Building Communities in the Early Republic
By:
Robert Smith
Megan Hayden
Hector Garcia
B. Marissa Garcia
African Americans in Demographic
Perspective
 1790- US population at nearly 4 million





750,000 of African Descent
697,624 slaves, 59,557 free
89% lived in South Atlantic States
South’s free black population outnumbers the north, but is smaller
in proportion (Example: Virginia in 1790 has 13,000 free blacks,
but 96% of blacks are slaves)
See Chart on page 105 for statistics
 Gradual Abolition statutes explain the continuing
presence of slaves in New England and Mid Atlantic
States.
 The only mid Atlantic State that didn’t end slavery is
Delaware where slavery continues until after the Civil
War.
 New England has small slave population (1/4 of
Blacks) in 1790. Slavery virtually disappears over next
two decades.
 The timing and form that abolition takes is crucial to the
forming of black communities.
 Free blacks tend to flock more to urban areas than whites
(percentage wise) due to opportunities in Maritime and
domestic service for women.
 Slavery ended early in Massachusetts which led to migration to
Boston. Between 1790 and 1800, black population rose by
more than 53%.
 Discrimination is still present despite freedom. In 1788
Massachusetts passes law preventing black migration from
other states. Passed to prevent Mass from becoming safe
haven for escaped slaves.
 Philadelphia sees rise of black community from The
Gradual Emancipation Act of 1780. Slaves born after
1780 were forced to serve long apprenticeship before
becoming free.
 Shift in 1/2 of blacks living in white households to 3/4
living in black households.
 New York remains heavily enslaved until 1799 when
Gradual Emancipation Act is passed and importation of
slaves is prohibited.
Building Community Institutions
 Shared Institutions and not shared neighborhoods provides
the foundation for building free black communities
 The First organization is The Free African Society of
Newport, Rhode Island (1780).
 Followed by Philadelphia’s Free African Society which
led to The African Church of Philadelphia (St. Thomas’s
African Episcopal Church under Rev Absalom Jones) and
Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church (Mother
Bethel under Rev. Richard Allen)
 The First Great Awakening brought blacks increasingly
into the evangelical fold.
 Many such as Rev Allen and Rev. Jones still encountered
racism and thus began their own churches.
 Rev Allen faced opposition from Methodist General
Conference over church property and control. Supreme
court rules in his favor in 1816 and led to African
Methodist Episcopal Church to become first black-led
denomination.
 Building of Black associations and institutions such as,
mutual aid societies, fraternal lodges, schools, and
churches, creates a visible urban black leadership class.
 1787- Boston’s black leadership class petitions for African
School due to lack of access to public schools.
 Both black leaders and white philanthropists raise the
funds to open the school. In 1812 the school is granted
and annual subsidy.
 White philanthropists instrumental in many of the
organizations getting off the ground.
Blacks and American Party Politics
• Black and White Americans understood how
important it was to vote.
• At the birth of this country most Americans
could not vote due to the property and taxpaying prerequisites
• Some property owning women were able to vote
only in the state of New Jersey until 1807 when
the law was revoke.
• The democratization of the franchise for males
took place 1800 to 1820.
• This process was advantages for the white man
and did little to help the free black land owners.
• Most of the Free-black property holders, who
once were able to vote could no longer do so.
• There were many laws that already excluded
those who were free from slavery to vote.
• New statute, which were added in 1802 to the
Maryland State constitution, stated explicitly
• “ that every free white male citizen of this state,
and no other ….shall have a right of suffrage.”
• In 1807, the state of New Jersey Black voters and
property owning women were disfranchised.
• Connecticut legislature passed laws in 1814 and
1818 that each voter had to be property owner
and he had to be a free white male.
The Haitian Revolution
• In 1791 the Haitian revolted against the French
to secure liberty equality and fraternity.
• Toussaint Louverture was a mulatto who
organized rebel forces and against the French.
• Napoleon Bonaparte, saw Toussaint as an
obstacle
Louisiana Purchase
• The Louisiana Purchase had connections to the
trouble in the Caribbean.
• Slaveholders feared that the revolt in Haiti
would create a revolution in the New World
• Thomas Jefferson was a big supporter of the
slaveholders and called the revel Haitians
“cannibals and their combustion a threat.”
Federalist
• Federalist were preferred by Free-black voters
• John Jay and Alexander Hamilton were some of
the founding members of The Ney York
Manumission Society in 1785.
• Historians like Paul Finkelman argue that it was
Federalist who helped lay the groundwork for
abolitionist critique of American politics.
AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND ARTS
• In the early American republic, African-Americans used
literature to make their voices heard.
• They kept current on events such as the Haiti Revolution
and the 1808 abolition of the slave trade.
• Famous Writers: Absalom Jones, Richard Allen, Prince
Hall, etc.. (Phyllis Wheatley is not included).
• In Boston, Hall wrote editorial letters to the Independent
Ledger, an urban newspaper, protesting a slurred image of
his Masonic Hall and negative images of blacks.
• In 1827, the first black-edited journal Freedom’s Journal
appeared.
AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND ARTS
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pamphlets also became an extremely popular form of
expression for African-Americans at this time.
One of the earliest examples is a sermon by John Marrant,
that was printed and paid homage to the blacks.
This sermon was distributed by Prince Hall. (Author)??
Hall later wrote two more pamphlets of his own in 1792
and 1797 concerning the Haitian revolution.
Absalom Jones and Richard Allen wrote a stirring pamphlet
called “A Narrative…of the Black People…during
the..Calamity in Philadelphia”.
This was in response to a racial attack by the mayor of
Philadelphia during the yellow fever epidemic.
AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND ARTS
• Spiritual Autobiographies were important.
• Traced the search for intellectual and spiritual
independence of African-Americans.
• Was affected by the Great Awakening.
• One of the most successful was Olaudah Equiano.
– “ The Interesting Narrative of the Life Of Olaudah Equiano..”
• In 5 years, there were 8 editions of his book.
AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND ARTS
• Benjamin Banneker
– Attended a private school
– Gifted in Math and Science
– Began issuing almanacs in 1791, and
attracted the attention of James McHenry.
– Such connections allowed him to work
on the survey crew that laid out the District
of Columbia, the nation’s capital.
– Showed a striking contradiction to the
idea that Negros were inferior, unintelligent,
and void of mental endowment.
AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND ARTS
• African-American writers had to appeal not only to
their own people but also to whites, both rich and poor.
• These pamphlets had to be careful in the language they
used, in the North and especially the Southern United
States.
• Many times they used literary images
– “The anguish that has taken place when parents are torn from
their children”
– “The parting tear, rolling down their fallen cheeks, the parting
sigh die on their quivering lips”
• Sought to cast a proud light on Africa and their heritage
and justify their claims for equality and freedom.
AFRICAN AMERICAN LITERATURE AND ARTS
• A famous African-American painter of this time
was named Joshua Johnston.
• He specialized in portraits.
• Worked in Baltimore.
• Only 2/80 paintings
depicted African-Americans.
THE WAR OF 1812
• The War of 1812 started because of naval impressment
of American sailors, and the expansion of America
westward in the New World.
• Northern blacks quickly pledged their support, while
slaves (with permission) were offered freedom for
enlistment.
• NY raised 2 colored regiments of over 1000 soldiers
each, same pay and benefits as white soldiers.
• Later, the black soldiers were granted annuities for their
honorable and valiant service to their country in time of
need.
THE WAR OF 1812
• After the 1814 burning of Washington DC, AfricanAmericans rallied in other major cities to defend them.
• In Philadelphia, over 2500 African-Americans responded
to the call and worked continuously for 2 days straight.
• Enlistment in the Naval Forces was also common.
However, it was different because these soldiers were
enlisted without the mention of race.
• Some white officers were reluctant to have colored
troops, but after seeing their courage declared them
gallant.
• “Absolutely Insensible to Danger” CPT Oliver Perry.
THE WAR OF 1812
THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS (1815)
• General Andrew Jackson called on the free blacks in
Louisiana to defend their country. They helped him win
one of the most significant battles of the war.
• Peace was being negotiated, but official word had not
reached the United States.
• Could have turned the tide of victory.
• British offered slaves freedom if they deserted to fight
for England.
• Moved many slaves to Canada, West Indies, Nova
Scotia. (often worse than before)



The idea of black settlement outside the
United States appealed to both black and
white Americans
Slaves escaped to the British lines, Canada,
The Caribbean and Great Britain, places
where they could live in freedom
Some free blacks who experienced their
citizenship right violated daily looked outside
the Americas borders to find self-respect and
dignity



Some religious leaders in the black
community, such as Daniel Coker of Maryland
and Lott Carey of Virginia, sought to make a
home in Africa for missionary purposes
American whites took an interest in
colonization
Whites argued that, as the number of free
blacks increased it would become a threat to
slavery




Slave holders wanted to remove free black
from the states and even the nation
1777 a Virginia legislative committee
developed a plan, gradual emancipation and
deportation
Abolitionist supported colonization plans,
declaring it their responsibility to return
blacks to African homeland
Connecticut emancipation society, supported
manumission, colonization of free blacks was
the ultimate aim




William Thornton a Quaker physician,
organized for colonization to Africa
William Thornton disbelief of the possibility
of amicable race relations in the U.S. led him
to explore the idea of colonization
Receptive audience among blacks where from
Newport, Rhode Island and in Boston
Not all black communities responded
positively, Philadelphia when presented with
the plan refused it



Paul Cuffee, a man of mixed African and
Indian descent, and shipbuilder became
interested in colonization
1815, cuffee sailed from Boston to Freetown
with thirty-eight emigrants at his own
expense- approximately $ 4000
By 1830 The American colonization society
had settled 1,420 blacks in Liberia




The Option of returning to Africa was not a
reality for the great majority of African
Americans
Some attempted to stand and fight to the
death for freedom
Haiti revolution played key factor in the
planning of revolt
Gabriel a slave blacksmith and two
Frenchmen played a role in the conspiracy



One in every five sailors was black which
brought isolated black communities
information and alternative possibilities
August 30, 1800, more than a thousand
blacks met six miles outside Richmond and
began to march in the city
Bad weather and two slaves informed whites
on what was happening, 35 slaves were
executed and many more captured



Gabriel was captured having been betrayed
by a black crewman and was hanged
Many more attempts of revolt happened in
the south with no success
There was no victory for slaves in American
South, as there had been for slaves in Haiti