Course name: Anatomy and Histology
Course of Anatomy and Histology
Mid term exam material
On campus lectures and Blended lectures
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
On campus lectures
The tissues
The organization of the body and body cavities
The nervous system
Course name: Anatomy and Histology
The Tissues
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
Aims
1. To list down
2. To describes
3. The define
4. To identify
• The four types of tissues
Reference:
Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K, 2023, Human Anatomy &
Physiology, 12th global edition, Pearson education,
USA, chapters 4, 6, 9, 11, 17
Anatomy and Histology
Tissues types
Epithelial tissues
Connective tissues
Muscle tissues
Nervous tissues
Anatomy and Histology
Tissues types
Epithelial tissues
Anatomy and Histology
Introduction:
• An epithelium is a sheet of cells that:
• covers an exposed surface (skin)
• or lines an internal cavity or passageway or forming glands
or ducts..
• Epithelia also line the digestive, respiratory,
reproductive, and urinary tract
• Epithelia also form glandular tissues and ducts.
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Illustration for that epithelia form
covering and glands
Free surface
Basement
membrane
Cavity (lumen)
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Functions of epithelial tissues
• Protection
• Secretion
• Absorption
• Gas exchange
• According to the location
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Feature of Epithelia
• Minimum extracellular material with cellular junctions
• Polarity of the cells
• Form sheets or layers or groups of cells
• Attached to the basement membrane
• Avascular
• Capable of regeneration
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Classification of Epithelial Tissue
3 types of epithelial tissue according to shape of the cells
• Squamous
• Cuboidal
• Columnar
2 types of epithelial tissue according to number of layers
• Simple – one layer
• Stratified – more than one layer
Other types:
• Transitional epithelium
• Pseudostratified epithelium
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Simple squamous epithelium
- cells are thin, flat, and somewhat irregular in shape.
- Examples: the lining of alveoli of the lungs, the serous
membranes lining the ventral body cavities, and the inner
surfaces of the circulatory system.
- functions: gas exchange
• Figure
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Simple cuboidal epithelium
• Resembles little hexagonal boxes; they appear square in sections.
Each nucleus is near the center of the cell.
• Simple cuboidal epithelium present in: tubules of the kidney, the
pancreas, salivary glands and thyroid gland.
• Function: secretion
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simple columnar epithelium
- the cells are with height greater than their width.
- present in lining of the stomach, intestinal tract, and uterine tubes.
- Function: absorption or secretion
- Could be associated with microvilli
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Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
• includes a mixture of cell types.
• They are usually ciliated in respiratory epithelium (nasal
cavity, trachea, and bronchi)
• absorption and secretion of mucus, protection from foreign
particles, etc
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Stratified epithelium
• In there are two or more layers of cells above the basal lamina
• They are classified according to shape of cells in the surface:
• Stratified squamous
• Stratified cuboidal
• Stratified columnar
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Stratified squamous epithelium
• Stratified squamous epithelium: there are
multilayer of squamous epithelium.
• Two types:
• Keratinized, like the skin. The cells at the
basal layer are tall and show mitotic
division. As cells move to the surface they
accumulate keratin granules. The surface
cells are flat and fill with keratin and lost
their nuclei, forming a thick layer of
keratin.
• Non-keratinized: This with out a surface
keratin layer present in wet environment,
like that of esophagus and vagina.
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Stratified cuboidal and columnar epithelium
• Stratified cuboidal epithelium: This is composed several layers, in which
the cells in the surface are cuboidal
• Examples: conjunctiva of the eye
• Function: protection, excretion and secretion
• Stratified columnar epithelia are relatively rare,
• present in portions of the pharynx and urethra.
• Function: protection
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Transitional epithelium
• This is composed several layers, in which the cells in the surface are
dome-shaped.
• It is found mostly in ureters and urinary bladder.
• It is called Transitional epithelium; because the surface layer cells can
they can change their shape.
• Function: to enable tissue
to contract and expand.
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Skin (keratinized type
Types of epithelial tissues
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Tissues types
Connective tissues
Anatomy and Histology
The connective tissue
• Connective tissue is the most diverse, abundant, widely
distributed, and microscopically variable of the tissues.
• Major functions: Connective tissue is designed to support,
protect, and bind organs and body structures together.
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The basic components in connective tissue are:
(1) Specialized cells,
• According to the tissue type
(2) Extracellular protein fibers
• 1. Collagen fibers
• 2. Reticular fibers.
• 3. Elastic fibers
(3) Matrix/ ground substance.
• Fluid (blood and lymph)
• Semi-solid: cartilage
• Solid: bone
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Extracellular protein fibers
1. Collagen fibers
Thick, non-branching, tough, flexibles, resist stretching
Tendons, ligaments, deep layer of the skin
2. Reticular fibers
form a net like arrangement
3. Elastic fibers
Thinner than collagen, made up of the protein elastin, which stretch and
recoil
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Types of connective tissues
1- Connective tissue proper:
1. Dense regular
2. Dense irregular
3. Loose areolar tissue, which is thin and loose such as mesenteries or inside organs.
4. Adipose tissue
5. Elastic tissue, where elastic fibers are predominant
6. Reticular connective tissue.
2- Cartilage
3- Bone
4- Blood
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Types of connective tissues
1- Connective tissue proper:
1. Dense regular
2. Dense irregular
3. Loose areolar tissue, which is thin and loose such as mesenteries or inside organs.
4. Adipose tissue
5. Elastic tissue, where elastic fibers are predominant
6. Reticular connective tissue.
2- Cartilage
3- Bone
4- Blood
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Cartilage
• Cartilage: Cartilage is a specialized form of connective
• Prefix: chondro….
• The cartilage is avascular and covered by a layer of vascular connective tissue
called the perichondreum.
• Cells:
Chondroblasts: form the Matrix, and then become Chondrocytes, located inside
lacunae (spaces).
• Matrix:
Matrix: semi-solid. The matrix of cartilage is a firm gel that contains complex
polysaccharides called chondroitin sulfates, which forms complexes with proteins,
forming proteoglycans
• Fibers:
According to the type of cartilage
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Types of cartilage
• Types of cartilage:
• Hyaline cartilage; smooth homogenous and translucent
• trachea
• Fibrocartilage: there are bundle of collagenous fibers
• Intervertebral discs
• Elastic cartilage: matrix contains elastic fibers
• Epiglottis and ear pinnae
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Hyaline cartilage
perichondriu
m
chondrocyte
lacunae
nucleus
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Types of connective tissues
1- Connective tissue proper:
1. Dense regular
2. Dense irregular
3. Loose areolar tissue, which is thin and loose such as mesenteries or inside organs.
4. Adipose tissue
5. Elastic tissue, where elastic fibers are predominant
6. Reticular connective tissue.
2- Cartilage
3- Bone
4- Blood
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Bone
• Three cell types:
• Osteoblasts,; synthesize the matrix, the matrix becomes calcified
• Osteocytes, in lacunae.
• Osteoclasts: located in the inner surface and involved in the resorption
of the matrix.
• Matrix: solid and calcified
• Periosteum and endosteum: All bones are lined on both internal and
external surfaces by layers of connective tissue containing osteogenic
• cells—endosteum on the internal surface and periosteum on the
external surface
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Types of bone tissue
Compact bone
Cancellous (spongy ) bone
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Cancellous (spongy ) bone
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Compact bone
• Compact bone:
• - In compact bone, the tissue is formed by many “units” called
osteons.
• - Each osteon consists of a central canal. (Haversian canal), around
which there are layers of circularly, arranged lamellae.
• - The lacunae (which contain the osteocytes) are distributed along
these parallel lamellae.
• There are canaliculi between lacunae
• - The Haversian canals contain blood vessels
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Types of connective tissues
1- Connective tissue proper:
1. Dense regular
2. Dense irregular
3. Loose areolar tissue, which is thin and loose such as mesenteries or inside organs.
4. Adipose tissue
5. Elastic tissue, where elastic fibers are predominant
6. Reticular connective tissue.
2- Cartilage
3- Bone
4- Blood
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Tissues types
Muscular tissues
Anatomy and Histology
The 3 types of muscular tissue:
• 1. Skeletal (striated) muscle
• 2. Cardiac muscle
• 3. Smooth muscle
Tissues types
Nervous tissues
Anatomy and Histology
Nervous tissue
• Neurons
• Glial cells (neuroglia)
• Important note: remember nervous system
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Neuron (Nervous cell)
• Neurons come in all shapes and sizes
• All neurons share certain basic structural features.
• A typical neuron has a cell body. Projecting from the cell body are
processes called dendrites and an axon.
• The cell body, also called a soma, or perikaryon serves as the neuron’s
control center and is responsible for receiving, integrating, and
sending nerve impulses
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Neuron (nervous cell)
• The cell body is enclosed by a plasma membrane
• contains cytoplasm surrounding a nucleus
• The nucleus contains a prominent nucleolus, reflecting the high metabolic
activity of neurons, which require the production of many proteins.
• Numerous mitochondria are present within this cytoplasm to produce the
large amounts of ATP needed by the neuron.
• Large numbers of free ribosomes and rough ER produce proteins for the
active neuron. There are localized condensations of RER with ribosomes
that form chromatophilic substance, or Nissl bodies.
• The cytoplasm also contains neurofilaments and microtubules.
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Processes of the neuron (nervous cell)
• - Processes: These are extensions from the cell body. They are either
dendrites or axon
• Processes
• 1. Dendrites:
• Shorter and smaller than the axon,
• Processes that branch off the cell body.
• Some neurons have only one dendrite, while others have many.
• Dendrites conduct nerve impulses toward the cell body.
• The more dendrites a neuron has, the more nerve impulses that neuron can
receive from other cells.
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Processes of the neuron (nervous cell)
• 2. Axon:
• One axon for the neuron
• arises from one side called axon hillock.
• Its cytoplasm does not contain Nissl bodies.
• The cell membrane is called axolemma, and the cytoplasm is called
axoplasm.
• At the axon’s distal end there are a number of fine terminal extensions
called telodendria, or axon terminals.
• The extreme tips of these fine extensions are slightly expanded regions
called synaptic knobs (also called end bulbs or terminal boutons).
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Structural classification of neurons
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Functional classification of neurons
• Sensory neurons, or afferent neurons, transmit nerve impulses from
sensory receptors to the CNS. These neurons are specialized to detect
changes in their environment called stimuli. Stimuli can be in the form
of touch, pressure, heat, light, or chemicals.
• Motor neurons, or efferent neurons, transmit nerve impulses from the
CNS to muscles or glands. They are called motor neurons because
most of them extend to muscle cells
• Interneurons, or association neurons, lie within the CNS and are
multipolar structures. Interneurons facilitate communication between
sensory and motor neurons
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Glial cells (Neuroglial Cells):
• Small cells
• supportive cells (do not transmit nerve impulses) (assist neurons with their
functions)
• In the central and peripheral nervous tissue
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Glial Cells of the PNS
The two glial cell types in the PNS:
• Satellite Cells are flattened cells arranged around neuronal cell bodies
in ganglia.
• Schwann cells (Neurolemmocytes), are associated with PNS axons.
These cells are responsible for myelinating PNS axons
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Glial Cells of the CNS
• Astrocytes: starlike shape due to many projections from their surface
• Ependymal Cells: cuboidal epithelial cells that line the internal cavities
(ventricles) of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord.
• Microglial Cells: small cells with branches extending from the main cell
body. They wander through the CNS, replicate in response to an
infection. They perform phagocytic activity and remove debris from
dead or damaged nervous tissue.
• Oligodendrocytes: large cells with a bulbous body and slender
cytoplasmic extensions or processes. The processes of
oligodendrocytes surround the axons in CNS, forming myelin sheath.
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Course name: Anatomy and Histology
Organization of the body and body cavities
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
Aims
1. To list down
2. To describes
3. The define
4. To identify
• the directional and anatomical terms related to position, views and
movement
• the body cavities
Reference:
Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K, 2023, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 12th
global edition, Pearson education, USA, pages 42-50 and 171-172,
chapters 1 and 4
Anatomy and Histology
Anatomical position
To accurately describe body parts and
position, we must have an initial reference
point and use directional terms. To avoid
confusion, we always assume that the body is
in a standard position called anatomical
position.
All descriptions of the human body are based
on the assumption that the person is standing
erect, with the upper limbs by the sides and
the face and palms of the hands directed
forward. This is the so-called anatomic
position.
Anatomy and Histology
Directional terms
Anatomy and Histology
Directional terms
Anatomy and Histology
Regional terms
Do not memorize these terms now ☺
Anatomy and Histology
Body planes and sections
When preparing to look at the internal structures
of the body, medical students make a section, or
cut. When the section is made through the body
wall or through an organ, it is made along an
imaginary line called a plane. Because the body is
three dimensional, we can refer to three types of
planes or sections that lie at right angles to one
another
Anatomy and Histology
Body planes and sections
Anatomy and Histology
Body cavities
Anatomy and Histology
Cranial cavity
Location:
It is the cavity inside the skull.
Boundaries:
Anteriorly: Frontal bone
Laterally: Temporal bones (2)
Posteriorly: Occipital bone
Superiorly: 2 Parietal bones
Inferiorly (base of the skull): Sphenoid bone, Ethmoid bone, parts
of frontal, Temporal and Occipital bones
Contents:
The brain (cerebrum, cerebellum and brain stem)
Anatomy and Histology
Thoracic cavity
Location: in the upper part of the trunk
Boundaries:
Anteriorly: the sternum and costal cartilages of the ribs.
Laterally: The ribs (12) and intercostals muscles
Posteriorly: Thoracic vertebrae (12)
Superiorly: structures forming the root of the neck
Inferiorly: Diaphragm
Contents:
Trachea, bronchi (2),Lungs (2),the heart, aorta, Esophagus
superior and inferior vena cava, blood vessels and nerves,
lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes.
Anatomy and Histology
Abdominal cavity
Location: in the abdomen
Boundaries:
Superiorly: The diaphragm, which form a partition between
thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Anteriorly: The anterior abdominal wall which also forms the
major part of the lateral walls. It is formed by sheets of muscles
and fascia (connective tissue), and covered by the skin.
Posteriorly: Lumbar vertebrae and muscle of the posterior
abdominal wall
Laterally: The lower ribs and their costal cartilages, and muscles of
the abdominal wall.
Inferiorly: the pelvic cavity.
Anatomy and Histology
Abdominal cavity
• Contents
• Lower part of
Esophagus
• Stomach,
• small intestine
• most of large intestine.
• Liver
• gall bladder and bile
duct
• pancreas
• spleen.
• Kidneys (2) and suprarenal
glands
• Abdominal aorta
• inferior vena cava and vessels
of the abdomen
• Lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes
• nerves and plexuses of nerves.
Anatomy and Histology
Regions of the abdomen
• Regions of the abdomen: The abdomen is divisible by
imaginary lines: two vertical and two horizontal
• 9 regions: 3 in upper part, 3 in the middle, and 3 in
lower part.
• Upper 3: Epigastric, and right and left hypochondriac
regions.
• Middle 3: Umbilical, and right and left lumbar regions
• Lower 3: Hypogastric, and right and left iliac regions.
Anatomy and Histology
C
Anatomy and Histology
Pelvic cavity
Boundaries:
Superiorly: abdominal cavity
Anteriorly: the pubic bones and symphysis pubis
Posteriorly: the sacrum and coccyx
Laterally: The hip (os coxa) bones
Inferiorly: the muscles of the pelvic floor.
Contents:
• Sigmoid colon, Rectum, anal canal, Some loops of small intestine,
Lower parts of ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.
• In female: uterus, ovaries, uterine tubes and vagina.
• In male: prostate, seminal vesicles, spermatic cords, ejaculatory
ducts and urethra.
Anatomy and Histology
Membranes in the human body
The cutaneous membrane is dry
Mucous membranes are wet
Serous membranes are wet
Anatomy and Histology
cutaneous membrane
• The cutaneous membrane is your skin
• It is an organ system consisting of a keratinized
stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) firmly
attached to a thick layer of connective tissue (dermis).
• Unlike other epithelial membranes, the cutaneous
membrane is exposed to the air and is a dry
membrane
Anatomy and Histology
Serous membranes
- The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the
organs it contains are covered by a thin, double-layered
membrane, the serosa or serous membrane.
- The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is called the
parietal serosa which folds in on itself to form the visceral
serosa, covering the organs in the cavity.
- In the body, the serous membranes are separated not by air but
by a thin layer of lubricating fluid, called serous fluid
Anatomy and Histology
Serous membranes
Anatomy and Histology
Pleura
• Pleura:
• The right and left of the thoracic
cavity are lined by Pleura
• Pleura is a serous membrane
Visceral pleura
• There are parietal pleura and
visceral pleura
parietal pleura
• The space between visceral and
parietal pleura is the pleural
cavity which contains little fluid.
Anatomy and Histology
Mediastinum of the thoracic cavity
• Mediastinum: The thoracic cavity is divided by the mediastinum into
right and left cavities
All labels
Anatomy and Histology
Pericardium
Anatomy and Histology
Peritoneum:
• It is a serous membranous sac
inside the abdominal cavity.
• Its outer part forms the parietal
peritoneum that lines the
abdominal wall.
• The visceral peritoneum covers
the organs (viscera) and
surrounds some of them
• peritoneal cavity
• folds of peritoneum are called
mesenteries.
Anatomy and Histology
Mucous membranes
• Mucous membranes, or mucosae
• line all body cavities that open to the outside of the body
• Examples: hollow organs of the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital
tracts
• In all cases, they are “wet,” or moist, membranes. Bathed by secretions
or, in the case of the urinary mucosa, urine.
• The term mucosa refers to the location of the membrane, not its cell
composition, most mucosae contain either stratified squamous or simple
columnar epithelia.
• The epithelial sheet lies directly over a layer of areolar connective tissue
called the lamina propria, and a layer of smooth muscles
Anatomy and Histology
Mucous membranes
Anatomy and Histology
Course name: Anatomy and Histology
The nervous system
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
Aims
1. To list down
2. To describes
3. The define
4. To identify
• The organs and tissues in the human nervous system
Reference:
Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K, 2023, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 12th
global edition, Pearson education, USA, pages 467- and 529 chapters 12,
13, 14
Anatomy and Histology
Peripheral and central nervous system
3
We will start with the central
nervous system
The human brain
(Cerebrum )
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Gray and white matter
• Gray matter made up from numerous cell bodies and relatively few
myelinated axons (cerebral cortex and basal nuclei)
• White matter contains relatively few cell bodies and is composed
chiefly of long-range myelinated axons.
• The color difference arises mainly from the whiteness of myelin
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The cerebral cortex.
• Localizes and interprets sensory inputs
• Controls voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle activity
• Functions in intellectual and emotional processing
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Histology of the cerebral cortex
• The layers of the cerebral cortex
• starting at the surface
• 1. Molecular layer.
• 2. External granular layer.
• 3. External pyramidal layer.
• 4. Internal granular layer.
• 5. Internal pyramidal layer.
• 6. Multiform layer.
• The cells that predominant in the cortex are pyramidal cells of various sizes.
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The cerebrum and its surface
• The cerebrum contains a large number of neurons
• The surface of the cerebrum folds into elevated ridges, called gyri (singular
gyrus), separated by shallow sulci (singular sulcus) or deeper grooves called
fissures.
• The median longitudinal fissure
• The lateral cerebral fissure
• Several sulci divide each hemisphere into five lobes—frontal, parietal, temporal,
occipital, and insula
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Cerebral hemispheres
• The cerebrum is composed of two halves, called the
left and right cerebral hemisphere.
• The paired cerebral hemispheres are separated by a
deep longitudinal fissure.
• The corpus callosum is a mass of white matter that
connects the hemispheres.
• Inside each hemisphere there are cavities called
ventricles filled by CSF
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Functional and structural areas of the cerebral cortex.
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Precentral gyrus
• The frontal lobe lies deep to the frontal bone and forms the anterior
part of the cerebral hemisphere.
• The frontal lobe ends posteriorly at a deep groove called the central
sulcus that marks the boundary with the parietal lobe.
• The inferior border of the frontal lobe is marked by the lateral sulcus,
a deep groove that separates the frontal and parietal lobes from the
temporal lobe.
• The precentral gyrus, which is a mass of nervous tissue immediately
anterior to the central sulcus of the frontal lobe is primarily
concerned with voluntary motor functions, and called the primary
motor area.
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Postcentral gyrus
• The parietal lobe lies internal to the parietal bone and forms the
superioposterior part of each cerebral hemisphere.
• It terminates anteriorly at the central sulcus, posteriorly at a relatively
indistinct postcentral gyrus
• which is a mass of nervous tissue immediately posterior to the central
sulcus, in the parietal lobe is involved with general sensory functions
(primary sensory area).
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Other functional and structural areas of the
cerebral cortex.
• The temporal lobe lies inferior to the lateral sulcus and underlies the temporal bone.
This lobe is involved with hearing.
• The occipital lobe forms the posterior region of each hemisphere and immediately
underlies the occipital bone. This lobe is responsible for processing incoming visual
information (primary visual area) and storing visual memories.
• The insula is a small lobe deep to the lateral sulcus, involved in taste and equilibrium.
• One functional brain region is the Wernicke area, which is located only within the left
hemisphere, where it overlaps the parietal and temporal lobes. The Wernicke area is
involved in the comprehension of speech.
• Broca's area is also known as the motor speech area. It is near the motor cortex and
utilized in speech production, located in the inferior frontal gyrus. This area regulates
breathing patterns while speaking and vocalizations required for normal speech
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A lateral view of the brain, showing the frontal,
parietal, occipital and temporal lobes and primary
motor and sensory areas.
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Basal nuclei
• Paired, irregular masses of gray matter
deep within the central white matter in
the basal region of the cerebral
hemispheres
• Functions:
• Subcortical motor centers
• Help control skeletal muscle
movements
• Parts:
• Caudate nucleus
• Lentiform nucleus:
• Putamen
• Globus pallidus,
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The diencephalon includes the thalamus, hypothalamus,
and epithalamus
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The diencephalon includes the thalamus, hypothalamus,
and epithalamus
• The thalamus refers to paired oval masses of gray matter that lie on each side of
the third ventricle.
• Each part of the thalamus is composed of about a dozen major thalamic nuclei
that are organized into groups
• Each nucleus has a functional specialty, and each projects fibers to and receives
fibers from a specific region of the cerebral cortex.
• Functions:
• Relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex for interpretation
• Relays impulses between cerebral motor cortex and lower (subcortical) motor
centers, including cerebellum
• Involved in memory processing
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The diencephalon includes the thalamus, hypothalamus,
and epithalamus
• The hypothalamus is the anteroinferior region of the diencephalon.
• Hypothalamus contains large number of nuclear groups
• Functions:
• Chief integration center of autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
• Regulates the body homeostasis: body temperature, food intake, water balance,
thirst, and biological rhythms and drives
• Regulates hormonal output of anterior pituitary gland
• Acts as an endocrine organ, producing posterior pituitary hormones ADH and
oxytocin
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The limbic system
• The limbic system is a group of structures located on the medial aspect
of each cerebral hemisphere and diencephalon.
• The limbic system includes:
• the amygdaloid body
• other parts(cingulate gyrus, septal nuclei, the C-shaped hippocampus, dentate
gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus).
• In the diencephalon, the main limbic structures are the hypothalamus and the
anterior thalamic nuclei.
• The fornix (“arch”) and other fiber tracts link these limbic system regions
together.
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The limbic system
• It mediates emotional response
• It is involved in memory processing
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The brain stem consists of the midbrain, pons, and
medulla oblongata
• Brain stem: mid brain and pons and medulla oblongata
• It is a bidirectional passageway for all tracts extending between the cerebrum
and the spinal cord.
• It also contains many autonomic centers and reflex centers required for our
survival
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The midbrain
• Contains The superior colliculi are the
superior nuclei. They are called “visual reflex
centers” because they control reflexes such as
turning the eyes and head in response to a
visual stimuli.
• Contains The inferior colliculi are the
“auditory reflex centers,” meaning that they
control reflexive turning of the head and eyes
in the direction of a sound.
• Contains subcortical motor centers (substantia nigra and red nuclei)
• Contains nuclei for cranial nerves III and IV
• Contains projection fibers (e.g., fibers of the pyramidal tracts)
• Extending through the midbrain is the cerebral aqueduct connecting the third
and fourth ventricles
• it is surrounded by a region called the periaqueductal gray23matter.
Pons
• Relays information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum
• Cooperates with the medullary respiratory centers to control
respiratory rate and depth
• Contains nuclei of cranial nerves V–VII
• Contains projection fibers
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Medulla oblongata
• Relays ascending sensory pathway impulses from skin and
proprioceptors through nuclei cuneatus and gracilis
• Contains visceral nuclei controlling heart rate, blood vessel diameter,
respiratory rate, vomiting, coughing, etc.
• Relays sensory information to the cerebellum through inferior olivary
nuclei
• Contains nuclei of cranial nerves
VIII–X and XII
• Contains projection fibers
• Site of decussation of pyramids
25
The cerebellum
• Processes information from cerebral motor cortex, proprioceptors, and
visual and equilibrium pathways
• Provides “instructions” to cerebral motor cortex and subcortical motor
centers, resulting in smooth, coordinated skeletal muscle movements
• Responsible for balance and posture
• The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain.
• It has a complex, highly convoluted surface covered by a layer of
cerebellar cortex.
• The folds of the cerebellar cortex are called folia
26
The cerebellum
• The cerebellum is composed of left and right
cerebellar hemispheres.
• Each hemisphere consists of two lobes, the anterior
lobe and the posterior lobe, which are separated by
the primary fissure.
• Along the midline, a narrow band of cortex known as
the vermis separates the left and right cerebellar
hemispheres.
• Slender flocculonodular lobe lie anterior and inferior
to each cerebellar hemisphere.
• Inside the white matter, there are the deep cerebellar
nuclei.
27
Cerebellar Peduncles
• Three thick tracts, called peduncles
• link the cerebellum with the brainstem.
• The superior cerebellar peduncles connect the cerebellum to the mesencephalon.
• The middle cerebellar peduncles connect the pons to the cerebellum.
• The inferior cerebellar peduncles connect the cerebellum to the medulla oblongata.
28
Histology of cerebellar cortex
• The cortex has three layers:
• An outer molecular layer: neuronal cell bodies in the molecular layer are not
packed
• A central layer of very large neurons called Purkinje cells. The Purkinje cell bodies
are large and their dendrites extend throughout the molecular layer as a
branching basket of nerve fibers
• An inner granule layer. The granule layer is formed by very small neurons (the
smallest in the body), which are packed
together densely
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
29
Brain ventricles
• Ventricles are cavities or expansions
within the brain that are continuous with
one another as well as with the
central canal of the spinal cord.
• All the ventricles contain cerebrospinal fluid
• There are four ventricles in the brain:
• Two lateral ventricles are in the cerebrum, separated by a thin medial partition called
the septum pellucidum,
• the third ventricle, lying within diencephalon.
• Each lateral ventricle communicates with the third ventricle through an opening called
the interventricular foramen.
• A narrow canal called the cerebral aqueduct connects the third ventricle with fourth
ventricle.
• The fourth ventricle is located between the pons/medulla and the cerebellum.
• The fourth ventricle merges with central
canal in the spinal cord.
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
30
The brain is protected by bone, meninges,
cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood brain barrier
• The meninges are three connective tissue membranes that lie just external to the
CNS organs.
• Functions:
• Cover and protect the CNS
• Protect blood vessels and enclose venous sinuses
• Contain cerebrospinal fluid
• Form partitions in the skull
• From external to internal, the meninges (singular: meninx) are the dura mater,
arachnoid mater, and pia mater
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
31
The brain meninges
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
32
Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless liquid that circulates in
the ventricles and subarachnoid space. CSF bathes the exposed
surfaces of the central nervous system and completely surrounds the
brain and spinal cord.
• CSF also fills the central canal of the spinal cord
• Cerebrospinal fluid is formed by the choroid plexus in each ventricle.
CSF is produced by secretion of a fluid from the ependymal cells that
originates from the blood plasma. CSF is somewhat similar to blood
plasma
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
33
Cerebrospinal fluid circulation
Blood brain barrier
• Nervous tissue is protected from the general circulation by the blood-brain
barrier (BBB)
• BBB strictly regulates what substances can enter the interstitial fluid of the
brain.
• The blood-brain barrier keeps the neurons in the brain from being exposed
to drugs, waste products in the blood, and variations in levels of normal
substances (e.g., ions, hormones) that could adversely affect brain
function.
• The perivascular feet of astrocytes cover, wrap around, and completely
envelop capillaries in the brain. Both the capillary endothelial cells and the
astrocyte perivascular feet contribute to the blood-brain barrier.
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
35
36
Spinal cord
• The spinal cord is 45 cm long
• It is a cylindrical mass of nervous tissue.
• It is continuous above with the medulla oblongata
• It ends below at the lower level of the 1st lumbar vertebra (L1), or the upper level
of the 2nd lumbar vertebra (L2)
37
Histology of the spinal cord
• In cross section it appears that the white matter surrounds the gray matter.
• The white matter is organized in:
• dorsal (or posterior) column or funiculus
• lateral column or funiculus
• ventral (or anterior) funiculus
• The white matter contains descending (motor) tracts and ascending (sensory)
tracts.
• The gray matter is arranged to have dorsal horns and ventral horns with
commissures posterior and anterior to central canal.
• The ventral horn contains large multipolar neurons (motor neurons)
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
38
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
39
The peripheral nervous system
• The PNS includes all neural structures outside the brain and spinal cord.
• These structures are the sensory receptors, afferent and efferent nerves and their
associated ganglia, and motor endings.
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
40
Nerves are cordlike bundles of axons that conduct
sensory and motor impulses
• A nerve is a cordlike organ that is part of the peripheral
nervous system.
• Nerves are classified as cranial or spinal depending on
whether they arise from the brain or spinal cord.
• Nerves vary in size, but every nerve consists of parallel
bundles of peripheral axons (some myelinated and some
not) enclosed by successive wrappings of connective tissue
●● Each axon (or nerve fiber) is surrounded by endoneurium a
delicate layer of loose connective tissue that also encloses the fiber’s
associated Schwann cells
●● A coarser connective tissue wrapping, the perineurium, binds
groups of axons into bundles called fascicles .
●● A tough fibrous sheath, the epineurium, encloses all the fascicles
to form the nerve.
41
12 pairs of cranial nerves
• Cranial nerves are a part of the peripheral nervous system
• They originate on the ventral surface of the brain.
• There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
• Each cranial nerve is composed of many axons.
• Some cranial nerves are composed of motor axons only
• Other cranial nerves are composed of sensory axons only.
• The other cranial nerves are composed of both sensory and motor
axons
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
42
31 pairs of spinal nerves
• 8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1–C8)
• 12 pairs of thoracic nerves (T1–T12)
• 5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1–L5)
• 5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1–S5)
• 1 pair of tiny coccygeal nerves (Co1)
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
44
Roots of the spinal nerves
• Ventral roots contain
• Motor (efferent) fibers that arise from
ventral horn motor neurons and extend to
and innervate the skeletal muscles.
• Autonomic nerves
• Dorsal roots contain sensory (afferent)
fibers that arise from sensory neurons
in the dorsal root ganglia and conduct
impulses from peripheral receptors to
the spinal cord.
• A spinal nerve is quite short (only 1–2
cm). Almost immediately after
emerging from its foramen, it divides
into a small dorsal ramus a larger
ventral ramus
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
45
Spinal nerves
• Each spinal nerve after
emerging from
intervertebral foramen
is a mixed nerve and
divides into dorsal and
ventral rami
46
The gray matter and the spinal nerves
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
47
48
sensory ganglia (dorsal root ganglion).
• Aggregation of nerve cells bodies in the peripheral
nervous system form ganglia.
• Sensory ganglia of the spinal nerves are called
dorsal root ganglia.
• large spherical pseudopolar neurons,
• enveloped by small capsule cells.
• These capsule cells are then surrounded by a
connective tissue capsule composed of satellite cells
and collagen.
49
Innervation of Specific Body Regions
• Roots lie medial to and form the spinal nerves. Each root is strictly sensory or
motor.
• Rami lie distal to and are lateral branches of the spinal nerves.
• Like spinal nerves, rami carry both sensory and motor fibers.
• Except for T2–T12, all ventral rami branch and join one another lateral to the
vertebral column, forming complicated interlacing nerve networks called nerve
plexuses.
• Nerve plexuses occur in the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral regions and
primarily serve the limbs.
• only ventral rami form plexuses.
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
50
Nerve plexus
• A nerve plexus is a network of interweaving anterior rami of spinal
nerves.
• The posterior rami of spinal nerves are smaller than their anterior
counterparts and do not form plexuses
• The anterior rami of most spinal nerves form nerve plexuses on both
the right and left sides of the body.
• These nerve plexuses then split into multiple “named” nerves that
innervate various body structures.
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
51
Examples on nerve plexuses
brachial
Lumbar
Sacral
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
Don’t memorize the names of the nerves
52
Cervical
Autonomic Nervous system
• The autonomic nervous system is concerned with the control of the
internal environment
• Innervation of the non-skeletal muscle of the heart, blood vessels,
bronchial tree, gut and the pupils and the secretomotor supply of
many glands, including those of the alimentary tract and its
outgrowths, the sweat glands and others.
• The ANS is subdivided into the parasympathetic division and the
sympathetic division.
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
53
The parasympathetic and the sympathetic divisions
The parasympathetic division is primarily concerned with:
• 1- conserving energy
• 2- replenishing nutrient stores.
• It is most active when the body is at rest or digesting a meal.
• REST AND DIGEST
The sympathetic division is concerned with: preparing the body for emergencies.
• FIGHT-OR-FLIGHT
• Increased sympathetic activity results in the increased alertness and metabolic
activity needed in stressful or frightening situations.
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
54
Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
(similarities)
• Both divisions contain the autonomic ganglia that house the
ganglionic neurons (next slide)
• Both use a preganglionic neuron and a ganglionic neuron to innervate
muscles or glands (second next slide)
• Preganglionic axons are myelinated, postganglionic axons are
unmyelinated.
• Both divisions are involuntary and are concerned with the body’s
internal environment in general (Nevertheless, The two divisions perform
dramatically different functions)
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
55
Preganglionic and postganglionic neurons
(Ganglion chain)
All labels
56
Autonomic Ganglia:
• Aggregation of nerve cells bodies in the
peripheral nervous system form ganglia.
• These are also surrounded by fibrous capsule
• contain cells which are smaller than those in
sensory ganglia, and irregular in outline.
• The neurons are multipolar in addition to
small interneurons, the nucleus usually not in
the center
• and the capsule cells layer is not well
developed.
57
Where are the preganglionic neuron cell bodies housed?
• Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons originate in either the brainstem or
the lateral gray matter of the S2–S4 spinal cord segments
• The parasympathetic division is also termed the craniosacral division
• Sympathetic preganglionic neurons originate in the lateral horns of the T1–L2
spinal cord segments.
• The sympathetic division is also called: thoracolumbar
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
58
Gray and white rami
• The preganglionic sympathetic axons travel with somatic motor
neuron axons to exit the spinal cord with the ventral (anterior) roots.
• However, these preganglionic sympathetic axons then leave the spinal
nerve by special branches (White rami (ramus)), into the left and
right sympathetic trunks.
• A sympathetic trunk is composed of bundles of axons, and
sympathetic trunk ganglia (paravertebral or chain ganglia), which
house sympathetic ganglionic neuron cell bodies.
• Connecting the spinal nerves to each sympathetic trunk are Gray rami
(ramus) carry post-ganglionic sympathetic axons from the
sympathetic trunk to the spinal nerve.
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
60
61
Important terminology
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
62
Summary
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
63
Blended lectures
The cell
The Skeletal system
The Muscular system
The anatomy and histology of the ear and the eye
Course name: Anatomy and Histology
The Cell
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
Aims and references
1. To list down
2. To describes
3. To define
4. To identify
• The structure of the cells in the human body
Reference:
Campbell, N. A., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S.
A., Minorsky, P. V., & Reece, J. B. (2018). Biology. A global
approach. Global edition, Pearson education, chapter 7
The slides used in this presentation and prepared
previously by Pearson education
Anatomy and Histology
Chapter 7
Cell Structure and
Function
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Lecture Presentations by
Nicole Tunbridge and
Kathleen Fitzpatrick
The Fundamental Units of Life
▪ All organisms are made of cells
▪ The cell is the simplest collection of matter that can be alive
▪ Cells make tissues
▪ Tissues make organs
▪ Organs make systems
▪ The systems make a human body
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Basic features of all cells
▪ Plasma membrane
▪ Semifluid substance called
cytosol
▪ Cytoplasm in the region between
the plasma membrane and
nucleus
▪ Chromosomes (carry genes)
▪ DNA in a nucleus that is bounded
by a double membrane
▪ Ribosomes (make proteins)
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Figure 7.6
(a)barrier
TEM of a
plasma
membrane
Outside
cell
The plasma membrane
is aof selective
that
allows
sufficient passage of oxygen,
nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell
Inside
0.1 μm
of cell
(cytoplasm)
Carbohydrate side chains
Phospholipid
Hydrophilic
region
Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophilic
region
Proteins
(b) Structure of the plasma membrane
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
The nucleus
▪ The nucleus contains most of the DNA in
a eukaryotic cell
▪ Ribosomes use the information from the
DNA to make proteins
▪ The nucleus contains most of the cell’s
genes and is usually the most
conspicuous organelle
▪ The nuclear envelope encloses the
nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm
▪ The nuclear envelope is a double
membrane; each membrane consists of a
lipid bilayer
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
▪ In the nucleus, DNA is organized
into discrete units called
chromosomes
▪ Each chromosome contains one
DNA molecule associated with
proteins, called chromatin
▪ Chromatin condenses to form
discrete chromosomes as a cell
prepares to divide
▪ The nucleolus is located within the
nucleus and is the site of ribosomal
RNA (rRNA) synthesis
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Ribosomes: Protein Factories
▪ Ribosomes are complexes made of ribosomal RNA and protein
▪ Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations:
▪ In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
▪ On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope
(bound ribosomes)
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and
performs metabolic functions in the cell
▪ The endomembrane system consists of
▪ Nuclear envelope
▪ Endoplasmic reticulum
▪ Golgi apparatus
▪ Lysosomes
▪ Vacuoles
▪ Plasma membrane
▪ These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by
vesicles
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic
Factory
▪ The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the
total membrane in many eukaryotic cells
▪ The ER membrane is continuous with the
nuclear envelope
▪ There are two distinct regions of ER:
▪ Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
▪ Rough ER, whose surface is studded
with ribosomes
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Functions of ER
▪ The rough ER
▪ Has bound ribosomes, which secrete glycoproteins (proteins covalently
bonded to carbohydrates)
▪ Distributes transport vesicles, secretory proteins surrounded by
membranes
▪ Is a membrane factory for the cell
▪ The smooth ER
▪ Synthesizes lipids
▪ Metabolizes carbohydrates
▪ Detoxifies drugs and poisons
▪ Stores calcium ions
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and
Receiving Center
▪ The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called
cisternae
▪ The Golgi apparatus
▪ Modifies products of the ER
▪ Manufactures certain macromolecules
▪ Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
▪ A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic
enzymes that can digest macromolecules
▪ Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic
environment inside the lysosome
▪ Hydrolytic enzymes and lysosomal membranes are
made by rough ER and then transferred to the Golgi
apparatus for further processing
▪ Some types of cell can engulf another cell by
phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
▪ A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests
the molecules
▪ Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s
own organelles and macromolecules, a process called
autophagy
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
▪ Mitochondria are found in nearly all
eukaryotic cells
▪ They have a smooth outer membrane and an
inner membrane folded into cristae
▪ The inner membrane creates two
compartments: intermembrane space and
mitochondrial matrix
▪ Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration
are catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix
▪ Cristae present a large surface area for
enzymes that synthesize ATP
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Peroxisomes
▪ Peroxisomes are small, membrane-enclosed organelles that contain
enzymes involved in a variety of metabolic reactions, including several
aspects of energy metabolism
▪ Peroxisomes are organelles that sequester diverse oxidative reactions
and play important roles in metabolism, reactive oxygen species
detoxification, and signaling.
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Cytoskeleton
▪ The cytoskeleton is a structure that helps cells maintain their shape and
internal organization, and it also provides mechanical support that
enables cells to carry out essential functions like division and
movement
▪ The cytoskeleton has three different types of protein elements. From
narrowest to widest, they are the microfilaments (actin filaments),
intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Mitosis and meiosis
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
The cell cycle
▪ A cell cycle is a series of events that takes place
in a cell as it grows and divides. A cell spends
most of its time in what is called interphase, and
during this time it grows, replicates its
chromosomes, and prepares for cell division.
The cell then leaves interphase, undergoes
mitosis, and completes its division
▪ In eukaryotes, the cell cycle consists of four
discrete phases: G1, S, G2, and M.
▪ The S or synthesis phase is when DNA replication occurs,
▪ The M or mitosis phase is when the cell actually divides.
▪ The other two phases — G1 and G2, the so-called gap phases
▪ Cytokinesis is the physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a
parental cell into two daughter cells. It occurs concurrently with two types of nuclear
division called mitosis and meiosis
© 2018 Pearson Education Ltd.
Course name: Anatomy and Histology
Skeletal System
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
Skeletal System
Aims
1. To list down the bones in the skeletal system
2. To identify the bones in the skeletal system
Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K, 2023, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 12th
edition, Pearson education, USA, Chapter 7
Skeletal System
Introduction
• Skeletal system is divided into two main groups:
1. Axial skeleton
2. Appendicular skeleton
Skeletal System
Introduction
Skeletal System
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: the skull
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: the skull
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: the skull
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: the skull
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: the skull
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: the skull
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Identify them without labels
https://macrovector.com/
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: THORACIC CAGE
Skeletal System
Axial skeleton: THORACIC CAGE
Skeletal System
Introduction
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE UPPER LIMBS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE UPPER LIMBS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE UPPER LIMBS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE UPPER LIMBS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE UPPER LIMBS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE UPPER LIMBS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE PELVIS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE PELVIS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE PELVIS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE PELVIS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE LOWER LIMBS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE LOWER LIMBS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE LOWER LIMBS
Skeletal System
Appendicular Skeleton: THE LOWER LIMBS
Course name: Anatomy and Histology
The skeletal system
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
The Muscular System
Aims
1. To list down the names of skeletal muscles in the muscles system
2. To identify the skeletal muscles in the muscles system
Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K, 2023, Human Anatomy & Physiology, 12th
edition, Pearson education, USA, chapter 10
The Skeletal Muscles
Functions of the Muscular System
The muscular system plays four important roles in the body:
- Maintains posture
- produces movement
- stabilizes joints
- protection
- generates heat.
The Skeletal Muscles
The body’s skeletal muscles can be divided into four areas:
1.
Head and neck muscles
2.
Muscles of the upper limbs (shoulder, arm, forearm)
3.
Trunk (thorax and abdomen)
4.
Muscles of the lower limbs (hip, pelvis/thigh, leg).
The Skeletal Muscles
The body’s skeletal muscles can be divided into four areas:
1.
Head and neck muscles
2.
Muscles of the upper limbs (shoulder, arm, forearm)
3.
Trunk (thorax and abdomen)
4.
Muscles of the lower limbs (hip, pelvis/thigh, leg).
The Skeletal Muscles
Head muscles:
Head muscles:
•
Frontalis
•
Orbicularis oris
•
Orbicularis occuli
•
Buccinators
•
Zygomaticus
•
Masseters
•
temporalis
Anatomy and
Histology
The Skeletal Muscles
Head muscles:
Head muscles:
•
Frontalis
•
Orbicularis oris
•
Orbicularis occuli
•
Buccinators
•
Zygomaticus
•
Masseters
•
temporalis
7
7
The Skeletal Muscles
Neck muscles:
Neck muscles:
•
They move the head and shoulder girdle
•
Sternocleidomastoid
The Skeletal Muscles
The body’s skeletal muscles can be divided into four areas:
1.
Head and neck muscles
2.
Muscles of the upper limbs (shoulder, arm, forearm)
3.
Trunk (thorax and abdomen)
4.
Muscles of the lower limbs (hip, pelvis/thigh, leg).
The Skeletal Muscles
The muscles of the arm:
Muscles of the arm
•
Biceps brachii
•
Triceps brachii
The Skeletal Muscles
The body’s skeletal muscles can be divided into four areas:
1.
Head and neck muscles
2.
Muscles of the upper limbs (shoulder, arm, forearm)
3.
Trunk (thorax and abdomen)
4.
Muscles of the lower limbs (hip, pelvis/thigh, leg).
The Skeletal Muscles
Muscles of the trunk
Trunk muscles:
•
Pectoralis
•
internal intercostals
•
external intercostals
•
Serratus
•
-----------------------------------------
•
rectus abdominis muscles
•
the external oblique
•
the internal oblique muscles
•
the transversus abdominis
•
--------------------------------------
•
Trapezius
•
Latissimus dorsi
•
Deltoid
The Skeletal Muscles
Muscles of the trunk
Trunk muscles:
•
Pectoralis
•
internal intercostals
•
external intercostals
•
Serratus
•
-----------------------------------------
•
rectus abdominis muscles
•
the external oblique
•
the internal oblique muscles
•
the transversus abdominis
•
--------------------------------------
•
Trapezius
•
Latissimus dorsi
•
Deltoid
The Skeletal Muscles
Muscles of the trunk
The Skeletal Muscles
Anterior abdominal muscles
Anterior abdominal muscles
•
Pectoralis
•
internal intercostals
•
external intercostals
•
Serratus
•
-----------------------------------------
•
rectus abdominis muscles
•
the external oblique
•
the internal oblique muscles
•
the transversus abdominis
•
--------------------------------------
•
Trapezius
•
Latissimus dorsi
•
Deltoid
The Skeletal Muscles
Posterior muscles of the trunk
Posterior muscles of the trunk
•
Pectoralis
•
internal intercostals
•
external intercostals
•
Serratus
•
-----------------------------------------
•
rectus abdominis muscles
•
the external oblique
•
the internal oblique muscles
•
the transversus abdominis
•
--------------------------------------
•
Trapezius
•
Latissimus dorsi
•
Deltoid
The Skeletal Muscles
The body’s skeletal muscles can be divided into four areas:
1.
Head and neck muscles
2.
Muscles of the upper limbs (shoulder, arm, forearm)
3.
Trunk (thorax and abdomen)
4.
Muscles of the lower limbs (hip, pelvis/thigh, leg).
The Skeletal Muscles
Muscles of the Lower limb
Muscles of the Lower limb :
•
Gluteus
•
Sartorius
•
Biceps femoris
•
Quadriceps group
•
Tibialis anterior
•
Fibularis muscles
•
Gastrocnemius
The Skeletal Muscles
Muscles of the Lower limb
Muscles of the Lower limb :
•
Gluteus
•
Sartorius
•
Biceps femoris
•
Quadriceps group
•
Tibialis anterior
•
Fibularis muscles
•
Gastrocnemius
The Skeletal Muscles
Muscles of the Lower limb
The Skeletal Muscles
Muscles of the body
The Skeletal Muscles
Muscles of the body
Course name: Anatomy and Histology
The human eye
The human ear
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
Course name: Anatomy and Histology
The human eye
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
Aims and references
1. To list down
2. To describes
3. The define
4. To identify
• The cells and the tissues and the parts of the human eye
Reference:
Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K, 2023, Human Anatomy & Physiology,
12th edition, Pearson education, USA, page 585 chapter 15
Anatomy and Histology
The human eye
• The adult eye is a sphere with a diameter of about 2.5
cm.
• Only the anterior one-sixth of the eye’s surface is
visible. The rest is enclosed and protected by a cushion
of fat and the walls of the bony orbit.
Anatomy and Histology
The human eye
Anatomy and Histology
The structures of the eyeball
• The eye itself, commonly called the eyeball, is a slightly
irregular hollow sphere
• Its wall is composed of three layers:
• A- the fibrous layer
• B- vascular layer
• C- inner layer.
• Its internal cavity is filled with fluids called humors that help
to maintain its shape.
• The lens
Anatomy and Histology
The structures of the eyeball
Anatomy and Histology
The structures of the eyeball
Fibrous Layer
• The outermost coat of the eyeball
• It is composed of dense avascular connective tissue.
• It has two obviously different regions:
• the sclera
• The sclera forming the posterior portion and the bulk of the fibrous
layer,
• It is white and opaque.
• Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye,”
• Posteriorly, where the sclera is pierced by the optic nerve (cranial nerve
II)
• the cornea
• The crystal-clear cornea forms a window that lets light enter the eye,
and is a major part of the light bending apparatus of the eye.
Anatomy and Histology
The structures of the eyeball
• Epithelial sheets cover both faces of the cornea:
●● The external sheet, a stratified squamous epithelium
●● The deep corneal endothelium, composed of simple squamous
epithelium, lines the inner face of the cornea.
• The cornea is well supplied with nerve endings, most of
which are pain receptors.
• The cornea has no blood vessels and so it is beyond the
reach of the immune system.
Anatomy and Histology
The structures of the eyeball
B- The vascular layer
• forms the middle coat of the eyeball.
• pigmented layer
• Has three regions:
• Choroid
• Its blood vessels nourish all eye layers.
• ciliary body
• A thickened ring of tissue that encircles the lens
• Iris
• the colored part of the eye
• Its round central opening, the pupil, allows light to enter the eye.
• It is made up of two smooth muscle layers
Anatomy and Histology
The structures of the eyeball
C- The Inner layer (the retina)
• The innermost layer of the eyeball is the delicate retina
• It contains:
(1) millions of photoreceptors that convert light to energy,
(2) other neurons involved in processing responses to light,
(3) glia.
• The retina consists of two layers: an outer pigmented layer
and an inner neural layer
Anatomy and Histology
The layers of the retina
• The pigmented layer: (Functions):
• Light absorption to prevent it from scattering in the eye.
• They act as phagocytes participating in photoreceptor cell renewal
• They store vitamin A needed by the photoreceptor cells.
• the neural layer is composed of three main types of
neurons:
• bipolar cells
• ganglion cells
• Photoreceptors
• Rods are our dim-light and peripheral vision receptors. They are
more numerous and far more sensitive to light than cones
• Cones are our vision receptors for bright light and provide highresolution color vision.
Anatomy and Histology
The structures of the eyeball
Anatomy and Histology
The structures of the eyeball
The Lens
• It is convex on both sides, transparent, flexible
• The lens is avascular
• The lens has two regions: the lens epithelium and the lens fibers.
• The lens epithelium, found in anterior lens surface, consists of cuboidal
cells that eventually differentiate into the lens fibers that form the bulk
of the lens.
Anatomy and Histology
The accessory structures of the eye
• include the eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva, lacrimal
apparatus, and extrinsic eye muscles.
• Eyebrows
• The eyebrows are short, coarse hairs that overlie the
supraorbital margins of the skull
• Functions:
• help shade the eyes from sunlight
• prevent perspiration trickling down the forehead from
reaching the eyes.
Anatomy and Histology
The accessory structures of the eye
• Eyelids
• Anteriorly, the eyes are protected by the eyelids
• The eyelids are thin, skin-covered folds
• The upper eyelid is much more mobile
• The eyelid muscles are activated reflexively to cause
blinking every 3–7 seconds and to protect the eye from
foreign objects.
• Each time we blink, accessory structure secretions (oil,
mucus, and saline solution) spread across the eyeball
surface, keeping the eyes moist.
Anatomy and Histology
The accessory structures of the eye
• Eyelashes
• Projecting from the free margin of each eyelid are the
eyelashes.
• The follicles of the eyelash hairs are richly innervated
by nerve endings (hair follicle receptors), and anything
that touches the eyelashes triggers reflex blinking.
• The conjunctiva
• It is a transparent mucous membrane.
• It produces a lubricating mucus that
• prevents the eyes from drying out.
Anatomy and Histology
The accessory structures of the eye
• The lacrimal apparatus
• it consists of the lacrimal gland and the ducts that drain
lacrimal secretions into the nasal cavity
• It continually releases a dilute saline solution called
lacrimal secretion (tears)
• Blinking spreads the tears
• Lacrimal fluid contains mucus, antibodies, and lysozyme,
Anatomy and Histology
The extrinsic muscles
Anatomy and Histology
Course name: Anatomy and Histology
The anatomy and histology of the ear
Dr. Zina M. Al-Alami
Learning outcomes
1. To list down
2. To describes
3. The define
4. To identify
• The anatomy and histology of the human ear
• the structure of the outer, middle, and internal ears.
Reference:
Marieb, E. N. & Hoehn, K, 2023, Human Anatomy & Physiology,
12th edition, Pearson education, USA, pages 612- 617 chapter 15
Anatomy and Histology
The ear has three major areas: the outer, middle, and internal ears.
Anatomy and Histology
The external ear
• The external (outer) ear consists of the auricle and the external
acoustic meatus.
• The auricle, or pinna, it is composed of elastic cartilage covered with
thin skin and an occasional hair.
• Sound waves entering the external acoustic meatus eventually hit the
tympanic membrane, or eardrum, the boundary between the outer
and middle ears.
• The eardrum is a thin, translucent, connective tissue membrane,
covered by skin on its external face and by mucosa internally. Shaped
like a flattened cone, its apex protrudes medially into the middle ear.
• Sound waves make the eardrum vibrate.
• The eardrum, in turn, transfers the sound energy to the tiny bones of
the middle ear and sets them vibrating.
Anatomy and Histology
The middle ear
• The middle ear, or tympanic cavity, is a
small, air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity in
the petrous part of the temporal bone
• It is flanked laterally by the eardrum and
medially by a bony wall with two
openings, the superior oval window and
the inferior round window.
• The tympanic cavity is spanned by the
three smallest bones in the body: the
auditory ossicles. These bones, named
for their shape, are the malleus, the
incus and the stapes
Anatomy and Histology
The internal ear
• The internal ear is also called the labyrinth (“maze”) because of its
complicated shape
• The internal ear has two major divisions: the bony labyrinth and the
membranous labyrinth.
Anatomy and Histology