2. Verbal inflectional suffixes Those marking verb forms root-voice-negation-tense/aspect/modality-copular markerperson marker-DIr Eg. Otur-acağ-ım Nominal inflectional suffixes in Turkish • plural suffix: -lAr • Possessive suffixes: evim, evin, evi, evimiz, eviniz, evleri • Case suffixes: • Accusative: saray-ı • Dative: masa-(y)a • Locative: ev-de • Ablative: okul-dan • Genetive: çocuğ-un • Other nominal inflectional markers: • ile (kedimle) • -ki (dünkü, odanınki) Eg. arabanınkiyle Verbal inflectional suffixes in Turkish • Voice suffixes • Causative: yap-TIR, piş-İR, çık-AR, çök-ERT • Passive: yıka-N, del-İN, yap-IL • Reflexive: giy-İN, sar-IN, ört-ÜN • Reciprocal: öp-ÜŞ, gör-ÜŞ • Negative marker: -ma, git-ME • Tense aspect modality markers: • Copular markers: (y)DI, -(y)mIş and –(y)sA (bırakmışTI, hastaYDI, yürümekteYMİŞler, evdeYMİŞler, koşuyorSAk, hevesliYSEk) • Person markers: (odamdayIM, kaçsaN, çalışıyorUZ) What if more than one inflectional morpheme are used in a word? (6) a. Kitap b. Kitap-lık c. Kitap-lık-lar d. Kitap-lık-lar-ım e. Kitap-lık-lar-ım-da ! They also combine in a predictable order. Stem+plural+person+place marker In the case of verbal inflections: (7) a. Boya-dı-m b. Boya-ma-dı-m c. Boya-t-tı-m d. Boya-t-ma-dı-m The permissible order: (causative) + (negation) + tense + person IT IS YOUR TURN 4 ! Each suffix takes the preceding stem as the scope of its semantic and syntactic material • Table 7: outer layers of words are formed by inflectional; inner layers by derivational morphemes Allomorphy • Allomorphs: the variations of the same morpheme. • Every morpheme has predictable allomorphs in complementary distribuiton, in that thay cannot appear in the same phonological environment (*evlar, *işlar,*okuller, *otoler). (8) a. [ler] b. [lar] ev-ler, iş-ler, kütük-ler, söz-ler okul-lar, sınıf-lar, kutu-lar, toz-lar Let’s remember Vowel chart Turkish vowels Turkish vowels Front Back Unrou Roun nded ded Unrou Roun nded ded High i ü ı u Low e ö a o How is the choice between /e/ and /a/ determined? By the preceding stem vowel. In (8a), all the preceding stem vowels are front In (8b), all the preceding stem vowels are non front ! Front vowels + [-ler] Back vowels + [-lar] • Table 8: distribution of plural morpheme Other patterns of distribution for some productive allomorphs in Turkish: • The morpheme marking reported past /-mIş/ • The morpheme marking definite past /-DI/ • The agentive morpheme /-CI/ • First person agreement marker /-(y)Im/ The morpheme marking reported past /mIş/ • 4 allomorphs – applies to Vs Conditioned by the rounding harmony, the high suffix /i/ • Back unrounded vowels + [-mış] • Front unrounded vowels + [-miş] • Back rounded vowels + [-muş] • Front rounded vowels + [-müş] The morpheme marking definite past /-DI/ • 8 allomorphs – applies to Vs Conditioned by preceding stem vowel and consonant Consonants share voicing feature: voiced con.+/d/ vs voiceless con. + /t/ Vowels share backness and rounding features The agentive morpheme /-CI/ • 8 allomorphs – applied to Ns –means one making or selling N • Conditioned by consonant harmony in voicing and rounding harmony in both backness and rounding First person agreement marker /-(y)Im/ • 4 allomorphs – marks the subject of the sentence on predicative nouns and adjectives • Conditioned by rounded harmony. • The buffer –y is inserted when the stem ends in a vowel IT IS YOUR TURN 5 summary • What is morphology? • What is a morpheme? • How are words structured in Turkish? • What is an allomorph? Summary how are morphemes classified? DERIVATIONAL Bound (prefix –infixsuffix) INFLECTIONAL Bound (suffix) FREE CONTENT MORPHEME Class and/or x meaning changing affixes Eg. –Lık, -sAl, -CI Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs FUNCTIONAL MORPHEME X Postpositions, pronouns, determiners, conjuctions,etc. Suffixes marking grammatical relationships Eg. –lAr, -DI, -mIş SELF-TEST