The Paris Peace Conference
&
The Treaties
K.J. Benoy
A Sudden End
• When the Central
Powers collapsed, it
came suddenly.
• The Allies had no
clear plans for the
aftermath
A Conference in Paris
• No formal talks came
before the war’s end.
• The victorious powers
decided to meet in
Paris, to decide the
future of the world.
• American President
Wilson would sail to
Europe for the
duration.
The Paris Peace Conference
• There had never
been anything like
this before.
• The Congress of
Vienna, that settled
post Napoleonic
Europe, was the
closest precedent –
but it happened
before mass media
was invented.
The Personalities - Wilson
• US President Woodrow
Wilson seemed to hold all
the cards.
– His country was powerful
and had suffered least from
the war.
– He was hailed by ordinary
Europeans as the “prophet
of a new world.”
– America had the economic
clout to lever the British
and French.
The Personalities - Wilson
• However, Wilson was
slow and stiff.
• He was restricted by
his ideology and his
commitment to two
key principles:
– Internationalism
– National SelfDetermination.
The Personalities - Wilson
• He was no bargainer.
• He had little experience in
international negotiations.
• He was often fooled by
the slicker European
diplomats who he disliked.
• He began with political
support at home, but by
the end of the Conference,
he was losing the support
of Congress.
The Personalities - Wilson
• Most significantly – he was
not a well man.
• He suffered from high blood
pressure and the stress of the
conference wore on him.
• His poor health was a closely
guarded secret, but we know
he did suffer violently from
influenza while in Europe.
He may also have had
strokes earlier than the
famous one that
incapacitated him after he
returned from Europe.
The Personalities - Clemenceau
• Often known by his
nick-name – “The
Tiger” – he was old
but determined.
• He wholly agreed with
Foche and the French
military, that what was
needed was a peace of
revenge against
Germany.
The Personalities - Clemenceau
• Clemenceau
understood that France
had suffered mightily
in the Great War and
that recovery would be
long and expensive.
• Germany must be
made to pay.
The Personalities – Lloyd-George
• A Welshman, he was a
fiery orator and brilliant
thinker.
• However, he did not like
to write things down.
• His nick-name was “the
Goat” because he seemed
able to leap from one
precarious position to
another without ever
losing his balance.
The Personalities – Lloyd-George
• A Liberal, he was inclined to
support Wilson, because he knew
American support was essential
to any peace agreed upon.
• However, he had been elected on
a policy of “hang the Kaiser and
make Germany pay!”
• In Paris his position moderated –
influenced by John Maynard
Keynes. LG argued most
strongly for German interests,
feeling a bitter and chaotic
Germany was bad for European
reconstruction.
The Personalities – Lloyd-George
• His chief interest lay
in protecting British
trade and trade routes
and this flew in the
face of America’s
desire for open trade
and trade routes which
would favour US
business.
The Personalities - Orlando
• Vittorio Orlando was
the Italian Prime
Minister.
• He went to Paris
believing himself to be
one of the “Big Four.”
• However, he was not
considered so by
Wilson, Clemenceau
and Lloyd-George.
The Personalities - Orlando
• His inability to speak
English gave his halfWelsh Foreign Minister,
Sydney Sonnino,
prominence.
• Their differences
weakened Italy’s
bargaining position.
• Orlando was prepared to
sacrifice Dalmatia to get
the city of Fiume.
Sonnino would not. Italy
got neither.
The Personalities - Orlando
• Clemenceau dubbed
Orlando “the weeper.”
• He negotiated from
weakness as his
political support at
home evaporated.
• He was forced from
office before the
Treaties were signed.
The Personalities - Others
• The winning nations
each sent delegations
to Paris, including a
host of leaders of
small nations.
• They had little
influence in
negotiations, but some
had significant ability
to disrupt any future
agreements.
The Personalities - Others
• Non-white
leaders also
attended the
conference.
• However, only
the Japanese
had any
influence.
Not Present at the conference.
Friedrich Ebert
Lenin
• Most significant was the absence of delegates from
defeated powers.
• Neither Germany nor Russia was invited.
Problems
• The Chief problem at
the start of the
conference was the
lack of an agenda.
• What would be dealt
with first.
• No two countries had
the same priorities.
A League of Nations?
• Wilson was fixated on
the idea of forming a
League of Nations.
• Clemenceau and
Lloyd George used
this to manipulate him.
• They accepted the
principle and horsetraded for items they
wanted.
Defeated Colonies
• Britain and its empire
wanted colonial issues
dealt with.
• Wilson favoured an end to
colonial acquisitions,
favouring a mandate
system, where the
“civilized nations” would
rule over more primitive
people only until they
were able to look after
themselves.
Defeated Colonies
• A 3 Tiered system was
agreed upon:
– A) Virtual independence,
but with military and
administrative assistance –
used in the case of Arab
areas taken from Turkey.
– B) Administration by a
western country to protect
the natives.
– C) Administration as a
virtual colony of the
mandated power – to be
used in the case of thinly
populated or remote areas.
The Middle East
• Three key issues
dominated discussions:
– Arab self determination had
to be addressed. Promises
were made by the British.
Would they be met?
– Britain and France had
imperial designs on the
region. Control of oil was
already an issue.
– Britain made war-time
promises to Zionists.
Would a Jewish homeland
be granted? Did this mean
a Jewish country?
The Middle East
• In the final compromise,
A-type mandates were set.
• Promises to the Arabs
were broken, except for
establishing the Kingdom
of Hejaz.
• Britain got Palestine,
Transjordan and Iraq
(including Kuwait).
• France got Syria and
Lebanon.
• The Jews did not get a
homeland.
The Middle East - Turkey
• War time agreements
existed that called for
carving up of most
Turkish territories.
• Greece was
particularly interested
in West Asia Minor –
Greek in ancient times
– mixed ethnically in
1919.
The Middle East - Turkey
• War between Turkey
and Greece ensued,
with the Turks
triumphant.
• Ethnic cleansing
occurred on both
sides.
• These countries have
resented each other
ever since.
Turkey
Treaty of Sevres
• The Paris treaty with Turkey
proved the most short-lived;
The end of the Ottoman Empire
and its replacement by a
resurgent Turkey under Mustafa
Kemal Attaturk, doomed it.
• A number of its provisions were
dropped in the 1923 Treaty of
Lausanne:
– Greece lost Eastern Thrace and
territory in mainland Asia
Minor.
– Armenia did not gain
independence.
– No independent Kurdistan was
created.
– European zones of influence
were dropped.
The Military Commission
• There was serious infighting
here.
• France wanted German
power permanently broken.
• In a compromise, German
power would be limited –
but the powers would also
commit themselves to
disarmament in the future.
• Would they actually follow
through?
• Germany’s armed forces
would be tiny: 100,000 men;
no air force, a minimal navy
with no capital ships.
The Western Agreement
• France wanted control of
the Rhineland, but LG felt
this would just repeat the
Alsace-Lorraine problem
of the pre-war years.
• LG proposed an
American-British
guarantee of France
against unprovoked
German attack. This
would end the age old
British fear of a
continental commitment.
The Western Agreement
• France refused the
compromise.
• It agreed only to
demilitarization of
the Rhineland and
the right to occupy
the Saar and
Rhineland if
Germany did not
follow the treaty
exactly.
The Western Agreement
• The Allies nearly fell out
on this. Wilson threatened
to quit the conference and
sign a separate peace with
Germany.
• Finally a compromise was
reached.
– The Saar would be under
League of Nations control
for 15 years – followed by a
plebiscite.
– The Rhineland would be
demilitarized and
temporarily occupied, until
it was clear that Germany
was obeying the treaty.
The Eastern Agreement
• Clearly events in
Russia would strongly
influence this.
• In 1919, the outlook
was distinctly unclear.
• The Delegates at Paris
strongly wanted to
isolate the Soviets to
bring about their
defeat.
The Eastern Agreement - Poland
• France wanted a strong
Poland – allied with
France against Germany –
a replacement for the lost
Russian ally.
• Britain wanted a small,
cohesive Poland.
• Wilson, thinking about the
Polish vote in America,
was sympathetic to the
Poles.
The Eastern Agreement - Poland
• Poland was given a
generous deal.
– It won access to the sea
as it was granted German
populated East Prussian
territory.
– It had a customs union
with Danzig, now
detached from Germany
and under League of
Nations control.
– It was granted
considerable territory in
the East – at the cost of
Russia.
The Eastern Agreement - Czechoslovakia
• Britain was sympathetic to
the Czechs, as many former
Russian prisoners fought for
the British after gaining
freedom.
• Problems existed though:
– 3 million Germans lived in the
Sudeten area, claimed by the
Czechs.
– Other ethnic minorities existed
throughout the former AustroHungarian lands.
The Eastern Agreement – Austria
Treaty of St. Germain
• Old Austria was
thoroughly dismembered.
• It would emerge a tiny
nation of 7 million – fully
2 million in its ethnically
diverse capital.
• Vienna, once hub of a
great empire, was now cut
off from its hinterland.
• The country might not be
economically viable.
• Anschluss – union with
Germany – was expressly
forbidden.
The Eastern Agreement – Hungary
Treaty of Trianon
• Like Austria,
Hungary was
thoroughly
dismembered.
• Many ethnic
Hungarians were
assigned to
neighbouring
countries.
Further Complications
• The big issues dealt
with, it was felt the
little ones would fall
into place.
• Unfortunately, they
did not.
Fiume
• This was an Italian
populated city, surrounded
by a Slavic countryside, in
former Austro-Hungarian
territory.
• Wilson wanted a Free City
with a plebiscite in 15
years.
• Italian adventurers simply
invaded and ultimately
handed the territory over
to Italy.
Gabriel D’Annunzio –
who seized Fiume
Treaty of Versailles - Germany
• Of course the most
important treaty was
the one dealing with
Germany.
• Some of this was
easily sorted, but
much was not.
• The issues of war-guilt
and of reparations
were crucial.
Article 231
• Article 231 – “The
War Guilt Clause,”
was sure to enrage
Germany.
• However, it was
needed in order to
justify reparation
payments.
Reparations
• Germany had forced
France to pay
reparations after the
Franco-Prussian
War.
• France & Belgium
were particularly
adamant that
Germany should
pay for the cost of
this war. After all,
German cities were
untouched while
most of Flanders lay
in ruins.
Reparations
• The final sum was
not set until after
Germany
reluctantly signed
the Treaty of
Versailles.
• The amount
finally specified
was 133 billion
gold marks – 10
billion British
pounds -- US$33
billion.
Over-all Reactions of Allies
• When most of the final deals were hammered out,
the leaders looked at the over-all effect.
• LG and the moderates felt the Treaty of Versailles
overwhelming and impractical; it was too harsh;
Germany might not sign.
• Wilson was too alienated to consider further
revision. He refused to renegotiate anything.
• Clemenceau was against anything that might
lessen the terms of the treaty.
German Reaction
• Germany was appalled at
what was unfolding at the
Paris talks.
• Many Germans felt that
Wilson’s pre-war talk
hinted at a fairly soft
peace.
• They quickly forgot the
harsh peace that they had
imposed on Russia at
Brest-Litovsk.
German Reaction
• Germany insisted on
changes to the treaty, but
undermined its position by
protesting every single
point, instead of focussing
on essentials.
• Only tiny concessions
were made.
• Germany refused to hand
over ‘war criminals.”
• However, in the end there
was no alternative but to
sign.
• Germany could not
resume fighting.
Problems of the Pace
Red areas
represent
German and
Austrian
lands lost.
The Poem
reads: “You
must carve in
your heart
These words,
as in stone What we
have lost
Will be
regained!”
• There was
a clear
perception
in
Germany,
and to a
lesser
extent in
Britain, that
the Treaty
of
Versailles
was unjust.
Problems of the Peace
• Germany lost 25,000
square miles of territory
together with 6 million
inhabitants. Germany lost
65 percent of her iron ore
reserves, 45 percent of her
coal, 72 percent of her zinc
and 10 percent of her
industrial capacity. A 26
percent tax was placed on
all German imports. It
was calculated that, with
interest, the cash
reparation burden would
have taken 50 years to pay
off.
Problems of the Peace
• Despite the principle
of self-determination
being implemented,
many national
minorities were
outside their own
nation states.
• German minorities, in
particular, would pose
future problems.
Problems of the Peace
• Austria and Hungary were
both probably too small to
function as economic
units.
• Some promises, like the
Allied commitment to
disarmament, would not
be properly honoured.
• Only cooperation could
ensure that the treaties
were enforce, but even as
the conference ended, it
was clear that this
cooperation would not
happen.
Problems of the Peace
• Wilson returned to the USA a
sick man. He soon suffered a
stroke on September 29.
• Wilson refused to accept
Congress’ wish to modify the
treaties. He failed to secure 2/3
support, needed to ratify the
treaties.
• The USA signed a separate treaty
with Germany in 1921.
• The USA did not join the League
of Nations.
• Collective security was
undermined and no new balance
of power emerged from the
treaties.
On a More Positive Note
• The principle of selfdetermination was adhered
to as much as possible.
• Everything possible was
done to encourage
nationalism and
democracy.
• It was actually less harsh
than the treaty Germany
imposed on Russia in
1918.
Interpretations of the Treaties Liberals
• The treaties were a
violation of Wilson’s 14
Points.
• Had LG and Clemenceau
cooperated with Wilson, a
lasting peace might have
been achieved.
• The USA might have
signed the treaties.
Interpretations of the Treaties Marxists
• Versailles and the other treaties
were the inevitable result of
capitalist imperialism.
• The liberal “open door” policy
argued for by the Americans
was nothing but a US plot to
gain economic world
domination.
• The League of Nations was just
a mechanism to guarantee the
peace needed for US economic
penetration abroad.
• The chief aim of the peace was
to contain communism and
prevent it spreading
Interpretations of the Treaties Conservatives
• Wilson was a foolish idealist.
• He did not grasp the need to reduce German power until
restraints were strong enough to check a German revival.
• He misunderstood the German mind in thinking that the
defeated nation would renounce revenge.
• Victory was thrown aside at Paris.
• Democracy would never guarantee peace.
• Wilson’s demand for national self-determination led to a
Balkanization of Europe.
• Britain’s commitment to Europe was a dangerous and
unnecessary move that threatened Imperial security.
Conclusion
• Regardless of interpretation,
the treaties that emerged
from Paris did establish the
framework for the next
decade and beyond.
• Europe would either have to
make it work or come up
with an alternative system.
• Unfortunately America
would generally not be a part
of the security arrangements
that emerged.
Finis