CHAPTER 12
Leadership
1. Trait theories
2. Behavioural theories
3. Contingency theories
4. Positive leadership styles and
relationships
5. The (Un)ethical aspects of leadership
6. Leadership and trust
7. Challenges and opportunities to our
understanding of leadership
8. Summary and implications for managers
1. Summarize the conclusions of trait theories of
leadership.
2. Identify the central tenets and main limitations
of behavioural theories of leadership.
3. Contrast contingency theories of leadership.
4. Describe the positive leadership styles and
relationships.
5. Discuss the roles of leaders in creating ethical
organisations.
6. Describe how leaders can have a positive
impact on their organisations through building
trust.
7. Identify the challenges and opportunities to
our understanding of leadership.
CHAPTER 12
1. Trait theories
Personality traits
Big five traits
Proactive personality traits
Dark triad traits
Emotional intelligence
2. Behavioural theories
Initiating structure
Consideration
Summary of trait and
behavioural theories
3. Contingency theories
Fiedler model
(Exhibit 12-1)
Situational leadership theory
Follower contingency theory
(Leader-participation model)
Leading in times of crisis
5. The (Un)ethical aspects of 6. Leadership and trust
leadership
Authentic leadership
(Un)ethical leadership
Servant leadership
Abusive supervisions
Trust
The outcomes of trust
Trust development
Trust propensity
Trust and culture
The role of time
Regaining trust
Mentoring
7. Challenges and
opportunities to our
understanding
Leadership challenges
Leadership opportunities
4. Positive leadership styles
and relationships
Leader-member exchange theory
(Exhibit 12-2)
Charismatic leadership
Full range leadership model
(Exhibit 12-5)
Integrating and evaluating
positive leadership styles
8. Summary & implications
for managers
.
Not all leaders are
managers, nor are all
managers leaders.
Nonsanctioned leadership
is often as important or
more important than
formal influence.
Section 01:
Trait Theories
GROUP PROPERTY 1
Kouzes &
Posner
GROUP PROPERTY 1
Trait theories of leadership focus on personal qualities and characteristics
•
The search for personality, social, physical, or intellectual attributes that differentiate leaders from non-leaders goes back to the earliest
stages of leadership research.
Personality Traits and Leadership
Good leaders
• Are able to assert
themselves
(extroverted).
• Are disciplined and able
to keep commitments
they make
(conscientious).
• Are creative and flexible
(open).
Big Five Traits
•
•
Extraversion to be the strongest predictor of
motivation to lead and leader emergence.
Unlike agreeableness and emotional
stability, conscientiousness and openness to
experience also showed strong relationships
to leadership, though not quite as strong as
extraversion.
Proactive Personality Traits
Dark Triad Traits
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership
• Another trait that may
indicate effective
leadership is emotional
intelligence (EI).
• A core component of E I
is empathy.
• People high in EI are more likely
to emerge as leaders, even
after taking cognitive ability
and personality into account.
Two Conclusions
•
•
Traits can predict leadership.
Traits do a better job predicting leader emergence than they do at distinguishing between effective and ineffective leaders.
Section 02:
Behavioural Theories
GROUP PROPER
Behavioural theories
theories of
of leadership
leadership imply
imply we
we can
can train
train people
people to
to be
be leaders.
leaders.
Behavioural
The Ohio State studies found TWO DIMENSIONS OF BEHAVIOURS that accounted for most leadership behaviour:
1. Initiating structure
2. Consideration
Initiating
Structure
The extent to which a
leader defines and
structures his/her role
and those of subordinates
to facilitate goal
attainment.
• It includes behaviour that attempts to organize
work, work relationships and goals.
• A leader high in initiating structure is someone
who “assigns group members to particular tasks,”
“expects workers to maintain definite standards of
performance” and “emphasizes the meeting of
deadlines.”
Consideration
The extent to which a
leader has job relationships
that are characterized by
mutual trust, respect for
employees’ ideas, and
regard for their feelings.
• A leader high in consideration helps
employees with personal problems, is
friendly and approachable, treats all
employees as equals, and expresses
appreciation and support.
Summary of Trait Theories and Behavioural Theories
•
•
•
•
Research indicates there is validity for both the trait and behavioral theories.
Parts of each theory can help explain facets of leadership emergence and effectiveness.
Traits and behaviours do not guarantee success though.
Context matters too.
GROUP PROPER
The Ohio State Leadership Studies
Section 03:
Contingency Theories
The Fiedler Contingency Model
Situational Leadership Theory
Follower
Contingency Theory
The
Leader–Participation
Model
• The theory that effective group
performance depends upon the proper
match between the leader’s style of
interacting with subordinates and the
degree to which the situation gives
control to the leader.
• According to this model, leadership
styles reflect the degree to which
leaders approach situations from
either a task-oriented or relationshiporiented perspective.
• To match the leader with the situation,
Fiedler identified 3 contingency or
situational dimensions:
• A contingency theory that focuses on
the followers.
• According to this theory, successful
leadership is achieved by selecting the
right leadership style, which is
contingent on the level of the followers’
readiness (e.g., willingness and
competence) to accomplish a specific
task.
• A leader should choose one of 4
behaviours depending on follower
readiness.
• The model argues that the way the
leader makes decisions is as important
as what she/he decides.
• A leaders behaviour must adjust to
reflect the task structure.
1. Leader–member relations
2. Task structure
3. Position power
1.
2.
3.
4.
Telling/directing
Selling/coaching
Participating/supporting
Delegating
Shared Leadership Theory
• Leadership is capable of being enacted
by a collective in which leadership roles
are distributed across followers and all
are capable of influencing one another.
Followership Theory
• The capability of followers to put into
practice a leader’s vision or set of goals.
The Fiedler Contingency Model
• The theory that effective group
performance depends upon the proper
match between the leader’s style of
interacting with subordinates and the
degree to which the situation gives
control to the leader.
• According to this model, leadership
styles reflect the degree to which
leaders approach situations from
either a task-oriented or relationshiporiented perspective.
• To match the leader with the situation,
Fiedler identified 3 contingency or
situational dimensions:
1. Leader–member relations
2. Task structure
3. Position power
Situational Leadership Theory
• A contingency theory that focuses on
the followers.
• According to this theory, successful
leadership is achieved by selecting the
right leadership style, which is
contingent on the level of the followers’
readiness (e.g., willingness and
competence) to accomplish a specific
task.
• A leader should choose one of 4
behaviours depending on follower
readiness.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Telling/directing
Selling/coaching
Participating/supporting
Delegating
Manager Leadership Styles by Behaviour in Situational Leadership Theory
The Leader–Participation Model
•
•
•
•
•
•
The model argues that the way the leader makes
decisions is as important as what she/he decides.
A leaders behaviour must adjust to reflect the
task structure.
The Vroom-Yetton-Jago model is a leadership
theory that provides a set of rules to determine
the form and amount of participative decision
making in different situations
This model relates leadership behaviour and
participation in decision making.
It helps the leader determine the extent to
which employees should participate in the
decision making process.
When a decision is made, a desired
management style and the degree of
participation of team members are influenced
by three important factors:
1.
2.
3.
Quality of decisions
Acceptance of the decision by the employees
Time constraints
Leading in Times of Crisis
“Cometh the hour, cometh the man.”
Think crisis, think female effect
• During times of peace and stability, women
tend to under-emerge due to the glass cliff.
• Because of this think crisis-think female effect,
women are not seen as leaders during status
quo periods, often due to leader stereotypes
of not being agentic enough that prevent their
emergence.
Charismatic leadership
• Visionary
• Crisis-responsive
Section 03:
Contemporary Theories – Positive Leadership Styles and Relationships
This theory argues that leaders
establish a special relationship
with a small group of their
followers (Exhibit 12.3).
These individuals make up the
in-group (and get a
disproportionate amount of the
leader’s attention, and are more
likely to receive special
privileges).
LMX theory proposes that a
leader implicitly categorizes the
follower as an “in” or an “out”
(early in the follower-leader
relationship) based on the
follower’s characteristics.
This relationship is relatively
stable over time.
3
This theory states that followers make
attributions of heroic or extraordinary
leadership abilities when they observe
certain behaviours (Exhibit 12.4).
4
How Charismatic Leaders Influence Followers
• Articulating an appealing vision.
• Developing a vision statement.
• Establishing a new set of values.
• Conveying courage and conviction about
the vision.
The Dark Side of Charismatic Leadership
• Many leaders don’t necessarily act in the
best interest of their companies.
• Many have allowed their personal goals
to override the goals of the organization.
• Individuals who are narcissistic are also
higher in some behaviors associated with
charismatic leadership.
Does Effective Charismatic Leadership Depend on the Situation?
• People are especially receptive when they sense a crisis or when they are under stress.
This model suggests that there are a number of approaches or styles of
leadership (i.e. laissez-faire, transactional and transformational) that vary on a
continuum from passive and ineffective to active and effective (Exhibit 12.3).
Laissez-Faire Leader
•
Laissez-Faire: Abdicates responsibilities, avoids making decisions.
Transactional Leader
•
•
•
Contingent Reward: Contracts exchange of rewards for effort, promises
rewards for good performance, recognizes accomplishments.
Management by Exception (active): Watches and searches for deviations
from rules and standards, takes corrective action.
Management by Exception (passive): Intervenes only if standards are not met.
Transformational Leader
•
•
•
•
Idealized Influence: Provides vision and sense of mission, instills pride, gains
respect and trust.
Inspirational Motivation: Communicates high expectations, uses symbols to
focus efforts, expresses important purposes in simple ways.
Intellectual Stimulation: Promotes intelligence, rationality, and careful
problem solving.
Individualized Consideration: Gives personal attention, treats each employee
individually, coaches, advises.
• Charismatic leadership places more emphasis on the way
leaders communicate – are they passionate and dynamic?
• Transformational leadership focuses more on what they
are communicating – is it a compelling vision?
• Both focus on the leader’s ability to inspire followers.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
• Transformational leadership builds on transactional
leadership and produces levels of follower effort and
performance beyond what transactional leadership alone
can do.
Affective or attitudinal mechanism
Motivational mechanism
Identification mechanism
Social exchange mechanism
Justice enhancement mechanism
• In general, organisations perform better when they have transformational leaders.
Section 04:
Contemporary Theories – The (Un)ethical Aspects of Leadership
A leadership style in which
leaders “know who they are”
(i.e. self-aware), are anchored
by their mission, consider
others’ opinions and all relevant
information before acting, and
display their true selves when
interacting with employees.
Authentic leaders:
• Know who they are.
• Know what they believe in
and value.
• Act on those values and
beliefs openly and candidly.
The result:
• People come to have faith
in them.
The idea that leaders serve as
ethical role models to followers
and thus demonstrate
normatively appropriate (or
inappropriate) behaviour by
using their power in (un)ethical
ways and/or by treating others
fairly (or unfairly).
A leadership style marked by
going beyond the leader’s own
self-interest and instead
focusing on opportunities to
help followers grow and
develop.
Characteristic behaviours
include:
• Listening
• Empathizing
• Persuading
• Accepting stewardship
• Actively developing
followers’ potential
Refers to the perception that a
supervisor is hostile in their verbal
and nonverbal behaviour.
• Negatively affects health,
leads to increased depression,
emotional exhaustion, and job
tension perceptions.
• Leads to decreases in
organizational commitment,
job satisfaction, and perceived
organizational support along
with increased work–family
conflict.
• Can adversely affect employee
performance and other
employee behaviors.
Section 05:
Trust and Leadership
Trust
Trust is a psychological state that exists
when you agree to make yourself
vulnerable to another because you have
positive expectations about how things are
going to turn out.
• A primary attribute associated with
leadership.
• When trust is broken, it can have
serious adverse effects on a group’s
performance.
Key Characteristics That Lead Us To Believe A
Leader Is Trustworthy (see Exhibit 12.7)
• Integrity
• Benevolence
• Ability
Trust isn’t just about the leader; the
characteristics of the followers will also
influence the development of trust.
The Nature of Trust
Trust
The outcomes of trust
Trust development
Trust propensity
Trust isn’t just about the leader;
characteristics of the followers
also influence trust development.
Trust propensity refers to how
likely a particular employee is to
trust a leader.
Key characteristics that lead us to
believe a leader is trustworthy:
• Integrity
• Benevolence
• Ability
Some people are simply more
likely to believe others can be
trusted.
Trust is a psychological state that
exists when you agree to make
yourself vulnerable to another
because you have positive
expectations about how things
are going to turn out.
Trust encourages taking risks.
Trust is a primary attribute
associated with leadership.
Trust enhances productivity.
Trust and culture
The role of time
Regaining trust
Mentoring
Does trust look the same in every
culture?
• Using the basic definition of
trust, certainly it does.
• However, in the work context,
trust in an employment
relationship may be built on
very different perceptions
from culture to culture.
Time is the final ingredient in the
recipe for trust. Trust doesn’t
happen immediately: we come to
trust people based on observing
their behaviour over a period of
time.
Leaders who break this
psychological contract with workers
will find that employees are less
satisfied and less committed,
engage in less citizenship behaviour,
and have lower task performance.
Mentoring relationships are trustbased.
Trust can also be won in the
ability domain simply by
demonstrating competence.
Trust can be restored when we
observe a consistent pattern of
trustworthy behaviour.
Trust facilitates information
sharing.
Trusting groups are more
effective.
A mentor is a senior employee who
sponsors and supports a lessexperienced employee (a protégé).
Successful mentors are good
teachers who present ideas clearly,
listen well, and empathize with
protégés’ problems.
Section 06:
Challenges and Opportunities to our Understanding of Leadership
Leadership as an Attribution
•
•
The attribution theory of leadership says leadership is
merely an attribution people make about other individuals.
Attribution theory suggests what’s important is projecting
the appearance of being a leader rather than focusing on
actual accomplishments.
Neutralizers of and Substitutes for Leadership
•
•
•
•
Data from numerous studies collectively demonstrate that,
in many situations, whatever actions leaders exhibit are
irrelevant.
Experience and training are among the substitutes that can
replace the need for a leader’s support or ability to create
structure.
Neutralizers make it impossible for leader behavior to make
any difference to follower outcomes.
Sometimes the difference between substitutes and
neutralizers is fuzzy.
Identifying and Selecting
Leaders
Training and Developing
Leaders
Leaders as Mentors
Identifying effective
leaders:
• Review specific
requirements for the
position.
• Consider personality
tests to identify
leadership traits.
• Situation-specific
experience is
relevant.
•
What are our current
staffing needs?
•
What is our current
leadership talent
pool like?
Leaders often take
responsibility for
developing future
leaders.
Plan for a change in
leadership.
A mentor is a senior
employee who
sponsors and supports
a less-experienced
employee (a protégé).
Mentoring
relationships serve
career and
psychosocial functions
(see Exhibit 12.9).
Leaders as Mentors
Leaders often take responsibility for
developing future leaders.
A mentor is a senior employee who
sponsors and supports a less-experienced
employee (a protégé).
Mentoring relationships serve career and
psychosocial functions (see Exhibit 12.9).
Successful mentors build a personal
relationship with protégés that is
characterized by mutual trust, instill
accountability and build confidence and
adaptability in protégés, and seek to
improve protégés’ competence and career
progression (e.g., through networking).
Successful mentors are good teachers.
Career and Psychosocial Functions of the Mentoring Relationship
Exhibit 12-9
Google
Manager
Behaviours
Leaders
as Coach
Google’s Project Oxygen: Do Managers Matter?
Research question shifted from “Do Managers Matter?” to:
“What if every Googler had an awesome manager?”
Section 07:
Summary and Implications for Managers
Summary
Implications for Managers
1. Although extroverted people are more likely to be hired or promoted into leadership positions,
extroversion does not necessarily predict more effective leadership. Instead, try to focus on how the
person leads and their leadership skills.
2. As a leader, the worst thing that you can probably do is to do nothing. Although there may be times when
inaction is necessary, it may spell disaster if it is your default style.
3. Understand the ethical context and issues surrounding the leadership problems you are charged with
addressing. Strive to act authentically, ethically, and in a way that serves your followers.
4. Understand the negative consequences of destructive and abusive leadership. Regulate your emotions and
your actions to avoid this type of behavior. If you do act abusively, own up to your misbehavior and work
with the victim constructively to move forward and ensure that it does not happen again.
5. When establishing relationships with followers, try not to “play favorites.” Although it may not be possible
to develop high-quality exchange relationships with all your followers, try to treat everyone fairly and
supportively, and base any recognition and resources given out on performance and skill, not friendship or
how much you like them.
Implications for Managers
6.
Seek to develop trusting relationships with followers, because, as organisations have become less stable
and predictable, strong bonds of trust are replacing bureaucratic rules in defining expectations and
relationships.
7.
Trust is a critical component of the leader–follower relationship. Not only is it important to feel trusted by
your followers (and to know that they trust you), but it is also vital for your followers to know that you trust
them. Work toward building trust over time, and when trust is broken, quickly own up to it. Also, know that
trust is challenging to rebuild after an ethical violation (e.g., deception) and may never fully recover.
8.
Hire candidates who exhibit transformational leadership qualities and who have demonstrated success in
working through others to meet a long-term vision. Personality tests can reveal candidates higher in
extraversion, conscientiousness, and openness, which may indicate leadership readiness.
9.
Hire candidates whom you believe are ethical and trustworthy for management roles and train current
managers in your organisation’s ethical standards in order to increase leadership effectiveness.
10. Consider evidence-based leadership selection, training and development, and coaching and mentoring
programs to leverage the power of leadership in your organisation.