What We Know about NonCognitive Constructs and
Workplace Outcomes
Paul Sackett
Question: what non-cognitive constructs
are valued in the workplace?
Sources of information:
1) The research literature on the use of noncognitive constructs to predict work behaviors
2) Literature on constructs employers seek in job
applicants
3) Job-analytic data on constructs important for
various occupations
Approach 1: The literature on non-cognitive
constructs predicting work outcomes
•
The predictor side of the equation
– Confounding of constructs and methods is
common
•
Many predictors are methods that can be used to
measure various constructs (e.g., interviews,
situational judgment tests)
– Focus on constructs in the personality domain
•
•
The “Big 5” as a broad general framework
Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Openness,
Emotional Stability, Extraversion as the highest level
aggregates
The “Big 5”
•
Conscientiousness
–
•
Agreeableness
–
•
Calm, self-confident, resilient
Extraversion
–
•
Cooperative, flexible, tolerant, forgiving
Emotional Stability
–
•
Dependable, achievement-striving, hardworking,
persevering, orderly
Sociable, talkative, assertive, active
Openness to experience
–
Curious, broad-minded, intelligent, cultured
Approach 1: Non-cognitive constructs and
work outcomes (continued)
•
The criterion side of the equation
– Current frameworks focus on three
components of overall job performance
•
Task performance
•
Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)
•
Counterproductive Work Behavior (CWB)
Approach 1: Non-cognitive constructs and
work outcomes (continued)
•
•
•
•
Strategy: examine the Big 5 as predictors
of Task Performance, OCB, and CWB
Focus on “landmark” studies and metaanalyses
Analysis is “impressionistic”, looking for
general patterns
Analysis represents grand average across
jobs
Big 5 Predicting Organizational Citizenship
Behavior (OCB)
Mean Min
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
0.21
0.14
0.16
0.08
0.03
0.18
0.10
0.14
0.05
0.01
Max Mean
Rank
0.30 1.5
0.20 2
0.17 2.5
0.11 4
0.05 5
Big 5 Predicting Organizational Citizenship
Behavior (OCB)
Mean Min
Conscientiousness 0.21
Agreeableness
0.14
Emotional Stability 0.16
Extraversion
0.08
Openness
0.03
0.18
0.10
0.14
0.05
0.01
Max Mean
Rank
0.30 1.5
0.20 2
0.17 2.5
0.11 4
0.05 5
Big 5 Predicting Organizational Citizenship
Behavior (OCB)
Mean Min
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
0.21
0.14
0.16
0.08
0.03
0.18
0.10
0.14
0.05
0.01
Max Mean
Rank
0.30 1.5
0.20 2
0.17 2.5
0.11 4
0.05 5
Big 5 Predicting Organizational Citizenship
Behavior (OCB)
Mean Min
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
0.21 0.18
0.14 0.10
0.16 0.14
0.08 0.05
0.03 0.01
Max Mean
Rank
0.30
0.20
0.17
0.11
0.05
1.5
2
2.5
4
5
Big 5 Predicting Counterproductive Work
Behavior (CWB)
Mean Min
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
0.30
0.27
0.16
0.02
0.00
0.23
0.08
0.06
-0.02
-0.14
Max Mean
Rank
0.46 1.67
0.46 1.67
0.24 3
0.09 5
0.09 3.67
***CWB is reverse scored: interpret as “avoiding
CWB”
Big 5 Predicting Counterproductive Work
Behavior (CWB)
Mean Min
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
0.30
0.27
0.16
0.02
0.00
0.23
0.08
0.06
-0.02
-0.14
Max Mean
Rank
0.46 1.67
0.46 1.67
0.24 3
0.09 5
0.09 3.67
***CWB is reverse scored: interpret as “avoiding
CWB”
Big 5 Predicting Counterproductive Work
Behavior (CWB)
Mean Min
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
0.30
0.27
0.16
0.02
0.00
0.23
0.08
0.06
-0.02
-0.14
Max Mean
Rank
0.46 1.67
0.46 1.67
0.24 3
0.09 5
0.09 3.67
***CWB is reverse scored: interpret as “avoiding
CWB”
Big 5 Predicting Counterproductive Work
Behavior (CWB)
Mean Min
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
0.30
0.27
0.16
0.02
0.00
0.23
0.08
0.06
-0.02
-0.14
Max Mean
Rank
0.46 1.67
0.46 1.67
0.24 3
0.09 5
0.09 3.67
***CWB is reverse scored: interpret as “avoiding
CWB”
Big 5 Predicting Task Performance
Mean Min
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
0.17 0.03
0.09 -0.01
0.16 0.07
0.11 0.06
0.13 0.04
Max Mean
Rank
0.23 1.6
0.28 3
0.28 3
0.18 3.6
0.24 3.8
Big 5 Predicting Task Performance
Mean Min
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
0.17
0.09
0.16
0.11
0.13
0.03
-0.01
0.07
0.06
0.04
Max Mean
Rank
0.23
0.28
0.28
0.18
0.24
1.6
3
3
3.6
3.8
Big 5 Predicting Task Performance
Mean Min
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
0.17 0.03
0.09 -0.01
0.16 0.07
0.11 0.06
0.13 0.04
Max Mean
Rank
0.23 1.6
0.28 3
0.28 3
0.18 3.6
0.24 3.8
Big 5 Predicting Task Performance
Mean Min
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Emotional Stability
Extraversion
Openness
0.17
0.09
0.16
0.11
0.13
0.03
-0.01
0.07
0.06
0.04
Max Mean
Rank
0.23
0.28
0.28
0.18
0.24
1.6
3
3
3.6
3.8
Overall pattern of predictors of job
performance
•
•
Conscientiousness, agreeableness and
emotional stability emerge as the constructs
most predictive of various work behaviors
Also: high level of predictive validity found
for widely-used measures of Integrity and
Customer Service Orientation
– Research shows these to be “compound traits”,
each reflecting a composite of
conscientiousness, agreeableness, and
emotional stability
Approach 2: Constructs employers seek in
job applicants
•
•
The interview is virtually always used in hiring
Structured vs. unstructured interviews
–
•
Structured interviews typically specify a set of attributes
to be evaluated
Huffcutt et al (2001) examined 47 studies of
structured interviews
–
–
They sorted the 338 rated attributes into categories
This gives us some insight into what employers are
seeking in job candidates
Most frequently evaluated non-cognitive
constructs in structured interviews
•
Conscientiousness
– Dependability, responsibility, need for
achievement, sense of duty, initiative
•
Interpersonal skills
– Working with others, teamwork , cooperation
•
Emotional stability
– Stress tolerance, self-control
•
Extraversion
– Assertiveness, dominance, drive, ambition
Additional issues with interview constructs
•
Other constructs rated include cognitive
skills (e.g., problem solving, judgment), oral
communication skills, and leadership skills
•
Caveat: we don’t know whether
unstructured interviews focus on similar
constructs
Approach 3: Job-analytic data on
constructs important for various
occupations
•
•
•
O*Net: a Department of Labor-sponsored
occupational analysis system
Based on a “content model” in which
occupations are evaluated in terms of 277
attributes in 6 major categories
Each of 681 occupations have been
evaluated in terms of these attributes, by
incumbents, job analysts, or both
Non-cognitive constructs in O*Net
•
From the “Work Styles” category:
Achievement/Effort Persistence Initiative
Leadership Cooperation Concern for
Others Social Orientation Self Control
Stress Tolerance Adaptability/Flexibility
Dependability Attention to Detail Integrity
Independence Innovation
Analytical Thinking
Constructs are rated on importance
•
1 - Not important
2 - Somewhat important
3 - Important
4 - Very important
5 - Extremely important
•
Examine the mean importance of each construct
across occupations
Weight each occupation by the number of
incumbents
•
–
Use Bureau of Labor Statistics Occupational
Employment Statistics (OES) survey
Occupations are rated in terms of
educational requirements
•
Occupations are assigned to “zones”:
–
–
–
–
–
1: less than high school
2: high school diploma
3: high school plus
4: bachelor’s degree
5: bachelor’s degree plus
Zone 1: less than high school
Cashiers
Food Preparation and Serving Workers
Waiters and Waitresses
Janitors and Cleaners
Maids
Landscaping and Groundskeeping Workers
Construction Laborers
Food Preparation Workers
Packers and Packagers
Cooks, Fast Food
Zone 2: High school diploma
Retail Salespersons
Office Clerks
Customer Service Representatives
Laborers and Freight, Stock, and Material Movers
Secretaries
Truck Drivers
Nursing Aides, Orderlies, and Attendants
First-Line Supervisors/Managers of Retail Sales
Workers
Receptionists and Information Clerks
Security Guards
Zone 3: High school plus
Registered Nurses
Bookkeeping, Accounting, and Auditing Clerks
General and Operations Managers
Sales Representatives, Wholesale and Manufacturing
First-Line Supervisors/Managers
Executive Secretaries
Teacher Assistants
Licensed Maintenance and Repair Workers
Practical and Licensed Vocational Nurses
Zone 4: Bachelor’s degree
Elementary School Teachers
Secondary School Teachers
Middle School Teachers
Management Analysts
Computer Systems Analysts
Computer Software Engineers
Sales Representatives (technical)
Computer Programmers
Network and Computer Systems Administrators
Zone 5: Bachelor’s degree plus
Lawyers
Chief Executives
Medical and Health Services Managers
Pharmacists
Vocational, and School Counselors
Education Administrators
Engineering Managers
Physical Therapists
Librarians
Analytic strategy
•
For each non-cognitive attribute in O*Net…
•
Compute mean importance across
occupations…
•
Within each of the 5 educational
requirement zones
Mean importance: ranked in terms of
importance for Zone 2
Zone 1
Dependability
Integrity
Cooperation
Self Control
Stress Tolerance
Concern for Others
Adaptability/Flexibility
Independence
4.16
3.83
4.04
3.99
3.76
3.77
3.53
3.39
2
3
4
5
4.37 4.55 4.51 4.6
4.16 4.47 4.46 4.69
4.15 4.3
4.29 4.34
4.15 4.23 4.17 4.33
3.93 4.15 4.21 4.31
3.87 4.07 3.96 4.23
3.82 4.05 4.27 4.21
3.81 4.03 3.98 4.26
Key facet of Conscientiousness is #1
Zone 1
Dependability
Integrity
Cooperation
Self Control
Stress Tolerance
Concern for Others
Adaptability/Flexibility
Independence
4.16
3.83
4.04
3.99
3.76
3.77
3.53
3.39
2
3
4
5
4.37 4.55 4.51 4.6
4.16 4.47 4.46 4.69
4.15 4.3
4.29 4.34
4.15 4.23 4.17 4.33
3.93 4.15 4.21 4.31
3.87 4.07 3.96 4.23
3.82 4.05 4.27 4.21
3.81 4.03 3.98 4.26
Two key facets of Agreeableness are highly
rated
Zone 1
Dependability
Integrity
Cooperation
Self Control
Stress Tolerance
Concern for Others
Adaptability/Flexibility
Independence
4.16
3.83
4.04
3.99
3.76
3.77
3.53
3.39
2
3
4
5
4.37 4.55 4.51 4.6
4.16 4.47 4.46 4.69
4.15 4.3
4.29 4.34
4.15 4.23 4.17 4.33
3.93 4.15 4.21 4.31
3.87 4.07 3.96 4.23
3.82 4.05 4.27 4.21
3.81 4.03 3.98 4.26
Two key facets of Emotional Stability are
highly rated
Zone 1
Dependability
Integrity
Cooperation
Self Control
Stress Tolerance
Concern for Others
Adaptability/Flexibility
Independence
4.16
3.83
4.04
3.99
3.76
3.77
3.53
3.39
2
3
4
5
4.37 4.55 4.51 4.6
4.16 4.47 4.46 4.69
4.15 4.3
4.29 4.34
4.15 4.23 4.17 4.33
3.93 4.15 4.21 4.31
3.87 4.07 3.96 4.23
3.82 4.05 4.27 4.21
3.81 4.03 3.98 4.26
Key point: Same constructs are “top rated”
across zones
Zone 1
Dependability
Integrity
Cooperation
Self Control
Stress Tolerance
Concern for Others
Adaptability/Flexibility
Independence
4.16
3.83
4.04
3.99
3.76
3.77
3.53
3.39
2
3
4
5
4.37 4.55 4.51 4.6
4.16 4.47 4.46 4.69
4.15 4.3
4.29 4.34
4.15 4.23 4.17 4.33
3.93 4.15 4.21 4.31
3.87 4.07 3.96 4.23
3.82 4.05 4.27 4.21
3.81 4.03 3.98 4.26
More differentiation among zones for
constructs less important for Zone 2
Zone 1
Initiative
Persistence
Achievement/Effort
Attention to Detail
Social Orientation
Analytical Thinking
Leadership
Innovation
3.36
3.16
3.22
3.22
3.44
2.79
3.01
2.80
2
3
4
5
3.72
3.56
3.53
3.53
3.52
3.32
3.28
3.26
4.12
3.95
3.82
3.82
3.68
3.83
3.78
3.61
4.25
4.16
4.08
4.08
3.66
4.15
4.00
3.88
4.39
4.29
4.23
4.23
3.87
4.32
4.22
3.89
Summary
•
Examined three sources of information:
–
–
–
•
Studies correlating personality measures with task
performance, citizenship and counterproductive work
behavior
Attributes rated in structured employment interviews
O*Net ratings of the importance of various attributes
Common findings across sources
–
–
–
Conscientiousness (dependability
Agreeableness (cooperation, teamwork)
Emotional Stability (stress tolerance, self control)
Discussion
•
These constructs are broadly relevant
–
–
•
for jobs available to high school graduates
for jobs requiring additional education
Can one’s standing on these constructs be
changed?
–
School is a setting with multiple opportunities to
develop and reward behaviors relevant to these
constructs