The Belle Époque
The Age of Progress
The Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries
marked the height of modern liberal
European society.
Rising standards of living and mass
communications gave rise of leisure
culture, greater demands by women
and the oppressed, and an explosion
in artistic expression.
The new confidence of this period
would be contrasted by the opposition
to it.
The Women Question
In the 1860s, women’s movements
gained strength they had not had
before.
This reflected the power of women in
the workplace and in the home.
Three types of women's movements:
Middle class-led, focusing on social
issues.
Focused on equal rights (laws and
voting)
Women’s trade unions (concerned with
pay and working conditions)
The Women Question
Working women still made up a large
percentage of the workforce.
Jobs were often determined by
gender.
Women were more prevalent in the
service industries and textile factories
than in heavy industrial production.
The Women Question
Increasing education for
women opened new
opportunities.
More women became
secretaries, clerks, nurses, and
teachers (occupations that
became associated with their
sex).
Significant clashes continued
between feminists and
chauvinists and Social
Darwinists.
Popular Culture
Mass culture continued to expand in scope
as people (esp. middle class) had more
leisure time.
Entertainment became and important
business as upper and middle class would
attend opera or musicals while working
class attended vaudeville or circuses.
Holidays a beach resorts became popular
for people of all classes.
Sports
New “ball games” became popular,
first at boys school, then spreading
both for amateur players and for
spectators.
Games such as football (soccer),
rugby, and cricket were popular team
games played at schools and by
working class people in the cities.
For upper classes, golf, tennis, and
polo became increasingly popular.
The Arts
The late 19th century was a time of rapid
change and experimentation in the arts,
with no one dominant style.
Arts moved away from strict realism.
The arts often reflected national character.
Some moved to simpler styles, like the PreRaphaelites.
This period marked the beginning of
“modern” art styles with symbolism,
impressionism, post-impressionism
developing.
Arts – Pre-Raphaelites
J.W. Waterhouse – The Lady of Shallot
The Arts - Impressionism
Claude Monet – The Houses of Parliament
The Arts - Impressionism
Claude Monet – The Waterlilies
The Arts - Impressionism
Pierre-Auguste Renoir - Moulin de la Galette.
The Arts – Post Impressionism
Vincent Van Gogh
The Arts - Post Impressionism
Paul Gauguin
The Arts - Symbolism
Edvard Munch – The Scream
Attacks on Capitalist Civilization
By the late 19th century, liberal society was
largely successful in its transformation of
Europe.
Even so, it was attacked on both the left
and the right by those who sought to
reform it or bring about its demise.
These movements would bring into
question the cult of progress which had
dominated much of the second half of the
19th century.
Working Class Movements
The First International
The International Working Men’s
Association was organized in
1864.
The meeting of workers from
around the world was dominated
by Karl Marx from the start.
He would eventually expel
French and English socialists
who disagreed with Marxism.
The First International would last
until 1872.
The Socialist Parties
Beginning in the 1870s, socialist
political parties began gaining more
power across Europe.
With the exception of Britain, these
parties generally adhered to Marxism.
Conflicts between those who hoped to
win parliamentary victories and those
who wanted revolution caused
disunity.
Trade Unionism
Membership in trade unions soared in the
late 19th century.
Factory workers who organized large scale
strikes flexed more power than they ever
had before.
The goals of unions were often limited to
their situation, but with the influence of
Marxism and anarchism, they often took on
broader social protests.
Anarchism
Anarchism gained a greater following
among the poor and oppressed.
Anarchists opposed all imposed authority
and middle class values, some called for
abolition of private property, individualism,
and pacifism.
Anarchists (and other radicals) were
responsible for a series of terrorists acts
and assassinations in the years leading up
to World War I.
Mikhail Bakunin
He was the most famous early
anarchist.
Bakunin became involved in the
1848 revolutions and was exiled to
Siberia.
When he escaped, he joined the
First International.
Disagreements with Marx led to
his expulsion in 1872.
He strongly believed in
nationalism.
The Christian Critique
Catholicism
The Catholic Church was at
odds with liberalism
In Pope Pius IX’s Quanta
Cura (1864), the Church
attacked human reason, the
authority of the state, and
the rights of the Church.
In the First Vatican Council
(1869-70), papal infallibility
was reaffirmed.
Pope Leo XIII and Pius X
followed with similar
criticisms of liberalism and
communism
Pope Pius IX
The Christian Critique
Social Action
Churches and related organizations
began expanding and taking on new
roles in helping the poor and oppressed
of Europe.
Organizations and churches like the
Salvation Army, founded by Methodist
minister William Booth in England, took
on greater roles in caring for the poor.
Growing Pessimism
There was growing pessimism even
among those who desired radical
change.
George Sorel questioned Marxism as
to optimistic, instead focusing on
anarcho-communism that was chosen
by individual will.
Henri-Louis Bergson echo these
sentiments, focusing on intuition over
intellect as the driving force for
change.
Growing Pessimism
Revival of the Right
During the late 19th century and early
20th century, there was also a revival in
conservative thought.
Much of this was driven in reaction to the
liberal domination of the time and the
growing power of the left among the
workers.
This revival pulled on nationalism and
tradition to keep power in the hands of
the traditional ruling elite and appealed
to rural people and the lower middle
classes.
Anti-Semitism
Throughout much of Europe, a wave of
anti-Semitic feeling was slowly rising.
This was particularly visible in Russia, with
the enactment of the May Laws in 1882
(these severely restricted rights for Jews).
Throughout most of Europe, society was
tolerant (France granted emancipation in
1790), but anti-Semitic undercurrents
remained and were exposed through
incidents such as they Dreyfus Affair in
France and anti-Semitic parties willing
elections in Germany.
Friedrich Nietzsche
German philosopher who
criticized Christianity’s beliefs in
humility, pity, and altruism.
He exalted the will, stating the
human will gives life meaning.
He stressed the idea of the
superman, or heroic leader, who
broke the rules and led a higher
level of existence.
Politics and Reform
The late 19th and early 20th centuries
saw an increased push for democracy
and reform across much of Europe.
Some areas made this transition
relatively easily (Britain, France, and
Germany), while others faced
reactionary problems (Russia and
Austria)
Great Britain
The Reform Bill of 1867
Expansion of the electorate was a major
issue debated by the Conservatives
(Tories) and Liberals (the old Whigs).
Each side hoped to gain the support of
the working classes by giving them the
vote.
The Conservative government of
Benjamin Disraeli passed reform in
1867, but the expanded electorate gave
the Liberals power in 1868.
Great Britain
William Gladstone
Liberal Party Leader, served as
PM four times.
Known as the “Great Ministry”
due to Gladstone’s strong
religious convictions.
His Liberal governments passed
reforms in education, workers
rights to unionize and strike and
the secret ballot.
Great Britain
Benjamin Disraeli
Served as PM twice.
Renewed Tories after the
Corn Laws schism.
Committed to program of
“Tory Democracy”.
Expanded government’s
role in economy, regulated
working conditions,
improved sanitation.
Great Britain
The Irish Question
The question of Irish Home Rule (a
separate parliament for Ireland) plagued
Gladstone’s later governments.
Since Catholic Emancipation in 1829,
growing numbers of Catholic MPs
demanded home rule.
Two home rule bills (1886, 1893) were
defeated by Conservatives and antihome rule Liberals.
Great Britain
The Labour Party
The growth of labor unions and
associations like the Fabian
Society gave voice to socialism in
Britain.
The Labour Party was founded in
1900 by Scotsman Keir Hardie.
By 1906, Labour had won 26
seats in parliament and would by
the 1920s replace the Liberals as
one of the two major British
political parties
Keir Hardie
The Parliament Act of 1911
The Liberals dominated government
from 1906 to 1924.
In 1911, a “People’s Budget” was
presented, which the Conservative
House of Lords failed to pass.
King George V (r. 1910-1936)
threatened to appoint new Liberal
peers, the Lords passed the bill.
As a result, Parliament passed a
measure restricting the powers of the
Lords (could not stop budget and
repeated bills passed by the
Commons.)
King George V
France
The Paris Commune
With defeat in the FrancoPrussian War and the fall of
Napoleon III, radicals attempted
to take advantage of the situation
in France.
Radicals attempted to establish a
socialist government in Paris.
The government of the Third
Republic, under leadership of
Adolphe Thiers crushed the
radicals, kill 20,000 in the
process.
Adolphe Thiers
France
The Third Republic
Had a weak central government centered in the
Parliament.
Coalition governments were common since no
one party could dominate, relied on
compromise.
The Boulanger Affair
General George Boulanger attempted to take
power when financial scandals broke.
He failed, discrediting monarchists.
France
The Dreyfus Affair
Captain Alfred Dreyfus, a Jew,
was court-martialed for giving
secrets to the Germans.
Evidence was found to the
contrary, but Dreyfus was
convicted as second time.
Many, including novelist Emile
Zola came to his defense.
Dreyfus was pardoned in 1906.
Alfred Dreyfus
France
Anticlericalism
The Dreyfus Affair exposed corruption in
army and church.
This led to anticlerical campaign,
separating Church and state.
Socialism
Dealing with the monarchists and
church, republicans ignored the workers.
In 1905, socialists groups joined to form
United Socialist Party.
Germany
Reich government
Reichstag was elected by universal manhood
suffrage.
Bundesrat was appointed by German princes.
Cabinet and chancellor were responsible to
Kaiser, not parliament.
Economic development
German economy soared from 1871 to 1914
based on coal and steel production.
German population grew from 41 million in
1871 to 65 million by 1914.
Germany
Wilhelm II (r. 1888-1918)
Wilhelm succeeded his father
Frederick who was Kaiser for
only 99 days.
He dismissed Bismarck in 1890
to consolidate his own rule.
He allowed anti-socialist
legislation to expire, giving the
Social Democrats greater power.
By 1912, the Social Democrats
were the largest single party in
the Reichstag.
Italy
Economic and Political Unrest
There were revolts and strikes
throughout Italy in the 1890s.
King Humbert I was assassinated by
an anarchist in 1900, he was
succeeded by Victor Emmanuel III (r.
1900-1946).
Despite the repressive policies of PL
Giovanni Giolitti, voting was gradually
expanded to all men by 1912.
During this period, Italy had the fasting
growing economy in Europe.
Victor
Emmanuel III
Spain
Revolution and Restoration
Discontent across Spain in 1868 brought
revolution and the establishment of a
constitutional monarchy.
Isabella son, Alfonso XII led a relatively
conservative government.
Discontent in the colonies and problems
of industrialization were exacerbated by
defeat in the Spanish American War (in
which Spain lost Cuba, the Philippines,
and Puerto Rico.
Austria-Hungary
Nationalist Discontent
Extension of the vote in Austria did little
to quell the discontent of the national
minorities of the Empire.
In Hungary, the parliament began a
process of Magyarization, seeking
national minorities to accept Hungarian
language and culture.
Slovaks, Romanians, Croats and the
other South Slavs resented this.
Russia
Alexander II (r. 1855-1881)
Under Alexander II, limited
reforms were put in place.
He was assassinated by
terrorists.
Alexander III (r. 1881-1894)
He ruled Russia with a iron
hand.
Using his secret police, he
crushed dissent in all forms.
Tsar Alexander III
Russia
Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917)
He was determined to continue
his father’s autocratic rule.
Under him, Russian
industrialization pushed
forward, but most of the pop.
was still rural and poor.
Radicals gained greater
following, especially the
socialists.
Russia
Russo-Japanese War
The Japanese and Russians
came into conflict over
Manchuria and Korea.
In Feb. 1904, the Japanese
attacked the Russian Fleet a
Port Arthur.
The Japanese defeated the
Russian fleet at the battles of
Mukden and Tsushima in 1905.
The Treaty of Portsmouth
ended the war, humiliating
Russia.
Russia
Revolution of 1905
Russia’s defeat in the war discredited
the tsarist regime.
In Jan. 1905, troops shoot at peaceful
demonstrators in St. Petersburg calling for
reforms (constitution, civil liberties, labor
unions), this became known as Bloody
Sunday.
Strikes swept the country and a naval
mutiny occurred on the battleship Potemkin.
Revolution was quelled with the issuing of
the October Manifesto by Nicholas II,
promising reforms and democracy.