Americas 600-1450
Unit 3 Section 5
Classic-era Culture & Society in
Mesoamerica: 600-900
• Although never under one central rule, the peoples of Mesoamerica
developed similar religious, social, and cultural practices
– Mesoamerica made strides in agriculture, astronomy, math, and political
organization, building on the work of earlier civilizations like the Olmec
• Population growth and the rise of long-distance trade led to the
development of large urban centers with both religious and political
significance
– These cities had many architectural features, including pyramidstructures, designed for elaborate religious ceremonies
– Thousand year old agricultural practices like terraced farming and
irrigation continued to serve as the economic foundation for
Mesoamerican society in the classic period;
• The distinctive feature of the classic period in Mesoamerican society
was not agricultural advances but rather social changes
– These changes created a new political elite that control larger numbers
of laborers and soldiers,
– They grew in power, and extended political reach over larger areas of
Mesoamerica
• Two civilizations that exemplify the classic period are
– Teotihuacan in Mexico
– Maya in the Yucatán Peninsula
Teotihuacan
• Located just north of modern-day Mexico City,
Teotihuacan we reached its zenith in 600
• The largest city in the Americas at the time, it had
well over 100,000 inhabitants, perhaps as many as
200,000, and was one of the largest cities in the
world as well
• Teotihuacan was also a religious center that drew
people from neighboring areas;
– Priests were highly regarded and played a central role
in the society
• The elite status of priests was common in other
Mesoamerican societies as well
– The people of Teotihuacan were polytheistic,
– The religious architecture focused on pyramid like
structures dedicated to worshiping the sun, moon, and
to God Quetzalcoatl, who was believed to be the
source of agriculture and the arts
– The people of Teotihuacan practice human sacrifice,
which they considered a sacred duty necessary for the
maintenance of human society
Teotihuacan Economy
• As the city grew, the governing elite
developed the surrounding lands for
agricultural production
– In addition to irrigation and terraced farming on
hillsides, the use of chinampas increased
• Chinampas are man-made islands constructed out of
the materials found in the lake environment
• They allowed for agricultural production year-round,
which provided a constant food supply for the growing
population
• A reliable food supply permitted
specialization of labor in architecture as well
as trade and art –
– pottery and obsidian tools were key goods in
long-distance trade
The Fall of Teotihuacan
• Other Mesoamerica societies had one central ruler
– Historical evidence suggests that in Teotihuacan, an
alliance of aristocratic families had political authority
• Scholars also debate the role of Teotihuacan’s
military;
– archaeological evidence suggests that soldiers were
used both to secure long-distance trade and to ensure
that agricultural surpluses were used to the city’s
benefit
• Why Teotihuacan was destroyed is not clear, but
there is evidence that the final decades were
– Violent
– The disagreements among the elites as well as the
mishandling of resources lead to disorder and mass
conflict
– Resulting in the destruction of much of the city by
650
•
Maya
The Mayan civilization covered modern-day Guatemala,
Honduras, Belize, and southern Mexico
– The Maya were never politically unified but shared a single
culture
• Rulers of the various city states competed with one another for
territorial supremacy
– As in Teotihuacan, feeding the large populations in many urban
centers necessitated planned agricultural strategies like terraced
farming and irrigation
– Strong Mayan cities featured elaborately decorated and colorful:
– Religious palaces,
– Pyramids,
– Temples
• All designed to express the political and religious authority of the King
– Pyramids like Tikal in Guatemala, which rose above the trees, represented the
access point to both the heavens of the underworld, and they were visible from
large plazas where people gathered to witness the elaborate ceremonies of
sacrifice and ritual that awed them
– Amazingly, the Mayan other Amerindian societies were able to
construct such incredible buildings
• without the use of the wheel or metal tools;
• stone tools and levers were the only technology used by the thousands of
men and women who built the structures
Religion and Social Structure
• The role of religious ritual cannot be overstated
– The elite had both secular and religious
responsibilities and acted as intermediaries between
the spirit world and material world
• Both bloodletting sacrifice were considered essential to
success in life and in war
– Kings and other members of the elite led their soldiers in war,
then their captives were sacrificed for the faith
– The ruling families also had important religious and political roles
and participated in ritual bloodletting ceremonies (Creepy
details?? Yes, let’s discuss!)
• Two kingdoms were known to have been ruled by
women – though this was not the norm
– Although less is known about the lower class women,
scholars believe women
•
•
•
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played important religious roles in their homes,
wove cloth,
managed their households,
directed family life
Contributions
• Some most important intellectual
contributions of the Maya were in the areas
of astronomical observation, hieroglyphic
writing, and math, which included a concept
of zero
• These intellectual accomplishments allowed
for the development of elaborate calendars
that represent the best of Mesoamerica and
culture
• The Maya had three calendars:
– One tracked a ritual cycle of 260 days
– One was a solar calendar of 365 days
– One was a Long Count calendar,
• It began on a set date in 3114 B.C.E., the Mayan
date of creation, and was continual
Mayan Calendar
Collapse
• There is much speculation about how the
classic period of the Maya ended
– Although there were some urban centers which
lasted far beyond the classic period, it is
clear that between 800 and 900 many centers
were destroyed or abandoned
– Of the many reasons suggested, the strongest
is that the combination of expansion and lack
of agricultural productivity caused social
tension that degenerated into warfare
Post-classic Period 900-1500
• The postclassic period had continuities with the
Mesoamerican classic period in
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–
–
–
–
social structure,
art,
culture, (including religious practices)
architecture,
the role of cities
• Population growth demanded the management of:
• Agricultural resources
• Military
• Politics
– Having control of these aspects and of the people
became a priority for the two strongest societies of
the post-classic period:
• Toltecs
• Aztecs
Toltecs
• Migrating people who eventually settled in central Mexico, the
Toltecs built on many of the cultural practices of the people of
Teotihuacan to create a sophisticated civilization
– Their innovative contributions were mainly political and were based on
military conquest that allow them to create a state reaching from north
of Mexico City to Central America
– The Toltec capital of Tula, though never as populous as Teotihuacan,
was an elaborate architectural achievement in central Mexico
– Toltec art depicted and glorified the militaristic aspects of its culture,
including scenes of human sacrifice
– Political organization was based on two kings who ruled together; at
some point after 1000, a struggle between political elites resulted in the
expulsion of one of the kings
• This was the beginning of the end for the Toltecs, culminating in the destruction of the
capital around 1156 when invaders from the North overtook it
• As new peoples came into the Toltec region, they built on the
ancient Mesoamerican traditions combined with the new Toltec
military and political strategies
– The strongest group that emerged from the migrating northern peoples
in the centuries following the Toltecs were the Mexica, or Aztec people
Aztecs
• Organize by clan, the Mexica people,
known as the Aztecs, were originally serfs
and mercenaries for the more powerful
groups in the area
• As they were growing in power, the Aztecs
moved to islands off the shore of Lake
Texcoco
– In 1325 they began building the two cities
that would become the foundation of modern
Mexico City,
• Tenochtitlan
• Tlatelolco
Aztec hierarchy
• Aztec society was based on military conquest and
looked to the Toltec as models
– Continual military success allowed the Aztecs to take
good agricultural lands and establish a monarchy in the
region
• The monarch did not have absolute authority
– Selected by a Council of aristocrats from among all the males of the
ruling family, a new king had to complete a new round of military
conquests to validate his role in the warring class
• As these practices continued, social hierarchy tightened
– The highest status was assigned to the warrior elite,
» who enjoyed huge estates that relied on the labor of peasants,
• who had little say in decision-making
• Clan-based organization continue to be important
in the twin capitals,
– serving as a method for dividing agricultural labor and
civic duties and also for creating military units
Economy
• Agricultural laborers provided the food for the
Aztec’s large urban population of approximately
150,000
– The Aztecs, like the people of Teotihuacan before
them, used the chinampa system to grow maize and
various fruits and vegetables
– They also built an impressive dike to separate
freshwater from the salt water in the Lake Texcoco so
that the land could be used for cultivation
• Another vital resource for the Aztecs was the
tribute system, which allowed the Aztecs to draw
upon the labor and resources of conquered peoples
– This tribute system provided a quarter of the food
supplies for the Aztec Empire and also brought a variety
of other practical items and luxury goods to the Aztecs
– These tribute goods, along with the products from longdistance trade, diversified the rich markets of
Tenochtitlan
Social Stratification
• By 1500, the population of the Twin Cities and the
surrounding lakeshore areas was approximately
half a million people
• Aztec society was very stratified, and there was
great division based on wealth
– The rich ate, dressed, and lived well,
– While commoners had a very basic diet and lived simply
• Commoners could have only one spouse, while the elite could
have a number
– One distinct Aztec social group was the merchant
class,
• They had managed long-distance trade and also served as
valuable sources of political and military information for the
elites
• Trade, based on barter instead of money or credit, was
carried out without the use of beasts of burden or wheels,
so the goods needed to be light enough to carry
• Merchants grew wealthy as the empire grew, but they could
not achieve the same status as the nobility, who watched
them with a jealous eye
Religion and Collapse
http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=PrJLoR
dLa20 – Aztec Priests
• Like many other Mesoamerican cultures, religious rule and
ceremony were key components of the King’s political success
and authority
• The Aztecs were polytheistic; their most famous religious cult
centered on the worship of Huitzilopochtli, a hummingbird
from the south
– This God was first associated with war, then with the sun
• Worship of the sun was a religious continuity throughout Mesoamerican
history
– The Aztecs believed that Huitzilopochtli needed human hearts to
keep the sun shining, thereby sustaining life
• As a result, the Temple of Tenochtitlan, devoted to Huitzilopochtli and
Tlaloc, the rain god, was the site of large-scale rituals involving human
sacrifice
• This is another continuity from previous Mesoamerican societies, but the
Aztecs expanded the ritual significantly, sacrificing war captives,
criminals, slaves, and people who were given as tribute
• Thousands were sacrificed each year; the very violent and public aspect
of the ritual sent a clear message to subject peoples that they must
submit to the authority of the Empire
• The Aztec Empire continued until the arrival of the
Conquistador Cortez, who captured Tenochtitlan in 1521
before going on to conquer the rest of Mexico
The Peoples of North America
• Around 900, the Southwestern desert and
the Mississippi River Valley were two areas
of high cultural achievement in North
America
– Building on economic benefits from long-distance
trade, including the introduction of key staples
from Mesoamerica like:
• maize,
• beans,
• squash
– The peoples of these areas developed societies
with defined social structures and political roles
unique to each region
Hohokam
• The Hohokam people lived in what is
today Arizona
– They were heavily influenced by
mesoamerican cultures, particularly Mexican,
as is reflected in the:
• architecture,
• pottery,
• ceramics
• They in turn influenced other societies in
the region, and they built upon the
agricultural technology and the artistic
techniques of the Hohokam
Anasazi
• The second group that exemplifies
southwestern desert culture is the Anasazi,
a novel word used by archaeologists meaning
“ancient ones” to refer to the various desert
cultures located in what is now the
southwestern United States
– By 600, the Anasazi also had an economy based
on maize, beans, and squash
• They specialized in decorative pottery as well as
cotton weaving
– Underground buildings called kivas or community
centers used for both religious ritual and
craftwork
– After 900, the Anasazi constructed larger
multilevel buildings, which were prominent
features in the larger towns
Anasazi Decline
• Chaco Canyon is the site of one of the largest
Anasazi societies
– Of the eight towns in the canyon, the largest was
Pueblo Bonito, which contains a large kiva and
other residential buildings
• Archaeological research of its infrastructure suggests that
Pueblo Bonito held religious or political dominance over the
region
– Merchants engaged in long-distance trade in
northern Mexico
• Because men hunted, cared for the irrigation works, and
traded, they often had to be away
• Women specialized in various crafts as well as helped with
agriculture and other domestic duties
– Chaco Canyon was abandoned in the 12th century
because of drought, but the Anasazi continue to
dwell in the larger region of the Southwest
Mississippian Cultures 700-1500
• The first Amerindians along the Mississippi River were
primarily hunter-gatherers
– As maize, beans, and squash were introduced, most likely
by intermediaries who had contacts with Mesoamerica, then
more settled and urban lifestyle emerged
– They began to build mounds for ceremonial and religious
use as well as dwellings for Chiefs
• The chief had both religious and political roles and
also oversaw long-distance trade, which supplemented
food supplies and brokered access to luxury goods
• Urban communities developed as:
– the food supply became more constant,
– the bow and arrow were introduced,
– trade expanded
• With a larger population and larger towns, which
served as centers for bartering, class distinctions
increased
Cahokia
• Cahokia, the best example of the apogee of
Mississippian culture, contained the largest
mound – 100 feet high - in North America
– In 1200, with about 20,000 inhabitants, Cahokia
was equal in size to many post-classic Maya cities
• Cahokia had political dominance over the surrounding
agricultural territories and towns, and its long-distance
trade, by canoe, brought in tools and goods used for
rituals
– Cahokia declined after 1250 because of climate
changes and population increase
• This combination put pressure on the food supply
– Cahokia was eventually abandoned, but other mound
cultures continued to thrive in the Southeast until
the arrival of the Europeans
Andean Civilizations
• At the same time that highly sophisticated societies were developing
in Mesoamerica, they were also developing in the Andean region
– The ability to create and maintain complex civilizations in the difficult
environment of the Andes Mountains is amazing, and geography played a
huge role in how those communities and then larger states were
constructed
– Andean peoples had to cope with three ecological zones:
• The high altitudes and harsh weather of the mountainous zone
• The arid zone of the coastal region by the Pacific Ocean
• The hot humid Amazonian tropical zone
– Sustaining life in the zones required various technologies, among them
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terraced hillside farming,
irrigation systems,
road networks for long-distance exchange,
accurate calendars,
plant domestication
– In addition, animals like llama and the alpaca or used as beasts of
burden as well as sources of meat and wool
– Khipus, knotted colored cords that could be used for record-keeping,
were a unique technology that served as an important administrative
tools as well
Ayllu & Mit’a
• Productive and efficient use of human labor was also
essential in managing the environment
– The basic unit that allowed for such labor was the ayllu, a
clan that worked a specific area of land
• Families within the ayllu were expected to work together on
everyday jobs
• They were also obligated to supply food and labor to the chief of
the ayllu
– When larger political organization was placed under the
authority of the hereditary king, the mit’a system was
created
• Every ayllu rotated in and out of the mit’a system,
– This required the ayllu to contribute a specific number of workers every
year to do maintenance work for the state –
» building projects,
» road maintenance,
» textile production,
» irrigation work
– They also cared for the birds and fields that belong to the royal family,
the religious elite, and the aristocracy
– The mit’a system was used by Andean societies for more
than 1000 years
Vertical Integration
• Because so many smaller ecological zones
existed in the Andean region and each
zone produced different goods that were
necessary resources, vertical integration
was necessary
– Vertical integration is a term coined by
historians to describe the practices of the
Andean peoples who purposely exchanged
goods from these differing ecological zones
in order to have everything they needed
• Colonists were sent out by different ayllus in
order to gain access to these goods
• They were also to ensure the economic benefit
the exchange provided was returned back to the
original clan territory
Moche
• By 600, the Moche were dominant in the northern coastal area of
Peru
– They relied on the mit’a system to supply laborers for irrigation
– They also depended on the llama and alpaca for trade
• The wool of these animals allowed the Moche to create a strong textile industry,
and women of all classes had special roles as weavers
– The Moche excelled in ceramic work, creating pottery that included
vases with detailed
• portraits,
• religious imagery,
• depictions of daily life
– The Moche also developed metal tools for agriculture and military use
– A rigid social structure allowed for the clear division of labor, and
religion was a central component of society
• Priests and military leaders held political control, and their clothing and elaborate
gold jewelry demonstrated their wealth and set them apart
• The bulk of people, both men and women, focused on agricultural production and
other labor requirements
• Because we have no written records about the Moche, archaeological
evidence alone provides the clues for their decline
– Repeated natural disasters seem to be the cause for both the weakening
of the economy and the authority of religious and political leaders, who
drew their power from the belief that they could control the natural
world
Tiwanaku & Wari
• The peoples of Tiwanaku and Wari, Moche contemporaries,
lived in the Highlands
– Tiwanaku was an urban center located in modern Bolivia next to
Lake Titicaca
– Once drained, the marshes around the lake provided thousands of acres of land
– The lake fish provided protein, as did llamas, which were also used for transport
and long-distance trade that brought in a variety of foodstuffs and neck or
cultural goods
• Tiwanaku had a grand ceremonial and religious center built out of stone,
which was cut and moved many miles to build pyramids and other
buildings as well as huge human statues
– With limited tools, the labor used to complete the projects was extensive, making
the achievement all the more impressive and demonstrating the ability of the
people of Tiwanaku to manage a large labor system
• Military conquest allowed the Tiwanaku people to establish colonies to
ensure food supplies from the different ecological zones of the Andean
region
– Wari was larger than Tiwanaku, but the relationship between the
two centers is unclear even though their peoples had some
cultural similarities
• Wari contained a walled city that included a huge temple as well as
urban and suburban housing
– By 1000 both the Wari and Tiwanaku had declined significantly
• The stage was set for the Inca, the next great Andean
society
The Inca
• The Inca created an amazing empire
that stretched up and down the coast
of South America
– It had more than 6 million people under
its control by 1525
– Their rise to power began in the 1430s
when strong political leaders joined
together and began an age of military
conquest
Inca
• Many of the Andean traditions were
fundamental to the life of the Incas
– They were pastoralists who depended on the
llama and the alpaca for food, clothing, and
transportation
• Caring for these animals was the job of both men
and women and was a representation of the
obligations of the gods and the ruler to the people
– The mit’a system continued as the fundamental
building block of the Empire
– Each ayllu contributed 1/7 of its males for
labor to create a food surplus for the elderly
and sick
– Laborers also built 13,000 miles of road, which
linked the Empire economically and militarily
Incan Society
http://www.youtube.c
om/watch?v=vAQmkS
7x6ZE - Pachacuti
• In order to rule effectively, local chiefs were kept in place
and handled local administrative duties and judicial matters
– However, to minimize the risk of rebellion, heirs of defeated
territories had to live at the Incan royal court, and images of
local deities also had to be brought to Cuzco, the center of
government
• Inca society was highly stratified; the imperial elite of Cuzco
and other urban centers could live a life very removed from
the lower class – so much so that a commoner who looked the
ruler in the face could be executed
– To cement its authority, the royal family also claimed a divine
link to the Sun, one of the primary gods worshiped by the Inca
– Finally, all those who made up the royal bureaucracy had to be
kinsmen
• As in other Amerindian societies, religious ritual reaffirmed
the power of the king
• Like the Aztec kings, each new Incan king was expected to
extend the empire through conquest
Contributions
• Cuzco was located near the center of the empire and was
connected to other cities by the intricate network of Incan
roads
– Although Cuzco was never as populated as the Aztecs’
Tenochtitlan, it was a true Imperial city, with massive, detailed
stonework as well as elaborate palaces and temples reflecting
each ruler’s glory
• The Temple of the Sun was the most glorious, with gold adorning its
inner walls
• Sacrifices to the Sun included animals, textiles, and, in frequently,
humans
• As in Mesoamerica, calendars based on astronomical
observations were important for religious ritual
• Inca textile weaving and metallurgy – continuities handed down
from earlier Andean societies – surpass the Mesoamericans’
– Copper and bronze weapons were decorated with gold and silver
• Khipus continued to be used for communication and recordkeeping and were especially important because the Inca
multiplied their production and economic output with the
conquest of peoples in different environments
Collapse
• The Inca ruled for a century, but in
1525, when the Incan ruler Huayna
Capac died, the Empire spiraled into a
bloody conflict over which son should
succeed him
– The conflict escalated into a civil war that
allowed disgruntled conquered peoples of
varying ethnicities and regions to rise up as
well
• This was the state of the Inca empire
when the Europeans arrived in the
Andean region and the beginning of the
16th century