THE REVOLUTIONARY ERA
Chapter 4
WAR AND DIPLOMACY
• The 18th century was an interesting juxtaposition of the Enlightenment
(seeking to make a better society) and intense rivalry/competition
between European nations.
• In Europe: wars tended to be dynastic as well as territorial, especially
in central Europe between the emerging powers of Austria and
Prussia.
• In the Colonies: wars were fought over land and trade opportunities,
with England/France the main rivals to expand their territories
WARFARE IN THE 18TH CENTURY
• Increasingly deadly- the technology of weaponry began to improve
rapidly in the 1700s. Muskets could fire farther, with greater
accuracy(and safety for user) Bayonets invented for hand to hand
combat
• Battle tactics developed with required enormous discipline and
coordination, but could be remarkably effective.
• These sophisticated militaries were quite expensive,
and military became an increasing part of a nation’s
budget (requiring taxes to pay for it)
COMPETITION BETWEEN FRANCE
AND ENGLAND
• By the time of the revolution, more than ½ of British trade, and 1/3 of
French trade wasn’t European. Colonies and International trade
represented vital segments of the economy- and England/France
were more than willing to protect what was theirs….and go after what
wasn’t.
• England and France claimed land in the same areas: North America,
the Caribbean, and India. English colonies had the population (1.7
million in 1760) French colonies had the size.
• Probably the most valuable and contested area was actually the
Caribbean (it’s the sugar) where territories were small (therefore easier
to potentially conquer), and revenues were big
FRENCH CANADA
• Established at Quebec in 1608
• Claimed not only territory north of the Great Lakes, but in Ohio River
Valley and west of Mississippi. Fur trade (especially Beaver) most
important econ activity.
• Had the most cooperative relationship with Native Americansspecifically the Huron and Algonquin, meaning that Indian tribes (with
valuable knowledge of territory) would fight for French. And that’s
important, b/c the European population is small- only 6000 white Men
in “New France”
CLASH OF EMPIRES
• There were 4 “World Wars” (meaning fought in areas other than
Europe) between 1688 and 1763. Primary antagonists are France and
England
• King William’s War (1688-1697) and Queen Anne’s War (1702-1713)
were faintly dynastic, outside nations trying to get on the throne of
England. There are skirmishes between British and French colonist
along borders. Treaty of Utrecht (1713) will create a 30 year peace
• King George’s War/War of Austrian Succession (1744-1748) Same
theme, but with Austrian throne (under Maria Theresa) as the prize.
New England will invade New France and take Ft Louisbourg at the
mouth of the St Lawrence. They give it back as part of Treaty of
Paris 1748…which made colonists mad.
• Creates Salutary Neglect- England is busy doing other things… and
Prime Minister Robert Walpole thought that if colonies were left alone,
they would be more productive (which is true at that time period)
THE SEVEN YEARS WAR
• 1756 - 1763. The most important (and deciding) conflict.
• This one actually STARTS in North America. The treaty of 1748 had called for
French to give up forts in Ohio Valley….but they weren’t
• 1754 George Washington, a colonial Lieutenant in the British Army, led
surveyors to areas near what is today Pittsburgh to make sure they aren’t
building a fort there (Ft Duquesne). He is attacked by French and forced to
surrender (though allowed to leave with his army)
• General Braddock (and Washington) bring main army out to attack the fortand get stomped by an Indian ambush (ft Necessity) Braddock and 2/3 of
Army killed- Washington leads survivors out.
• Meanwhile back in Europe…Prussia/England squares off against
Austria/France/Russia/Sweden over territory in German states and eastern
Europe
THE ALBANY PLAN OF UNION
• Many colonists felt vulnerable to Fr/Indian attack. Called Albany Congress in
1754 to discuss the issue, and attempt to create a firm alliance with the
Iroquois- attended by 7 northern colonies
• Ben Franklin (delegate for PA) says Britain is too far away to be useful in a
crisis, colonies need Home Rule. Proposes Albany Plan of Union: An
association for mutual trade and defense. Would have a colonial assembly
to manage policy.
• Didn’t work: Iroquois refused an official alliance (looked
like French were winning), and neither the colonies nor
the British felt that colonies working together was a good
idea
• BUT: important 1st step to colonial unity
THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
• Fighting on several fronts- there were significant naval battles in the
Caribbean, and a decisive victory in India at the Battle of Plessy (which gave
the British East India Company dominion over trade in the area). But the
heart of the fighting was in North America- specifically around the great
lakes and Ohio Valley.
• Prime Minister William Pitt put 40,000 troops (British and colonial) into the field
• Decisive battle of the War fought on Plains of Abraham near Quebec:
General James Wolfe scales cliffs to take city by surprise- defeats the Marquis
de Montcalm
• Treaty of Paris 1763: France gave up Canada, to Britain, pulled out of trade
with India, lost land west of Mississippi to Spain. (Spain also gives Florida to
Britain, and regains Cuba) Very humiliating (and expensive) for France…this
is why they support colonial rebellion 15 years later….
• Britain emerges as dominant naval power, and dominant colonial power. (A
position they will hold for over a century)
FRICTION AFTER THE WAR
• Colonists emerge from war feeling great- they fought for their homes
and won! BUT, were annoyed so few colonials had been appointed
officers in British army
• British were annoyed that colonists had continued to smuggle in West
Indies during war- essentially supplying the French (b/c they paid
better than English) Made them question colonial loyalty.
• Colonial militias had also been reluctant to leave their home areas
and fight where needed, which had complicated British war effort.
PONTIAC’S REBELLION
• Now that French threat beyond the Appalachians removed…. Colonist
assumed that there was all sorts of new land available- and began flocking
west to get it.
• As the war ended, in order to pacify Native Americans (who had been allies
of the French, and weren’t leaving) the British had promised to limit
settlement
• As colonials came west, Chief Pontiac of the Ottawa led an alliance of
Indian tribes to attack in Ohio Valley/Great Lakes region. 9 of 11 British Forts
taken, 2000 settlers killed, and it took British army 18 months to get area
under control. (Germ warfare- smallpox blankets)
• British decide this whole area is a hassle, not liable to make them $$, and
they don’t want to have to protect it…..
PROCLAMATION OF 1763
• So…… to keep peace with the Indians, the British issue
Proclamation of 1763, which says there can be no
colonial expansion beyond the Appalachians. It’s
actually intended to be temporary, just to get things
under control, and create more organized settlement.
• But Colonists FREAK. Why had they fought? They see the
order as permanent, and outright refuse to obey. This gets
the British gov’t mad….they had given a direct order,
what was unclear?
• Setting up the idea (for the colonists) that the British might
not have their best interests at heart….
PAXTON BOYS AND REGULATORS
• Not only were colonists, annoyed, they were ready to fight for what they saw
as their rights. (Similar to Liesler’s and Bacon’s Rebellions)
• Paxton Boys In Pennsylvania Scotts Irish settlers kill 20 Indians (from a
peaceful tribe), and governor (a Quaker) wants them tried for murder. 250
Scotts Irish march on Philadelphia demanding Indians removed from frontier.
Benjamin Franklin negotiates a truce between Scotts, Quakers, and Indians.
• Regulators: Western Carolina (more Scotts) frustrated with British land and tax
policies, become vigilantes, demanding access to the frontier for what they
call “fair” treatment in terms of land ownership
• Again- British just don’t want to deal with this….and decide they need to get
the colonies under control.
REVIEW: AMERICA BEFORE THE REVOLUTION
• American colonists have the highest
standard of living in the world.
• Mercantilism and Navigation Laws
restricted trade, but certainly allowed the
colonists to make good $$. (Southern
colonies generally suffered more, as they
needed manufactured goods, and
didn’t tend to smuggle)
• Colonists had more direct representation
in local government than English
TOWARDS INDEPENDENCE
• In 1763 colonies were happy to be a part of the victorious British empire. In
1776 they were in open rebellion- that’s a big change in 15 years!
• Revolution (according to John Adams) came from a change in the colonists
interpretation in the balance of liberty and order: “the principles, opinion,
sentiments and affections of the people”. England itself had dealt with the
same issue during the English Civil War, and the Glorious Revolution.
• After French and Indian War, and the problems with Western expansion;
British feel they need to get a grip on the colonies. AND they should pay for
their own defense (which was admittedly a HUGE expense)
• Actually, what the British wanted wasn’t unreasonable or repressive- but the
Americans (b/c that’s what they are becoming) no longer the goals of
England as their own best interest.
THE ISSUE OF TAXATION
• Doesn’t start with NEW taxes…but with attempts to ENFORCE the old
ones- and end the loss of revenue that came from colonial smuggling
with the west indies.
• Sugar Act of 1764 replaced Molasses Act 1733: 1st British tax designed
to raise revenues in the colonies. Taxed foreign sugar to stop
smuggling.
• Currency Act 1764: forbid colonies to issue their own paper $$. (they
don’t want Colonies to control the specie they use to pay debts, they
could devalue it) they have to pay taxes in bullion- which is scarce in
colonies.
THE END OF SALUTARY NEGLECT
• Prime Minister after War was George Grenville, and he wanted to recoup
expenses of French and Indian War. (which was HUGE, ½ of the British
national debt directly related to colonial expense) Wanted colonists to pay
1/3 of cost of maintaining a garrison of 10,000 soldiers for continued
protection against Native Americans.
• Increased authority of admiralty courts to try smugglers and tax evaders,
and those trials were conducted without a jury.
• George III (became king in 1762) very stubborn. Surrounded himself with
government officials who were inexperienced in colonial affairs, and narrow
minded. When things go badly, King George replaces them, he will have 5
prime ministers in the 1st 10 years of his reign – no stablity
WRITS OF ASSISTANCE
• British customs officers given right to inspect all
colonial ships (with or without probable
cause) to reduce smuggling.
• Seen as very offensive by colonists, as though
their government assumes they are criminals.
• 1761: James Otis (a Boston Lawyer)
demanded Parliament repeal the acts (they
did not). He coined the phrase “No Taxation
without Representation”
THE STAMP ACT
• Probably the most important event leading to the revolution.
• 1765 Required all printed materials (like published papers and legal
documents) must bear an official “stamp” to be legal.
• Grenville’s Justification: Colonies needed to pay for their defense, and a
similar act (but larger) had been used in England during times past. When
colonies complained about “taxation w/o representation” he said that all
British citizens had “virtual representation” in Parliament, b/c Parliament
represents all Englishmen (Even if they didn’t vote for members)
• Virginia Resolves: (drafted by Patrick Henry) said that Stamp Act violated
colonists rights as Englishmen. Called for non importation of English goods. 8
other colonies drafter similar resolutions
INTERNAL/EXTERNAL TAXES
• Colonists differentiated between “legislation” and
“taxation”
• Parliament has the right to make laws for the empire, and
those laws MAY include taxes that apply to ALL British
citizens (external) such as customs duties and tariffs.
• But local taxes – those that apply to only one area) are
the right of local government (internal) and since the
stamp act applied only to the colonies, parliament was
violating colonial rights
THE STAMP ACT CONGRESS
• Colonists did NOT accept Grenville’s reasoning, and 9 colonies (the ones
with resolutions) met in Boston in 1765 to discuss matter. Massachusetts and
Virginia the leaders.
• Petitioned the King to repeal the Stamp act (in a list of rights and grievances,
a forerunner of the declaration), called for a boycott of trade with Britain.
• Important b/c the colonies are working together, seeing that they have
more in common with each other than England.
• Sons of Liberty: (Led by Sam Adams) put pressure (sometimes pretty intense,
vandalize, tar and feather etc) on merchants. All Stamp Act agents
resigned.
THE STAMP ACT REPEALED
• 1766. Boycotts work (if you really want to get someone to
change their minds, hit them in the pocketbook)
• George Grenville replaced as PM by Lord Rockingham, who
didn’t want merchants (an important electoral group in
England) mad at him, so he repealed Stamp Act.
• However, Parliament passed the Declaratory Act to save
face, saying that parliament had the right to tax colonies in
any way they saw fit
TOWNSHEND ACTS
• Charles Townshend becomes Prime Minister 1767- wanted to punish colonies
for stamp act uprising, and creates a series of new taxes. They are not large,
and external (indirect) paid as customs duties at ports, so Townshend
assumes they will not cause problems.
• Import fee on glass, white lead, paper, paint, silk and tea.
• Sticky bit is that revenue is used to pay the salaries of royal
governors and admiralty judges- which makes them unpopular,
and causes colonists to challenge their validity (again)
• John Dickenson: “letters from a Pennsylvania farmer” said
England didn’t have right to tax colonies to pay for British
officials.
MASSACHUSETTS CIRCULAR LETTER
• Sam Adams and James Otis drafted a letter in the
Massachusetts legislature which supported Dickenson’s
argument- and called for the repeal of the Townshend Acts,
and the renewal on non-importation
• British sent troops to Boston, and demanded the letter be
retracted. When it wasn’t, they dissolved the Mass.
Legislature…warning that they will do the same in any colony
that supports (Maryland, Virginia, Delaware and South
Carolina will have their legislatures dissolved)
• British exports fall 40% over then next few months.
TROUBLE IN BOSTON: THE BOSTON MASSACRE
• Parliament decides it’s time to stop messing around- and the send
two regiments to Boston in 1768. Colonists take this as a sign that the
British are a threat not only to their liberty, but to their lives.
• March 5th 1770 a mob began taunting and threatening British soldiers
on patrol. The soldiers “took” the abuse for some time- but eventually
fired on the crowd.
• 5 killed, 6 wounded. (Crispus Attucks, a free Black, the 1st shot)
Colonial propaganda grossly exaggerated the incident. John Adams
and Josiah Quincy defended the soldiers in court- the majority were
acquitted
TOWNSHEND ACTS REPEALED
• Repealed 1770- again as a result of econ downturn caused by
colonial non importation. (we were a much larger part of their econ
then they had bargained for) More than ½ the troops pulled out of
Boston
• The tax on tea was NOT repealed- once again parliament is trying to
save face and assert their supremacy.
• From 1770-1773 relations between America and England somewhat
stabilized
COMMITTEES OF CORRESPONDENCE
• Sam Adams was a master of propaganda. Didn’t
WANT the anger/resentment to die down, so he found
a way to keep colonists stirred up.
• Local groups organized to write letters of
propaganda, to keep opposition to British policy alive.
• At first just in Massachusetts, but idea spread into other
colonies, and intercolonial ties developed (which will
help lead to the 1st continental congress)
BOSTON TEA PARTY
• Tea Act 1773: East India Company in financial trouble- on the verge of
bankruptcy. SO, the gov’t (a large shareholder) gave them a monopoly on
Tea. The monopoly actually made the price of tea in the colonies LOWER
than it had been, but that wasn’t the point, colonists were furious.
• As the tea landed in Philadelphia, New York, Charleston and Boston;
colonists attempted to convince governors not to allow it to land (some
successful) but when “talking” failed in Boston, Sam Adams led a party of 60
(dressed as Indians) to throw 342 barrels of tea overboard.
• And now we are talking about destruction of gov’t property, and the
government doesn’t think that’s funny….
COLONIAL UNITY
• Britain responds with the Intolerable (Coercive) Acts- intending to put
a stop to rebellion by punishing Boston/Massachusetts/New England
• Closed Boston Harbor until damages paid, Massachusetts charter
revoked. Restrictions of town hall meetings. Anyone who attacked
a British officer or British property would be tried in England.
Quartering of troops in Boston
• Also passed the Quebec Act- which was designed to organize the
lands taken from the French in the War. And even THIS makes the
colonists mad (showing how high the tension level is) b/c they feel it
means the proclamation of 1763 will be permanent, and they will
never get the lands in the Ohio valley they want so badly. Also afraid
they will lose representative gov’t as Act specifically says new lands
won’t have it (which they didn’t under French anyway)
• All of this pushes the colonies together….they are developing a
common cause
CONTINENTAL CONGRESS(ES)
• Colonies decided it was time to talk….Reps from 12 colonies (no GA) meet in
Philadelphia during Sept/Oct 1774. (1st Continental Congress) Suffolk
Resolves: Agree to boycott British goods, and to send an Declaration of
Rights to the King, and organize a colonial militia. Intended to be brief, but
was cordial and successful, so delegates leave agreeing to meet again
• 2nd Continental Congress convenes May 1775.
Prime Minister North declares it an illegal assemblyand says colonies are in rebellion. Blockaded all
trade with foreign nations
LOYALISTS V. PATRIOTS
• Between 1763 and 1776, many colonists went from loyal subjects to rebelsbut NOT all of them, not even close.
• Loyalists: did not support the revolution (some even fought for British) Econ
was a prime reason, and the wealthier a colonist was, the more likely to want
to stay in the empire. (esp those engaged in Atlantic trade, large
landowners, or those in backcountry, who need protection from Indians).
Conservative, feared rebellion would bring anarchy.
• Patriots: More likely to be urban, small merchants (feeling pinch of taxes),
and artisans. Congregationalist/Presbyterian/Methodist/Baptist
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
• 2nd Congress make us rebels, but “the shot heard round the world” starts the
war for independence.
• April 1775: 700 British troops sent to confiscate arms/gunpowder from
colonials to prevent it being used against them (and arrest leaders Sam
Adams and John Hancock). Warned by Paul Revere (and others) 70
“minutemen” are ready- and fire on the British (0 British killed, 8 Americans)who move on to Concord. There they are met with by an even larger
colonial group- and the Americans take the field. By the end of the day, 273
British casualties, 95 American
• British return to Boston- and find a city ready for siege, which they are forced
to dislodge (bunker’s/breed’s hill) though Americans saw it as a victory, they
had surrendered only b/c they were out of ammo. (actually bloodiest battle
of war) Will lead King George to send mercenaries: Hessians.
THE 2ND
CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
• Now faced with a war- and they have to decide what to do…. (it’s one
thing to write letters and boycott) They were forced to become a
government- and the delegates become the 1st group of the “founding
fathers”.
• Drafted a 2nd letter for the king- and for the British people: “Declaration of
the Causes and Necessity of Taking up Arms” (Thomas Jefferson)
• But they aren’t really an authorized government, and one of their great
challenges during the war was getting the colonies to act together when
they didn’t want to.
OLIVE BRANCH PETITION
• Last ditch effort by loyalists/moderates in congress to avoid full out
bloodshed. Written by John Dickenson of PA, pledged loyalty to the
crown, and sought to restore peace. Asked king/parliament to
“reconsider” Intolerable acts, and withdraw troops.
• Ignored in England
CONTINENTAL ARMY
• Most significant act in 1775 was the agreement to fightand fight together (after all, early conflict all in Mass)
Authorized summer of 1775. George Washington made
commander (he didn’t really have all that much
experience, and he had never had large numbers of
troops or planned strategy- and in the end he loses more
battle than he won) BUT- he had a personal integrity that
inspired loyalty….and he was from Virginia, and New
England NEEDS southern colonies on board.
• More early fighting done by Ethan Allen/Benedict Arnold
and “Green Mountain Boys” who attacked and captured
British Ft Ticonderoga
COMMON SENSE
• Thomas Paine: January 1776
• Helped shift the mindset of the “average” American (who thought all out
warfare with the most powerful country in the world fairly risky) Irony: He’s
English- had come to America as an adult. But he is an ardent Republicanagainst a hereditary government.
• Detailed what the Britain gained from colonies, and made it seem exploitive.
Also criticized them for inconsistent policy. Expressed confidence that an
independent America would grow stronger than her mother country.
“Nowhere in the universe does a smaller heavenly body control a larger
one”. Said we had a sacred mission to create a pure new nation.
• Sold 120,000 copies in 6 months- huge publicity burst for patriot cause.
Convinced Congress to go for full independence- not home rule or other
reconciliation.
THE DECLARATION OF
INDEPENDENCE
• The resolution for Independence was introduced by Richard Henry Lee of
Virginia (great, great, great… of Robert E Lee- irony)Adopted July 2,1776.
Such a thing had never been done- and lots of people were nervous. So
Congress decides that an explanation is needed, and appoints a 5 man
committee: John Adams, Ben Franklin, Roger Sherman, Robert
Livingston…and Thomas Jefferson to create it
• The bulk of the Declaration is a list of Grievances against the king, but that’s
not what makes it famous. It’s a statement of ideology, of the philosophical
ideas we will use as the foundation of our new nation
• But Jefferson doesn’t come up with the ideas fully on his own…..
JOHN LOCKE: TWO TREATISE ON
GOVERNMENT
• Inspiration for much of Jefferson’s work in the Declaration
• Locke had written after the English Civil War (1689)- was a call for a
constitutional government.
• Does NOT look for a democracy, or even a Republic
(Locke had no problem with the idea of a king) though
it does say “all men are created equal” …in the eyes
of the law.
• Two particularly important concepts
NATURAL RIGHTS
• There were humans before there was
government (State of Nature) and
therefore not ALL rights came from
government, some came from being
human.
• Life Liberty and Property- if the gov’t
tries to take these from you without
cause, then it is NOT a valid
government
CONSENT OF THE GOVERNED
• It the Social Contract: Humans give freedom to
the government in return for safety/welfare of
society. The key word is GIVE. If the
government is not acting to promote “the
general welfare”, then it is not legitimate
• The argument in the Declaration is that the
British are not promoting our welfare, therefore
we have no CHOICE but to act in our own
defense.
GRIEVANCES AGAINST THE KING
• There are 27 listed- by far the longest part. Imposing taxes w/o
consent, eliminating trial by jury, military dictatorship, cutting off trade,
burning towns, hiring mercenaries etc..
• Meant to show the world (especially the citizens of Britain) that we
weren’t silly or ungrateful, but that there were
reasons behind our actions- which was actually
really effective, it did get a number of Englishmen
on our side (or at least made the war against us
unpopular at home)
BALANCE OF POWER: BRITAIN VS US
• On paper it’s a no brainer….Britain should have been able
to kick our tails. BUT- things aren’t always as they seem, and
Americans weren’t completely w/o skills
American strengths and weaknesses
Strengths
1. Outstanding leadership (Washington, B. Franklin)
2. Early economic aid from France
3. Effective defensive military tactics- territory worked to their advantageforced British to engage them
4. Agriculturally self-sustaining
5. Americans better marksmen (shooting a big part of frontier life)
6. Moral advantage: the “cause”
Weaknesses
1. Badly organized and lacking unity- Congress dithered, colonies don’t trust
each other
2. Economic difficulties- very little gold/silver for $$, had to print paper $$
which created wild inflation (“Not worth a Continental”)
3. Military challenges- supplies inadequate- troops not always willing to fight
far from home- deserted to care for families
4. Morale compromised by profiteers- who provided shoddy goods or sold to
the British
5. Supported by only a minority of colonials (perhaps 1/3)
British strengths and weaknesses
Strengths
1. Population 7.5 million British vs 2.5 million colonists
2. Economic advantages- England richest country in the world in 1775
3. Best navy in the world
4. 20,000 slaves joined the Brits
5. Allied with many Amerindians (resented colonial expansion)
6. 50,000-man professional army (plus 30,000 Hessians)
7. Support of 50,000 Loyalists
Weaknesses
1. Distance between the colonies and England- made
communication/strategy difficult
2. America was large to occupy- population dispersed over a
massive area
3. Poor military leadership in many cases- Best commanders not
sent, Many British regulars had trouble killing people they
thought of a s fellow citizens
4. America only needed to tie; Britain needed outright victory
5. France sought to help the U.S. (Revenge)
6. British gov’t was ineffective (George III not a great king)
WAR IN THE NORTH
• British war plan was to “divide and conquer”. Summer 1776 Sent General Sir
William Howe to take New York, and isolate New England (which they
considered to be the source of trouble)
• Washington did NOT do well in his 1st encounters with the British, he lost
battles (Brooklyn Heights), had a significant number captured, and was lucky
to escape total defeat. British didn’t push too hard, lost their best chance to
smush the rebellion early.
• With the British firmly encamped, Washington crossed the Delaware River
from PA to Trenton NJ (Battle of Trenton) and surprised 1000 Hessians
(sleeping off xmas celebrations- European armies didn’t tend to fight in the
winter) who were forced to surrender. Washington had gambled, and won,
kept things going
SARATOGA
• In the next “campaign season”, 1777; the British army under “gentleman
John” Burgoyne came down from Canada to compete division of colonies.
3 armies were to come together in Albany; from the north, west and
south….but it becomes a hot mess(Howe decides to go to Philadelphia- he
thought capturing the “capital” would end the war), and they never get
together.
• Instead, Horatio Gates holds Burgoyne’s army, defeats them at Saratoga
Oct 17th 1777, and Burgoyne’s army is forced to
surrender. Probably the most important military
action in the war… Our 1st major battlefield
victory- and it not only gave patriots hope, but
made us look plausible.
VALLEY FORGE
• Howe is in Philadelphia with the main branch of the army (Continental
congress had fled to Lancaster PA) and Washington “keeps an eye” on
them encamped outside the city- at primitive Valley Forge, where 2000 of his
soldiers die of exposure and/or disease
• But, they use the time well, drilling under Baron Von Steuben, making militia
fighters into trained soldiers.
BENEDICT ARNOLD
• General in Continental army and important leader in the North. Felt he
wasn’t getting enough credit for his efforts (he was wounded, spent
his own $$ on campaigns, but everyone loves GW) Arnold changed
sides in 1779.
• Washington had given him command of West Point (strategic fort)plotted with British to sell out the fort, which would give British
command of the Hudson Valley (lost a Saratoga)
• Plot accidentally discovered- Arnold fled – fought for British the rest of
the war
• Huge blow to Morale
ALLIANCE WITH FRANCE
• After Saratoga- it looks like we have a chance….and that draws in badly
needed foreign support. French/British are rivals anyway, and France still
smarting from last war. Make an alliance 1778 in which they agree to
provide training, supplies and naval support- and to recognize US as an
independent nation.
• They hope that supporting America will regain them lost territory (Canada),
and with a little luck, maybe the “new nation” will be weak….
• Spain/Dutch also makes an alliances. Less important, they offer some funds
and to blockade in the Caribbean, but are let Britain know they don’t have
a lot of friends, and makes them nervous this will turn into a war in Europe
WAR IN SOUTH
• Britain’s next move was to focus on the south…figuring there are more
loyalists there, and knowing southerners were worried about possible slave
uprisings
• Savannah taken 1778/79. Charleston and the rest of South Carolina
captured in 1780 under Lord Cornwallis (who defeated General Gates, the
Hero of Saratoga). The loss of Charleston was actually a bigger problem for
Americans than Saratoga had been for British. Charleston 4th largest city in
US, and largest port in the south….which needs to sell their crops
internationally.
• Nathanial Greene and Francis Marion (the swamp fox) made S. Carolina too
hot to handle for Cornwallis; the “Refused to fight like gentlemen”
WAR IN WEST
• Clashes in the west lasted most of the war
• Amerindian allies of the British attacked U.S.
frontier positions. Iroquois, Joseph “Monster”
Brant led Indians on raids. Defeated and
forced to sign treaty of Ft. Stanwyck, the first
treaty between US and Indians (they lose all
their land)
• Illinois country -- George Rogers Clark seized
British forts along the Ohio river. His success
justified America’s claim of Ohio territory at
the end of the war (it was really part of
Canada at the time)
AMERICAN NAVY
• John Paul Jones most famous commander. Navy used to Damage
British merchant shipping (not fight full battles)
• Privateers- private ships authorized by congress to attack enemy
(merchant) ships- far more effective.
• There were Major naval battles fought between British, French, Spanish
and Dutch forces during the war-- Britain was forced to protect its
empire (e.g. India)
YORKTOWN
• British head to Virginia to take rendezvous
with reinforcements, but Washington
raced 300 miles south and trapped him
on a peninsula at Yorktown- pinning him
between his army and the French fleet.
(under the Marquis de Lafayette) where
Cornwallis surrendered Oct 1781
• Fighting actually continued for nearly 2
more years, but British decided to ask for
peace negotiations to start. They were
tired of an unpopular war
TREATY OF PARIS 1783
• Signed September 1783. US sent John Adams, Ben Franklin (very popular in
Paris) and John Jay.
• France and US had an alliance, we were supposed to negotiate together.
But the LAST thing the British wanted was for us to end up BFFs with France, so
they offered generous terms to entice us to sign quickly, and keep our trade.
• Recognized US independence
• Gave us all land East of the Mississippi, south of Great Lakes, and North of
Florida (which went back to Spain
• US promised that Loyalists would not be prosecuted or persecuted, and
confiscated property would be returned
AMERICAN SOCIETY DURING THE
WAR
• 250,000 American fought, and 10% of those who fought died, our highest %
in any war. People from all classes served, though much of the actual
“fighting” was done by lower classes (richer people tended to get tired and
go home)
• Native Americans tended to help the British (whom they hope will respect
land claims) ramps up US enmity towards them (Andrew Jackson)
• Women managed farms and businesses while men served. Traveled with
army as nurses and cooks- a few even fought. Deborah Sampson dressed as
a man. Mary Hays took over loading her husband cannon when he was
wounded
THE “REAL” REVOLUTION
• John Adams said it was “The radical changes in the principles, opinion,
sentiments and affections of the people”
• Our new nation will be the 1st large Republic: a government run by an
elected assembly, with no established king or ruling class.
• Thomas Jefferson helped define this in the Declaration “We hold these truths
to be self-evident: that all men are created equal, that they are endowed
by their creator with certain inalienable rights, that among these are life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”
• Freedom and Equality as thus intrinsic American values
THE CRITICAL PERIOD
• Ok, we’re independent…..now what?
• Americans did end the war with a Government: The Articles of
Confederation (Written by John Dickenson) drafted in 1777, and went into
effect (Cont. Congress disbanded) in 1781.
• 80,000 loyalists left America at the end of the War (most to Canada or
Caribbean) many of them had been wealthy and conservative- this will
open up opportunities for democracy.
• Still, it’s a confusing time- and the fact that we only have to change our
gov’t ONCE (think back to France) shows that we were willing to be flexible
and create new ways of running things
EMPHASIS ON EQUALITY
• At 1st it’s something we TALK about more than something we DO… (after all,
we are denying rights to more than ½ the people who live in the nation:
women, slaves, native Americans) but we get there.
• Primogeniture and entail made illegal by 1800.
• And yet- the American Revolution put on a path where our defined goal as
a nation was to support the interests and prosperity of ordinary citizens
(“pursuit of happiness”) and that is radical- no gov’t has ever done that
before.
• We have no “Aristocracy”, no ruling class fixed exclusively by birth. Our
“base” is the common man, in charge of his own destiny, and able to rise or
fall by his own merits.
STATE CONSTITUTIONS
• War created stronger more centralized governments than had existed
during colonial period, these guys had to get stuff DONE.
• “Colonies” became “States”, and wrote constitutions to replace their
Charters. Common Themes:
•
•
•
•
•
•
A Bill of Rights
3 Branches of Government
Checks and Balances
Bicameral legislatures
Annual elections
Popular Sovereignty/Social Contract/Consent of Governed
VOTING RIGHTS
• There was a generally held belief in BOTH European and American society
that you needed to own property to be allowed to participate in
government- b/c property owners had something to lose….and some states
(like Virginia and South Carolina) maintained that in their constitutions,
although many states lowered the amount you had to own, so that the
majority of men were able to vote
• But “Democratization” was happening in Revolution- some of those who
fought did NOT own property, where was their stake in the new nation?
Universal Manhood Suffrage: One man, One vote. (PA) New thinking
growing that gov’t belongs to ALL (male) citizens, rather than those of
priviledge.
REVOLUTION AND RELIGION
• If one of the “Natural Rights” is freedom of thought- doesn’t that include
religion? And what about separation of church and state?
• A tricky question is what to do in colonies with “Established” (tax supported)
churches- especially the Anglican church in Southern states. Deists and
Pietists disagreed about role gov’t should have in religion (All European
countries had an “official” religion- would we be weird if we didn’t?) How
can we create a morally upright nation without a defined set of acceptable
beliefs? Thomas Jefferson “Virginia Statue on Religious Freedom” presented
a powerful argument.
• 7 States specifically included “Free Exercise” in their constitutions, and others
withdrew gov’t funding... But gave them special status as “tax exempt”
ECONOMIC FREEDOM
• One of the major reasons we had fought was b/c of anger at restrictions
imposed by Navigation laws.
• Mercantilism assumed that all resources are limited, and therefore you need
to get the biggest chunk possible- and not share. Someone else’s gain is your
loss- hence no colonial trade with foreign nations.
• We weren’t the only ones who found Mercantilism limiting: Physiocrats were
Enlightenment thinkers who applied Enlightenment reason to economics,
and their conclusion was that mercantilism hampered the expansion of
trade and manufacturing… the best was to make $$ was through a “Free
Market” economy
ADAM SMITH: CAPITALISM
• The Father of Capitalism and Modern Economic Theory. He challenges
Mercantilist theory, saying there are 3 components to the economy: Land,
Labor and Capital, and that they can be unlimited- no nation must be poor.
• Wealth of Nations published 1776.
• It’s all about the (very creepy) Invisible hand which allows supply and
demand to control the market. There is a natural business cycle of growth
and recession, any Government “Interference” actually does more harm
than good. (though gov’t should do things like est armies/navies, build
roads/infrastructure etc.. That will support business)
REVOLUTION AND SLAVERY
• Slavery was legal in all colonies (except PA), it was just more “popular” in
South.
• But during democratization of revolution, the idea of slavery didn’t really
seem to “work” with that of Liberty…. Vermont 1st state to officially abolish,
and most other northern states had by around 1800. Northwest Ordinance
made slavery illegal in territory north of Ohio River. Slave trade abolished
1808
• There were actually a significant number of Free Blacks (250,000) in the new
United States. Some had been freed, some had escaped, some had earned
freedom through service in the Continental Army. Largest free community in
Philadelphia
• Greatest irony is that #s of slaves were on the decline in 1781, and a number
of historians have theorized that it would have died on it’s own (like serfdom
in western Europe) but the Cotton Gin was invented in 1793…..
NATIVE AMERICANS
• Had fought for British….it’s their only hope of keeping their land. BUT, the fact
that they did, made them seem “enemies” of the new US. (not that there
was much chance we’d see them any other way- we want their land)
• For the next century and a half- US gov’t policy is to remove Native
Americans wherever possible- they were probably the biggest “losers” of the
revolution.
REPUBLICAN MOTHERHOOD
• Coverture etc… still the base of most state law (though national law says
nothing about it) Abigail Adams argued that her husband should
“remember the ladies” in creating a new government, but no one gave any
serious thoughts to women’s rights as citizens.
• Republican Motherhood: an important new trend rose at the end of the
revolution describing the importance of women’s role as mothers to raise
good citizens of the new nation. Women needed to be educated, so they
could pass intellect and virtue to their sons
• Companionate Marriage: union based on affection rather than domination
the norm in US from beginning. Not fully “romantic” yet, but heading that
way.