Yuri Virehosmnsry
Shock method
Published by Verldioshansky SSTM
2018 - Rome,Italy
On the cover
The famous photo of the legendary Valery Brumel who broke the high juitp
WORD RECORD FIVE TIMES,FROM 1961 TO 1971.
Shock Method
© Copyright: Natalia Verkhoshansky
Published by Verklioshansky SSTM©
WWW.verkhoshansky.com
Edited by Natalia Verkhoshansky, Bryan Mann and Matt Thome
Translation of the book “Shock Method” Russian edition - Natalia Verkhoshansky
Translation of the book “Tutto sul Metodo d’Urto” Italian edition - Carlo Buzzichelli
All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in any electronic format or other :'etrieval system, or transmitted in any form, by any means, including mechanical, photo
copy, recording and may not be used in any forai for commercial purposes without the pri
or written permission of the authors.
2
^
Acknowledgments
Thanks and acknowledgments
We wish to thank Bryan Mann and Matt Thome, for their precious work in reviewing
and editing. Their contribution has been determinant for the whole editorial project.
We also would like to thank Carlo Buzzichelli for the translation of the book “Tutto sul
metodo d’urto” which has been the basis of the editorial project.
I
Testimonials
mm
Testimonials
These testimonials were taken from the first Russian edition of “Shock
Method”. Here we are reporting only the testimonials referred to Depth Jump
WHICH IS one of the MOST FAMOUS MEANS OF SHOCK METHOD CONCEIVED BY PROF.
Verkhoshansky
Forjumpers the Depth Jumps are like a sip offresh water on a hot day. Moreover, they
are an optimal method to evaluate thefunctional state ofthe athlete and to increase explo
sive muscle strength.
Vitali Petrov, trainer of the former world pole vault record holder Sergei Bubka.
/ had not thought that Depth Jumps could be so usefulfor the weightlifter. I am very
sorry that Idid not know anything about these exercises before.
Yuri Kozin,former world weightlifting record holder.
The Depth Jump is one ofthe main means I use to increase explosive strength and mus
cle reactive capacity and to control myfunctional state.
Igor Palkin, former world high jump record holder.
1 do not like exercises with barbell and jumping exercises. Only the Depth Jumps in
crease my strength.
Vladimir Jascenko, former world high jump record holder.
The Depth Jumps are an excellent means oftraining, but in using them you must use the
brain.
lanis Lusis, former world record holder in the javelin throw.
The Depth Jumps are daily breadfor triple jumpers; they are what is most necessary
for them,first ofall.
Viktor Saneev, former world record holder in the triple jump.
The Depth Jumps replace the muscles with very elastic steel springs. Without them it is
not possible to perform thejumps on ice, characterized by a highflight height.
Stanislav Guk,trainer of many world champions in figure skating on ice.
II
Hi
Testimonials
The Depth Jumps are the basis ofthe volleyball players'ability tojump.
Vladimir Patkin, general technician of the Soviet National Volleyball Team.
The Depth Jumps are the best way to make the muscles explosive, especially ifthey are
used in a rational combination with the barbell exercises.
Ekkart Arbeit, general technician of the National Athletics Team of the former GDR.
Depth Jumps? It is a very effective means. IfI had appreciated it before, Boston would
not have won so easily in Rome.
Igor Ter-Ovanesian, former long-time jumper and general coach of the former USSR
National Athletics Team.
Ill
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Table of content
Table of content
Thanks and acknowledgments
I
Testimonials
II
Introduction: Clarifying terms and methodological issues
(Natalia Verkhoshansky)
9
1.1. Shock Method and Depth Jump
1.2. Depth Jump and Pliometrics
1.3. Pliometrics and Plyometrics
1.4. Stretch-Shortening Cycle and Drop Jump
1.5. Drop Jump and Depth Jump
1.6. Protective function of the neuro-muscular system
1.7. Super Method of Special Strength Training
9
12
15
18
21
28
34
Preface of Yuri Verkhoshansky
39
1. Shock Method: what it is and how it works
1.1. The shock regime of muscular work and its particular features
43
I.I.I. What kind of shock regime of muscular work are we referring to?
1.1.2. How the collision of falling body with the ground influences the maximal
height of subsequent vertical jump?
1.1.3. How the collision between the falling external load and the straightened-up
1.1.4.
HUMAN hand influences THE FORCE OF SUBSEQUENT REPULSIVE MOVEMENT?
CONCLUSION
1.2. Reactive ability of the athlete
43
43
47
49
51
53
1.2.1. Reactive properties of neuro-muscular system and the muscles function as
9?
“LOCOMOTOR springs
1.2.2.
The REACTIVE ABILITY OF ATHLETE: WHAT IT IS AND HOW IT MAY BE EVALUATED
1.2.3.
May THE REACTIVE ABILITY BE IMPROVED, OR IT IS WHOLLY DETERMINED BY THE INNATE
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATHLETE’S NEURO-MUSCULAR SYSTEM?
1.2.4.
How DOES REACTIVE ABILITY CHANGE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF TRAINING?
1.2.5. Conclusions
53
55
59
61
63
1.3. Applying the kinetic energy of a falling weight as a factor of
MUSCULAR STIMULATION
1.3.1.
63
How DOES THE WORKING EFFECT OF AN UPPER EXTREMITY MOVEMENT, PERFORMED IN
THE SHOCK REGIME, CHANGE WITH INCREASING THE WEIGHT OF THE FALLING LOAD AND
THE HEIGHT FROM WHICH IT FALLS?
1.3.2. HOW DOES THE MAXIMAL HEIGHT REACHED IN DEPTH JUMP CHANGE BY INCREASING THE
BODY’S WEIGHT(WITH ADDING THE LOAD)?
65
68
5
Table OF CONTENT 1●MiM1.3.3.
How DOES THE MAXIMAL HEIGHT REACHED IN THE DEPTH KJMP CHANGE BY INCREASING
THE DROP HEIGHT?
1.3.4.
HEIGHT?
1.3.5.
1.4.
Conclusions
Training effects of the exercises performed in the shock regime
1.4.1.
71
72
74
How DOES THE WORKING EFFECT OF A SHOCK-REPELLING MOVEMENT OF THE UPPER
EXTREMITY CHANGE IF TfflS MOVEMENT IS APPLIED AS A TRAINING EXERCISE?
1.4.2.
70
How DO THE OTHER PARAMETERS OF THE DEPTH JUMP CHANGE BY INCREASING THE DROP
74
Comparison between the training effects of Depth Jumps and other jumping
EXERCISES
The strength capabilities of athletes and the results of introducing Depth
Jumps into the strength training program
1.4.4. In what way does the use of Depth Jumps in the training program influence the
strength abilities of athletes?
1.4.5. How does the repetitive performance of Depth Jumps influence tfie explosive
ability of the athlete?
76
1.4.3.
1.5.
Formulating the Shock Method
1.5.1.
1.5.2.
1.5.3.
1.5.4.
1.5.5.
The essence of Shock Method
The training effect of Shock Method
The main conditions for obtaining the training effects of the S hock Method
Shock Method as means to intensify the training
Placing Shock Method in the training plan
2. Shock Method Exercises and rules for their application
2.1.
Depth Jump
2.1.1. Understanding the key elements of the Depth J ump
2.1.2. The execution Technique of the Depth Jump
2.1.3. How to teach the athlete the correct execution technique of the Depth Jump...,
2.1.4. The dosage of training load when applying the Depth Jump
2.1.5. The placement of Depth Jumps in the preparation period
2.1.6. Role and allocation of Depth Jumps within the training means of Special
Strength Training
2.1.7. In what cases should Depth Jumps be avoided?
2.2.
Other means of applying the Shock Method
2.2.1. Variations of the Depth Jump
2.2.2. The dropping Shock Method exercises for the upper body
2.2.3. Shock method exercises with special equipments
2.2.4. General considerations for applying the Shock Method exercises
3. Shock method training programs
3.1.
Training Programs for Track & Field jumpers and sprinters
3.1.1.
3.1.2.
3.2.
6
Program for middle Level Long and High Jumpers
Program for increasing the speed of starting acceleration in sprint running
Universal preparatory programs for improving Jumping Ability
77
81
83
84
85
86
87
88
90
93
93
93
95
100
101
106
108
114
116
116
117
119
122
125
126
126
128
131
OF CONTENT
3.2.1. First Version
3.2.2. Second Version
3.2.3. Third Version
3.3. Training Programs for High Level Weightlifters
132
133
134
136
3.3.1. Basic program for the Pre-competition period
3.3.2. Advanced program for the Preparation period
3.3.3. Advanced Program for the Pre-competition period
136
140
141
3.4. Training program for High Level Gymnasts
3.5. TRArNEviG Program for High Level Rowers
3.6. Training Programs for Volleyball players
143
147
151
3.6.1. Program for middle level athletes
3.6.2. Program for the preparatory stage of high level athletes
3.6.3. Program for the pre-competition stage of high level athletes
3.7. Training Program for water polo players
3.8. Training Program for ice hockey players
3.9. Training Program for high level American football players
151
152
154
156
160
162
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Introduction
Introduction: Clarifying terms and method
ological ISSUES(Natalia Verkhoshansky)
1.1. Shock Method and Depth Jump
The Shock Method was pioneered in the 1960’s by Yuri Verkhoshansky as a particular
method of Special Strength Training. For increasing the magnitude of muscular tension
during exercise, this method utilizes an uncommon external stimulus: not the weight of a
barbell, but the kinetic energy accumulated during the body’s falling from a specific, strict
ly prescribed height.
According to Verkhoshansky, the essential element of the Shock Method is a sharp,
compulsory muscle tension, provoked by the body’s collision with an external object.
Such a collision could involve the athlete's falling body and the immovable ground or the
athlete's working limb and a falling external object. The first case refers to the classical
Shock method exercise, which is usually named the Depth Jump. Tliis consists of dropping
off a box, landing on two feet, and then immediately jumping upward as high as possible.
The second case refers to the upper body Shock method exercises, which reproduce (with
the use of special devices) the same regime of muscular work as in the Depth Jump. Such
upper body exercises require the use of special devices and involve the performance of
key-movements of a given competition exercise (the final movements of track and field
throws, the ball throws in team sports, the strokes in tennis, baseball and hockey, the kicks
4
(1
ff
/r
Hop
Step
Jump
Depth Jump
Fig. I.l -At the end ofthe 1950s, Yuri Verkhoshansky, a successful coach of Track & Fieldjumpers, in
vented a new training mean - vertical drop-reboundjump (Depth Jump)
9
Introduction
in volleyball, etc).
In the 1960-1970’s, the Depth Jump was largely introduced in the training of high level
Soviet athletes. The upper body exercises were used in practice, mostly as various medi
cine ball throws. The reason for this is that Depth Jump influences the most important key
movement of the main part of sports: the anti-gravitational leg drive.
In fact, the Depth Jump was discovered by Verkhoshansky when searching for training
means able to reproduce the same magnitude of maximum explosive force effort in the
landing-take-off movement of the Track & Field triple jump.
However, this exercise was successfully used by Track-and-Field sprinters and by ath
letes of other sports: basketball and volleyball players, ski jumpers, skaters, and weightlifters. Already in the 1960’s, the Depth Jump was accepted by Soviet coaches as the most
powerful means of Special Strength Training that allows an athlete to improve Explosive
Strength.
The powerful training effect of this legendary exercise, used by Olympic champions,
was verified mostly by training practice. However, there are also the results of the Au
thor’s research, which has shown that the use of Depth Jumps allows an athlete:
- To obtain a higher increase in jumping ability compared to the use of ordinary jump
ing exercises without weights, barbell squats, and jumps with weights, carried out
with a higher volume of training loads;
- To improve the Clean & Jerk and the Snatch performance of Weightlifters, thanks to
its effect on increasing the magnitude of force effort and the rate of force develop
ment in the key movements.
In the 1980’s, the research done by professor Verkhoshansky and his post-graduate stu
dents showed that the use of the Depth Jump allows for an increase in the working effect
of the maximal explosive force effort in the take-off movement,thanks to the improvement
Fig. 1.2 - Depth Jump was successfully used by Track-and-Field jumpers to increase the power output in
specific take-offmovement and by sprinters to increase the speed ofstarting acceleration
10
Introduction
of neural regulation of muscular tension.
The base mechanism of such a training effect was not clear, but it was hypothesized that
the kinetic energy of the falling body plays a role in muscular stimulation. During the
ground impact, the kinetic energy generated during the fall exerts a high level of pressure
on the ground (Ground Reaction Force), which acts on the athlete’s body as external oppo
sition to overcome. The high rate of increase in this external opposition provokes a very
rapid, forceful increase in muscle tension during the amortization phase. It was accepted
that this exact factor assures a particularly high level of muscular stimulation that produces
a high impulse of force during the subsequent active push off.
Verklioshansky wrote that, ''The essence ofthe Shock method consists ofa stimulatory
muscle tension created by the impact ofthe athlete’s body, which has accumulated kinetic
energy during thefallingfrom a specific, strictly proscribed, height. At the end ofthe land
ing phase, a sharply increased muscular strain creates, instantaneously, elastic potential
of the muscle tension and stimulates high-intensity, central neuro-impulses on motor neu
rons. This in turn promotes afaster switching ofthe musclesfrom yielding to overcoming
work and a more powerful contraction.”
So, aceording to Verklioshansky, it is exactly the body’s impact with the external envi
ronment (the shock), preceded by its free dropping, which assures such a high speed of
Fig. 1.3 - In the training of Soviet athletes, Depth Jumps were successfully used by Track-and-Field
sprinters and by athletes of other sports: basketball and volleyball players, ski jumpers, skaters and by
weightlifters. Depth Jump was considered the most effective Special Strength Training meansfor increas
ing the Explosive Strength.
11
Introduction[
muscle lengthening during the landing. This was the reason why the training with the use
of this phenomenon was named the Shock (or Impact) Method.
1.2. Depth Jump AND Pliometrics
The physiological mechanism that assures the training effect of the Depth Jump is re
lated to the sharply increased muscle tension during their work in the yielding regime. Ac
cording to the international terminology, which was implicit in Russian sport science since
the 1930’s, the yielding regime was termed pliometric. Maybe for this reason, the Russian
coaches who largely used the Depth Jump in their practice already in 1960, named it a
a
pliometric” exercise. Still now, in the majority of European countries, the term “pliometria” is used to name all kinds ofjumping exercises.
According to J.Faulkner’ , the term "pliometric" was introduced in 1938 by Hubbard
and Stetson^ who "recognized that muscles underwent contractions during three different
“conditions:” when they are shortening, are keeping the same length, or are lengthening.
The three conditions were termed “miometric,” “isometric,” and “pliometric,” by cou
pling the Greek prefixes “mio” (shorter), “iso” (same), and “plio” (longer) to the noun
“metric,” defined as “pertaining to measures or measurement, to differentiate among the
Eccentric Regime
downward phase
muscles lengthening
Stop
Miometric
Concentric Regime
upward phase
muscles shortening
Pliometric
Miometric(concentnc)
regime of muscular
contraction
Downward j Upward
phase |l| phase
phase
jj
A
Pliometric (eccentric)
regime of muscular
contraction
Isometric regime
of muscular
contraction
Fig. 1.4 - Terminologyfor contractions of muscles during shortening, while isometric, and during length
ening (John Faulkner, 2003).
1
Faulkner, John A. Terminology for contractions of muscles during shortening, while isometric, and during
lengthening. J Appl Physiol, 95; 455^59,2003
^ Hubbard A.W. and Stetson RH. An experimental analysis of human locomotion. J Physiol 124: 300-313,
1938.
12
Introduction
three conditions under which the muscles “contracted.”
The pliometric muscular work regime was the object of great interest of scientists from
the end of 1800’s. Let’s try to clarify why and what kind of muscular work regime it is.
The pliometric muscular action occurs when the external load actively extends (stretch
es) the muscles while the contraction is in progress. From a biomechanics point of view,
during such "lengthening contractions," the muscles do not produce an external positive
work (i.e., mechanical work, equal to force generated x distance moved), but all their ener
gy is used to exert tension on the load.
In 1892 the German Physiologist Adolf Eugen Frf(1829-1901) had
demonstrated that a muscle can exert a greater force when stretched by an
external force while contracting; the heat produced by an actively
stretched muscle was less than that measured during the active shortening.
Using the terms introduced in 1938 by Hubbard and Stetson, it was shown
that the pliometric and the miometric muscular contractions (with the
same velocity) produce different forces and consume a different amount of
energy: the pliometric muscular actions produce greater forces and con
sume less energy than miometric muscular actions.
The phenomenon outlined by A. Tick was confirmed and elaborated in
1923 by U.S. physiologist Wallace Osgood Fenn (1893-1971) in his study
on the quantitative relationship between the heat production of muscles
and the work that they performh Fenn showed, that "The work done in
stretching the muscle does not therefore add itself to the ‘physiological’
heat but. . . replaced energy which would have been liberated by the mus
cle ifit had not been stretched.''^
Fenn's study was realized in the laboratory of an outstanding English
physiologist, the Nobel Prize wimier, Archibald Vivian Hill (1886-1977),
who termed the results "Fenn's Effect." He synthesized this effect in the
following words: “'...Shortening during contraction, lengthening during
relaxation, appear to require excess liberation of energy. Lengthening
during contraction, shortening during relaxation, appear to cause an excess "absorption"
ofenergy, i.e. to lead to a total energy liberation less than that ofthe isometric twitch.... If
^ Pick A. Neue BeitrSge zur Kenntniss von der Warme-Entwicklung im Muskel. Pflugers Arch 51: 541-569,
1892.
Fenn W.O. A Quantitative Comparison between the Energy Liberated and the Work Perfonned by the Iso
lated Sartorius Muscle ofthe Frog, Journal of Physiology, 58(1924): 175.
Fenn W.O. The relationship between the work performed and the energy liberated in muscular contraction.
J Physiol 58: 373-395, 1924
13
Introduction
it be held fast and allowed to shorten only during relaxation, then again it will give out
less heat.'"^.
Numerous studies were carried out to find out the basic mechanisms of this phenomenon. In 1938, Hilf proposed, that Perm's effect could be related to a decrease in the rate of
chemical transformation in the muscle. However, in 1950, Hill had also proposed that the
mechanical energy produced by an external force, which causes a contracting muscle to
stretch, could be stored in the series elastic components of the muscle and re-utilized in the
consequent shortening phase of movement: "An importantfactor of mechanical behavior
of muscle is the passive elastic component in series with the active contractile one.... This
acts as a buffer when a muscle passes abruptlyfrom the resting to the active state, and it
accumulates mechanical energy as the tension ofthe muscle rises. Ifa muscle is opposed,
as in most ordinary movements, by the inertia of a limb or an external mass, this mechani
cal energy can be used in producing a final velocity greater than that at which the con
tractile component itself can shorten. This is important in such movements asjumping or
throwing."'^.
In 1968, the research of G. Cavana, B. Busman, and R. Margaria’ showed, in an iso
lated frog muscle and in the muscle of a working man, that the work done by a muscle
shortening at a given velocity was greater if the shortening was preceded by a stretch dur
ing stimulation, and that tWs effect was partly due to an increase in the force of contraction
of the contractile component. The force developed by the contractile component, when the
muscle shortens after being stretched, is greater than the force developed when the muscle
shortens at the same speed and length but starting from a state of isometric contraction.
So, it was natural to suppose that in the reversal landing-take-off movements typical for
jumping exercises, the pliometric muscular action, which provokes the stretching of acti
vated muscles during the downward movement after touchdown, causes an increase in the
force produced in the following take-off movement; in other words, it causes a potentiation
in performance.
This is a probable reason why the high-power jumps that involve repeated, rapid, and
forceful shortening and lengthening actions with almost maximum activation of large mus-
® Archibald V. Hill. The Mechanism of Muscular Contraction. Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1923.
^ Hill A.V. Heat of shortening and the dynamic constants of muscle. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 126; 136195, 1938
* Hill, A.V.(1950) The series elastic component of muscle. Proceedings ofthe Royal Society London Series
B 137, 273-280
® Cavana G., Dusman B., Margaria R. Positive work done by a previously stretched muscle. J Appl Physiol
January 1, 1968
14
-
.^
Introduction
cle groups, as well as similar forms of throwing, where the pliometric regime is empha
sized, were termed "pliometric" exercises.
For the following issues of this preface, it is important to outline the more recent infor
10
mation about the pliometric (eccentric) regime of muscular work. In 1996, R. Enoka
dedicated a whole article to this issue, in which he wrote; “...Over the past several dec
ades, numerous studies have established that eccentric contractions can maximize the
force exerted and the work performed by muscle; that they are associated with a greater
mechanical efficiency; that they can attenuate the mechanical effects ofimpactforces; and
that they enhance the tissue damage associated with exercise. More recent evidence adds
a new feature to this repertoire by suggesting a new hypothesis: that the neural commands
controlling eccentric contractions are unique.... The principalfunctional outcome of the
unique activation scheme may be to maximize the activity and thereby preserve the health
ofhigh threshold motor units. These motor units are used minimally during daily activities
but are essential for intense athletic competition and for emergency movements that require high levels ofmuscle power.”
1.3. Pliometrics and Plyometrics
Plyometrics were defined by Fred Wilt'' as "training drills designed to bridge the gap
between sheer strength and the power (rate of work or force x velocity) required to pro
duce the explosive reactive movements so necessary to excellence in jumping, throwing,
2«
and sprinting'
Wilt wrote:"7b the best of my knowledge, there has been no previous reference made to
plyometric exercises in American sports literature. This word has been used for several
years by European coaches, especially thosefrom Germany and Russia. The word plyome
tric is apparently derivedfrom the Greek word plethyein, which means to increase and
isometric. My present interpretation ofplyometric is that it means the exercises or training
10
Enoka, R. M. Eccentric contractions require unique activation strategies by the nervous system. J. Appl.
Physiol. 81(6): 2339-2346, 1996
“ Fred Wilt (1920-1994) was a distance runner in the U.S. Wilt was a member ofthe 1948 and 1952 Olym
pic teams, and famous for his legendary indoor mile encounters at that time with Wisconsin's Don
Gehrmann. After retiring from the FBI, Wilt coached the women's running teams at Purdue University. He
edited the publication Track Technique and advised various athletes. His star pupil was 1964 Olympian Bud
dy Edelen, who held the world marathon record of 2:14:28. In the 1960s and 1970s, Fred Wilt became a fa
mous writer and advocate of running. His book, “How They Train”, was a long-time best seller. His most
popular book "Run, Run, run ..." is an incredible collection of articles on science, history, and methods of
running, reflecting his passion and desire to bring real knowledge to people.
Fred Wilt. "Plyometrics - What is it and how it works", Modem athlete and coach, 1978, n.l6, pp.9-12.
15
Introduction
drills used in producing an overload of isometric type muscle action, which invokes the
stretch reflex in muscles. I am not particularly happy with this interpretation, and it may
alter when a precise definition evolves."
However, the Greek word "plethyein" has
a different meaning; "be or become full."
This Greek root is used, for example, in the
English words "plethora" and "plenty." The
meaning of "Increase" or greater in size, has
another Greek root: "plio-."
In fact, the Russian, German and other Eu
ropean countries coaches used and continue
to use another term for Plyometrics:
"pliometric exercises." This term was trans
formed into "plyometric," probably, because
both terms are pronounced similarly, but
none of the athletes or coaches who started to
use this term in the 1960’s ever saw what this
word looks like when written.
Why has this happened? We may find the
answer in the article from John A. Faulkner
“Terminology for contractions of muscles
during shortening, while isometric, and dur
ing lengthening.”'^
He writes, that, in 1953, E. Asmussen in- pig^ js _
“piyometrics” was introduced
troduced another term for the pliometric by the American Track Field coach Fred Wilt, who
popularized in the West the Shock Method exercis
muscular actions: "eccentric," which may be
es used by the Eastern Block athletes
understood as whimsical and also as ex-cen
tric, giving the meaning of moving away from center of muscle.
"In 1962, during a discussion on muscle performance chaired by D. B. Dill (Rodahl K,
Horvath SM, and Riseh MRS. Muscle as a Tissue. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962.), Erling
Asmussen used the terms concentric and eccentric and B. J. Ralston made the perceptive
comment that these terms led to confusion and should be eliminatedfrom the literature.
13
Faulkner, John A. Tenninology for contractions of muscles during shortening, while isometric, and during
lengthening. J Appl Physiol, 95: 455-459, 2003.
16
I Introduction
Asmussen conceded that the terms miometric and pliometric might be better, but Ralston
14n
responded that he preferred simply shortening or lengthening....
As John A. Faulkner further writes, miometric actions were named “concentric” and
pliometric were named “eccentric" for the first time in the textbook of Karpovich PV.
"Physiology of Muscular Activity"*^ published in 1959. "Presently, lengthening, miometric
and pliometric, and concentric and eccentric are all in use in the physiological, biome
chanics, sports medicine, and sports science literature. Despite their inappropriateness,
the most commonly used expressions in the conditioning and sports exercise papers are
concentric and eccentric contractions."
So, in the sport training literature, the term "pliometric" became obsolete and was grad
ually replaced by the term "eccentric." This also happened thanks to the gro’wth of popular
ity of "eccentric training," which consists of using only the lowering phase of resistance
exercise. We have to say that the new terms were not used in all special literature’^ but
mostly in sport training research, where the term "pliometric" gradually lost its primary
meaning and continued be used in Europe as synonym of plyometric.
From the end of the 1980’s, a new term became considered more appropriate for
Plyometrics: exercises that involve the Stretch-Shortening Cycle (SSC)”. However, the
term Plyometrics is still more popular between coaches, athletes and sport scientists.
What can we do if the term has become familiar for many years, is in fact, not quite cor
rect? I think that we can either completely abandon it, replacing it with a more correct
term, or ... find a new interpretation.
For example, in the book “Supertraining,'
Plyometrics:
we find the following definition of
“they are exercises that consist ofstimulating the muscles by means ofa sudden stretch
preceding any voluntary effort”.
Now, in this definition, when we know that under a sudden stretch, the pliometric mus
cular action is implied, which is able to provoke an increase in the power output of the
subsequent movement, we may provide a more suitable interpretation of the term
Plyometrics: exercises in which the pliometric muscular action is applied as a means of in-
14
Knuttgen H.G. and Kraemer W.J. Terminology and measurement in exercise performance. J AppI Sport
SciRes 1: 1-10,1987.
15
Karpovich PV. Physiology of Muscular Activity. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1959.
For example, see the dissertation of Ralph Nicholas Carpinelli “The acute effects of miometric and
pliometric muscle actions on delayed onset muscle soreness, hemodynamic responses, and exercise perfor
mance”(1989).
17
Komi PV. Physiological and biomechanical correlates of muscle function: effects of muscle structure and
stretch-shortening cycle on force and speed. In: Exercise and Sport Science Reviews, edited by Terjung RL.
Lexington, MA: Collamore, 1984, p. 81-121.
16
17
Introduction
tensifying the muscular activity. So, in simple words, we may accept that Plyometrics
means "to apply pliometric."
However, as we will see later, the main factor that assures the training effect of the
Depth Jump and every analogous upper body exercise, is the collision of the human body
with an external object, i.e., the impact or the shock, which is perceived by our brain as a
danger to the body’s integrity. So, the correct name for them should be not pliometric or
Plyometric, but Shock Method exercises.
1.4. Stretch-Shortening Cycle and Drop Jump
In 1885, Etienne-Jules Marey and Georges Demeny, who developed several photo
graphic techniques to study movements, reported that, if a subject performs a squatting
jump and, upon landing, immediately starts a new jump,the second jump is higher than the
first one.
In 1971, Cavagna, G. A., Komarek, L., Citterio, G., Margaria, R. experimentally veri
fied this phenomenon and offered this explanation; in the push-offfor the second jump,the
subject was able to utilize energy stored in the elastic elements of muscles during the
downward movement after the first jump. According to Asmussen and Bonde-Pettersen
(1974), the data from Cavana show that the height of the second of two successive jumps
was greater than that attained in a countermovement jump. They added a raised platform
and asked the subject to execute the vertical jump after dropping from a height (see the ar
ticle about this by M. Bobbert, 1990'*). So, in 1974, the Depth Jump appeared for the first
Jk-r,
The measurement of running
mechanic efficiency with the
using of a motor-driving
treadmill
(B.Lloyd
and
R.Zacks,1971)
Diagram of the experimental
system (which include the sled
machine) used for the study of
mechanical efficiency of SSC
(Kaneko,Komi, Aura, 1984)
i
A subject performing drop
jump exercise for estimation
of mechanical efficiency of
SSC
(Kirolainen, Komi,
1995)
Fig. 1.6 - Drop Jump was applied as standardized model ofSSC used in the studies on the mechanical ef
ficiency of human locomotion: the proportion between the mechanical output (external work produced)
and the energy expenditure during the single cycle of human gate.
18
18
M. F. Bobbert. Drop Jumping as a Training Method for Jumping Ability. Sports Medicine 9(l):7-22, 1990
Introduction
time as a model of reversal movement in which the downward phase is comparable with
the downward phase after the first landing in two consecutive jumps.
Four years later, in 1978, the Drop Jump was used in the studies of Komi P.V and
Bosco C. on the storage and utilization of elastic energy in male and female subjects'®. The
authors noted that the storage and utilization of elastic energy also takes place in alternat
ing cycles of eccentric-concentric contractions in locomotion. During one gate cycle of
running, there is an aerial phase (a time when no limbs are touching the ground), preceded
by the landing phase, when the gravity force lengthens (stretches) the muscles and the
take-off phase, when the muscles actively shorten. This natural type of muscle function
was named the Stretch-Shortening Cycle (Norman & Komi 1979)^°.
Later, Komi wrote: “For determining Mechanical Efficiency in more controlled condi
tions ofSSC exercise, a special sled apparatus was ... employed and developed” (Aura,
Komi, 1986^'; Kyrolainen, Komi, 1995^^). “...For inducing a more reactive jumping per
formance as compared to the sled jumps, Drop jump exercises can also be utilized. ”
(Komi, H. Kirolainen 1996)^\
At that time the Drop Jump was known, first of all, from the research of Paavo Komi,
who used it as the general model of the Stretch-Shortening Cycle of muscle function
(SSC'^).
In 1992, the Drop Jump was also proposed by Carmelo Bosco as a fitness tesF^ (see
Fig. 1.7).
The athlete jumps after a drop of a given height, with hands on hips(no arm swinging is
allowed). The test is performed from five standardized drop heights: 20cm, 40cm, 60cm,
80cm and 100cm. Allow for adequate rest between trials.
19
Komi P.V., Bosco C. Utilization of stored elastic energy in leg extensor muscles by men and women. Med.
Sci. Sports 1978 Winter;10(4):261-5.)
20
Nonnan RW, Komi PV. Electromechanical delay in skeletal muscle under normal movement conditions.
Acta Physiol Scand. 1979 Jul;106(3):241-8.
21
Aura, O. & Komi, P. V. Mechanical efficiency of pure positive and pure negative work with special refer
ence to the work intensity. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 7, 44. 1986a. Aura, 0. & Komi, P.V. Ef
fects of prestretch intensity on mechanical efficiency of positive work and on elastic behavior of skeletal
muscle in stretch-shortening cycle exercise. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 7, 137. 1986b.
22
Kyrolainen, H. & Komi, P.V. Differences in mechanical efficiency between power and endurance trained
athletes while jumping. European Journal of Applied Physiology 70. 36-44. 1995.
23
Komi P.V., Kirolainen H. 2Mechanical efficiency of Stretch-Shortening Exercise”. In book: Markonet P,
Saltin B. Komi P, Poortmans J (eds): Human Muscular Function during Dynamic Exercise. Med Sport Sci.
Basel; Karger, 1996, vil 41, pp 44-56).
24
Komi PV. Stretch-shortening cycle: a powerful model to study normal and fatigued muscle.
Journal of biomechanics, 2000.
25
Bosco C. La valutazione della forza con il test di Bosco. Societa Stampa Sportiva, 1992.
19
INTRODUCTION
1) The athlete stands on the box, adjaeent to the timing mat. Hands are plaeed on the hips
and stay there throughout the test.
2) The athlete then drops down off the box onto the mat, then immediately goes in to a
maximal vertical jump. At the moment of ground contact, the athlete must stop, as
quickly as possible, the downward movement, trying to block (immobilize) the knees.
3) The athlete jumps vertically as high as possible, and back on the mat with both feet
landing.
The timing mat gives a score of the contact time and the time in the air (T). The vertical
jump height is calculated using the formula: jump height = 4.9 x (0.5 x T)^. The ground
contact time should be less than 200ms.
To summarize our brief historical excursion, we can conclude that the Drop jump ap
peared as an exercise for research but not as a training means. For the first time, it was
used in the study of Asmussen and Bonde-Pettersen (1974)^®, who investigated the storage
and recoil of elastic energy in jumping. In 1995, Kirolainen and Komi used the Drop jump
to study the Mechanical Efficiency of human locomotion. The scientists involved in such
studies investigated the physiological mechanisms involved in the SSC movements to ex
plain the enhancement of performance during the final phase of the SSC when compared
to an isolated concentric action. Since it was hypothesized that these mechanisms are the
elastic energy recoil and the stretch reflex potentiating, the technique of applying the Drop
©
(1 ©
®
7
® ©
Q ®
S':
£
'v
J r/J m
®
7 ®
©
r
H-^ (Vi—I
TZ-
Squat Jump test
Drop Jump test
Countermovement Jump
TEST
Vertical jump test starting
with the knees flexed at 90
The athlete starts in a standing
position, and squats down to the 90
degrees, and hands resting on
hips.
degree leg bend position before
immediately jumping up. Hands
remain on hips.
A jump after a drop of a given
height, with hands on hips. The
test
is
performed
from
5
standardized drop heights; 20 cm,
40cm,60 cm,80 cm and 100 cm.
Fig. 1.7- Drop Jump was proposed by Carmelo Boseo (1992) asfitness test
26
Asmussen E. and Bonde-Pettersen F. Storage of Elastic Energy in Skeletal Muscles in Man. Acta
Physiologica. Volume 91, Issue 3, July 1974
20
I Introduction
Jump was adopted to emphasize these mechanisms: i.e. it should be performed from a drop
height no higher than 0.6m, with the aim to achieve the maximal height of rebound and to
minimize the time between the braking and push-off phases, with a short amplitude of
knee bending at the end ofthe landing phase.
1.5. Drop Jump AND Depth Jump
In sport training literature, the terms “Depth Jump” and “Drop Jump” are usually under
stood as synonyms and both are used to name the same exercise: a jump executed by drop
ping from a height with immediate vertical rebound.
It is well known that this exercise
was invented by Verkhoshansky at the end of the 1950’s for Track & Field jumpers and
sprinters and was also successfully used in many other Olympic sports. The coaches recognized it as the most powerful training means for increasing explosive strength.
Near the end of the 1960’s, this “secret weapon” of Soviet athletes became known in
the United States under the name Depth Jump thanks to the English translation of some of
Verkhoshansky’s articles by M. Yessis (1968
1969
1973
In 1978, Fred Wilt, who
was a pen friend of Verkhoshansky since the 1960’s, presented the Depth Jump as one of
the exercises that were categorized as Plyometric^®:
''The way dropjumping has become popular is typical of how training methods evolve.
It is rumored that the Russian athlete who won the 100 and 200m dash in the 1972 Olym
pics, Valery Borzov, utilized plyometric drills as part of his training (Wilt, 1978). Coaches
of rival athletes became interested and began to search for more information. Theyfound
a description ofdropjumping in a translated Russian paper by Verkhoshansky (1966) and
adopted the idea and developed their own modifications. These modifications are now in
corporated in widespread athletic programs''’(Bobbert, 1990)^'.
Unfortunately, in these programs the rules proposed by Verkhoshansky for applying
Depth Jumps in the training process were often not taken into consideration. These rules
were associated with Verkhoshansky’s methodology of Special Strength Training and
were not well known in the West. Near the end of 1970, the ways to apply this exercise in
training practice were strongly influenced by the research of Paavo Komi and his collabo
rators.
27
Verkhoshansky Y. Are depth jumps useful? - Soviet sport review, 1968 n.3, pp.75-58.
Verkhoshansky Y. Perspectives in the improvement of speed-strength preparation ofJumpers, Soviet sport
review, 1969, n.3, pp.75-58
29
Verkhoshansky Y. Depth jump in the training ofjumpers. Track Technique, 1973, n.51, pp.60-61
30
Fred Wilt. “Plyometrics - What is it and how it works”. Modem athlete and coach, 1978, n.l6, pp,9-12
31
Bobbert M.F. Drop Jumping as a Training Method for Jumping Ability. Sports Medicine 9(l):7-22, 1990
28
21
WM!
Introduction
Komi introduced a new understanding of Plyometrics as exercises that involve the
Stretch-Shortening Cycle. The exercise that was termed the Drop Jump was used as the
model of the SSC and was adapted to study its mechanics and energetic in standardized
conditions. These studies analyzed how the changes in these conditions influence the activ
ity of physiological mechanisms, which were hypothesized to be responsible for the en
hancement of performance during the final phase of reversal in landing-take-off move
ments. In longitudinal experiments, the training effect of this exercise was evaluated based
on the level of the subject’s improvement. Subsequently, a certain technique of the Drop
Jump was developed which allowed for emphasis of these physiological mechanisms.
Since the terms “drop jump” and “depth jump” were synonyms, the Drop Jump and
Depth Jump were considered to be the same exercise. Consequently, coaches began to ap
ply Bosco’s Drop Jump in their athletes’ training, believing it was the same training means
as the Depth Jump developed by Verkhoshansky.
However, for those who are familiar with the works of Verkhoshansky, the execution
technique of Drop Jump may seem to be very different from the technique proposed earlier
for the Depth Jump.
Formulating the motor task:
'Land springy and push up powerfully to
fly as high as possible"
\f
UNDERSTANDING THE MAIN
DIRECTIVITY OF MOVEMENTS
the amortization and the following
Visualizing the objective
the use of overhead goal
push up phases must be understood
(and executed) as a global movement, s
finalized to obtain a concentrated
force effort
r
V
The level of legs flexion at
the END OF landing PHASE
It must be sufficient to soften
\f
CHOOSING THE FALL HEIGHT
it must correspond to those height,
falling from which the athlete is able
to reach the highest rebound.(it must
be found for every athlete in the
course of preliminary tests)
<--A
I
(damp)the shock of ground impact
and to ensure the fulfilment of
subsequent vertical rebound with
maximal height
I
The technique of landing:
the landing must be “elastic”; the athlete
must not "stick" into the ground, but to land
on both feet, first on the balls and later on the
heels, and after, go down with the resilient
legs flexion.
Fig. 1.8- How the Depth Jump must be executed
22
S??|! HI Introduction
The first difference regards the athlete using an arm swing. Even if the coach allows
arm swings in training with the Drop Jump,the arm swing
is not allowed in the Drop Jump
Test, so in evaluating the SSC, the testing movement would be different than the training
exercise. The same characteristic appears in the early research on the Drop Jump. The exercise was always applied as a jump with the hands on the hips. Regarding the Depth
Jump, we don’t find such constraints. In fact, the athlete should use the arm to reach
(touch) an overhead goal.
The second difference is in the technique of landing. Drop jumps should be executed
with a hard landing, keeping the leg muscles stiff, in attempt to minimize the leg’s flexion
during the landing. This is a fundamental condition for the elastic energy recoil. On the
contrary, in the Depth Jump the athlete should not land with rigid, extended legs. The
landing should be resilient and elastic, with the optimal depth of knee flexion at the end of
the amortization phase.
We also find differences in the mles of applying these exercises as well.
r
Motor goal
Drop height
Landing Magnitude of leg
r.
r-j
Depth Jump
Drop Jump
To reach the
maximum height
To reach the maximum height
with minimal ground contact
time
From 0.75 to 1.1
meter
From 0.3 to 0.6 meter
Optimal
Low
FLEXION
Landing - Ground
CONTACT TIME
Optimal (short, but enough
^ long for the maximum
force applying)
Short
Fig. 1.9 - Main differences between Depth Jump and Drop Jump
23
Introduction
The first difference regards the goal of the exercise. Drop Jumps should be performed
by trying to obtain the maximal height of rebound with minimal ground contact time. The
short ground contact time is considered to be the fundamental condition for the elastic energy recoil. Whereas the Depth Jump should be performed trying to obtain the highest
height of vertical rebound using an overhead goal. The ground contact time should be
short, but it should be the optimal time to allow the athlete to express the maximal explo¬
sive effort in take-off phase.
The second difference regards the drop height. The Depth Jump should be performed
from a drop height of 75 cm (or even 1.10 m when this exercise is used to increase maxi
mum strength), while the Drop Jump should be from 20 to 60 cm. For the Drop jump,
dropping from a distance higher than 60 cm is dangerous for the leg joints and inappropri
ate for reaching the goal. Increasing the height above 0.6m leads to an increase in ground
contact time and to a decrease in the height of the rebound, which is the exact opposite of
the goal of utilizing this exercise (decreasing ground contact time and increasing rebound
height by increasing the ability to utilize the SCC).
In fact, Verkhoshansky’s Depth Jump could be seen as a Drop Jump executed incorreetly: with an inappropriate drop height and with inappropriate technique (without close
control of the ground contact time and the level of leg flexion at the end of landing phase).
With this confusion we could only wonder why the Depth Jump was considered by several
generations of Soviet coaches and athletes as the most effective jumping exercise.
The reason is because they are two different training means for two different purposes.
Many advanced coaches who tried to keep abreast of modem scientific research had noted
these differences and had decided to modernize the execution technique of this exercise.
Their thinking was that its effect would improve.
On the other hand, a great portion of trainers/practitioners did not attach great im
portance to these differences in the execution of these exercises. They only heard of this
exercise that was a powerful training means discovered by Verkhoshansky, but they did
not read his works. Consequently, they accepted the results of the research on Drop Jumps
as the mles for correct execution of technique of the Depth Jump. We often find such con
fusion in the popular texts about Plyometrics where Verkhoshansky’s Depth Jump is de
scribed as the Drop Jump. All indications for this application appear to point toward infor
mation was taken from the articles about the Drop Jump and misinterpreted. In both cases,
the use of the Drop jump as an original exercise, or an advanced form of the Depth Jump,
led to a misinterpretation of the methodical guidelines elaborated by Verkhoshansky.
Thus, the results of one study showed disagreement with the opinion of Verkhoshansky,
that his famous exercise may be successfully used only by high level athletes. In this re
search, the experimental group of low level athletes carried out this exercise during a cer24
Introduction
tain period and had obtained a greater increase in the maximal height of the countermove
ment vertical jump than a control group of same level athletes who used only ordinary
jumping exercises. The problem is that the experimental group did not carry out Depth
Jumps, but Drop Jumps executed according to the technique proposed by C. Bosco. In fact,
Verkhoshansky considered the Depth Jump a Shock Method exercise.
These powerful training means for the development of explosive strength should only
be used by high level athletes. This is not because it is ineffective for the low-level athlete,
but because the ordinary jumping exercises could give them the same results. Neverthe
less, we do not always find the same opinions about the training effect of the Drop Jump
and we often find discussions about the ways of applying them in the training of low-level
athletes, adolescents, and even children.
How, with all these differences, could the confusion be explained through point of view
of modem research? May Depth Jumps and Drop Jumps be considered the same exercise?
The first person who shed light on this issue was Dr. Maarten Bobbert, who wrote:
"Scientists all too oftenfail to explain clearly to coaches how research can be ofhelp, and
in planning their research they tend to neglect the experience of coaches. This may cause
discrepancies between what is done in the experimental study and proceduresfollowed in
actual training, which limits the practical relevance ofthe results.
In 1986, M. Bobbert carried out an experimenfi^ in which thirteen male handball play
ers, who were familiar with the performance of drop jumps participated. The subjects per
formed several drop jumps, being vertical jumps preceded by a drop sideways from a
height of 40 cm. They were instructed to keep their hands on their hips and to jump as high
as possible. No other instructions were given.
It was found in this study that some subjects (those allotted to the counter group) made
a large downward movement (i.e. they bent their hips and knees considerably before start
ing to push off), whereas other subjects (those allotted to the bounce group) made only a
small downward movement and remained on the ground for a relatively short time. The
choice by a subject of one jumping style or the other could not be related to anthropometrical variables and seemed to be arbitrary. In fact, results of pilot work suggest that, after
having been demonstrated, both jumping styles can be employed by every subject.
Thus, Bobbert noted that when Drop Jumps are executed with the goal of attaining
maximum height and no restrictions were placed on the magnitude of countermovement or
32
M. F. Bobbert. Drop jumping as a training method for jumping ability. Sports Med. 1990 Jan;9(l):7-22.
M. F. Bobbert, M. Mackay, D. Schinkelshoek, P. A. Huijing, and G. J. van Ingen Schenau. Biomechanical
analysis of drop and countermovement jumps. Eur J Appl Physiol(1986) 54:566-573.
33
25
iNTpnniimoN U.
'
ground contact time, the athletes could arbitrary apply the following two different jumping
(landing) techniques: Bouncing Drop Jump or Countermovement Drop Jump. The Bounc
ing Drop Jump was hypothesized to be more suitable for long term improvement in the ca
pacity of knee extensors and plantar flexors to deliver force and power; Countermovement
Drop Jumps - for increasing the maximal height of vertical jump through optimization of
the sequential muscle activation pattem^T
Now we may say that the Countermovement Drop Jump corresponds to the execution
technique proposed by Verkhoshansky, and the Bounce (Bouncing) Drop Jump to the exe
cution technique proposed by Komi and Bosco.
In 1987, Bobbert wrote that "researchers are advised to control jumping technique
when investigating training effects ofthe execution ofdrop Jumps."^^. However, in the nu
merous studies on Depth(Drop)Jumps carried out in the West during subsequent 25 years,
only a small portion of the authors gave special attention to this warning. The results of
this research have shown the following:
1) Drop jumps, performed with the “double” goal to obtain a maximum height with mini
mum contact time, should be recognized as a different exercise in comparison to the
Drop jump performed with the goal to reach the highest height in rebound. When the
Drop jump is performed with the goal to reach the higher height in rebound, for all
drop heights from 30 to 60cm, it produces significantly greater jump heights and long
er ground contact times(Young et al, 1995)^®.
2) The drop height used in the Drop Jump should depend on the primary goal: to obtain
the minimal ground contact time, the optimal height of dropping is 40cm, but to apply
the maximal force at the beginning oftake-off, a drop height of60cm is needed (Walsh
etal, 2004)'T
3) The Drop jump performed with an overhead goal allows the athlete to reach a greater
height in rebound (Ford et al. 2005)^^
34
Maarten F. Bobbert, Gerrit Jan van Ingen Schenau. Coordination in vertical jumping Journal of Biome
chanics, Volume 21, Issue 3, 1988, Pages 249-262.
35
Bobbert MF, Huijing PA, van Ingen Schenau GJ. Drop jumping. I. The influence ofjumping technique on
the biomechanics ofjumping. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1987 Aug;19(4):332-8
36
Young, Warren B.; Pryor, John F.; Wilson, Greg J. Effect of Instructions on characteristics of Counter
movement and Drop Jump Performance. Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, November 1995, vol.
9, issue 4.
37
Walsh, M., A. Arampatzis, F. Schade, and G.-P. Bruggemann. The effect of drop jump starting height and
contact time on power, work performed, and moment offorce. J. Strength Cond. Res. 18(3):561-566. 2004.
38
Ford, K.R., G.D. Myer, R.L. Smith, R.N. Byrnes, S.E. Dopirak, and T.E. Flewett. Use of an overhead goal
alters vertical jump performance and biomechanics. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2005,
19{2), 394-399.
26
Introduction
4) Maximum height and minimum ground contact time should be considered two differ
ent measures of the Drop Jump performance; they should be evaluated in two different
tests with different goals. The maximum height of rebound, obtained in the Drop jump
performed from the high drop height could indicate the level of sprinting ability of the
athlete, related to the starting acceleration (Matt J. Barr et al 2011)■'’^
However, we find the most interesting information in the research of Wolfgang Taube,
the head of the Movement and Sport Science Department at Medicine University of Fri
bourg (Switzerland). We will also return to this author some time later, but now for us it’s
important to outline two points in his article, published in 2011 together with C. Leukel, B.
Tauber, A. Gollhofer
1) High drop heights in the Drop Jump should be implemented into the training regime if
the goal is to maximize the rebound height and the duration of ground contact is not a
limiting factor of the performance. Low drop heights should be preferred to maximize
power output in time critical disciplines.
2) The Countermovement Drop Jump technique allows an athlete to reach a higher height
in rebound in comparison to the Bouncing Drop Jump technique because it leads to in
creasing the muscles activity toward take-off, while the Bouncing Drop Jump tech
nique leads to increasing the muscular activity shortly after ground contact, which does
not seem beneficial in increasing the rebound height.
The following words from the authors are very illustrative for our issue:
"... in order to maximize the mechanical output of the knee extensors and plantar flex
ors during drop jump training, athletes should utilize a “bounce drop jump technique, ’’
i.e., to reverse the downward velocity into an upward one as soon as possible after landing
(Bobbert et al, 1987a). This “recommendation” was founded on the essential needfor ef
fective storage of elastic energy in the transition from the eccentric to the concentric phase
(Kyrolainen & Komi, 1995; Komi, 2003). ... This strategy, however, does not seem benefi
cial in increasing the rebound height, as there was only a trend toward augmentation. .
So, the presented information allows us to conclude that, notwithstanding quite the
same composition of movements, the Depth Jump, proposed by Verkhoshansky, and the
Drop Jump, proposed by Komi and Bosco, may not be considered the same exercise.
39
Matt J. Barr, M.D. Volker W. Nolte. Which measure of drop jump performance best predicts sprinting
speed? J. Strength and Cond. July 2011.
Taube W, Leukel C, Lauber B, Gollhofer A. The drop height determines neuromuscular adaptations and
changes
in jump performance in stretch-shortening cycle training. Scand J Med Sci Sport, 2011 Apr 4.
41
■ Taube W, Leukel C, Gollhofer A. How neurons make us jump: the neural control of stretch-shortening
cycle movements. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2012 Apr; 40 (2):106-15.
27
Introduction i
Coaches should be advised to distinguish between these two exercises that are so often
confused. The main purpose of using Drop Jumps in the training process is mostly the im
provement ofthe athlete’s capacity to utilize elastic energy recoil during the reversal phase
of SSC movements. Whereas the main purpose of using Depth Jumps is mostly increasing
explosive strength and improvement of the athlete’s ability to express the highest explo
sive strength effort in specific take-off movements. This could be performed not only in
the reversal SSC regime, but also an isolated concentric regime. Another feature of this
training means is that it allows the athlete to increase maximal strength through the im
provement of their neural mechanisms. More exactly, the exercises increase the level of
motor unit synchronization, the level of motor unit recruitment, and firing rate at the be
ginning of the maximal strength effort.
As we will see from the research of Verkhoshansky, Depth Jumps performed with a
high drop height(1.10m)allow for the stimulation of muscles in a similar way as the Bar
bell Squat executed according to the Maximal Effort Method, but not by the same means.
The depth jump does not use a high level of opposition (barbell weight) to bring about a
maximal voluntary strength effort but utilizes a forceful muscle activation brought on by
the impact with the ground.
1.6. Protective function of the neuro-muscular system
Y. Verkhoshansky hypothesized that the powerful training effect of the Depth Jump
was related to the involvement of particular properties of the neuro-muscular system,
which realize an important protective function: the preservation of the integrity of the hu
man body in conditions of difficult interaction between the body and the external environ
ment. He related this property to the so named Reactive Ability, defining it as a specific
property of the neuromuscular apparatus to develop a powerful, explosive effort immedi
ately after an intensive mechanical tension of the muscle at the moment of their fast switch
over from an eccentric to concentric contraction.
As it was already noted, Verklioshansky related this function to three mechanisms: the
CNS activation by the extremely rapid muscle lengthening during the landing, the stretch
reflex, and the elastic energy recoif^
In 1979, Komi and Bosco had outlined quite the same physiological factors (i.e. the
combined effects of the utilization of stored elastic energy and the stretch reflex potentiat-
42
Verkhoshansky Y. Some particularities of the human working movements. Theory and Practice of Physi
cal Culture, n.l2, 1979.
28
Introduction
ing of muscle activation) as the main physiological mechanism assuring the performance
enhancement during the Stretch-Shortening Cycle'’^
As they wrote in 1982: "'Stretching of an activated muscle prior to its shortening enhances its performance during the concentric contraction. This phenomenon has been in
terpreted to be primarily due to the utilization ofelastic energy stored in the series elastic
elements ofthe muscle during the stretch. However, reflex potential has also been suggest
ed as an additional causefor performance increase.'”'^'^.
From that time more than 20 years have passed, during which the physiological mecha
nisms assuring the phenomenon observed in the Depth/Drop Jump became the object of
investigation for many researchers. However, only the most recent research, which were
completed after the death of Verkhoshansky, were able to indicate what may be the most
crucial physiological factor determining this protective function. More exactly, it was
shown that in the case of the collision between the body and an external object, the CNS is
able:
1) to anticipate the exact moment and the gravity of the expected collision and to appro
priately activate, in advance, the muscles that should be involved in this impact, and
2) to adjust the compulsory activity of these muscles during the collision in relation to the
specific task constraints of the whole motor action, which includes this collision.
To explain this complicated issue better, we should illustrate it with the following dis
cussion.
At the end of 1970, to study the phenomenon of performance enhancement during the
SSC, Komi et al. used the same experimental model that Y. Verkhoshansky used at the end
of the 1960’s'^^ i.e. they compared the results of executing three jump tests: A Squat Jump,
a Countermovement Jump, and a Drop Jump.
They obtained the same results of Verkhoshansky: the maximal height reached in verti
cal jump performed after a drop in depth (Depth/Drop Jump) was higher than the maximal
height reached in the standing vertical jumps performed in a reversal (Countermovement
Jump)and in a non-reversal regime (Squat Jump).
43
Komi P.V., Bosco C. Potentiation of the mechanical behavior of the human skeletal muscle through
prestretching, Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. V. 106, Issue 4, pages 467-472, August 1979
Bosco C., Viitasalo J.T., Komi P.V., Luhtanen P. Combined effect of elastic energy and myoelectrical po
tentiation during stretch-shortening cycle exercise. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, Vol. 114, Issue 4, pages
557-565, April 1982
45
Verkhoshansky Y. Experimental research on the biodynamic of sport movements, PhD Dissertation. Mos
cow, 1963
29
INTRODUCTION I
The difference between the height of the Squat Jump and the Countermovement Jump
was simply explained as the potentiating of the mechanical behavior of the human skeletal
muscle through pre-stretching.
But why is the Drop/Depth Jump height greater than the Countermovement Jump
height?
According to Verkhoshansky, it may be explained by the difference between the voli
tional pliometric (eccentric) action during the countermovement of the Countermovement
Jump and the more forceful action during the downward phase of landing in the Depth
Jump, which should provoke a higher level of muscle excitation. Verkhoshansky wrote
4
. HEIGHT OF VERTICAL JUMP
(CM)
4
4
f 4
M.
m.
5R
t
\
?
SQUATTING
JUMP
COUNTERMOVEMENT
JUMP
Squatting jump
DROPPING JUMP
Countermovement Jump
In the 1960s,the differences in
the heights achieved in SJ and
in CMJ andDJ were related,
mostly,to the “neurogenic”
mechanism:the different levels
of muscles activation in these
exercises.
Y. Verkhoshansky.
Experimental research on the
b iodynamic ofsport
movements - PhD Dissertation.
Moscow, /963
DROPPING Jump
In the 1970s,the differences in the heights achieved in SJ and in CMJ and DJ were related, mostly,to
the“miogenic” mechanism:the phenomenon of elastic energy storage and recoil, which occurs in the
CMJ andDJ.
Asmussen E, Bonde-Petersen F. Storage ofelastic energy in .skeletal muscles in man. P. V.Komi.
C.Bosco. Utilization of.stored elastic energy in leg extensor muscles by men and women.
Fig. 1.10 - Two opinions about thephysioiogical mechanism invoived in the pliometric (eccentric) mus
cular contraction
30
S Introduction
that since the time of Du Bois-Reymond
we’ve known that with increasing the velocity
of the rising magnitude of muscle strain, provoked by the influence of an external force
(mechanical stress), the level of muscle excitation increases: the level of muscle excitation
depends on the rate ofincrease of the magnitude of the mechanical stimulus'*^
This idea was confirmed by the results of the research of Bosco C., Viitasalo J.T., Komi
P.V., Luhtanen P.(1982 -see reference 43): in the Drop Jump condition, the EMG activity
during the eccentric phase was much higher than in the condition of the Countermovement
Jump.
However, as we already noted before, R.Enoka(1996) had indicated that a physiolog
ical mechanism involved in the pliometric (eccentric) muscular contraction is related, not
only to the utilization of elastic energy stored in the series elastic elements of the muscle
and to the spinal stretch reflex, but requires unique activation strategies by the nervous sys
tem related to greater cortical activation (of areas of the cerebral or cerebellar cortexes):
maximizing the activity of high threshold motor units due the Supra-spinal influences.
In other words, this means that if we should counteract an external force, our nervous
system triggers a special motor control mechanism, perhaps associated with danger, which
this external power could threaten. What could happen, however, if this external force acts
very rapidly, as, for example, when we catch an external object moving at us with a high
velocity, or when we land after dropping down? These processes are so rapid, that there is
not enough time to activate Supra-spinal structures of the CNS. The answer could be very
simple - activate them in advance.
Indeed, in 1974, Asmussen and Bonde-Petersen demonstrated that, in the Drop Jump,
the muscles of the legs are activated before contact with the platform is established.
Moreover, the later research of Viitasalo et al (1998) showed that in triple jumpers,
the pre-activity of the vastus lateralis and gastrocnemius muscles started earlier than in the
physically active controls.
According to Horita et al (2002) , these results seem to emphasize the functional sig¬
nificance of the pre-programmed activity for controlling the subsequent stiffness regula-
46
Emil Heinrich Du Bois-Reymond (1818 -1896) was a German physician and physiologist, the discoverer
of nerve action potential, and the father ofexperimental electrophysiology
47
Verkhoshansky Y. Some particularities ofthe working movement of men. Theory and Practice of Physical
Culture, nl2, 1979
48
Enoka, R. M. Eccentric contractions require unique activation strategies by the neiwous system. J. Appl.
Physiol. 81(6): 2339-2346, 1996
49
E. Asmussen, F. Bonde-Petersen. Storage of Elastic Energy in Skeletal Muscles in Man. Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica.Volume 91, Issue 3, pages 385-392, July 197
Viitasalo, J.T., A. Salo, and J. Lahtinen. Neuromuscular functioning of athletes and non-athletes in the
drop jump. Eur.J. Appl. Physiol. Occup. Physiol. 78:432^40. 1998
31
Introduction
.Cl
tion and then contributing to performance in the Drop Jump. Thus, it can be suggested that
the centrally pre-programmed activity and the associated elastic behavior of the knee ex
tensor muscles, in conjunction with the muscle’s contractile properties, play a major role in
regulating the perfonnance in the Drop Jump.
We find more comprehensive information about this issue in the fundamental review of
M. Santello - 2005^1 It’s interesting that the pre-landing muscle activity was discovered
and investigated both in animals and humans back in the 1970’s. In humans, such a pre
paratory muscle activity before impact with an external object has also been found in arm
muscles when braking a forward fall with the arms and before catching a ball. “TTie im
portance of activating the musculature before touchdown - writes M. Santello - becomes
evident when considering the time delays associated with the reflex arc. If the muscles
were completely relaxed atfoot contact, reflex muscle activity might occur too late to ef
fectively controljoint rotation.’’^
According to M. Santello, the main features of modulation of muscle activity and kine
matics preceding and following foot contact during landing can be summarized as follows:
a) Muscle activity prior to foot contact is timed to the expected instant of touch down;
b) Pre-landing EMG activity amplitude is modulated as a function of drop height by
modulating the rate ofEMG build-up;
c) Pre- and post-landing EMG activity amplitude is scaled to drop height in an ap
proximately linear fashion;
d) Little or no modulation of lower limb orientation before foot contact occurs as a
function of drop height or landing surface compliance, although this result seems to
depend on practice and skill level;
e) Stretch reflex mechanisms are likely to contribute to, but not control, the post
landing muscle activity;
f) Online vision does not seem to be essential for scaling EMG timing and amplitude,
because of augmented feedback of landing performance, although the kinematics of
the movement and EMG activity were not measured. As the risk for muscularskeletal injuries increases with increasing Ground Reaction Force amplitudes, it is
possible that augmented feedback could be used to train subjects to learn how to
minimize Ground Reaction Forces and possibly reduce the risk of traumatic inju
ries.
51
Horita T., Komi P., Nicol C. and Kyrolainen H. Interaction between pre-landing activities and stiffness
regulation of the knee joint musculoskeletal system in the drop jump; implications to performance. European
Journal of Applied Physiology. Vol. 88, Numbers 1-2(2002)
52
Santello M. Review of motor control mechanisms underlying impact absorption from falls, Gate and Pos
ture 21, 85-97, 2005
32
Introduction
So, in other words, when we drop from a height, we are already, while standing on the
raised platform, ready to immediately activate the protective neural mechanism that assures a harmless landing.
And what about a situation in which we should not simply land, but immediately jump
up?
The results of the research of V. Mrdakovic et alt (2008)” indicate that muscle pre
activity in bounce drop jumps differed significantly from that in counter landing and
bounce landing, which indicates that the higher amount of pre-activity generated during
Drop Jumps was used for performing take-offs. In other words, if we should jump up after
the landing, our muscles will be activated to a greater degree before touchdown than in the
case of simply landing.
54
The research of J. Ambegaonar, S. Shultz and D. Perrin (2011) showed that the
shock-absorbing movement after the body’s impact with the external object (drop landing)
and the shock-reversible movement (drop jump that includes a subsequent jump after ini
tial landing), are characterized by different neuromechanics. When the athlete performed a
rebound after landing, later gastrocnemius activation, higher gastrocnemius (calf) and
quadriceps (thigh) amplitudes post landing, and higher ground reaction forces were ob
served. This may allow subjects to not only absorb the impact, as in a drop landing, but to
also propel the body vertically after the initial landing.
According to T. Rantalainen (2005)^^ the motor programming of the drop jump takes
reflex activity into account; the role of the motor cortex in drop jumps is to initiate muscle
activation prior to the beginning of ground contact and to continue to produce activity after
that. From the results, it is evident that the pre-activation level is controlled from the supra
spinal, possibly cortical, level.
Maybe the most exhaustive information about “how neurons make us jump” can be
found in the more recent article of Taube W, Leukel C and Gollhofer A.(2012)^^ Their
research has shown that the forceful activation of muscles, which starts before ground con-
53
Vladimir Mrdakovic, Dusko B. Ilic, Nenad Jankovic, Zeljko Rajkovic and Djordje Stefanovi. Pre-activity
modulation of lower extremity muscles within different types and heights of deep jump. Journal of Sports
Science and Medicine (2008) 7, 269-278
54
J. Ambegaonar, S. Shultz and D. Perrin. A subsequent movement alters lower extremity muscle activity
and kinetics in drop jumps vs. drop landings. Journal of Strength and Condition Researches, 2011,
Oct;25(10):2781-8
55
Rantalainen T. 2005. Role of motor cortex during drop jump: motor cortical excitability assessed with
TMS and H-reflex stimulation. Department of biology of physical activity, university of JyvaskylS. Master’s
thesis of biomechanics
56
Taube W, Leukel C, Gollhofer A. How neurons make us jump: the neural control of stretch-shortening
cycle movements. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2012 Apr; 40 (2):106-15
33
Introduction
tact, is provoked by the increased descending drive from the motor cortex. This pre
landing muscle activation serves to protect the athlete’s feet from the impact. This is de
termined by the perceived distance of falling by the athlete when he/she stands on the
raised platform before the drop down. Consequently, the stretch reflex mechanisms are
likely to contribute to, but not control, the post-landing muscle activity during the down
ward movement after touchdown and are mediated, not by stretch receptors, but by higher
order CNS structures. As a result, during the push off phase, these structures work in con
cert with simple reflexes to reach a given goal. This goal may be to achieve a maximal
height of rebound or a maximal height with minimal ground contaet time. This explains
why obtaining the shortest ground contact time is not as important in the Depth Jump as in
the Drop Jump, and therefore a higher height of dropping is allowed.
So, we may conclude that the protective function of the neuro-muscular system, which
was hypothesized by Y. Verkhoshansky, does really exist. However, this is based, not only
on the particular properties of the eccentric (pliometric) regime of muscular work, but also
includes the incredible capacity of our CNS to foresee the future events and to immediate
ly prepare our body to interact with the consequences of these events.
Indeed, the research has shown that the muscle activity prior to foot contact is timed to
the expected instant of touch down and is modulated as a function of drop height. Moreo
ver, the pre- and post-landing EMG activity amplitude, which determines the level of mus
cle activation before the active take-off movement, is scaled to the drop height in an ap
proximately linear fashion. So, a high drop height used in the Depth Jump, which is inap
propriate for increasing the elastic energy recoil, allows an athlete to obtain an extremely
high level of muscular activation during the take-off movement.
However, such high level of training stimuli is needed only for high-level athletes and
its application requires careful considerations.
The rules of preliminary preparation for the use of the Depth Jump will be analyzed in
the EBook Appendix “Jump Training Guide for Beginners”, whieh is delivered with this
book.
1.7. Super Method of Special Strength Training
As it was noted before, the Shock Method appeared, first of all, as the Depth Jump. This
exercise was used by high level soviet Track & Field athletes beginning in the end of
1950’s and was considered the most powerful training means. The physiological mecha
nism assuring the training effect of this exercise was not clear, but for the athletes and
coaches at that time, it was not so important to have scientific information about “why it
works,” but to have the practical information about how to use it correctly.
34
Introduction
Y. Verkhoshansky named the Shock Method a Super-Method of Special Strength Train
ing. Let’s try to understand what this means.
In the precedent paragraph we discussed the differences between the Drop Jump and the
Depth Jump. However, we didn’t outline one important difference, which regards the prac
tical application of these “rebound jumps.” More exactly, M. Bobbert wrote about drop
jumping as a training method for jumping ability but Y. Verkhoshansky - as a training
method for Explosive Strength”.
Now, let’s remember two of the most important studies of Verkhoshansky regarding
this issue, published in the 1980’s. In these studies, a group of weightlifters (1984)” and a
group of volleyball players(1986)” used Depth Jumps during the special strength training
stage. In both groups, a higher increase in lower body strength parameters was obtained in
comparison to the control groups of athletes, who did not use Depth Jumps.
In these studies, an increase in the leg’s strength parameters as displayed in the im
provement of the working effect of the control movement, executed not in the reversal, but
in the concentric (miometric) regime: the maximal isometric force effort and the maximal
dynamic force effort in the
Leg Press with the level of
external opposition equal
to the athlete’s body
weight. When performing
these exact force efforts,
the experimental group of
volleyball players demon
strated an increase in the
level of motor unit re
cruitment,
synchroniza
tion, and firing rate (rate
Fig. 1.11 - Leg Press with the level of external opposition equal to the
coding).
athlete’s body weight
How may we interpret these results?
57
Verkhoshansky Y. The “shock” method for the development of“explosive” strength. Theory and Practice
of Physical Culture, 1968, n.8
58
VerkhoshanskyY., DeniskinV. Speed-Strength preparation of Weightlifters in the pre-competition stage.
Soviet Sports Review, 1984, v.19, n 1,15-19
59
Y. Verkhoshansky, N. Masalgln, L. Golovina, A. Naraliev. The influence of Shock method on the electromiographic parameters of maximal explosive effort. Theory and Practice ofPhysical Culture, n.l2, 1986
35
Introduction
First of all, when talking about the training effect of Depth Jumps, we may talk not
about improving the elastic properties of muscles and stretch reflex potentiation, but about
increasing the strength parameters of athletes; more exactly, about increasing their capaci
ty to produce a higher level of muscular force in the Leg Press force effort, i.e. not in the
reversal, but in the concentric (miometric)regime.
The Leg Press force effort is the key element of most of sport competition exercises because this anti gravitational movement assures the vertical and the horizontal displacements of our body on the earth. Thus, we may say that Depth Jumps may be used as a
training means of Special Strength Training^.
Usually the Barbell Squat is used by athletes as a means of Special Strength Training.
In this exercise, the increase in muscular strength is assured by the gradual increase in bar
bell weight. We know that there are various methods of such resistance training, with varions combinations of the weight of the barbell and the number of movement repetitions.
For example, there is the Maximal Effort Method, using a maximal weight of the bar
bell with minimal repetitions, and the Repeat-Serial Method, using sub-maximal weights
and more repetitions. If the Repeat-Serial Method is predominantly used for activation of
morphological reconstructions in the body, assuring the increase in strength is due to the
rebuilding of muscle mass, the Maximal Effort Method assures an increase in strength
without significant increases in muscular size, thanks to the involvement of the neural
mechanisms of muscular contraction. These mechanisms include the improvement of mo¬
tor unit recruitment, the synchronization of their activation, and the increase in their firing
rate (rate coding). Changing the rates at which motor neurons discharge action potentials
(rate coding) and the number of motor units that are active (motor unit recruitment) deter
mines the force that a muscle exerts^'.
The increase in the result of such a maximal volitional effort is achieved thanks to an
increase in motor unit activity in response to the applied demands. It is possible to say that
the aim of sueh training is to “wake up” the “sleeping” motor units and to synchronize
their whole inclusion in the work.
This strength training also results in directly measurable changes in the way motor units
are recruited during an effort. Increased motor unit synchronization would benefit the rate
of force development during a voluntary contraction and the coordination of synergists
during a complex movement
60
Verkhoshansky Y., Verkhoshansky N. Special Strength Training: Manual for Coaches. Verkhoshansky
SSTM, 2011
Duchateau J., Semmler J. G., Enoka R. M. Training adaptations in the behavior of human motor units.
Journal of Applied Physiology Published 1 December 2006 Vol. 101 no. 6, 1766-1775
62
Gardiner Ph. Advanced Neuromuscular Exercise Physiology. Human Kinetics, 2011
36
Introduction
In Verkhoshansky’s 1986 experiment, the increase in strength parameters of the exper
imental groups who used Depth Jumps occurred due to the involvement of the neural
mechanisms responsible for the power of the muscles’ contraction. So, the training effect
of Depth Jumps was like the training effect of the Barbell Squats carried out according to
the Maximal Effort Method. Moreover, in the experiment of 1984, the increase in strength
parameters of the experimental groups of Weightiifters who used Depth Jumps was higher
than in the control group that used the Barbell Squats.
How may we explain these facts?
As Y. Verkhoshansky wrote®\ the traditional methods of strength training are based on
volitional actions, i.e. the ability of the sportsman to carry out the motor task as fully as
possible. For example, the greater the volitional effort, the more force is produced in an
isometric muscle contraction and the higher weight of a barbell that he will able to lift
slowly. The more the athlete strives to lift the barbell in a minimal time, the greater will be
the speed of this movement. Thus, the effect of any traditional training method is deter
mined by the limit of the athlete’s willpower for which he/she is capable of at that given
moment. However, it is known that in extreme situations, humans are able to overcome
these limits and instantaneously produce an effort of such power that is impossible to carry
out under ordinary conditions. These extreme situations appear primarily in conditions of
danger. “These conditions force the central nervous system and other physiological sys
tems to exceed their normal resources.... Apparently, under these conditions the body mo
bilizes any innate mechanisms designed by nature to be availablefor these and even more
complex, extreme situations. ...The creation ofsuch conditions in the training process al
lows one to assure a forced intensification of the work regime, which becomes a potent
training stimulus.^'.
Verkhoshansky notes that W. Hollman and T. Hettinger, in their famous book “Sports
medicine, work and training principles,” published in 1976
hypothesized that there is a
common, innate potential of the human organism that includes an “innate, protective' reserve, having a certain barrier for its mobilization. Overcoming this barrier under normal
living conditions is precluded by a protective inhibition, which forces the body to reduce
the intensity of the work or cease it. So, this reserve may be mobilized only in extreme,
life-threatening situations.
63
Y. Verkhoshansky. Super methods of Special Physical Preparation for High Class Athlete. SSTM, n2.
February 2007. Verkhoshansky.com
64
Hollman W., Hettinger Th. Sportmedizin. Arbeits und Training. Grundlagen, Stuttgard, New York,
Schattaner, 1976
- 37
Introduction
Nature has provided man with the possibility to enhance his abilities in extreme situa
tions, and we need to utilize it in the training of the high-level athlete.
The basic idea of super methods of Special strength training consists of employing the
principle of forced intensification of the work regime. These methods affect the body pro
foundly, forcing it to mobilize its functional reserves and to form central nervous system
mechanisms for the implementation of these reserves, when the necessity arises.
38
] Preface
Preface of Yuri Verkhoshansky
At the end of the 1950’s, I worked as a Track & Field coach at the Moscow Aeronautic
Institute and trained a promising group of long, triple, and high jumpers. It was with them
that I first tried to apply training exercises with a barbell. We enthusiastically practiced
with a barbell and vividly felt the benefit of this work. Nevertheless, we wanted more. At
that time, I was studying the biomechanics of the triple jump and I discovered that the
magnitude of force effort applied in the final push off reaches a level of 300kg. None of
my pupils were able to lift such a heavy weight in the Barbell Squat and they tried, at all
costs, to get closer to that goal.
Once, I remember, I said to my athletes: “We usually use full barbell squats, with com
plete flexion of the legs, but what if we performed it differently, not squatting to full
depth? The Half-Squat allows us to lift a heavier weight, therefore, in this way, it would be
possible to increase the effect oftraining.”
So, we started to implement this “genius” idea... and a miracle happened! The athletes,
who had barely been able to cope with a barbell of 120-130kg (which wasn't bad for us in
those times), began easily squatting a barbell of 180-200kg. Although I noticed that their
spines bent in various directions, nobody gave this great importance: Do you need to pay
attention to such trifles when you make an important step towards sporting success? How39
Preface
3^5
ever, the backbones of the athletes did not share our enthusiasm... The next day none of
the athletes came to train; All suffered back pain and could not return to training until the
end of the following week.
I understood that a heavy barbell and the spines of my lanky guys are two incompatible
things. So, what should we do? I immediately invented a new exercise: lifting a barbell
with the legs while in a supine position. At that time, we did not have special equipment
for this exercise, so the barbell was placed on the feet and pressed vertically while two as
sistants prevented the barbell from falling. The guys tried to do it and discovered that they
were able to lift much heavier weights than in the Half Squat. However, this also was trou
ble: the assistants of the athlete who performed the exercise had great difficulty holding
the barbell on his feet and this was very dangerous.
And then I remembered another thing that surprised me in the biomechanics of the tri
ple jump: the magnitude of force effort applied in the final push off reaches the level of
300kg in only 0.125 sec. Trying to figure out what provides such a high level of explosive
strength expression, I discovered that during the landing-take-off movement, the flexingextending leg assures the rotation of the body’s displacement vector at 28-30°, while the
speed of horizontal body displacement, before this rotation, arrives at 9.5 m/s (20-21
km/hour). Therefore, what assures the colossal load that acts on the athlete’s leg is the ki
netic energy accumulated by the athlete’s body during the run-up.
In that moment, a new idea came to me: why not try to use a training exercise in which
the kinetic energy of the falling body will be applied as the external load instead of a bar
bell?
Thus, the Shock Method was born.
In the early 1960s, my first publications about the Shock Method were adopted with
skepticism that eased my enthusiasm and strengthened the doubts. However, the publica
tions did their work. While I indulged doubts, my first Shock Method exercise, the Depth
Jump, began to be successfully used in the training of leading soviet athletes in many
sports.
Later, Depth jumps were introduced in Europe, then in America, in Japan and in Aus
tralia and, finally, through Finland and Italy, returned to Russia, but with another “nation
ality:” Our sports journalists enthusiastically described its advantages as the “achievement
of foreign specialists.” Truly,“no man is a prophet in his own country.”
By the time of the “great return home” of the Depth Jump, I was wholly involved in
scientific work on issues that go far beyond any problem of applying a certain training
method. However, I noticed that most of coaches and sport scientists considered my
Shock Method only as applying the Depth Jump. The possibility of successful application
of this method for the upper body was not appreciated. In addition, in the rules of applying
40
^ Preface
Depth Jumps, there were so many misunderstandings that it could nullify all the benefits of
this excellent exercise.
I was so worried by these circumstances that I decided to write this book.
Recently, one of my friends from Memphis, knowing that I am going to write a book
about the Shock Method, exclaimed with surprise: “How is it possi
ble to write a whole book about it?” I admit, I was somewhat taken
aback by this question, but one recollection made me smile in re
sponse.
...It was in the late 1960’s: the time of the first Track & Field
meets between the USSR and the USA. We were sitting on the trib
une of Moscow’s stadium “Luszniki.” There were three of us: A
Great Coach, my Great Mentor, and my great friend: Professor Vla
dimir Dyachkov, the magnificent John Tomas, who, at that time, was
the best high jumper in the world, and I, a young coach and the pupil ^
of Dyachkov. Certainly, we were talking about Track & Field high
jumping. When Dyachkov casually mentioned his book dedicated to
high jumping, Tomas had exclaimed with unconcealed surprise:
“How is it possible to write a whole book about this?” Then I said to
John Thomas,“Yes, to tell ALL about the high jump, you really need
to write a whole book.”
Now, I can answer the question from my friend in Memphis the
same way: “Yes, to tell ALL about the Shock method, you really need to write a whole
book. Believe me,the Shock Method deserves it.”
I hope this book will help coaches objectively evaluate the possibilities of the Shock
Method and successfully utilize its incredible training potential in their practice.
Sincerely yours,
Rome, 1997
41
Preface
Editor’s note:
The preface has been integrally translated from the Italian book “Tutto sul Metodo
d’Urto”(Yuri Verkhoshansky - 1997, Societa Stampa Sportiva).
The following chapters have been translated from the original Russian manuscript of
the author and integrated with the content ofthe Italian book.
42
] Chapter 1
Shock Method: what it is and how it
WORKS
1.1. The shock regime of muscular work and its particular fea
tures
1.1.1. What kind of shock regime of muscular work are we referring
TO?
The most typical and “extreme” form of this kind of activ
ity we may observe when the human body is undergone to
the sharp impact of the external objects. In these cases, the
muscles work in the regime which may be named as “the im
pact or the shock regime”.
In the sport activity, the shock regime of muscular work
we could find in two types of movements:
1) The shock-absorbing movement after the body impact
with external object. The objective of such movements is
to brake and stop the free-falling load or the falling ath
lete’s body (as, for example, when the athlete falls into
the sand pit in the broad jumps or lands from gymnastic
apparatus after the competition exercise execution). In
this case, muscles work only in an eccentric or, in other
terms, in a pliometric regime.
2) The shock-reversible movement, in which, after the impact with external object, the
athlete must repulse it with maximum effort; for example: to repulse the felled sport
device or to rebound as far or as high as possible after landing (for example, as in the
landing-takeoff movement of track-and-field jumps). In this case, muscles work in re
versal eccentric-concentric or, in other terms, pliometric-miometric regime. The re
versible movements performed in this regime includes, in first, the braking movement,
which constitutes a reaction on the influence of external force, and, in second, ballistic
43
Chapter 1
movemenf^ aimed to repulse this force as far as possible. For these two reasons, such
regime of muscular work has been defined as '■'reactive-ballisticT
These two types of shock regime of muscular work have the common feature; in both
cases, we find the pliometric (or eccentric) muscular action, which occurs when the muscles are actively extended (stretched) under the influence of external load while their con
traction is in progress (in Russian sport training literature it is usually termed as the yield¬
ing regime of muscular work).
However, in comparison to an ordinary pliometric (eccentric) action, performed in the
yielding regime without the shock impact of external force, the shock absorbing pliometric
action has two particularities:
1) it provokes a sharp switching-on the muscles in the active working condition at the begirming of the impact
2) it stimulates a rapid increasing the muscles tension during the shock absorption phase.
However, notwithstanding these common feature, there is an important difference be
tween these two types of the shock regime of muscular work, presented before: in compar
ison with the pliometric (eccentric) action, aimed only at the stopping the free falling ob
ject or the falling body (the first type of shock regime), the pliometric (eccentric) action,
which precedes the active reversible movement (the second type of shock regime), is able
to create a considerable potential of muscular tension, which assures increasing the power
output of the subsequent muscular contraction: increasing the magnitude of force effort
and the rate (speed) of force development. This could represent an advantage in the case
when the fallen object, immediately after its stopping, must be repulsed with maximal ef
fort: as higher as possible, and as quickly as possible
The topic of this book regards the shock-reversible regime of muscular work. Let's con
centrate your attention on this regime.
65
Ballistic movement is a movement initiated by muscle actions, which creates the impulse of force, but con
tinued by the momentum of the limbs.
66
The active switching of muscles, involved in the impact, begins not at the moment of impact, but before
it: at a fixed latency from the moment of the beginning of the fall (see M. Santello. Review of motor control
mechanisms underlying impact absorption from falls. Gait and Postiue 21 (2005) 85-94).
67
The research of J. Ambegaonar, S. Shultz and D. Perrin “A subsequent movement alters lower extremity
muscle activity and kinetics in drop jumps vs. drop landings” (Journal of Strength and Condition Researches,
2011, Oct;25(10):2781-8.) have showed, that the shock-absorbing movement after the body impact with ex
ternal object (drop landing) and the shock-reversible movement (drop Jump) are characterized by different
neuromechanics. In drop jump, the later gastrocnemius activation, higher gastrocnemius (calf) and quadri
ceps (thigh) postlandrng amplitudes, and higher ground reaction forces are observed, in comparison with the
drop landing. It may allow subjects not simply to absorb impact, as in drop landing, but to propel the body
vertically after the initial landing. So, anticipation of a subsequent task changes landing neuromechanics.
44
Chapter 1
The similar regime we find in human locomotion: it constitutes the main element of
human gaits^^, in which the active body propulsion movement is preceded by the ground
impact and subsequent muscles lengthening under the influence of gravity force. This
combination of the eccentric-concentric muscles actions was termed the StretchShortening Cycle or SSC (Norman & Komi 1979; Komi 1984). Later, also the coupling
reversible movements without the impact, as, for example, in the countermovementjumps
and throws, were considered as the SSC muscles actions.
However, we want to emphasize once again, that the movements, performed in the im
pact-reversal regime, have two particular features:
1) in contrast to the reversible movements of countermovement jumps and throws, they
include not simply the stretching (mechanical deformation) of muscles during their
rapid volitional lengthening, but a sharp forcible stretching of the muscles, which were
previously activated by the sudden impact with oncoming external object;
Fig. 1.1 - Depth Jump
68
Human gait is the way locomotion is achieved using human limbs. Human gait is defined as bipedal, biphasic forward propulsion of centre of gravity of human body, in which there is alternate sinuous movements
of different segments ofthe body with least expenditure of energy.
45
Chapter 1
2) in contrast to the reversible movements, which we find in the repetitive cycle of loco
motion, they constitute an isolated muscles actions performed with maximal effort or,
in other words, they constitute the solving of a self-dependent motor task aimed to re
pulse the oncoming external opposition as far as possible.
The classical illustration of the shock-reversible regime of muscular work is the jump in
depth with vertical rebound, or simply Depth Jump, which consists in the free falling from
raised platform and, upon landing, immediately performing, with maximum effort, a verti¬
cal jump (figure 1.1).
To illustrate the shock-reversible regime in the upper body movement, let’s suppose
that, in the Smith Machine, a not loaded barbell, which was previously kept by two assis
tants at a certain height, falls directly in the straightened-up hands of the athlete, situated
on the bench in supine position.
The athlete must stop the falling
barbell and quickly repulse it up
with maximum effort i.e. to throw
f:
}■
●
Xl
it up as high as possible (figure
1.2). The same kind of movement
may be performed also by a single
upper extremity, if the special de
vice is used, which is presented in
the figure 1 .3.
In these movements, the work
r-
f
I
O
I
V'
!
t
:
■
●●●● i ■■■%■■■ >
/
4^/
■\
Fig. 1.2 - Vertical repulsion of the fallen barbell in Smith
Machine
effort develops first as a yielding (shock absorption) ac
tion and then as an active overcoming action (the body
repulsion from the ground or pushing up the barbell). In
other words, at first, muscles are lengthening and elas
tically stretching, working in the eccentric (pliometric)
regime, and then they are vigorously shortening, work
ing in the concentric (miometric) regime. With this, the
transition from the eccentric work to the concentric one
is very rapid.
In the 1950s - 1960s, the Author conducted a series
of simple experiments, which allowed to analyze the pe
Fig. 1.3 - The special device for exe
culiarities of the shock-reversible regime of muscular cuting the single hand vertical repulwork. In substance, these experiments had the same ob(T.
cargo
fallen
of
jective: to establish, how the body impact with oncoming
46
Verkhoshansky, 1960)
Chapter 1
external force influences the working effect (the mechanical output) of subsequent repul
sive movement. Despite the simplicity of the instruments utilized, these experiments help
to observe the phenomena involved in this regime and to formulate the first suppositions
about their determining factors.
1.1.2. How THE COLLISION OF FALLING BODY WITH THE GROUND INFLUENCES
THE MAXIMAL HEIGHT OF SUBSEQUENT VERTICAL JUMP?
The participants in the experiment performed three different versions of a vertical jump
with a maximal effort (Fig. 1.4).
1) Squat Jump, the vertical jump performed from a semi-squatted position without the
previous knee bending in countermovement;
2) Countermovement Jump, the vertical jump performed from the stranding position
with the previous knee bending in countermovement.
3) Depth Jump, the countermovement vertical jump performed immediately after the
landing from the height of 0.50 m.
In each of these control exercises, the dynamic of Ground Reaction Force was measured
(Fig. 1.5) and the height reached in vertical jump, which represents the mechanical output
(working effect) of pushing off movement(Fig. 1.6).
The results of the experiment show that the highest maximal flight height of vertical
jump, the highest value of Ground Reaction Force and the shortest duration of the push-off
phase were reached when it was performed after the landing from the height of 0,50 m.
The same results have been obtained also in the similar experiments, which were car
ried out later
Asmussen, F.
by E.
Bonde-
Peterson (1974), C. Bosco
SJ
(1985, 1996), Th. Adams
<1)
CMJ
(1984), D. Clutch, M. Wil
ton (1983), R. Steben, A.
ff
Steben (1981) et al. Usual
It
ly, a higher height of ver
h
t
M
tical jump in Depth Jump,
in comparison to the
Countermovement Jump
(as also a higher height of
SQUAT JUMP
COUNTERMOVEMENT JUMP
DJ
(1
DA't
DEPTH JUMP
vertical jump in the Coun- Fig. 1.4 - Three versions ofthe verticaljump
47
Chapter 1
termovement Jump, in
comparison to the Squat
Jump) was related to the
phenomena of the elastic
energy recoil.
However, we would
like to note also the oth
er important circum
stance: in 3 different
conditions of the vertical
jump execution, the
take-off movement was
performed in a different
functional state of the
muscles, prior to the
movement performing:
Fig. 1.5 - Typical dynamograms of three different versions of vertical
1) State
of isometric jump: SJ-from the half-squat position, CMJ - with a countermovement
tension (previous knee flexion), DJ - depth jump from the height of 0,50 m. P athlete’s bodyweight
muscular
(keeping the starting
position with flexed
legs);
2) State of quick volimuscles
tional
lengthening (stretch
ing) during the coun
termovement;
3) State offorced mus
cles
lengthening
(stretching) during
the
countermove-
i.
'
'Height OF VERTICAL JUMP
(CM)
k
t.
r.
EQ.
70.
1
r.
HJ
3
M.
50
SQUATTING
JUMP
COUNTERMOVEMENT
JUMP
DEPTH JUMP
ment, which was
Fig. 1.6- Flight height ofthree different versions of verticaljump
caused by the body
impact with a ground.
So, it’s possible, that the differences between maximal height reached in the vertical
jumps, performed in three different conditions, could be determined by different levels of
the muscles activation. To check out this supposition, the following experiment was car
ried out.
48
Chapter t
1.1.3.How THE COLLISION BETWEEN THE FALLING EXTERNAL LOAD AND THE
STRAIGHTENED-UP HUMAN HAND INFLUENCES THE FORCE OF SUBSEQUENT
REPULSIVE MOVEMENT?
Using the special equipment of figure 1.3, a group of athletes performed the loaded sin
gle arm movement, which consisted in the active pushing a load upward with maximal ef
fort, aimed to throw up the load as high as possible. The weight of load was equal to 60%
of the maximal weight, which the athlete was able to keep in the isometric regime.
Each of athletes performed this control movement four times in the following condi¬
tions.
Thus, the control movement was performed in 4 different functional state of the muscles, prior to the movement performing:
1) State ofrelaxation (the load was held at chest level height by pins);
2) State ofisometric muscular tension, equal to the load (the load was held at chest level
height by the individual);
SlNGLE OVERCOMING MOVEMENT
State of relax
State of isometric
tension equal to the
weight
Coupling REVERSIBLE movement
State of rapid
lengthening after
voluntary movement
State of forced sudden
lengthening under the
impact with falling weight
H
H
H
lil
h =80 cm ●
H
us
1
i c
P
Fast push-up ofthe
free load without
counter-movement
Fast push-up ofthe
previously blocked
load without counter
movement
Fast push-up ofthe
non-blocked load with
counter-movement
Fast push-up ofthe
falling load with counter
movement
Fig. 1.7-Scheme ofexperiment: how the collision between thefalling external load and the straightened
up human arm influences the working effect ofsubsequent repulsive movement
- 49
Chapter l
3) State ofquick volitional muscular lengthening (the loaded arm was extended upwards;
then, the load was quickly lowered and then energetically pushed upwards with an ac
tive transition from an eccentric to a concentric muscular action.);
4) State ofsuddenforced lengthening caused by an active stopping the falling load.
In each of these control movements, the curves of the load vertical acceleration have
been recorded during its upward displacement (figure 1.8). In substance, these curves indi
cated the rate of force development in the pushing off movement. Due the weight of mov
ing load and the distance of its displacement, in the control movements, were the same, the
curves of the load vertical acceleration indicated the impulse of force applied and, as con
sequence, the mechanical output(working effect) of this movement.
Fig. 1.8 - The curves of weight acceleration registered during the push up movement, performed in the
same initial position, but under 4 different conditions
50
a
Chapter 1
The results of this experiment show that:
1) When the control movement was performed with the active strength effort, which
started form the state of isometric muscular tension (2), the load's acceleration was
higher, than in the case, when the load was previously held at chest level height by
pins. Apparently, this happens, because the keeping of weight provokes a higher level
of muscles activation, than the keeping of pose.
2) When the control movement was performed with the active strength effort, which starts
in the state of muscles tension, provoked by their volitional pre-stretching during a
counter-movement (3), the load's acceleration was higher, than in a case of isometric
contraction. Apparently, this happens because the volitional counter movement, per
formed in eccentric regime, provokes a higher muscles activation than isometric mus
cular action. In addition, it assures the possibility to accumulate elastic energy in the
muscle-tendon units of lengthening muscles and to use this energy, as supplementary
force, in the subsequent contraction.
3) When the control movement was performed from the state of sudden forced muscular
stretching, provoked by the impact with falling load (4), the load's acceleration was
higher, than in a case of its execution with counter movement without precedent im
pact (3): the maximal acceleration of the load was greater, and the time of its reaching
was shorter. Apparently, this happens, because the impact of falling load, accumulated
a certain value of kinetic energy, provokes a higher speed of increasing the muscles
tension and, as consequence, a higher level of muscles activation, than the volitional
counter movement. As a result, in subsequent movement, a more excited muscles are
able to produce a higher force. Probably, it allows also to accmnulate a higher value of
elastic energy in the muscle-tendon units and to use this energy, as supplementary
force, in the subsequent contraction.
Thus, the working effect of control movements may be determined by the functional
state of the muscles prior to the active strength effort. The higher is the level of muscles
activation prior to the active strength effort, the higher is the starting acceleration of the
load flight.
1.1.4. Conclusion
The results of two experiments have indicate, that the working effect of repelling
movement, performed immediately after the collision with oncoming external force, is
higher, than the working effect of the same movement, but performed without the previous
collision.
51
Chapter 1 i
In the experiments, the control movements performed in the shock-reversal regime rep
resented two cases of the collision between the moving and unmoving bodies: in the first
experiment - the collision between the falling body and the ground and, in the second ex
periment - the collision between the falling external load and human body. During such a
collision, the external force, equal to the kinetic energy generated during the free falling of
body or the external object, exerts the pressure on the athlete’s limb (or limbs), which of
fers resistance, bending under its influence. The high speed of increasing this external
force provokes a very rapid forcible increase in the muscles tension during the shock ab
sorption phase, which greatly enhances the muscles capacity to produce force. During the
subsequent active reverse movement, the same muscles, which were activated by the influ
ence of external force, are stimulated also by the motor control system to produce a maxi
mal force effort. As a result, in this active reverse movement, the athlete is able to apply
the super-maximal force effort, which allows to reach the highest impulse of force and, as
consequence, the liighest working effect.
The working effect of the movements, performed in this regime, may be influenced also
by another factor. In the case of collision between the human limbs and the external oppo
sition (the ground or the training device), the elastic properties of human locomotor system
allow to absorb the impact force in the way, that the kinetic energy of falling external ob
ject (or human body) can by saved in the form of elastic energy, accumulated in the mus
cle-tendons unites of the bending limbs (or limb). During the immediately following active
extension of these limbs, the phenomenon of elastic energy recoil may occur, which could
assure a higher working effect of the pushing movement.
Therefore, we may individualize two factors, neural and muscular, allowing to repulse,
with a powerful effort, the external force, with which the body have been collided. Essen
tially, these two neuromuscular mechanisms are triggered in cases when the human body is
subjected to a collision with external force that could tlireaten its integrity. Thus, we can
assume that the shock-reversible regime of muscular work must be associated with special
motor function, which helps to protect the body against eventual harmful mechanical im
pact of external forces. In the conditions of a complex motor activity typical for sports, this
motor function may also be useful for the solving, with high efficiency, the specific motor
tasks. This specific motor function was noted by the Author many years ago and was de
fined as ''the reactive property of neuro-muscular system'"', the athlete’s ability to utilize
these reactive properties in the specific sport movements was named as the "reactive abil
ity ofathlete"(Y. Verkhoshansky, 1961, 1970).
52
Chapter 1
1.2. Reactive ability of the athlete
1.2.1. Reactive properties of neuro-muscular system and the muscles
FUNCTION AS “LOCOMOTOR SPRINGS”
The existence ofthe peculiar neuro-muscular function, which allows to protect the body
from sudden impacts with the objects of environment, may be deduced from the results of
classical fundamental researches on human physiology.
The ability to protect the body against mechanical influences of external objects is pro
vided, first of all, by the structure of human locomotor apparatus. The oncoming external
object can be intercepted, at a certain distance, by the body limb, straightened him to
wards, and the force of impact can be reduced due to its absorption during the limb bend
ing with the strained muscles. By-tum, the previously flexed limb is ready for the active
straightening with the applying the appropriate force to repel the external object immedi
ately.
The researches had indicated, that, in both the flexion and extension phases of such a
reversible movement, the muscles are able to produce a higher force, than in the isolated
movements of flexion and extension:
1) when the external force compels muscle to resist, lengthening and stretching under its
influence, such a muscle can produce a greater force, than in isometric contraction (“a
muscle could exert greaterforce when stretched while contraction''- A. Tick, 1892®®);
2) the higher the rate of raising muscle tension, under the influence of the external me
chanical force, the higher force they are able to produce because of the higher level of
their activation (it is known still from the end of XIX, from the studies of Du BoisReymond™, that the level of muscles excitation depends on the rate of raising the mag
nitude of external mechanical stimulus);
3) the working effect of the concentric muscular action, finalized to repulse this external
force immediately, is greater than the working effect of the isolated concentric muscu
lar action, i.e. that was not pre-exposed to the impact of external forces {""The work
done by muscle shortening at a given velocity was greater if the shortening was pre
ceded by a stretch during stimulation.... This effect was partly due to an increase in the
force ofcontraction ofthe contractile component" - G.Cavana, B.Dusman, R.Margaria,
69
Pick A. Neue Beitrage zur Kenntniss von der Wanne-Entwicklung im Muskel. Pfliigers Arch 51; 541-569,
1892.
70
Emil Heinrich Du Bois-Reymond (1818 -1896) - a German physician and physiologist, the discoverer of
nerve action potential, and the father of experimental electrophysiology.
53
Chapter 1
1968)
There are all grounds to believe that such kind of the capacity to respond (to react) to
the external influences, is related to the peculiarities of neural regulation of muscular con
traction. However, there is also another factor, which should consider: the elastic strain
energy storage in muscle itself or, in other words, the muscles function as “locomotor
springs”.
In the 1950, the Nobel Archibald Hill had supposed, that the mechanical energy pro
duced by an external force, which causes a contracting muscle to stretch, could be stored in
the series elastic components of muscle and reutilized in the consequent shortening phase
of movement^^.
The results of later researches in the field of sport training helped to confirm this suppo
sition: it has been established, that, during the push up of vertical jump immediately fol
lowing the landing after falling, volleyball players recover 54% of the energy accumulated
in the shock absorption phase. In the execution of a jump with the barbell on the shoulders
(with a load of40% ofthe IRM)circa 63% of the elastic energy is recovered.
In the 1964, Cavagna et al. investigated the amount of power generated during sprinting
from start to peak running velocity^^ The authors postulated that elastie energy stored in
the lengthening muscles of flexing limb, when contracted muscles are stretched (as in the
negative work phase of the step cycle), can be used for work during the next shortening of
the muscles. The use of elastic energy accounted for approximately 50% of the total ener
gy requirement. Later, a high correlation was found between the muscular ability to recov
er mechanical energy and the mechanical efficiency of running (r = 0.870) and the running
performance (r = 0.780).
Talking about the reactive properties ofthe neuro-muscular system, we used the word
“property” in plural form, because, in many sport movements, the reactive property of
neuro-muscular system is usually applied together with the elastic properties of muscles
themselves or, more correctly, the muscle-tendon units.
The elastic deformation of excited muscles (their stretching during the phase of length
ening under the influence of external forces) assures the accumulation of a determined po
tential of muscular tension, as surplus of muscles tension, that is used in the subsequent ac-
71
G.Cavana, B.Dusman, R.Margaria . Positive work done by a previously stretched muscle. J Appl Physiol
January 1, 1968
72
Hill A.V. The series elastic component of muscle. Proceedings ofthe Royal Society London Series B 137,
273-280 (1950).
73
Cavagna, G., Saibene, F. & Margaria, R. Mechanical work in running. J. Appl. Physiol. 19, 249-256,
1964
54
Chapter 1
tive muscular contraction. It was shown, that the surplus of force, determined by the muscle stretching, increases according to the velocity and the entity of the stretch; the surplus
is greater, the faster the transition from stretch to muscular contraction. (‘‘...The increase of
work performed was greater, the shorter the interval between stretching and shortening'"’ Cavagna, G.A., Saibene, F.P., Margaria, R., 1965)^h
The elastic properties of the muscular-skeletal system assure the possibility to utilize
the reactive forces, appearing during the reversal movements, for achieving the goal of
complex motor actions.
The fast pre-stretch of the musculature, involved in the rapid reversal movements, is
used as a work mechanism that guarantees a more effective realization of the motor task.
For example, an elevated correlation (r = - 0.80) has been found between the duration of
the transition phase and the value of support reaction in the jerk movement. A considerable
(r = - 0.91) correlation has been found between the duration of the transition phase of
jumping and the sport qualification of gymnasts: as the qualification of the gymnasts gets
higher, even this correlation increases. So, we may conclude, that, with increasing the
sport mastery, the athlete’s ability to utilize the reactive forces is improving. It allows to
individualize this ability as an important component of the sport mastery and to definite it
as the reactive ability ofathlete.
1.2.2.The reactive ability of athlete; what it is and how it may be
EVALUATED
Reactive ability may be defined as specific ability of the athlete to utilize the reactive
forces appearing during the eccentric muscular action, for increasing the power output of
the subsequent concentric action.
The reactive ability may be evaluated tlu'ough the ratio between the values of mechani
cal work produced in the eccentric and in the concentric phases of a reversible movement.
Essentially, the reactive ability of athlete (R) may be evaluated in any kind of shockreversible movement by solving the equation:
R = W2/W1, in which:
- WI = any value ofthe muscular work produced in eccentric phase
- W2 = any value ofthe muscular work produced in concentric phase
The higher the ratio above, the greater the reactive ability of the athlete.
74
Cavagna, G.A., Saibene, F.P., Margaria, R. Effect of negative work on the amount of positive work per
formed by an isolated muscle, J Appl Physiol, 1965.
55
Chapter 1 i
In physics, a force is said to do work when it acts on a body when there is a displace
ment of the point of application in the direetion of the foree. The work done by a constant
force of magnitude F on a point that moves a displacement d in the direction of the force is
the product;
W^Fxd
In place of a value of muscular work, the values of force may be also used, applied in
the shoek absorption phase and in the pushing off phase.
For example, with the possibility to record the vertical component of ground reaction
force and the change of the angle at the knee joint, during the execution of Depth Jump, it
is possible to define the limit between the shock absorption and the push phase and get the
mean value of the force applied in both phases, as well as calculate the value of the reac
tive ability R.
For instance, if the mean value of the strength effort in the shock absorption phase is
279 kg and in the push phase is 326 kg,then R = 326/279 = 1.17.
If the laboratory has a force platform, but lacks the possibility to record the variation of
the knee joint in the push phase,the following ratio can be used instead:
R = Fm/PT,in which:
- Fm, is the average value of the strength effort;
- T, is the duration ofthe strength effort;
- P,is the load that is moved (or the body of the athlete’s).
For instance, if in the push following a drop jump an athlete with a bodyweight of 75kg
develops an effort equal to 235 kg in 0,247sec, the value (coefficient) of the reactive abil
ity will be:
R = 235/75 X 0.247= 12.7
In this case the physics sense of the parameter of the reactive ability (R)consists in the
value of the load that aets on the organism in the unity of time (Y. Verkhoshansky,
1963)^^ The level of the reactive ability is higher as the value of the coefficient (R) in
creases.
When a force platform is not available, it is opportune to use a contact platfomi, and
with any manual chronometer will be possible to record the flight time following the push
phase of a Depth Jump.
75
The physics sense of the reactive ability parameter is similar to that of mechanical power. To understand
this, it is sufficient to look at the figure 1,19. It can be noticed that the dynamics of the reactive ability (R)
and the power of work(N)are very similar. The coefficient of correlation being 0.940.
56
■ r \iB2SI
Chapter 1
The contact platform must be built in such a way that the chronometer starts immediate
ly at take-off The chronometer is stopped at landing. In other terms, the total flight time
(and fall) of the athlete’s body is recorded. If you remember the physics learnt at school,
we can get the athlete’s flight height, that is the height of the upward jump performed im
mediately after the drop jump,from the total flight time.
Using the free-falling bodies formula, we can calculate the athlete’s flight height;
Hy= V//2g
in which:
-
Vo is the initial flight velocity;
- g is the acceleration of gravity of a body of any weight.
We do not know the initial velocity of flight; however, we know the total time of the
flight phase (flight time and time of fall), from which we can calculate the initial velocity
of flight:
Vo=gxt/2
For instance, given a flight phase of 0.65 sec, in a push upward after a Depth Jump from
the height of 0.45m, then:
Vo=(9.8 X 0.65)72 = 3.18 m/s
Therefore, the flight height of the athlete is:
Hy= VoV2g =(3.18)^ /(2x9.8)= 10.11/19.6 = 0.51 m
Using the value of the flight height (hi) and the height of fall (hi) we can calculate R
(the value of the reactive ability):
R = hi/h2=0.5\/0A5 = \.l3
This ratio defines the reactive ability of the athlete. The level of the reactive ability is
higher as this ratio increases(we remind that the height offall is 0.45 m).
If for the follow-up control of the reactive ability level, the Depth Jump is always per
formed from the same height, there is no need to calculate the flight height and the R ratio.
All that is necessary is recording the flight time, that is a characteristic of the neuromuscu
lar system of the athlete that changes with training. With the increase of the flight time, the
flight height and the reactive ability have positively increased as well. The lowering of the
flight time indicates a decrease ofthe reactive ability. To get a more precise information, it
is necessary to record the push time on the contact platform.
57
Chapter l
Creative trainers, who, without doubt, will want to learn more about the reactive abili
ties of their athletes, will be faced with the problem of its quantitative evaluation. So, we
will try to help them to solve such problem and to share our experiences.
According to the practical character of the book, we have described only simple meth
ods to evaluate the level and dynamics of the reactive ability parameters of the lower body
extensor muscles, that is methods practical enough to be used daily in sport practice.
In principle, the reactive ability of the athlete may be evaluated in Depth Jump, as the
coefficient R, calculated by solving the following equation:
R = r2/ri,
where r represents the characteristic of the mechanical work produced (the force of ap
plied in movement and the distance of its applying): ri - in the landing phase and V2 - in
the take-off phase.
The mechanical work produced in the lending phase will be approximately equal to the
kinetic energy of falling body, which acts on the flexing legs muscles during the shock ab
sorption phase. The value of kinetic energy may be calculated by solving the following
equation:
KE =
Where:
hxg-
-
m, the mass of falling body(the weight of the athlete);
-
h, the height from which it falls;
- g, the acceleration of freely falling bodies under the influence of terrestrial gravity,
equal to approximately 9.81 meters(32 feet) per second per second.
The mechanical work produced in the take-off phase of vertical jump may be calculated
by solving the following equation:
W=m'xgxh,
where:
-
m, the body mass(the weight of the athlete);
- g, the acceleration of freely falling bodies under the influence of terrestrial gravity,
-
equal to approximately 9.81 meters(32 feet) per second per second;
h, the total displacement of the gravity centre (the height ofjump).
So, the reactive ability of the athlete (Index of reactivity R) may be calculated m the
following way:
R = m>^gxh2/m>^hi xg^= h2/hj xg
Since the acceleration of freely falling bodies under the influence of terrestrial gravity is
a standard, the reactive ability of the athlete will be equal to h2/ hj. The level of the reaetive ability is higher the higher is this ratio.
58
The flight height can quite exactly be measured with
a simple tape measure, equipped with a special device
of Abalakov (figure 1.9): one side of the tape is tied to
a strap on the shoulders of the athlete, while the oppo
site side is inserted in a clamp - characterized by low
friction.
The measurement of the flight height requires the
following procedure:
a) the clamp is fixed to the ground in the exact
spot of the Depth Jump landing;
b) the athlete puts the strap on his shoulders, and
the tape is tied to it. Initially the athlete is stand
ing, the clamp between his feet,
c) the opposite side of the tape it is pulled in order
to tighten it.
d) On the measurement tape a point (next to the
Fig. 1.9 - Recording the flight height
clamp)is marked,for instance, 62 cm.
in the verticaljump with a tape mease) The athlete performs the jump upward pulling ure
the tape that passes through the clamp,
f) After the jump, the point reached by the tape is marked again (for instance, 125
cm).
To calculate the real flight height, all it takes is a simple arithmetic operation, that is
subtracting the first measure from the second: 125 - 62 = 63. Therefore, in this case, the
flight height is 63 cm.
It is necessary to remember that in order to climb on the box, the athlete must extract at
least 40 cm of tape, since that is the height of the box. However, if a load is used (for in
stance, 40 kg), the flight height of the rebound jump can be lower than 40 cm. In this case,
to measure the flight height, it is necessary to quickly pull the tape in the clamp during the
fall. This operation does not require a lot of skill.
1.2.3.May the reactive ability be improved, or it is wholly deter
mined BY THE INNATE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ATHLETE’S NEURO
MUSCULAR SYSTEM?
Research in the field of sport training indicates that reactive ability is the result of a pe
culiar specification of the motor apparatus. In other words, that it can be developed and
improved with training. Besides, its importance grows considerably with the elevation of
59
Chapter 1
sport mastery. More exactly: the elevation of sport mastery is determined by the degree of
development of reactive ability.
For example, data regarding the multiyear perfecting of the take-off biomechanics of
the high jump is very interesting (Fig. 1.10).
We must stress that with the elevation of sport mastery, the speed of the approaching
run increases (Vp). The angles at the knee of the take-off leg at the support (KCt) and
amortization phases (KCfa) increase. The angle between the take-off leg and the ground
(Tna) decreases. Therefore, at take-off, the amplitude of the active action on the center of
mass increases and the take-off leg is used more effectively as a lever that allows for
changing of the direction of the vector of body velocity acquired during the approaching
run. Thus, the character of the interaction between the jumper and the ground support
changes considerably:
1) Take-off time diminishes;
2) The vertical component ofthe force effort increases and, therefore,
3) The vertical flight velocity ofthe body increases.
If we wonder about the rationale for this transformation of the take-off movements, the
answer is evident: we simply must pay attention to the elevated inclination of the graph on
the right side of the chart as it represents the value of the reactive ability of the muscles
(Fig. 1.10). It establishes the possibility to gain unimaginable results in the high jump. At a
superior level of sport mastery, the coiTelation between performance and reactive ability is
0.94.
However, to improve a personal record in the high jump, for instance from 210 to 220
cm, it is necessary to increase the level of reactive ability by 27%. This is not easy to
achieve, but it is certainly worth
the effort.
We will now cover another
important aspect. In our re
search, we have established that
when the athlete, in conditions
of the impact-reversal regime of
muscular work, must overcome
an elevated external resistance
Fig. l.IO - Changes in the characteristics of the push at take-off
in the high jump (straddle technique) with an increase in the athment is limited (for instance, in lete’s sport mastery. Legend:
the push of weightlifting exer- R - reactive ability; KCra-knee angle at take-off; KCp^a-knee
take-off
cises or in the jumps and throws
amortization phase;
angle
limb/ground” at take-off; Vp - speed ofthe approach run
and the amplitude of the move-
of track and field), the expres-
60
7E;
Chapter 1
sion of reactive ability depends on the biomechanical rigidity (stiffness) of the muscles (in
other words, on the rigidity of the series elastic component).
In several studies it was shown that reactive ability also has considerable importance for
the effectiveness of other sport movements. A high correlation has been found between the
reactive ability of athletes and their competition results in the triple jump (r = 0.95), in the
hurdles (r = 0.71), in weightlifting (r = 0.94), and between the reactive ability and the im
pulse of force in ski jumps from the platform (r = 0.85).
1.2.4. How DOES REACTIVE ABILITY CHANGE UNDER THE INFLUENCE OF TRAIN
ING?
The follow-up control for reactive ability of a given athlete during a certain training pe
riod may be realized by using Depth Jumps performed from the same height. In this case,
the mechanical work produced in the landing phase is the constant so the changes in the
level of reactivity will be indicated by any changes in the characteristic of the mechanical
work produced in the push off phase: in the impulse of force or the height of flight.
If it is possible to use a contact mat, the time of upward flight may be recorded which
will indicate the jump height and how it changes with training (to get more precise infor
mation, it would be better to also record the ground contact time).
The dynamics of the athlete’s reactive ability can be observed over a long training peri
od if the Depth Jump tests are regularly performed (once or twice a week) and their data
are graphed.
Figure 1.11 is an example of such a graph that shows the results of effective organiza
tion ofthe training process, which has allowed the athlete (a high jumper)to achieve an el
evated level of preparedness
before the most important
competitions; that is, in the
period between the 16th and
the 20th week of training
(on the graph this period is
indicated with flags). This
result has been determined,
essentially, by the systemat
ic evaluation of the reactive
ability of the athlete. In fact,
Fig. 1.11 - Dynamics of the duration of the flight phase of a depth
on the bases of these chang /umpfrom the height of 0.50 m of a high jumper (theflags point out
es in reactive ability param- the competitive period)
61
Chapter 1
eters, it has been possible to check and correct the training process when necessary.
Another example of regular testing of the reactive ability of the athlete is represented in
figure 1.12, concerning a high-level speed skater. Twice a month, flight time was recorded
for five maximum effort jumps(performed in succession). This way the specific endurance
of the athlete, that is, the ability to maintain an elevated level of reactive ability performing
repeated jumps, was evaluated.
It is easy to notice the linear relationship between the reactive ability and the volume of
special strength work:
1) With an increase in the volume of strength loads (VI, VII, X month) the level of reac
tive ability decreases. However, the following decrease in the volume of the strength
loads favors its rebound.
2) The changes in the reactive ability parameters(H, summation of the flight phase times)
and the explosive muscular strength are characterized by the same dynamics.
3) A notable correlation exists between reactive ability parameters and the performance
increase ofthe skater.
Fig. 1.12 - Dynamics oftraining parameters in the annual plan ofa speed skater.
Legend:
● J- Explosive strength;
● H - summation oftheflight time ofthe 5 verticaljumps,
● 500 and 1000- skate performance on the distances of500 m and 1000 m;
● Hours - total time ofspecific work (white columns) and special strength work (grey columns).
62
1 Chapter 1
1.2.5. Conclusions
Reactive properties of the neuromuscular system assure a special function of the human
motor system, which helps to protect the body from sudden impacts with objects in the en
vironment. This function allows us to absorb the force of impact during the braking
movement, reducing the risk of injury, and is also able to use this force to repel the exter
nal object as fast and as far as possible. The base mechanisms that assure this protective
function are related to the specific form of neural regulation of muscular tension in condi
tions of sharp collision of the human body with external objects and with the elastic prop
erties of muscles themselves.
In the conditions of active motor activity typical for sport, reactive properties of the
neuromuscular system are used to assure the effectiveness of specific sport movements,
especially for jumping exercises. The ability of an athlete to successfully apply these prop
erties during execution of specific movements, and also the level of development of these
properties, determine the so-called reactive ability of the athlete.
It was noted, that the index of reactive ability of a given athlete increases when this ath
lete uses training exercises that require the emphasis of this ability’s manifestation (for ex
ample, the reactive ability ofjumpers improves when they use jumping exercises). From
this we may deduce that reactive ability may be improved tlu-ough the application of spe
cific exercises, the execution of which requires the maximal manifestation of this ability.
What characteristics should these exercises have?
1.3. Applying the kinetic energy of a falling weight as a factor of
MUSCULAR STIMULATION
From the precedent paragraphs of this book, we may conclude that the collision of the
human body and the falling external load provokes a pre-activation of the muscles and cre
ates additional potential for muscular tension. In addition, while the working limbs are
flexing during the shock absorption phase, the kinetic energy of the falling body (or falling
load) is transforming into a certain potential of elastic strain of the stretched muscles. Dur
ing the subsequent pushing up phase, these two potentials are utilized as supplementary
"force additives," for the concentric action.
As it was discovered in the experiments presented in paragraph 1.1, the working effect
of control movements may be determined by the functional state ofthe muscles prior to the
active strength effort. The higher the level of muscle activation prior to the active strength
effort, the higher the starting acceleration of the load flight.
63
Chapter 1
So, we may say that the kinetic energy of the falling weight may represent a factor of
muscle stimulation.
The magnitude of muscular tension developed during the shock absorption phase will
depend on the magnitude of external force that acts on the body's limb at the instant of im
pact. The magnitude of external force depends on the value of kinetic energy accumulated
by the external load (or by the athlete’s body) during its falling. Therefore, to increase the
magnitude of muscular tension developed during the shock absorption phase, it’s neces
sary to increase the value of kinetic energy accumulated by the falling object (or the ath
lete’s body) during falling.
Kinetic Energy is the mechanical energy that an object has by virtue of its motion.
The value of Kinetic Energy possessed by the moving object depends on its mass and
the speed of its motion; for an object with a mass m and speed v, the kinetic energy is
equal to 1/2 mv^.
Because the velocity of the falling object is determined by the rate of the Earth's regular
gravitational pull (g), its speed at the instant of impact will depend on the height from
which it falls (ft) and will be equal to
Thus, for an object, having a given mass(m)and falling from a given height (h), the ki
netic energy(£)is calculated as:
E = m^h><g^.
This means that to stimulate the muscles to produce a higher working effect of the
movement preformed in shock-reversible regime, we may increase either the weight of the
falling load or the height from which it falls. Which of these components of kinetic energy
has a greater influence on the working effect of the post-impact movement?
To answer this question, the author carried out a series of experiments aimed to clarify
the following issues:
1) How does the working effect of an upper extremity movement, performed in the shock
regime, change with increasing the weight of the falling load and the height from
which it falls?
2) How does the maximal height reached in Depth Jump change by increasing the body’s
weight(with adding load)?
3) How does the maximal height reached in Depth Jump change by increasing the drop
height?
4) How do the other parameters of the Depth Jump change by increasing the drop height?
64
Chapter l
1.3.1.How DOES THE WORKING EFFECT OF AN UPPER EXTREMITY MOVEMENT,
PERFORMED IN THE SHOCK REGIME, CHANGE WITH INCREASING THE
WEIGHT OF THE FALLING LOAD AND THE HEIGHT FROM WHICH IT FALLS?
The participants in this experiment - which was done using the special equipment of
figure 1. 3- executed, for several days, an exercise that consisted of repelling various
weights upward which had fallen from various heights (from 0.50 m to 3.00 m). The loads
were equal to 3.3%, 6.6%, and 13.25% of their maximum strength effort measured in the
lowest position prior to acceleration. Practically, the loads were about 2, 4, 6, and 8kg on
average.
The height of the fall (hi), the flight height (ha), and the “time-distance” curve of the
point of work of the hand during the shock absorbing phase and the push-off, were regis
tered. In figure 1.14, the changes in flight height (h2), depending on the load (P) and start
ing conditions (hi), are shown.
As it was possible to expect, the results of this experiment showed that with increasing
the weight of the falling load, the height of its vertical flight decreases; the lower the
weight of the falling load, the higher the height of its flight.
However, when increasing the height from which loads of the same weight fall (i.e.
with increasing the value of its kinetic energy), the height of the flight (i.e., the working
Fig. 1.13 - How does theflight height of the repulsedfailing object change with increasing the weight of
the object and with increasing the heightfrom which itfalls - Scheme ofthe experiment
65
&
Chapter 1 EH
effect of the push up move
ment) changes not so linear
ly: it begins to increase until
a certain point, after which
this increase reduces and,
subsequently, the height of
flight begins to decrease. So,
to achieve the maximal flight
height after the reversal push
up movement, each weight
should fall from a specific
height.
We would also like to re¬
call your attention to the
“time-distance” curve of the
load
displacement
Fig. 1.14 - Theflying distances (h2) of the ioads of different weights
(Fig. (% of P: max weight), repulsed after their falling from different
1.15).
heights(hi)
Generally, the
minimal
values of coupling time corresponded to the maximal values of the flight.
In figure 1.16, it is shown how the coupling time changes in the various push-off condi
tions (i.e. the load and the fall
height):
a) A moderately light load
(in our case, equal to 3.3%
of maximum strength)
does not considerably in
fluence the coupling time;
b) With increasing the load’s
weight, the coupling time
increases;
c) With increasing the height
from which the same load
falls the coupling time de¬
creases to a certain point
Fig.l.15-Typical “time-distance” curves ofthe point of work oj
the hand in the counter movement push phase ofa heavy load
and then it begins to in1. Shock absorption phase
crease again.
2. Transition phase
3. Push offphase
66
I Chapter 1
Usually,
individuals
with the best parameters
of flight height are charac
terized by a quicker transi
tion from the eccentric re¬
gime to the concentric
one. The extent to which
the potential surplus of
muscular tension in the
eccentric phase is used
depends on the quickness
of such a transition. This
potential is fully realized
when the period between
the eccentric phase and
the active push-off one is
shortest. So, a decrease in
0.04 -0
1
2
^ hi(m)
3
Fig. 1.16 - Changes in the duration of transition phase (the switching
from the eccentric to the concentric action) in the repulsing move
ments with increasing the heightfrom which fall the loads of various
weights(P)
the flight height of the rebounded load, with an increasing weight of this load, is related to
an increased coupling time.
However, it has been also found that the participants of this experiment, who practiced
sports that require an explosive strength effort in the key movement of the competition ex
ercise with overcoming a higher level of external resistance, are able to reach their maxi
mal flight after impact with loads of higher weights. With this, the duration of the amorti
zation phase from the eccentric regime to the concentric one is shorter than for athletes of
other sports. So, we may suppose that the reactive ability of athletes has a specific charac
ter: it is manifested better when the weight of the falling load corresponds to the weight of
the sport device thrown in the specific competition movement.
Summarizing the results of this experiment we may conclude, that:
1) If the weight of a falling load increases, the coupling time will increase as well; on the
other hand, if the height of the fall is increased to an optimal level, the duration of the
amortization phase will decrease.
2) The working effect of the push-off movement (the flight height) will be greater if the
muscular stretching of the shock-absorbing phase is sudden.
67
Chapter l
1.3.2.How DOES THE MAXIMAL HEIGHT REACHED IN DEPTH JUMP CHANGE BY
INCREASING THE BODY’S WEIGHT(WITH ADDING THE LOAD)?
In this experiment, 4 groups of high-level Track & Field athletes jumpers, throwers,
sprinters, and middle-distance runners) executed 6 jump tests without swinging the arms
(see the upper part ofthe figure 1.17):
- Test 1: Counter-movement vertical jump Gump from the standing position with free
flexion of the knees and the hands firmly interlocked behind);
- Test 2: Depth jump from a height of0.40m (hands firmly held behind);
- Test 3: Depth jump from a height of 0.40m, executed with 5kg dumbbells in each
hand;
Fig. 1.17 - Changes in the maximal height(H) reached in the Countermovement Jump (1) and in the
Depth Jumps performed without additional load (2) and those performed with the additional loads oj
various weights (3-6).
68
WM Chapter 1
- Test 4: Depth jump with a 20kg barbell on the shoulders;
- Test 5: Depth jump from a height of 0.40m with a 30kg barbell on the shoulders;
- Test 6: Depth jump from a height of 0.40m with a 40kg barbell on the shoulders.
In each test, the flight time was registered, which helped calculate the height of vertical
displacement for each of the jumps. The mean values of the flight height reached in each
of the tests by all the athletes who participated in experiment were then inserted into a
graph (Fig. 1.17 - double line).
The maximal height in the vertical jump was reached in the Depth jump executed with
out weight. So, adding additional weight decreases the height of the Depth jump.
Therefore, increasing the value of kinetic energy that acts on the lower limbs of a
sportsman during landing after a fall in depth by increasing the weight of the athlete (addi
tional loads), does not guarantee an increase in the level of expression of reactive capacity.
We must admit, however, that the group of athletes who participated in this experiment
was composed of representatives of sports in which the main muscular effort of the com
petitive exercise is performed without overcoming the inertia of any sport device or with
overcoming the inertia of sport devices having not so high of weights, as compared to, for
example. Weightlifting. It's possible to suppose that if weightlifters participated in this ex
periment, they would be able to reach the maximum height of rebound after falling down
with an additional load on the shoulders. Flowever, this deserves further investigation.
For this moment, it will only be possible to analyze the differences between the results
obtained by the jumpers, throwers, sprinters, and middle-distance runners.
In figure 1.17 (the thin lines), we can see the mean values of the flight height reached
by the jumpers, throwers, sprinters, and middle-distance runners and how these values
change with increasing the drop height and the weight of falling athlete’s body. In other
words, these curves show at which level of external resistance each group of athletes is
better able to express their reactive ability during the execution of the reversal movement.
Analyzing these curves, we can get information about the features of reactive ability of the
athletes with different sport specializations: the left part of the graphs will indicate the
speed component while the right part, the strength component of reactive ability.
For example, the thin lines of figure 1.17 show that between the four groups of track
and field athletes who participated in the experiment, the jumpers were characterized by
the highest level of reactive ability. However, with increasing the level of external opposi
tion, the liighest level of reactive ability is expressed by throwers. Considering that jump
ers perform the key movement of their competition exercise without additional weights,
whereas throwers must overcome the opposition related to the inertia of the sport device,
the speed component of reactive ability is prevailing for the jumpers, whereas for the
throwers, the strength component is predominant.
69
Chapter 1
m
The results of sprinters are lower than the results of junipers and throwers, but higher
than those of middle distance runners. In fact, endurance runners express their reactive
ability in the propulsive movement of the running gate in which the level of external oppo
sition to overcome is lower. It was noticed in this experiment, however, that some highlevel sprinters have reached results similar to those of the jumpers. Usually this is a char
acteristic of sprinters who possess a good starting acceleration.
The middle-distance runners were characterized by the lowest level of reactive ability
or even almost the absence of this ability, as was indicated by the lack of difference between the maximum heights of their Countermovement and Depth Jumps. This could be
related to the particularities of their running technique and to the low level of strength pre
paredness of the middle-distance runners who participated in this experiment. In fact, at
that time, the soviet athletes of this sport discipline used very few jumping exercises and
never used exercises with a barbell.
So, this testing procedure, which includes a Countermovement Jump, Depth Jumps, and
4 Depth Jumps performed with a gradually increasing weight of additional load, may be
used for the qualitative examination of reactive ability of a given athlete, as the so named
"reactivity test"(Y. Verkhoshansky, 1963). The results of the "reactivity test" may be suc
cessfully used for the objective evaluation of the training process. They can indicate what
kind of training work may be more needed to improve reactive ability: the jumping or the
barbell exercises.
Now, let's go back to the main topic of this paragraph.
The results of this experiment showed that in the Depth Jump, with increasing the
weight of the athlete, the height of vertical rebound decreases (as was also shown in the
case of the upper body exercise performed in the shock-reversal regime). Will the same
tendency be observed with increasing the dropping height in the Depth Jump as with in
creasing the height from whieh the external load falls on the upper extremity?
1.3.3.
How DOES THE MAXIMAL HEIGHT REACHED IN THE DEPTH JUMP
CHANGE BY INCREASING THE DROP HEIGHT?
In this experiment, a group of 36 athletes, mainly composed of Track and Field athletes
(high level sprinters, hurdlers, jumpers, and throwers), performed a series of 8 Depth
jumps. The drop height was increased 20em in each successive jump from 0.15m to
1.55m. The maximal height reached in each of the jumps was measured (Figure 1.18).
For each of the Depth Jumps, the reactivity index (R), equal to rebound height (hi) di
vided by drop height (h|) was calculated (R = hi/ hi). The results of the experiment show
70
Chapter 1
(Figure 1.18) that with increasing the height of dropping until 75cm, the height of rebound
in the Depth Jump increases (the values of the Reactivity Coefficient increase from 1.18 to
1.55); with further increases in the drop height, the height ofrebound decreases.
Therefore, it is evident that there is an optimal height of dropping that allows the ath
letes to express the highest level of reactive ability, reaching the highest power output in
the push off movement. For the Track & Field jumpers of elevated qualification who par
ticipated in this experiment, this dropping height corresponds to 0.75m. However, as it was
observed in the experiments in which athletes of other sport disciplines participated, the
optimal height of dropping may be less.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
I
L.
/V
■- 'll
T^ t
i
^ V,
>.
Lf ffj.f
'■
15 cm +18% 35 cm +37% 55 cm +50% 75 cm +55% 95 cm +50% 115 cm +45% 135 cm +43% 155 cm +20%
Fig. 1.18 - How does the maximal height reached in a Depth jump change by increasing the drop height?
(Scheme of the experiment)
Now we can speak about the other parameters that were evaluated in this experiment.
1.3.4.
How DO THE OTHER PARAMETERS OF THE DEPTH JUMP CHANGE BY IN
CREASING THE DROP HEIGHT?
Depth Jumps were performed with landing on a dynamometric springboard which rec
orded the Force-Time curve - F(t) of the Ground Reaction Force during the ground contact
phase. This F(t) curve allowed for the calculation of the peak (Fmax) and average value of
the force (F^) developed during the push-off, the power output of the work (N), and the
support period duration (t), which indicated the muscles capacity to quickly pass from
stretching to contraction under conditions of high external resistance.
Figure 1.19 shows that the Depth Jumps performed with a drop height that allowed ath
letes to reach the highest height of rebound was also characterized by the highest value of
power expressed in the push off movement (N) and by the shortest ground contact time.
However, the highest value of maximum Force (Fmax) was reached with Depth Jumps
ranging from 0.95m to 1.15m (circa 1.10m).
71
Chapter 1 i
When increasing the drop height over 0.75m, the dynamic condition of the strength ef
fort expression and the dynamic parameters of the push-off movement notably change:
1) The time of support increases because of the longer duration of the transition from the
eccentric to the concentric action; it was noted also that the level of bending in the legs
increases.
2) The maximum value of peak force in the force "burst" is sharply increased, reaching
the maximal level when the drop height corresponds to 110-115cm.
With increasing the drop height over 115cm, the maximum value of peak force decreases. as does the ground contact time. The whole movement of the Depth Jump appears as
two different exercises, performed subsequently: the drop landing and the vertical jump.
Fig. 1.19. - Change in the main parameters of the push off movement ofDepth jump with increasing the
drop height
1.3.5. Conclusions
1. How DOES THE WORKING EFFECT OF AN UPPER EXTREMITY MOVEMENT,PERFORMED
IN THE SHOCK REGIME,CHANGE WITH INCREASING THE WEIGHT OF THE FALLING LOAD
AND THE HEIGHT FROM WHICH IT FALLS?
The working effect of the push-off movement (the flight height) will be greater if the
muscular stretching of the shock-absorbing phase is sudden. If the weight of the falling
load increases, the coupling time will increase as well; on the other hand, if the height of
72
Chapter 1
the fall is increased to an optimal level, the duration of the amortization phase will de
crease.
2.
How DOES THE MAXIMAL HEIGHT REACHED IN THE DEPTH JUMP CHANGE BY IN
CREASING THE BODY’S WEIGHT(WHEN ADDING LOAD)?
The maximal height in the vertical jump was reached in the Depth jump executed with
out weight; Adding additional weight to the body decreases the height ofthe Depth jump.
3.
How DOES THE MAXIMAL HEIGHT REACHED IN THE DEPTH JUMP CHANGE BY IN
CREASING THE DROP HEIGHT?
With increasing the height of dropping up to 75cm, the height of rebound in the Depth
Jump increases (the values of the Reactivity Coefficient increase from 1.18 to 1.55); with
further increases in the drop height, the height of rebound decreases. Therefore, it is evi
dent that there is an optimal height of dropping that allows athletes to express the highest
level of reactive ability, reaching the highest power output in the push off movement.
4. How DO THE OTHER PARAMETERS OF THE DEPTH JUMP CHANGE BY INCREASING THE
DROP HEIGHT?
Depth Jumps performed with a drop height that allowed athletes to reach the highest
height of rebound were also characterized by the highest value of power expressed in the
push off movement and by the shortest ground contact time. However, the highest value of
maximum force (pMax) was reached with Depth Jumps ranging from 0.95 m to 1.15 m (cir
ca 1.10 m).
When increasing the drop height over 0.75 m,the dynamic condition of the strength ef
fort expression and the dynamic parameters of the push-off movement notably change:
- The time of support increases because of the longer duration of the transition from
the eccentric to the concentric action; it was noted also that the level of bending in
the legs increases.
- The maximum value of peak force in the force "burst" is sharply increased, reaching
the maximal level when the drop height corresponds to 110-115 cm.
With increasing the drop height over 115 cm, the maximum value of peak force de
creases, as does the ground contact time. The whole movement of the Depth Jump appears
as two different exercises performed subsequently: the drop landing and the vertical jump.
73
Chapter 1
1.4. Training effects of the exercises performed in the shock re
gime.
1.4.1.How DOES THE WORKING EFFECT OF A SHOCK-REPELLING MOVEMENT OF
THE UPPER EXTREMITY CHANGE IF THIS MOVEMENT IS APPLIED AS A
TRAINING EXERCISE?
Using the equipment of figure
1.3, a group of athletes executed a
particular
exercise
during
their
training for four weeks; this exer
cise consisted of pushing with a
hand, a load of various weights (28kg) after it fell from different
heights (from 0.50 to 2.00m). This
training was held two times a
week. During a training session, 30
push-off movements were per^
^ ,., , ,
_
1
Fig. 1.20-Connection between the load(weight of6 kg)flight
formed, totaling about 240 push-off
^^2) after itsfallfrom different heights (hj); a - before
movements during the 4-week pe- the mining; b - after the training
riod.
To evaluate the effectiveness of the training, at the beginning and the end of the training
stage, the following parameters were recorded during the execution of control movements:
- hi - the flight height of the load (6kg) after falling from various heights (from 0.5 to
3m);
-
Sy - the “time-distance” curve of
the work point ofthe hand.
In figures 1.20 and 1.21 the typical
results achieved by one of the subjects
in the experiment are shown:
- The flight height increases; the
maximal value of the flight height
is achieved when the fall height is
higher (figure 1.20, curve a)
- The shock absorbing trajectory
Fig. 1.21 - “Distance-time” curve of a 6 kg load in the
(path) and the time period to stop counter movement push phase after afallfrom the height
the load decrease; the transition hjof2 m. “a”-before mining; “b”-ofter mining
74
Chapter 1
from the eccentric to the concentric action takes place more quickly; the total time of
the push-off decreases (figure 1.21, curve b).
Finally, the results of this experiment have confirmed that after specific training, the
neuromuscular system responds positively and proportionally to the intensity of a mechan
ical stimulus (the height from which the loads falls). In other words, the external force,
which previously caused a decrease in the working effect of the pushing movement, be
came the stimulus assuring its increase. Therefore, this adaptation results in a greater mag
nitude of explosive strength effort and a quicker transition from the eccentric to the concentric muscular action.
By analyzing all tested parameters, some individual peculiarities related to the individu
als’ motor capacity expression become evident. These individual differences exist:
1) In the highest load flight being reached using different fall heights;
2) In the duration ofthe transition phase.
Usually, the individuals with the best parameters of flight height are characterized by a
quicker transition from the eccentric regime to the concentric one (figure 1.22). The extent
Fig. 1.22 - Examples of the “distance-time Sy(t)” and “force-time F(t)” curves during counter move
ment push of a 6 kg ioad after itsfalifrom the height of 1.00m, in a trained athlete (A) and in a notrained athlete(B)
75
Chapter l i
to which the potential surplus of muscular tension in the eccentric phase is used depends
on the quickness of such a transition. This potential is fully realized when the time be
tween the eccentric phase and the active push-off is shortest.
It has been found that these differences depend, above all, on the athletes’ specific sport
activity. In those who do sports which require an explosive strength effort, the maximal
flight height moves toward the right on the x-axis (see figure 1.22) and the duration of the
transition phase from the eccentric regime to the concentric one is shorter than for athletes
of other sports.
1.4.2. Comparison between the training effects of Depth Jumps and
OTHER JUMPING EXERCISES
In order to compare the effectiveness of applying Depth Jumps with the effectiveness of
other jumping exercises for the improvement of reactive ability, the following experiment
was organized. Three groups of athletes were trained for six weeks (21 training units) us
ing different training programs;
1) The athletes in group A performed only various traditional jump exercises (for a total
of 463-foot contacts).
2) The athletes in group B performed Barbell Squats with a heavy load and Barbell Squat
jumps with a load equal to 30% and to 70% of maximum strength (for a total of 400
repetitions).
3) The athletes in group C performed only Depth Jumps with drop heights of 0.60m and
1.00m (for a total of 226-foot contacts repetitions).
Before and after the training stage, each of athletes performed the control tests: 7 Depth
Jumps with heights ranging from 0.20m up to 1.40m, in steps of 20cm.
Depth Jumps were performed with the landing on a dynamometric springboard which
recorded the Force-Time curve - F(t) of the Ground Reaction Force during the ground con
tact phase. This F(t) curve indicated the peak (FMax) and allowed for the calculation of an
average value of force (Fm) developed during the push-off as well as the support period du
ration (t). Following this, the impulse of force applied in the push off movement was cal
culated as the product of average force and the time it was exerted:
Impulse = Fm^
=
Av
The increase in the value of force impulse applied in the push up movement of the con
trol Depth Jumps obtained at the end of this experiment by each of group are presented in
figure 1.23.
We can see that group C obtained the highest increase in force impulse in the active
76
push-off phase of all Depth Jumps, although the volume of training was lower than in
groups A and B.
It s interesting to note that the highest increase in the force impulse in group C corre
sponded to a height of fall in the drop equal to 0.40 - 0.60 m.
Subsequent research and observations carried out during the training process have confirmed that the results of this experiment objectively mirror the differences in the training
effect between traditional jump exercises, barbell exercises, and the Depth jump.
Group C
Trained using Depth Jumps with
rebound from heights of 0.60 m
and 1.00 m (226 foot contacts
repetitions)
Ft(Kgs)
4.0 r
n
Group B
Trained using barbell exercises:
Barbell Squat(1.5RM)and
Barbell Squatjumpswith the
weight of30% and to 70% of
maximum (400 repetitions)
Group A
Trained using variousjump
exercises without weights
(463 foot contacts)
2.0 -1.0 --
1^
*
0.2
0.6
1.0
+ h(m)
1.4
Fig. 1.23 - Trend oftheforce impulse applied in the active push phase ofDepth Jump (Ft) on the change
ofthe heightfall in the drop (h).
Now we would like to concentrate your attention on one important fact related to the in
fluence ofthe Shock Method on the strength abilities of athletes.
1.4.3.The strength capabilities of athletes and the results of intro
ducing Depth Jumps into the strength training program
The Strength Capabilities of athletes
In a general sense, the strength ability of man may be defined as the ability to overcome
external opposition (or to resist it) via the mechanical force developed by muscles. So, it is
manifested as the magnitude of muscular effort applied in a certain voluntary motor action.
Since such a muscular effort may be applied in many forms of muscular activity, there
is often talk not about strength ability, but about strength abilities, related to the various
77
Chapter 1 El
forms offeree efforts and to the various regimes of museular work sueh as, for example,in
the static (isometric) or dynamic (miometric or concentric, pliometric or eccentric) re
gimes.
Notwithstanding, we should consider the ample variations of strength abilities that are
provided, in every case, by the global reaction of our body as whole, which includes the
mobilization of not only our physical but also our psychological resources. Within the
physiological factors that determine the eontractile foree of museles, we may outline at
least two main groups, usually named in popular speech as central and peripheral factors.
The first group includes the mechanisms of neural regulation of muscular activity, the se
cond - the actual characteristics of the functional state of the muscles (in essence, the fea
tures of muscle’s tissue), which determine their contraetile, oxidative, and elastie proper
ties.
In the eonditions of sport activity, muscular force represents the dynamic component of
every rapid movement and may have various qualitative charaeteristics that depend on the
speed and the duration of the movement and on the magnitude of external opposition.
However, the athlete’s sport result usually depends on his capacity to apply the maximal
power output in the so-named key movements of the competition exercise. In most of
sports, these movements are executed in the overcoming (miometric or concentric) regime
and their power output is determined by the value of maximal force effort and the speed of
its development.
To evaluate the strength ability of athletes, usually special dynamometric devises are
used, which allow one to meas
ure the characteristics of max
imal force effort in the most
typical sport key-movements.
In the 1970-80’s, long-term
research was carried out in the
Sport Research Laboratories of
the Moscow Institute of Physi
cal Culture. This research
strived to discover what deter
mines the athlete’s capability to
apply the maximal amount of
force m a rmnimal time when
he performs the most common
key-movement
78
of
most
of
dynamographic (lab) equipment (Y.
7 - rail
2-feet support and mobile cart.
3- dynamometer (strain gauge).
4 - barbell discs.
Chapter 1
competition exercises: the antigravity Leg Press (see Fig. 1.24). The 340 athletes of vari
ous sports that partieipated in this research performed two tests:
1) maximal volitional force effort in the isometric regime executed without the limits of
time and
2) maximal explosive force efforts, executed in various regimes, trying to achieve the
maximal value of force in a minimal time.
In every testing procedure, the values of mechanical force applied to the dynamometer
(strain gauge) were evaluated along with the dynamic of its development.
The results of this research showed that the athlete’s capability to perform specific
movements with maximal force output in a minimal amount of time is determined by sev
eral, relatively independent, characteristics of the neuro-muscular system:
-
The greatest magnitude ofthe voluntary force effort that the athlete can display when
he has unlimited time to do it(Pq in Fig. 1.25); Maximal Strength (Pq).
The athlete’s capability to achieve the maximum force effort (FMax on Fig. 1.25) in
the shortest amount of time (Twax): J = Fwax/TMax; Explosive Strength (J).
-
The athlete’s capability to produce a rapid increase in force effort at the beginning of
muscular tension. This is measured by the tangent (tga) to the curve F(t) at the start
ing point of the force effort; Starting Strength (Q).
- The athlete’s ability to rapidly achieve the maximal value of force effort (FMax) start
ing from the moment in which the external resistance is overcome (development of
the force effort in the dynamic regime). This is measured by the tangent (tgUo) to the
curve F(t); Accelerating Strength (G).
These characteristics interact in an
orderly manner to accomplish a com
mon motor task. At the same time, they
keep their individuality and readiness to
enter into any functional combination
that may be required under the changing
conditions of the performed activity. In
generating the explosive force, they may
not have equal relevance. Depending on
the requirements of accomplishing a
given motor task, one or another as
sumes the primary role and therefore
contains the primary potential for the Fig. 1.25 - The biomechanical characteristics of the
improvement of the final result. For this force-time curve ofexplosive effort
79
Chapter l
reason, these characteristics of the neuro-muscular system, as the elementary forms of
strength ability, may be defined as the basic strength capabilities.
The subsequent research carried out in the Sport Research Laboratories of Moscow was
finalized to evaluate the relevance of the strength capabilities for obtaining high sport re
sults in various sport disciplines. In this way, it was discovered that the most important
role of three basic strength capabilities is for achieving a high speed of body displacements
on earth in most of sport competition exercises; these are: Maximal, Explosive, and Start
ing Strength. The higher the level of external opposition in a specific movement, the higher the role of Maximal Strength. For example. Maximal Strength is important for assuring
a high speed of starting acceleration when the athlete must overcome a high inertial force.
But for assuring a high speed of running in the 100m distance, Starting Strength is more
important.
Important practical information followed from the observation of the dynamics of these
parameters in comparison to the dynamics of various training loads carried out by athletes
during the same period of time. In this way, it was shown that each of the basic strength
capabilities may be improved using a determined exercise or the combination of several
exercises carried out in the appropriate regime, i.e., with an appropriate level of external
opposition, an appropriate ratio between the magnitude of force effort and the rate of force
development, and in an appropriate regime of muscular contraction. These combinations of
different training exercises may be carried out in the same or in subsequent training ses
sions and even in subsequent training stages.
How DOES THE USE OF DEPTH JUMPS IN A TRAINING PROGRAM INFLUENCE THE STRENGTH
Capabilities of athletes?
Two groups of Weightlifters were trained for 3 weeks using different programs (see Fig.
1.26).
Group B used a high volume of Barbell Squats (in total, 1141 in 929 lifts) and auxiliary
jumping exercises (in total, 300-foot contacts).
Group A used a reduced volume of barbell Squats (in total, 90 t in 786 lifts) and Depth
Jumps from drop heights of 50 and 70cm; 3 times a week, 9 workouts (in total, 310-foot
contacts). Every week, their levels of maximum and explosive strength were evaluated us
ing the Eeg Press with the UDS stand.
At the end of the training stage, the level of Maximum Strength of Group A, which used
Depth Jumps, had increased by 20% and the level of Explosive Strength increased by 59%.
In group B, Maximum Strength increased by 8% and the level of Explosive Strength, by
20%.
80
Chapter 1
. i'
Training
Test
Final
Results
INCREASE
Group A
gQ
%Explosive Strength
+59%
^1 GROUPA
Barbell Squats;
total,786 lifts (90 t)
LEG PRESS
Depth Jumps from the
drop heights of50 and
70 cm:3 times a
week,9 workouts;
<1,
20 I
total,310 foot contacts * ■'2^
repetitions
Group B
Barbell Squats;
total, 929 lifts (1141).
40 -
c
Every week, the
levels of
maximum and
explosive strengh
were evaluated
usingtheLeg
Press with the
UDS stand
0
+5%
I
I
2
GROUPB
3 Weeks
+20%
groupa
20
% Maximum Strength
10 ■
+8%
Auxiliary jumping
exercises; total,300
foot contacts
GROUPB
0
1
2
3 Weeks
Fig. 1.26 - Increase of Maximal and Explosive Strength in the experimental (A) and the control (B)
groups of weightlifters
So, the experiment showed that in weight training programs, the use of Depth Jumps,
instead of ordinary jumping exercises, allows to obtain a higher increase in Maximmu and
Explosive Strength of the leg extension muscles, with a reduced volume of barbell exercis¬
es.
1.4.4. In what way does the use of Depth Jumps in the training program
INFLUENCE THE STRENGTH ABILITIES OF ATHLETES?
Two groups of 13 volleyball players were trained for 12 weeks using the same program
of specific technical preparation but different training programs of physical preparation.
Group A carried out Depth Jumps from the heights of 50-70cm; 3-5 sets of 10 jumps, 3
times a week for the first 4 weeks. Group B carried out various jump exercises: 3 times a
week for 12 weeks. Every week, their levels of maximum and explosive strength were
81
Chapter 1
evaluated using the Leg Press with the UDS stand; the maximal isometric force effort and
the maximal dynamic force effort with the level of external opposition equal to the ath
lete’s body weight.
Before and after the training stage, during the UDS tests, the electrical activity of the
quadriceps femoris was registered. The electromyograms were analyzed using the methods
of R.S. Person (“Applying electromyography in the research on man”, 1969), which al
lowed for evaluation of the level of motor unit recruitment, their firing rate, and the level
of motor unit synchronization.
The results of this experiment, presented in figure 1.27, show the percentage increase in
the level of motor unit recruitment, synchronization, and firing rate and in the levels of
Maximum and Explosive Strength attained by the athletes of group A and group B.
30%
Both GROUPS;
Trained for 12 weeks using tlie
same program of specific
technical preparation but different
training programs of physical
preparation
26%
O A - Experimental group
□ B- Control Group
Electromyography
20% ■
14%
10%
Group A
Carried out Depth
Jumps from the
heights of 50-70cm:
3-5 sets of 10 jumps,
3 times a week for
the first 4 weeks.
Results
Test
Training
5%
5%
4
0%
Every week, the
levels of maximum
and explosive straigh
were evaluated using
the Leg Press with tiie
UDS stand
EL
Group B
Explosive Strength - J
40%
Maximal Strength - Po
34%
30% ■
20% ■
Before and afta-the
training stage, during
the UDS tests, tlie
electrical activity of
tlie quadriceps
femoris was
registered.
Carried out various
jump exercises:
3 times a week for
12 weeks
,»- ■
f
i-t.:
10%
5%
6%
5%
0%
Level of motor unites
Level of motor unites
recruitment andtheirfiring synchonization- middle lengh
of EMG amplitude
rate - EMG dispo-sion
Fig. 1.27 - Increase in the level of motor unit recruitment, synchronization andfiring rate and in the levei
of Maximum and Explosive Strength, attained by the athletes of group A and group B
82
Mil
Chapter 1
The data of the experiment bring us to two conclusions on the effect of Depth Jumps:
1. Depth Jumps allow athletes to obtain a higher increase in maximum and explosive
strength of the leg extension muscles in comparison with ordinary jumping exercises.
2. Depth Jump allows athletes to obtain an increase in their maximum and explosive
strength thanks to the improvement in the neural factors that determine the strength
abilities. So, the Depth Jump may be used as a valid alternative to the Barbell Squat car
ried out according to the Maximal Effort Method.
1.4.5.How DOES THE REPETITIVE PERFORMANCE OF DEPTH JUMPS INFLUENCE
THE EXPLOSIVE ABILITY OF THE ATHLETE?
Studying the effects of the depth jump on the neuromuscular system and on the func
tional state of the athlete, it has been noticed that after a certain number of reps there is a
tendency to increase the duration of the phase of support, as well as a lowering of the peak
force and the quickness of the transition from stretching to contraction. For this reason, is
not appropriate to perform more than 10 depth jumps in a set. But the problem of how
many sets can be performed in a training unit still remains.
To answer to the above question, several experiments have been conducted where the
same athletes of high qualification used a different number of sets (from 1 to 5). Before
every training session, with the equipment of figure 1.24, the ability to express an explo
sive strength effort in extension of the inferior limbs was recorded. The explosive effort
was again recorded during the execution of a depth jump every 5 minutes for a period of
30 minutes.
In the experiment, the following tendencies were found (figure 1.28):
1) Immediately after the execution of depth jumps, the ability to express explosive
strength decreases in comparison to the initial level. This lowering increase according
to the number of sets.
2) Normally, at the fifth minute of the rest interval, the ability to express an explosive ef
fort begins to restore, then it overcomes the initial level and reaches, at the tenth mi
nute, its maximum value then it begins to decrease. However, at the thirtieth minute its
value still overcomes the initial level.
3) Increasing the number of the sets from 1 to 4, the explosive strength value shows a
tendency to increase as well.
4) Usually, by the fifth set, this tendency stops. The dynamics of explosive strength are
very peculiar, and it can appear as represented in figure 1.28 (dashed line). In this case
the increase in explosive strength is smaller and manifests itself not at 5 - 10 minutes,
but much later.
83
CHAPTER 1
Result
Test
Training
High level athletes carried out
different number of sets
Explosive
Strength
increase
1
1 set of Depth Jumps
from the heights of
75 cm
f r-
tk
2
2 sets of Depth
Jumps from the
heights of 75 cm
3
'1 n
3 set of Depth Jumps
from the heights of
75 cm
4
4 sets of Depth
Jumps from the
heights of 75 cm
3 f
4 sets
Before every training
session,the ability to
express theexplosive
strengtli effort in
extension ofthe inferior
limbs was evaluated
using the Leg Press wffli
the UDS stand
3 sets
2 sets
110 -
1 set
"*5 sets
V
100
t,
/
5
10
15
20
25
30
mm
7
1
a
5(Dashed line)
5 sets of Depth
Jumps from tlie
heights of 75 cm
j%
120
The explosive effort was
again recorded during
the execution ofa depth
jump every 5 minutes
foraperiodof30
minutes(on tliegraph
the%of hicreasing
compared to tlie
previous values).
90
Time Zero = End of last
set of Depth Jump
a
Fig. 1.28 - Trends ofthe expression ofthe immediate training effect ofone (1), two (2), three (3),four (4)
andfive(dashed line) sets ofDepth Jumps
1.5. Formulating THE Shock Method
From the end of the 1950’s until the end of the 1980’s, the impact-reversal regime, in
which an abrupt stretching of the tensed muscles provoked by the body’s impact with ex
ternal opposition precedes a maximal force effort in the overcoming regime, was the object
of specific studies of the author (Y. Verkhoshansky, 1959, 1963, 1968, 1988). These stud
ies allowed us to suppose that the impact-reversal regime of muscular work could be ap
plied in specially organized exercises for the forced stimulation of muscular tension. The
method of applying these exercises in training process was termed the Shock Method
(1968)
76
Y. Verkhoshansky. The “shock” method of the developing “explosive” strength (“Udarniy” metod
resvitiya “vsrivnoy” sili). Theory and Practice of Physical Culture, n 8, 1968. The Russian word “udarniy99
may be used in two cases: the first - in the literal sense, which corresponds to the English word “percussive
or related to the mechanical impact, and in the figurative sense, as something that produces a very effective
results (as, for example, in English, the work of“shock brigade”) or something marvelous, striking that pro-
84
I Chapter 1
*■ .i. '
1.5.1. The essence of Shock Method
The essence of the Shock Method consists of using the stimulation of the contractile
ability of muscles to ensure manifestation of a supramaximal level of the athlete’s explo
sive strength in the specific sports movement. The stimulation of the contractile ability of
muscles is achieved by provoking a sharp, forced increase in their tension under the influ
ence of an external force appearing during a sudden collision between the athlete's body
(his working limbs) and the external object.
During such a collision, the falling body (or the falling external object), which has accumulated kinetic energy, acts on the working limbs as the external force, which has a very
high rate of increasing magnitude. This external force provokes the flexing of the working
limbs with a rapid lengthening (stretching) of the muscles and, consequently, a rapid in
crease in their tension. Such a rapid, forced increase in muscular tension assures an in
crease in contractile ability due the stimulation of the neuro-muscular mechanisms that
regulate the level of muscle activation. As a result, these muscles are able to produce a
high level of force in the volitional effort, applied in specific sport movement, immediately
following the above-mentioned collision.
In addition, a rapid lengthening (stretching) of the activated muscles, during the shock
absorption phase, increases the elastic potential of the muscular tension. In the conditions
of a fast switch of the muscles from the shock absorption (eccentric) to the (concentric)
work phase, this surplus of muscular tension is used during the subsequent active muscular
contraction to promote, in turn, a more powerful muscular contraction.
Apparently, the shock method involves a special protective function of the human body;
a true gift of nature, which helps us to survive in extreme situations and with difficult con
ditions of interaction with the environment. As every protective function of the human
body, it allows us to mobilize any innate mechanisms designed by nature to be available
for extreme situations and to force the central nervous and physiological systems to exceed
their ordinary boundaries. The creation of such conditions in a training exercise allows us
to obtain a potent training stimulus for the forced intensification of the work of the neuro
muscular system.
The application of this form of muscular work in sport training practice represents an
important tool for the improvement of the ability to develop a high level of force in a very
short period of time. These conditions force the neuro-muscular system to go beyond its
duces the emotional shock. In the title of his article, Verkhoshansky putted this word in quotes to underline
its figurative sense, to define the super-powerful training method. As a result, the correct translation of the
Verkhoshansky’s method in English is the Shock Method.
85
Chapter 1
normal resources. Apparently, under these conditions, the body mobilizes any innate
mechanisms designed by nature to be available for these and even more complex, extreme
situations.
1.5.2.The training effect of Shock Method
The shock method allows an athlete to improve their reactive ability based on the spe
cific ability of the muscle to apply an elevated strength effort immediately after an abrupt
(shock) muscular stretch, developed during the stopping of a training tool or the body of
the athlete when falling from a certain height. This occurs in a condition of quick transi
tion from the eccentric to the concentric action. At the same time, the shock method allows
an athlete to improve their maximal and explosive strength expressed in specific move
ments.
Training practice has shown that the Shock Method may be successfully used in the ex
plosive strength training of athletes of many sports for increasing the working effect of
ballistic movements and also for those performed in the non-reversal regime (as for exam
ple, in Ski Jumping). The results of later studies have highlighted that the training effect of
this method is related to its positive influence on the effectiveness of the central regulation
of muscular work: on the level of motor unit recruitment, firing rate, and motor unit synclironization. So, the Shock Method may be considered one of the most effective methods
for the development of strength abilities of athletes.
Thus, the shock method is a non-conventional method of stimulating the work of mus
cles during special strength training. Its peculiarity consists of using an external stimulus,
not from a weight, but from the kinetic energy accumulated by the athlete’s body (or an
external object), during its falling from a specific, strictly proscribed, height.
When free weights are employed, the magnitude of the working muscles’ tension is a
function of primarily volitional effort: the degree of mobilization of the museles depends,
above all, on will power. However, in the shock method, the activation of the working
muscles and the mobilization of the muscular activity have a forced character. The exter
nal factor free weights only assist the force produced by the muscles; on the other hand,
with the shock regime, the external factor (kinetic energy), forces the body to mobilize in
nate motor resources. In the shock absorption phase, the motor apparatus and the nervous
system are forced to react to the external force, which provokes an elevated level of con
traction of the muscles that can never be achieved with a mere voluntary effort.
At the same time, the kinetic energy produced by the fall of a training tool or the ath
lete’s body, which ensures an intense stimulation of muscular activity, does not decrease
86
Chapter 1
the speed of the muscular contraction nor that of the transition from the eccentric to the
concentric action (as it happens in the execution of resistance exercises) rather, it creates
the conditions to increase it.
1.5.3.The main conditions for obtaining the training effects of the
Shock Method
The positive effect of the muscular stimulation produced by the absorption of the kinet
ic energy of the fall of a training tool or the body of the athlete can be used only under cer
tain conditions (optimal height of the fall and accentuation of the movements of the athlete
in the rapid upward push).
Practically, the entity of the kinetic energy that is used for the stimulation of muscular
activity is subject to variations that are determined both by the weight of falling body or
device and by the height from which it falls.
The increase in kinetic energy, due to the increase of load, leads to an increase in the
strength effort. However, it decreases the speed of transition from the eccentric to concen
tric action and the speed of the muscular contraction in the push phase.
On the contrary, the increase in kinetic energy due to an increase in the fall height (up
to an optimal level) leads to an increase in the strength effort and, simultaneously, an in
crease in the speed of transition from the eccentric to concentric action as well as the speed
ofthe muscular contraction in the push phase.
Thus, if the aim of training is to increase the speed of muscular contraction and the re
active ability of the neuromuscular system, it is evident that it is certainly not advanta
geous to increase the kinetic energy by increasing the weight of the tool. In this case, it is
opportune to choose the second road and to increase the kinetic energy through an increase
in the height ofthe fall.
However, we must remember that the positive effects of this method are achieved only
using a specific fall height. If this is overcome, we get a paradoxical effect.
Multiyear studies on the training effects of the shock method performed both in the la
boratory and in the field allows us to make the following considerations:
1) The shock method not only guarantees an effective expression of the muscular and re
active ability of the athlete, but it also greatly increases the magnitude of the maximum
voluntary tension of the muscles. Therefore, in choosing the form of application of the
shock method, it is appropriate to diversify the height ofthe fall according to the objec
tive of training.
2) For the expression of explosive strength and reactive ability of the muscles, it is neces87
Chapter 1 iS
sary to use a height that allows an athlete to achieve the maximum speed in the transi
tion from the eccentric to the concentric action. On the other hand, for the expression
of maximum strength, the height of fall must be 40-45% higher.
1.5.4.Shock Method as means to intensify the training
We want to remember that the main objective of special physical preparation consists of
the intensification of the motor regime of the human organism in order to develop the
functional abilities specific to the sport(Y. Verkhoshansky, 1961, 1977). This intensifica
tion must guarantee a stimulus to the neuromuscular system of the athlete such as to reach,
in training, a strength effort that is equal to or even surpasses, in intensity and qualitative
characteristics, that expressed under competitive conditions.
Let's see now what we mean by “stimulus to the neuromuscular system.”
We know that the force developed by the muscles is mainly a result of will power.
Nevertheless, the tension developed by will power in everyday activities is rather lim
ited. For this reason, in order to increase muscular strength, we need to stimulate the mus
cle from an external source, for instance, thru a mechanical stimulus. The afferent impuls
es thus produced send a signal regarding the degree of muscular tension to the CNS.
Wlien the external resistance is very elevated (for instance, a heavy load is moved), the
central nervous system increases the intensity of the impulses sent from the central motor
zone, which, in turn, increases the power of the muscular contraction.
Usually, the intensity of the impulses from the central motor zone to the motoneurons
of the activated muscles (and, therefore the external muscular work) is as high as the ex
ternal resistance (that is, the totality of the external stimulus).
Therefore, in the neuromuscular mechanism involved in the movement, the afferent
signaling is very important, both regarding the intensity and the quality of the expressed
strength.
Simultaneously, the systematic intensification of the muscular tension (and, therefore,
the constant increase of the afferent stimuli) produced by a regular training exercise is a
factor that stimulates the ability of the central nervous system to send forth nervous stimuli
to the muscles; this is a fundamental condition for the expression of the muscular strength.
In sport training, different methods are used to intensify the regime of neuromuscular
work with the purpose of increasing its functional abilities. The most common method is
the utilization of resistance exercises.
However, although we do not want to criticize the utilization of resistance exercises for
the expression of maximal strength, their employment for the expression of explosive
strength and movement speed is not considered correct by all coaches. In such cases, the
88
] Chapter 1
main issues lie in the fact that resistance exercises do not guarantee, to the necessary extent, the improvement of the specific components of the explosive effort, that is, of the
speed of movement,of the rapidity of transition from the state of muscular rest to muscular
activity, and of the rapid transition from the eccentric to the concentric action (that is, from
stretching to contraction).
The improvement of these components of the explosive effort calls for a specific regime
of training, which cannot be realized by ordinary, slow resistance exercise with a heavy
load. On the other hand, if a reduction of the load can prevent the described drawbacks, as
suring the increase in speed of movement, as a result we will have, however, a reduction in
the dynamic strength effort.
So, we create a vicious cycle, which is always difficult to break.
The results of our experiments, as well as sport practice, have allowed us to get out of
this vicious cycle. The solution consists of the use of the shock method, an original meth
od, completely different from the traditional methods of muscular tension stimulation. In
this method, the external mechanical stimulus for muscular activity is not so much the load
and its inertia, rather the kinetic energy accumulated by a training tool or the body of the
athlete during a free fall from a certain height.
An abrupt (shock) stretch of the muscles during the stopping of the falling tool (or
body) represents a stimulus that increases the speed of the following muscular contraction
and decreases the duration of the transition phase from the eccentric to the concentric ac
tion.
The dynamics of muscular work in different types of jumps performed with maximal
effort (figures 1.4-1.5) stress the advantages of the shock method for the stimulation of
muscular tension due to kinetic energy:
1) The shock method guarantees a very rapid expression of the maximum dynamic effort;
2) The value of the maximum dynamic effort is greater in comparison to the other three
types of work;
3) It is important to stress that this great value of the maximum dynamic effort is reached
without using any additional load;
4) The transition from the eccentric to the concentric action is quicker than in the other
cases;
5) The considerable potential of muscular tension, accumulated in the shock absorption
phase, and the lack of an additional load, guarantee a great muscular work in the push
phase and a greater speed of muscular contraction, which is expressed in a greater
flight height after the push-off(figure 1.6).
89
Chapter 1 1
The results of electromyography performed during the experiments that we have just
described show that the shock regime of muscular work guarantees a great effectiveness of
the central regulation of the explosive expression of the strength effort. Such expression is
due to the recruitment of a great number of motor units, to their most rapid mobilization,
and to the most elevated frequency of their impulses as well as the most effective synchro
nization of the motor neurons at the moment of transition to the concentric action.
Therefore, the stimulation of muscular tension through the absorption of the energy ac
cumulated by the fall of a tool or the body of the athlete, can guarantee an elevated value
of force that is not possible to achieve using other methods of mechanical stimulation,
without using a load or without lowering of the speed of muscular contraction. In addition,
the speed of muscular contraction increases in comparison to normal conditions. It is not
difficult to see here a real possibility to solve the contradiction between external resistance
and speed of movement.
1.5.5.Placing Shock Method in the training plan
Training practice and research results show that the Shock method produces a very
powerful training effect but that the incorrect utilization of this method can produce nega
tive results: it can do harm if you apply it unwisely. Remember that an experienced coach
should always know what kind oftraining method he proposes to his athletes andforesee
the results he wants to get.
The shock method has an extremely intense training effect, higher in comparison to
other methods of natural stimulation of muscular activity. For this reason, errors (excesses)
are not admitted for its optimal dosing and the duration of its utilization in the training
process must not be brought over a certain limit. Before using the shock method, prelimi
nary preparation of the muscles, joints, ligaments, and tendons through resistance and
jump exercises is necessary.
The shock method quickly brings an increase in the ability to express explosive efforts
of strength. However, in this case, the duration of such an adaptation is short. For this rea
son, such a method must be used in combination with other methods.
In other terms, it is part of a system of special physical preparation in which the training
means of the shock method must primarily guarantee a training effect on the central nerv
ous system while the resistance exercises of different loads must guarantee the muscular
hypertrophy necessary for the specific sport.
It helps to keep in mind that a stable, higher level of the athlete’s strength capacity is
possible only if the improvement of muscular function is based on appropriate morpholog
ical transformations of the muscular structure.
90
Chapter l
It is important to stress that the possibilities of the shock method must not be overesti
mated; that it is one among other methods of intensification of the muscular work regime
and that it cannot replace other methods, among which it must occupy one determined po
sition (usually, conclusive) within the system of special strength training. Its position in the
training system is defined by considering the specificities of a sport, the main and partial
objectives of the training process, the level of preparation of the athlete, and the competi
tive calendar.
The rational use of the shock method for the expression of the explosive strength and
reactive ability of the neuromuscular system solves, in a considerable manner, the problem
of training economy, and guarantees an elevated level of special preparation without a
great waste of energy and time.
91
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Chapter 2
Shock Method Exercises and rules
FOR THEIR APPLICATION
2.1. Depth Jump
The Depth Jump is the most famous Shock method exercise: it is being used in the
south, in Africa, and north, in Canada, by a fi gure skater in Moscow, and by a primary
school student in New York, it is being used by a world record holder as well as unknown
college student.
Indeed, the Depth Jump is an excellent means to improve the reactive ability of an ath
lete as well as to increase the level of maximum and explosive strength. However, to be
able to wholly utilize the real possibilities of this exercise, it’s necessary execute and apply
it correctly.
First of all, it is necessary to remember, that the Depth jump is a very powerful training
exercise. For this reason, it must be gradually introduced into the training process. Young
sportsmen shouldn’t use depth jumps at all; multiple jumps and bounds are more useful for
them.
Secondly, even for adult athletes. Depth jumps constitute a considerable load on the
neuro-muscular system. Therefore, before starting to use this exercise, and even more, be
fore attempting to execute it correctly, it is necessary to gain experience in other jumping
exercises as well as in exercises with weights. The preliminary improvement of jumping
skill using numerous hopping and bounding exercises is especially important.
The Depth Jump seems to be very simple to exeeute. However, I have often observed
athletes performing this exercise and I have rarely seen correct technique. In fact, despite
its apparent simplicity, the Depth Jump’s technique is rather complex and requires special
instruction.
To exclude possible mistakes during the execution of the Depth Jump, it is necessary to
understand the biomechanics of this exercise and to localize the key elements of its tech
nique.
2.1.1. Understanding the key elements of the Depth Jump
Let us analyze the curve of vertical displacement of the body’s center of mass during
the execution of this exercise, the changes in the knee angle (a°), and the curve of the ver
tical component of Ground Reaction Force - Fy (see Fig. 2.1).
’M'
Chapter 2
The curve of changes in the knee
a°-Knee angle
angle (a°) indicates two phases in the
vertical displacement of the body’s
center of mass: the downward phase,
IP
characterized by the legs’ flexion (ec
centric muscular action) and the up
f
I
ward phase, characterized by the legs’
extension (concentric muscular ac
tion).
In the curve of Fy, we observe several changes:
-
Legs flexion
Downward phase
Legs
extension
Upward
phase
At the beginning, the magnitude
of Fy increases(but not linearly)
until the complete touchdown
of the feet;
- The sharp burst of Fy is ob
served, with reaching its maxi
Fy - peak at the
ground impact
Fy - Vertical
component of
Ground
1
Reaction
/
Force
Fy - peak at the
active push-off
phase
mal level approximately at the
middle of downward phase in
the centre of mass displace
Push-off phase
ment;
- The magnitude of the Fy quick
ly decreases to the level equal
to what was seen at the instant
of full landing (the complete
touchdown of the feet);
-
Ground contact time (t)
Fig. 2.1 - Vertical component of the Ground Reaction
Force (Fy) and changes in knee angle (a°) during the exe-
cution ofDepth Jump
The Fy begins to increase until the end of downward phase and reaches the highest
level at the be-ginning of upward phase.
Thus, the curve of the Fy has two peaks: the first peak corresponds to the middle of the
downward phase in the vertical displacement of the center of mass of the athlete's body
and the second peak corresponds to the begirming of upward phase. In substance, these
two bursts of the Fy curve indicate two main phases of the Depth Jump: the shock absorp
tion phase and the push off phase.
What is very important to note is that the instant of transition from the downward to the
upward phase in the center of mass displacement does not correspond to the instant of
transition from the shock absorption to the push off phase: the push off phase begins dur
ing the downward phase, when the legs muscles still continue to lengthen.
94
The grey zone in figure 2.1 indicates the optimal organization in time of two simultane
ously occurring processes: the displacement of body’s center of mass (the legs’ flexionextension) and the application of an active force effort. We can see that:
1) The active repelling force effort begins when the legs are still flexing in the cushioning
portion, at the end of the eccentric (pliometric) muscle action (the leg flexion, during
the amortization phase);
2) The magnitude of active repulsive force effort increases until its maximum during the
transition from an eccentric to concentric muscular action.
So, before performing the Depth Jump, the athlete should adjust himself correctly on
the initial moment of repulsion, understanding that the switch from amortization to the fol
lowing upward phase must be perceived (and thus, executed) as a global movement.
In substance, these are the key elements in the correct technical execution of the Depth
Jump.
2.1.2.The execution Technique of the Depth Jump
Equipment
To perfomi depth jumps you do not need fancy equipment.
All you need are:
a) Some boxes (or any other piece of equipment) of various heights, from which you
can drop off straight down,
b) A 1” - 1.25” thick rubber mat(20” x 20”) to be placed in the landing spot to soften
it. If the athlete uses thick and elastic rubber soles, the rubber mat is not necessary.
It is not opportune to substitute the rubber mat with a thicker mat, otherwise the
push-off would be weakened and inelastic and the muscular work would not be as
effective,
c) A pole to attach a flag or a balloon to; the athlete mustjump and try to touch it.
The fall
The athlete must get on the box and stand on the outer edge in a non-rigid stance (Fig.
2.2a), back straight and head up (he must not lower his head), looking straight forward. At
the beginning of the exercise, the athlete simply steps forward (Fig. 2.2b) and he must join
the feet as the fall begins (Fig. 2.2c).
Before the fall, the athlete must not flex his knees (they must be extended), neither
jump up or forward by pushing with both legs, nor flex the support leg. The fall trajectory
must be straight, and the body erect. The athlete must not incline the head, or the shoulders
and he must look straight forward. During the fall, the arms must reach behind with a
95
Chapter 2
smooth, natural movement.
A correct and non-rigid exe
cution of all the movements
involved in the fall is para
mount for the right landing
and push-off actions.
For correct execution of
the Depth jump, the muscu
lar attitude is important dur
ing the flight phase (drop
phase).
During
the
drop
phase, the leg and arm mus Fig. 2.2- The execution technique ofthe Depth Jump
cles should not be too hard, and, at the same time, they should not be too relaxed.
Nevertheless, for the correct execution of the depth jump, it’s very important that the
athlete doesn’t think about it and is concentrated only on the sequential take-off phase. The
athlete should find the correct muscular attitude naturally through practice and not through
artificial manners of motor learning.
The landing
The athlete must land on both feet; first on the balls and later the heels to stabilize. At
ground impact the knees must be slightly flexed and the muscles slightly tensed, naturally,
without voluntary tension. The arms keep moving backward (Figure 2.2d).
The landing is a very important element of the depth jump. Many studies have shown
that the magnitude of the “wave” (peak or burst) of force, caused by the mechanical im
pact, which we observe at the beginning of ground contact, depends on the hardness of the
landing. The harder (stiffer) ground impact, the higher peak of force in this burst and, con
sequently, the higher the level of muscular stimulation and the higher the value of accumu
lated elastic energy.
However, with overcoming a certain threshold of muscle stiffness at ground impact, the
less elastic interplay actively develops between the muscular apparatus and the ground and
the more time goes in to the development of maximum force effort (Fm3x)- The problem is
that the part of percussion forces, which appear during ground impact, is dampened by the
tissues of the musculoskeletal (locomotor) system and does not act on the body’s center of
mass.
For this reason, an impact that is too stiff ensures more influence on the ligaments and
joints of the athlete's body than on the trajectory and the velocity of body's displacement.
Consequently, this remarkably influences the functional state of the neuromuscular system
96
Chapter 2
and changes the biomechanics of the Depth jump (namely the push-off phase), decreasing
the working effect ofthe take-off movement.
So, the landing must be elastic, gradually switching to the amortization phase. The ath
lete must never land on the heels or with rigid, extended legs, as this causes a very hard
impact, which overloads the joints and negatively influences the following push-off
movements.
More than once I have seen some “specialists” show their knowledge of the shock
method by hitting their hand on the surface of a table exclaiming “HOP!” imitating the
shock landing of a depth jump. This is a big mistake, and the athletes must not follow such
“specialists,” rather they must remember that the landing must be soft and elastic. The
“shock” landing must not be interpreted literally, rather as a “poetic” description of the
sudden stop of the fall; a stop that creates an elastic deformation (stretching) of the extensor muscles as the body ofthe athlete elastically interacts with the ground.
The shock absorption movement
The shock absorption is an important component of the Depth jump. Thanks to an elas
tic flexion of the knees (figure 2.2 d) the kinetic energy of the body is dampened, and the
lower body extensor muscles get stretched, aceumulating elastic energy. In this phase, the
lowest position of the amortization phase, knee flexion is reached. The athlete must not
lean forward too much or relax his back muscles. The arms must reach back as much as
possible and be ready to be swung forward forcefully.
The optimal depth of the amortization knee flexion is found by trial and error. An excessive depth of the amortization knee flexion weakens the following upward push, where
as a shallow amortization depth in-creases the stiffness of the ground impact preventing
the execution of a push upward with all the required characteristics. In both cases the mus
cles work in an unfavorable regime that greatly diminishes the effectiveness of the exer
cise. Furthermore, a rigid amortization can cause knee injuries. It is paramount to re
member that and be careful!
Thepush
The push must be executed very precisely upward and be very “active.” The arms help
the lower body ex-tension with a wide and powerful forward-upward movement (Figure
2.2e). A pause between the yielding and the overcoming action would diminish the effec
tiveness of the push and, therefore, the training effect of the exercise. To elicit a stronger
push action, it is advisable to place a target object (a flag, a balloon, etc.) at the highest
possible height that the athlete can reach with his/her hand.
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Chapter 2
The flight
The flight phase after the upward push must be vertical. We remind you that the athlete
should be trying to touch a suspended object (Figure 2.2f).
Landing back
The landing back must be “soft,” on both feet, and with a knee flexion in order to eushion the impact. In fact, it is necessary to avoid an excessive impact.
Pre-setting the athlete on the correct direction of movements
As is well known, the training effect of every exereise depends, first of all, on the men
tal input of the athlete (from the exactly formulated motor action’s goal) or, in other words,
from the objective of the “advisable future.”.
The Depth jump must be executed by the athlete with the unique “advisable” objective
to jump as high as possible. The athlete’s mental input is very simple; to step forward and,
after that, think only of reaching the object placed 3-4 meters above the ground (to touch it
with the hand). After some practice in this exercise, human nature will help him automati
cally find the most appropriate leg angle that assures the highest rebound. For different
athletes, and in different training sessions for the same athlete, the knee angle at the end of
the landing eould be different, and usually, less than 170°-180°.
The exeeution technique and the result of the Depth Jump depend on the formulation of
the goal of the exercise. In my coaching practice, the best Depth Jump results were usually
obtained when I asked the athletes “to land softly and to jump aloft (into the air) as high as
possible.” If the athlete tried to obtain the maximal jump height, he or she performed the
Depth jump with the maximal height and with the optimal landing time. If the athlete tried
to obtain a minimal landing time, he or she performed the Depth jump with minimal land
ing time, but the jump height was not maximal.
May depth jumps be performed with a barbell on the shoulders?
In my practical experience, there have been cases of athletes doing depth jumps from
40-50em with a barbell. I can confirm that such exercises have detrimental effects. Sure,
this way you have a great load on the legs. Yet, the supporter of such approach must not
deceive themselves, the damages from it can be enormous as our legs are not made of iron
and as such must be saved.
Furthermore, if in the “classic” version of the depth jump, the push phase is done
against bodyweight resistance, in the barbell version, the legs must push against the barbell
weight too. Thus, both the amortization velocity and the velocity of the concentrie action
are reduced. Therefore, using the barbell with the depth jumps goes against the purpose of
the shock method.
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' i Chapter 2
May depth jumps be performed on one leg?
Some athletes perform the depth jumps on just one leg. This exercise can be useful for
those sports characterized by a high load on the motor apparatus, especially if the load is
expressed in a brief lapse of time (for instance,jumps and throws in athletics, weightlift
ing, gymnastics, acrobatics, ski jumping, figure skating, alpine ski). The motor specificity
of such sports requires the utilization of both the depth jumps from high heights and oneleg depth jumps; the latter is actually advisable.
For instance, we found thru special research that for female ice skaters it is advisable to
perform one-leg depth jumps from the following heights;
- 12cm-7 years old;
- 15cm - 8 years old;
- 19cm-9 years old;
- 24cm-10 years old;
- 23cm-11 years old.
The fall angle is at 45° and the push should be perfectly vertical.
To increase the jump capability of young high jumpers (13-15 years old), a three series
depth jump from an optimal fall height (to be found through experimentation) is advisable:
- 1st Set: fall from 40-60cm and a rebound over a low positioned bar (70-90cm);
- 2nd Set; fall from 20-30cm and rebound on one leg;
- 3rd Set: same as the first set.
High level, well prepared athletes can perform the exercise on one leg from a higher
height.
For instance, high level triple jumpers perform depth jumps from a pommel horse
height of 1.1 Om. The exercise is executed by doing two to three steps on the horse and a
jump off followed by a one leg landing and a forward/upward push (Figure 2.3).
During some phases of his preparation, the former high jump world record holder Igor
Palkin used to perform the one leg depth jumps (push forward) from a height of 1-1.5m.
Certainly, these are examples
of high level athletes. During
my career I have known and
worked with such high-level
athletes and came to realize
that they were bom with iron
legs. For the athletes that do
not have such a natural gift, I
suggest being more prudent.
In some book I had read
that the most brilliant “music Fig, 2.3- Depth jumpfrom a pommel horsefor triplejumper.
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Chapter 21
star' of XIX, the great Italian violinist, violist, guitarist, and composer Nicolo Paganini
(1782 -1840) once said: “How important it is to feel for oneself in order to make others
feel.” Thus, also the coach must “feel” the training effects of the planned workload as if he
would be the one performing it. This workload must guarantee a training potential for the
actual functional state of the athlete. If the training potential is lower than said functional
level, the planned workload is useless; if it is higher, the workload is dangerous. The exact
determination of the training effect objectively necessary for the athlete depends on the
professionalism of the coach.
2.1.3.How TO TEACH THE ATHLETE THE CORRECT EXECUTION TECHNIQUE OF
THE Depth Jump
Following are the four most common errors in the execution of the
depth jump:
1) A powerful push off the box with both legs or flexing the support
leg before the fall (Figure 2.4). In both cases the athlete cannot get
in the right posture during the fall and be set for the following up
ward push off the ground.
2) A rigid landing on extended legs, overloading the ankle joint.
3) An excessively deep amortization knee flexion.
4) A scarcely powerful and wide arm action.
Fig. 2.4 - The
wrong execution
of the step for
To fix the first and forth points it is sufficient to give detailed in
ward before to
structions and to show the right execution of the exercise.
drop down in
To fix the second and the third points the following drill is very use- Depth Jump
ful (Figure 2.5):
the coach must give instructions to fix the athlete’s
movement pattern during the execution of 8-10 reps with
the help of a fellow athlete (a) or holding on wall bars.
The following advice will help with understanding the
rational technique of the depth jump and avoid possible er¬
rors:
1) Pay particular attention to having an elastic landing and
coordinating the push of the legs with the wide, power
ful arm action. It is also important to voluntarily try
touching an object suspended at the highest reachable for the mastering of the correct
height with the hand. To accustom the athlete with technical execution of Depth
Jump
100
i Chapter 2
such an effort, you can utilize squatjumps to reach a suspended object at first. Particu
lar attention must be paid to technically correct, powerful, circular arm movements.
We remind you that the arms should be reaching back while the knees are flexing dur
ing the amortization. The arm action is fundamental for the upward push technique, de
termining the speed of movement of the lower body extensors and the flight direction.
It must precede the leg push. The athlete him/herself must subjectively “feel” that the
swinging action of the arm is helping the execution of the push upward. When the ath
lete masters the technique of the squat jump, then it will be possible to perform the
same jmnp,just preceded by 2-3 steps and a jump forward with a heel landing immedi
ately followed by the foot rolling to the tips of the toes and the push-off.
2) Wlien the athlete has mastered the upward jump technique, you can start practicing the
elastic landing of the depth jump from low heights (30-40cm), keeping in mind all the
technical advice from the preceding paragraph. It is paramount to visualize the correct
movement and then to per-form it. Given the low height of fall, it is advisable to im
mediately pay attention to the execution of the falling technique; if it is badly per
formed it will negatively affect the landing and the push-off, and consequently dimin
ish the training effect of the exercise. As the athlete masters the technique more and
more, you must increase the height of fall up to 50-60cm. Yet, as the load on the neu
romuscular system increases, the number of depth jumps (the training volume) must be
limited.
3) As the athlete is trained in the depth jump technique, the coach must not advise the
right amortization depth. In fact, if a precise motor pattern of elastic and powerful push
has been formed, the athlete will automatically choose the optimal amortization depth.
The coach must intervene only if the athlete is not able to find it. Otherwise, requesting
a shallower or a deeper amortization depth might not only be inefficacious, but also
dangerous. Emphasizing this hard to control element negatively affects the athlete’s
motor awareness, thus, it is useless. It is by far more effective to give instructions that
regulate the general performance of the exercise, rather than focus on the individual el
ements of the entire movement. For instance, when it is necessary to increase the
depth of amortization, it is advisable to suggest to “increase the push time.” Converse
ly, when it is necessary to diminish the amortization depth, you will suggest to “rapidly
execute the upward push.”.
2.1.4.The dosage of training load when applying the Depth Jump
The training effect of the depth jumps is affected by:
- The height of the fall;
- The number ofjumps in a set;
101
Chapter 2^
-
The number of sets in a training unit;
- The rest period between the jumps and between the sets
- The number of weekly training sessions
The height of the fall
Some eoaehes and athletes suggest performing the depth jumps from a high height
(some coaches suggest heights up to 3m). I consider such suggestions typical coach “extremism. When the word spreads about someone having great results with, for instance,
depth jumps from 1.5m, only a few coaches resist the temptation of proposing to their ath
letes a jump height of 2m,or even 3m,to achieve even better results.
True, we can even jump off the roof of a two-story house, although it is probably not so
sensible. In such cases the neuromuscular system undertakes an enormous load. Even if the
athlete does not break his own bones and this load eertainly increases strength, what is the
price to pay? Although the ankle and knee joints, the ligaments and tendons, all have great
resiliency, their nature did not foresee such high levels of loading. Therefore, even if today
the athlete might be able to handle such a “load,” nobody knows what the consequences
will be tomorrow, when he reaches an older age.
By increasing the height of the fall, you rapidly increase the load on the muscular sys
tem and the switch from the amortization to the upward push becomes harder. The con
sistency of such a switch is the condition that defines the optimal height of the fall for eaeh
athlete. If such consistency is lacking, which means there is too long of a pause between
the amortization and the push-off phase, then the fall height is too high.
A multi year study on the training effects of Depth Jumps, which were carried out both
in the laboratory and in the field, has shown that it guarantees not only the improvement of
reactive ability of the athlete, but also increases the muscular strength: it greatly increases
the maximum magnitude of voluntary muscle tension in the concentric movements, per
formed with maximal explosive effort. The training effect of the Depth Jump depends on
choosing the appropriate drop height; so, it is opportune to diversify the height of the fall
according to the objective of training:
a) For the improvement of reactive ability, it is necessary to use a height that allows
the athlete to achieve the maximum speed in the transition from the eccentric to the
concentric action,
b) For increasing explosive strength, it is necessary to use a height that allows the ath
lete to achieve the maximum height of vertical rebound,
c) For increasing maximum strength, the height of the fall must be 40-45% higher.
Both experimental and field experience show that, for high level athletes (jumpers and
sprinters), the drop height which allows them to increase the level of explosive strength
102
●M
Chapter 2
and reactive ability is usually about 75cm; to increase the level of maximum strength,
about 1.10m.
The number of jumps in a set
In every single case the number of depth jumps in a set is determined by the quality of
execution of the upward push and by the following flight height. A delay in the switch
from the amortization to the push and a decrease of the flight height (easily assessed sub
jectively) indicate that the exercise must be stopped. The optimal number of reps in a set is
ten.
It is important to consider that leg fatigue is not a factor in defining the optimal number
of jumps. Fatigue becomes evident after 15-20 reps, but that is already an excessive vol
ume, which can further reduce the effectiveness of the following set.
It is not advisable to transform the execution of the depth jumps into mechanical, mo
notonous work, like in a production line. Each and every depth jump must be performed
with focus, controlling the movement technique and stressing a powerful push.
The number of sets in a training unit
The matter of the depth jump volume is very relevant, and it is a very important element
of the shock regime methodology.
I want to tell a story of my coaching career. A young basketball player was once intro
duced to me: tall, handsome, and with elastic and powerful legs (just like any coach’s
dream), he had just decided to turn into a high jumper. After the specific high jump train
ing, I asked him to perform some strength exercises and he avoided barbell work in favor
of passionately jumping off the fence around the track, which was 1.20-1.30m high. Ob
serving him with the comer of the eye, I counted eighty jumps. When he got closer, I
asked him: “Why did you jump off the fence?”.
He answered: “To develop explosive strength.” And then he went on and told me that it
was a great exercise. “But, a guy that does not know anything about depth jumps wrote on
a sport magazine that is better to perform them from a height of 75cm, with no more than
four sets per training unit. But, is it possible to consider that a training load?” And he con
cluded: “If we got a jump, it is better to jump from a high height and more than forty
times.”
This young athlete can be understood, because the depth jumps can be easily withstood.
In fact, after performing depth jumps, the athletes do not feel fatigued as they do when
they barbell squat. Yet, basing judgment on just subjective feelings can be deceptive.
In reality, the rational volume limit of depth jumps is reached well before the athlete
begins to feel fatigued. Such limit is determined by the inability of the CNS to maintain a
high level of intensity of the nerve impulses and by the joints’ overload.
103
Chapter 2
In the field experience has highlighted that during training it is very easy to go over
such limit without being aware of it. If this happens only once, it is not a big deal. Yet, if
this limit is surpassed often and systematically, the consequences are unforeseeable. In the
best-case scenario, overtraining is reached; in the worst case, injuries. Therefore, for what
concerns the volume of depth jumps (or the shock method, generally speaking) you must
follow the rule “better to be conservative than exceeding.
The reference point to define the optimal number of depth jump sets in a training unit is
the degree of specific muscular fatigue. Muscular weakness and notable diminishing of the
push action are objective fatigue parameters. When these functional conditions take place,
it is no longer advisable to perform this exercise. The excessive load on the neuromuscular
system may lead to a sensible reduction of the athlete’s work capacity in the following
days.
Studying the effects of the depth jump on the neuromuscular system and on the func
tional state of the athlete, it has been noticed that after a certain number of reps there is a
tendency to increase the duration of the phase of support, as well as a lowering of the peak
force and the quickness of the transition from stretching to contraction. For this reason, it
is not appropriate to perform more than 10 depth jumps in a set. But the problem of how
many sets that can be performed in a training unit remains.
To answer to the above question, several experiments have been conducted where the
same athletes of high qualification used a different number of sets; from 1 to 5(see para
graph 1.4.5). Before every
training session, through
special equipment, the abil
ity to express an explosive
strength effort in extension
of the lower limbs was rec¬
orded (figure 2.6). The ex
plosive effort was again rec
orded during the execution
of a depth jump every 5
minutes for a period of 30
minutes.
In the experiment, the
following tendencies were
found (figure 2.6):
Fig. 2.6 - Trends of the expression ofthe immediate training effect
of
one (1), two (2), three (3),four (4) andfive (punctuated line) sets
- Immediately after the
of depth jumps
execution of depth
104
jumps, the ability to express explosive strength decreases in comparison to the initial
level. This lowering increases according to the number of sets.
- Normally, at the fifth minute of the rest interval, the ability to express an explosive
effort begins to restore, then it overcomes the initial level and reaches, at the tenth
minute, its maximum value, then it begins to decrease. However, at the thirtieth mi
nute its value still overcomes the initial level.
- Increasing the number of the sets from 1 to 4, the explosive strength value shows a
tendency to increase as well.
- Usually, at the fifth set, this tendency stops. The dynamics of explosive strength are
very peculiar, and it can appear as represented in the figure 2.6 (dashed line). In this
case the increase in explosive strength is smaller and manifests itself, not at 5 - 10
minutes, but much later.
Thus, the optimal dosage in a training unit is four sets of ten repetitions.
I have seen athletes that, ignoring common sense, performed 100 depth jumps in a train
ing unit. Sure enough, these athletes did not die by doing this, yet they did not achieve
great results due to this excessive load.
The rest period between reps and sets
The inter-repetition rest period within the set is free. The jumps are performed at the
athlete’s volitional pace. It is not advised to increase or decrease the rest period between
jumps.
The rest period between sets is determined by the subjective functional status of the ath
lete (mood). The next set must begin only when the athlete feels ready. Normally it takes
between 3 and 5 minutes, but the athletes may rush by only relying on their subjective feel
ing. To recover the ability to perform a powerful push-off, 8 to 10 minutes are necessary.
The rest period must be active and include relaxing exercises, stretclung, muscle shaking
and light runs. All these exercises favor recovery of the neuromuscular system’s work ca
pacity.
The number of weekly training sessions
Two to three weekly sessions guarantee an optimal load. Two weekly sessions are a to
tally reasonable load that is easily handled by both advanced and intermediate level ath
letes. Such volume can be very well integrated with other forms of strength training, thus
ensuring an elevated training effect ofthe special strength preparation.
Only high-level athletes that are well prepared for this kind of work and know very well
what it entails can perform three of such workouts in a week.
105
Chapter 2
2.1.5.The placement of Depth Jumps in the preparation period
Depth Jumps cannot be utilized the whole year, but only during the special strength
preparation phase. In such case, the total volume can be 300-400 jumps. We must remind
you that the main focus is the training effect, not the numbers; in other words, quantity
does not always equal quality.
Other than such guidelines, we must consider the following:
1) These are not the only mean to develop explosive strength; for such an objective, ath
letes can use a wide array of training means;
2) The great possibility of increasing explosive strength and reactive ability offered by
depth jumps can be realized only if they are integrated into a methodological system of
special strength preparation.
One collaborator of mine succeeded in persuading one friend of his, the ex-champion of
the World in weightlifting Yuri Kozin, to participate in an experiment with the purpose of
verifying the effectiveness of the Depth Jumps. In that period, Yuri Kozin had finished his
career as high-level athlete and, therefore, accepted to participate in the experiment. The
athlete began a preparation for the national Championship that foresaw three periods. We
remind the reader that in December the athlete had achieved a result of 155kg + 207.5kg =
362.5kg.
In the first period (five weeks) the main objective was to create a base level of speedstrength preparedness through work with barbell exercises (the first two weeks) and to de
velop explosive strength using the depth jump (the following three weeks). The total vol
ume of work was 310 depth jumps, 300 tons in the competition exercises, and 74 tons in
the Barbell Squats. Figure 2.7 shows the dynamics of Maximum Strength (Po), Explosive
Strength (J), Maximum Speed (V), and the Maximum Force (N), expressed in the control
movement(leg extension) performed on special equipment(UDS figure 1.24).
At the end of the first preparatory period (March 1977) the athlete achieved these re
sults: 162.5kg + 210kg = 372.5kg.
In the second period (five weeks) the main objective was the improvement of the tech
nique of execution of the competition exercises and, therefore, the athlete did not use the
Depth Jumps. The total volume of the training loads was 226 tons in the competition exer
cises and 57 tons in the Barbell Squat.
At the end of the second period the athlete established his personal record in the snatch
(165kg + 215kg = 380kg).
The main objective of the third period (four weeks) was the intensification of the speed
strength work in preparation for the National Championship. The athlete performed 310
106
1 Chapter 2
Depth Jumps, while the volume of barbell work was slightly reduced (the total volume of
the competition exercises was 176 tons and the squat, 40 tons).
All of this allowed a further increase in the level of speed-strength preparedness (figure
2.7) and, at the competitions, the athlete achieved an elevated result. In fact, at the Nation
als (mid May) Yuri Kozin was able to repeat his best result in the snatch, improving his
best Total (165kg + 217.5kg = 382.5kg) and by the end of May he improved his personal
record in the snatch once more, by 2.5kg (167.5kg). At the same competition (end of
May)the athlete had been able to clean a record weight (222.5kg), yet failed in closing the
jerk, because of technical imperfections.
In the second half of 1977, one month and a half before the USSR Cup (December
1977), Yuri Kosin again inserted Depth Jumps into his training. At the Cup, the athlete
was able to repeat his personal record in the Total (165kg + 217.5kg = 382.5kg) and one
week later, at the Moscow Championships, to improve his personal records both in the
snatch and in the Total(170kg + 220kg = 390kg).
Training
Test
Former weightlifting World
Champion -Yuri Kozin
1 - Strength Period
1 & 2 week
- Barbell squats
- Competition
exercises
74 T
300 T
310
2-Technical Period
1-5 week
- Barbell squats
- Competition
exercises
57 T
226 T
3 - Speed Strength Period
1-4 week
- Barbell squats
- Competition
exercises
- Depth Jumps
Po
Knee Angle: 90°, 120°
\
180
oKnee Angle 120°
□Knee Angle 90°
450
160
350
140
3,4 and 5 week
- Depth Jumps
Result
74 T
300T
310
Attlie end of the first
and in the third pa-iod
oftheexperhnental
training, the Maximum
Strength (Po), Explosive
Strengtli (.1), Maximmn
Speed (V), andthe
Maximum Force (N)
expressed in the control
movement (leg
extension) were
evaluated using die Leg
Press with two knee
angle: 90° e 120°
120
,250
1 Period
0.65
V
1 Period
no
0.6
90
0.55 ■
70
0.5
3 Period
3 Period
N
n 50
T
1 Period
T
3 Period
T
1 Period
3 Period
Fig. 2.7 - Changes of the level of speed-strength preparedness of the former weightlifting world record
holder Y. Kozin in the first and in the third period of the experimental training. Note: Po - maximum muscular strength; J - explosive strength; V - speed; N - power of the movement.
107
Chapter 2
Yuri Kozin has described his feelings regarding the use of the Depth Jumps in this way:
"The Depth Jumps improve the explosiveness, the muscular sense, and the coordination of
movements; they increase the psychological arousal, they create the ability to feel the
speed of movements and they positively influence the technique ofthe snatch and the clean
andjerk."
It is important to stress that the main aspect of this example is that Yuri Kozin per
formed this experimental training at the end of his sport career, when through traditional
methods he had already reached the maximum level of his physical abilities.
This means that the athlete was able to improve his level of preparation only thanks to
the extremely elevated training effect of the Depth Jumps.
2.1.6.Role and allocation of Depth Jumps within the training means
OF Special Strength Training
The most effective training means can guarantee a positive training effect only when:
1) They are integrated appropriately with the other training means;
2) They are rationally distributed over time.
This means an organization of the training load so that each training means or group of
means:
- Is used in a well determined moment that is in a specific training phase where it is
needed;
- Not only does it not interfere with the training effect realization of another training
mean, rather it favors it;
- Allows a high and stable training effect, with an optimal utilization of the athlete’s
time and energy.
Starting from these training load organizational principles, let’s analyze the role and al
location of the Depth Jiunp among the training system, using an unusual procedure: find
ing a solution to several logical problems, which will also allow the coach to check his
own applied knowledge.
After solving the three problems, we will discuss and analyze the objective data refer
ring to each one of those. We want to stress that these problems are not made-up; rather,
they come from real world applied research. For this reason, you can trust the results.
With that said, we can start.
108
First problem
Let s hypothesize that we need to develop the jumping ability of our athletes, choosing
among only three groups of special training means:
1) Jumping exercises for the development of the speed-strength component of jumping,
i.e. the explosive strength;
2) Barbell squats, for the development of maximum strength;
3) Depth jumps.
With only three weeks available, you can choose among two possible methods of organizing these training means:
1) The first variant consists of the sequential utilization of the training means, exactly the
way we have mentioned them: jumping exercises the first week, barbell exercise the
second week, and depth jumps the third week.
2) The second variant consists of using all the training means concurrently, for three
weeks.
The total load volume is the same for both variants.
The question is: which one should we use?
To make the matter real, let’s
look at figure 2.8, in which the
increase in results in the three
% OF Power increasing
EXPRESSED IN THE MAXIMAL
control tests after using the first
variant in the real world are
7 1
EXPLOSIVE EFFORT
6 -
shown. Now we can make the
second question real: what hap
pens when we use the second
variant of training means organi
zation? Will the results in the
three control tests be better or
5 -
2 -
We invite the reader to think
1 -
periment. The reader must ana
lyze both the situation and the
r
A
3 -
worse compared to the first vari
ant?
about it and then look at figure
2.9 that shows the real-world ex
■
4 -
:●
r
0
Body weight
20 Kg barbell
40 Kg barbell
Fig. 2.8 - Vertical jump from a dead start increase using a se
solution a second time. Later, we quential organization ofthe training means: bodyweight, with a
will further discuss this example, ^Okg barbell, with a 40kg barbell.
109
Chapter 2
but now let’s pass to the second
% OF MAXIMAL EXPLOSIVE
problem.
10 -|
□ Sequential organization
□ Complex organization
EFFORT INCREASING
Second problem
Let’s hypothesize three dif
ferent variants of specialized
8 -
strength
(figure
6 ■
2.10) for a two-month phase.
- Variant A; first month:
4 ■
preparation
-i
f
heavy back squats, second
-
-
month: depth jumps.
Variant B: first month:
2 ■
depth
jumps,
second
month: back squats.
0
Bodyweight
20 Kg barbell
40 Kg barbell
Variant C: Back squats
and depth jumps used
simultaneously for two
months
The total volume of the three
pig 2.9 - Comparison of the vertical jump from a dead start increase using either a complex (shaded) or a sequential organizatraining means: bodyweight, with a 20kg barbell, with
a 40kg barbell
variants is the same.
The main question is:
which variant is the most
J Explosive Strength
is
effective to develop lower
body
explosive
strength
(i.e. jump ability)?
Yet, we must not huiry
?
7
7
at replying to this funda
mental question.
Let’s
get
gradually
look closer at the solution
1®'^ Stage
T
2ND Stage
of this problem.
Let’s look at figure
2.10 once again, where it
variant A i Heavy Back Squats j
is depicted schematically
Variant B l
how performing the back
squat (variant A) in the
first stage significantly in
creased the capacity to
110
VARIANT C L
Depth Jumps
Depth Jumps
|
Back Squats
Depth Jumps -i- Back Squats
J
Fig. 2.10 - Chart for the rational special strength preparation organi
zation assignment (further explanation in the text)
I Chapter 2
express explosive strength efforts.
We ean now ask the following questions:
1) First question: What position will the arrow have after the depth jump stage (above or
below the A variant)?
2) Second question: What position will the arrow have after the concurrent utilization of
the back squat and the depth jumps(C variant)?
In other words, we must evaluate the training effect in the first stage of the three
strength training variants and rank them according to the elicited increase in explosive
strength.
Draw on paper your hypothesis regarding the effects of the first stage for each variant,
using the same graph as in figure 2.10.
Let’s now examine the second stage.
3) Third question: Where will the explosive strength indicating arrow be after the depth
jump mesocycle (variant A)? Above or below the level reached in the first stage?
4) Fourth question: Where will the arrow be after the back squat stage (variant B)?
Above or below the level reached in the first stage?
5) Fifth question: Where will the arrow be after the second complex stage (variant C)?
We must examine our answers, yet, before drawing conclusions, we have to answer one
last question:
6) Sixth question: Which variant guarantees the highest increase in explosive strength at
the end of the second month
of training? And which variant
the least?
Now, if you have answered all
the questions and have drawn the
answers on the graph, you can
now look at the real-world results
of the experimental training in the
figure 2.11. Then, after analyzing
these results, you can pass to the
next assignment.
Fig. 2.11 - Explosive strength dynamics in the three variants
ofspecial strength preparation organization
Third problem
Analyze and study the following table where three different variants of special strength
preparation organization (A, B, C) lasting three stages (I, II, III) of one month each, are
hypothesized.
Schematic representation of the training load organization in three different variants of
training load.
Ill
Chapter 2
3M
Stages of training
Variants
I STAGE
II STAGE
III STAGE
A
Jumping exercises
Barbell Squats
Depth Jumps
B
Jumping exercises
Barbell Squats
Barbell squats
C
Jumping exercises
Jumping exercises
Jumping exercises
The figure 2.12 shows
schematically how, thanks
JA
to the jumping exercises,
7
the explosive strength rose
?
equally for all three vari
ants after the first stage.
Now, keeping in mind the
2ND Stage
1ST Stage
3^ Stage
previous table, answer the
following questions:
Fig. 2.12 - Chartfor the rational special strength preparation organiza1) First question: What tion assignment (further explanation in the text)
position will the arrow
have after the second stage for each of the three variants (A, B, C): above or at the
same level of the first stage? Take a pencil and a sheet of paper, copy the chart 2.12
and draw your solution, filling it with the new arrows.
2) Second question: What position will the arrow have after the third stage for each ofthe
three variants(A, B, C): above or at the same level of the second stage?
3) Third question: Which
one of these three variants
of special strength prepa
ration organization en
sures the highest and the
lowest increase of the
legs’ explosive strength
after three stages?
Report your answer on the
chart. Now you can look at
figure 2.13.
112
Fig. 2.13 - Explosive Strength dynamics during a three stages ex
periment
Chapter 2
Now we can continue to analyze the solutions of all the three problems together.
1) In the first variant (first problem, figure 2.8), each training mean is used for just one
week; too limited of a time to elicit specific morpho-functional adaptations of the
body. In the second variant (first problem, figure 2.9), all three-training means are used
concurrently and elicit a higher, complex effect on the neuromuscular sys-tem. Fur
thermore, this higher load is undertaken for a longer period (three weeks). This is a de
termining factor that guarantees a higher augmentation of explosive strength.
2) In the second problem the training result after the first month is pretty evident (figure
2.11); the combined utilization of the back squat and depth jumps produces a stronger
effect on the neuromuscular system. The back squat alone has a lower effect on said
system.
In the second stage, the situation is more complex and for some factors also almost un
expected,
a) In variant A, the training effect of the depth jumps overlaps nicely on the traces of
the morpho-functional adaptations elicited by the back squat. This represents a
good succession of training means that brought about a higher explosive strength
increase at the end ofthe second month,
b) In variant B, the slower work of the back squat caused a negative effect on the de
velopment ofthe explosive strength reached by using the depth jumps. For this rea
son, such level dropped slightly at the end ofthe second stage,
c) In variant C we see a typical paradoxical effect due to the accustomization of the
body to the same, monotonous training mean over time. For this reason, the func
tional status not only does not increase, but it actually decreases.
We can then draw the following conclusions:
1) The shock method actually guarantees a very strong effect on the neuromuscular sys
tem, but:
-
It must be utilized by high level athletes; it is not useful for low or middle level ath
letes, it would be overkill.
- The shock method training means must be combined with other speed-strength
training means. This ensures a positive accumulation of positive adaptations of the
body elicited by each training mean.
2) If the preparation period is limited (for example, four weeks), it is advisable to use the
complex method of strength training means organization. This method guarantees a
quick and notable in-crease of the speed-strength capacity. Yet, this new level is not
maintained for a long time, and de-creases with the same quiclcness as it had risen.
Therefore, it is opportune that the complex method be used in the pre-competition
phase, for instance, four-five weeks before the competitive phase. In this case the
strength training means have to be used in the first three-four weeks of the pre-comp
113
Chapter 2
^ -
phase followed by a cessation period of eight-ten days.
3) If there is the possibility to use the specialized strength exercises for a longer period
(for instance, 10-12 weeks), it is advisable to use the so-called conjugate-sequence
modality of training means organization. Such modality is the one presented in the so
lution ofthe third problem (figure 2.13).
In this case, sequential means a precise and consecutive order of training means intro
duction within the training system following a gradual increase of their training effect and
specificity. For example, first we use jumping exercises, then the back squat, and finally
the depth jumps. The conjugation entails a continuity of the sequence of training means,
based on the positive morpho-functional adaptations elicited by the previous training mean
as a base for further enhancement brought about by the next training mean (for instance,
the back squat precedes the depth jumps).
In the context of the conjugate-sequence training system, the depth jumps represent the
last training mean to be used as they elicit the highest training effect. The depth jumps are
utilized when the previous training means, the jumping exercises and the back squat, have
created the optimal conditions for their utilization. The fundamental physiological mecha
nism assuring the training effects of applying this system consists of the sequential accu
mulation of positive morpho-functional adaptations elicited by each training mean with a
different training direction substituting one with another.
In this case,sequence must not be intended as an abrupt, chronological separation ofthe
training means (as it would be if we thought “ok today we stop using this mean and start
ing tomorrow we will use the other one”), rather a gradual switch from a group of training
means priority to another, following the principle of gradual substitution of a training
mean with another.
2.1.7.In what cases should Depth Jumps be avoided?
The Depth Jump produces an elevated mechanical load on the motor system and deeply
affects the central nervous system.
This load can cause negative effects in some cases that we are going to examine;
1) First of all, there are cases where the Depth Jump is contraindicated:
- The athlete is not fully recovered from muscle, tendon,joint or ligament injuries;
- The athlete is still fatigued by a previous load;
-
The athlete is in an overtraining status;
-
The athlete is genetically flat footed (this concerns the depth jumps).
2) The use of the Depth Jump is not advisable:
- In the first stages of the multi-year preparation, the young athlete can perfectly use a
vast array of other training methods and means;
114
Chapter 2
- In the first phase of the yearly preparation, when the body is not yet ready for a high
mechanical load and needs planned strengthening;
-
In the phase of sport specific technical perfecting, especially when the focus is on
the change of delicate, coordinative elements;
- In the phase of speed specialization, where a high level of specific work capacity of
the neuromuscular system is required;
- Before competitions, when the athlete has not mastered a rational technical execution ofthe exercises;
-
When the athlete is not sufficiently prepared physically;
- During evening workouts as the Depth Jump over excites the CNS, thus preventing
some athletes from failing asleep.
The last contraindication; The Depth Jumps are not advisable, when the coach and the
athlete do not use their brains when it comes to the shock method.
We remind you that the optimal volume is four sets of ten reps from a height of 0.751.10m. This load is subjectively well tolerated and can lead to the decision of increasing
the load either via an increase of the fall height or via an increase of the number ofjumps
in the training unit.
Another common error is too early of an introduction of the shock method in the train
ing process.
In both cases, the doomsday is not long awaited. We have heard and witnessed many of
such cases. To educate the young coaches and athletes, we will tell a story. In 1964, during
the preparation for the Tokyo Olympics, the throws coach of the soviet national team pro
posed to a prospect of our team, the javelin throw world record holder E. Osolina, and to
the man with the highest potential for a gold, J. Lusis, to use the depth jump in their train
ing. Lusis was using such exercises twice a week from a height of 1.25-1.30m, and he was
very satisfied, especially because,just before the Olympic Games, he had improved in the
control exercises. Thus, for example, he began to barbell squat 190kg, instead of 170kg, he
had reached 3.30m in the standing long jump, instead of 3.05m, and his triple jump with
no previous acceleration had gone from 9.38m to 10.07m. The athlete was feeling that “he
had substituted his legs with iron springs.” Yet, exactly in those muscles was hiding the
danger: an abrupt increase of the muscles’ force potential, not coordinated with the struc
ture and rhythm of the movement in the crossover steps happening before the final strength
effort in the competitive exercise was disturbing the habitual technical movements and left
Lusis without the so much desired and expected gold medal.
When we met him after the Olympics, the athlete himself disapproved his own superfi
ciality. ''The depth jumps are a great training mead'’ he told us, “yet, you have got to use
them with wisdoml”.
115
CHAPTER 2
2.2. Other means of applying the Shock Method
The shock method is already 35 years old. During this period, both through the research
in my laboratory and through the research of other specialists, a vast array of shock meth
od variants has been developed for the preparation of athletes from various sports.
We are going to cover the most interesting of such variations, whose efficacy has been
verified in the field, so that coaches can use these same means or elaborate their own varia
tions, as well as the necessary equipment.
2.2.1. Variations of the Depth Jump
We will begin with the depth jump.
In practice, several variations of the
push are performed. We are going to
list them according to various criteria:
1) According to the push direction
(Figure 2.14):
-
Fig. 2.14 - Variants of the performing push-off after
Depth jumps with a forward drop down
push;
- Depth jumps with an upward/forward push;
- Depth jumps with an upward push.
The variation that guarantees the highest load for
the extensor muscles is the one with the upward
push. The other two versions are suggested as
preparatory exercises for the depth jump with the
upward push. The depth jump with the forward
push can also be utilized as a special exercise,
for example, to develop the starting power off
the block for swimmers.
2) According to the movements following the
push.
For instance, gymnasts can perform, after the
push, specific gymnastic elements (Figure 2.15).
We remind you that, during our experiment, the
utilization of the three exercises shown in the
figure, three times a week for four weeks, al
lowed high level gymnasts to increase the bilat- Fig. 2.15 - Variants of the movement
eral strength effort efficacy for the execution of following push off
116
Chapter 2
high difficulty horse vaulting by 28%.
3) According to the degree of sport specificity of the
landing.
For instance, boxers dropping offfrom a 50-70cm box,
find it very effective to land in a slightly wider (in the
sagittal plane) stance (Figure 2.16a). During the re
bound, the athlete must stress the push from the rear
h
leg, imitating a straight punch by stepping forward.
Fig. 2.16 - variants of the final
Ski Jumpers use 50-70cm depth jumps, landing in a landing in a sport specific posture
sport specific posture (Figure 2.16b).
In this exercise, which should not be
named a depth jump, but a drop landing;
the athlete must voluntarily try to re
duce the amortization trajectory.
Finally, sport specificity can require the
landing to be done on just one leg.
Thus, for triple jumpers it is advisable
to do a few steps on the horse, a one-leg
Fig. 2.17 - The depth jumps on one-leg for figure
landing, and a forward push (Fig. 2.3).
skaters.
For figure skaters it is advisable to per
form a straight drop and a one-leg landing/push. Given the fact that figure skaters use
combinations ofjump elements in sequence, it is advisable to perform 2-3 pushes up
ward over 1-2 medicine balls (Fig.2.17).
2.2.2.The dropping Shock Method exercises for the upper body
The shock method exercises can also be used, with great efficacy, for upper body
movements. For example, for the preparation of gymnasts, the following equipment-less
exercises have been proven useful (Figure 2.18):
- Exercise A is performed vertically, with heels against the wall;
- Exercise B is actually a depth jump for the upper body from the handstand position.
Hands on the box, the feet are brought forward and at landing they are snapped for
ward to help the arms’ extension;
- In Exercise C,the athlete must clap the hands during the flight phase;
- Exercise D is performed by starting with the hands on two boxes. The athlete drops
in between the boxes and gets back to the starting position.
117
Chapter 2i
Fig. 2.18 - The equipment-less shock method exercisesfor gymnasts
How THE VALUE OF DROP HEIGHT INFLUENCES THE HEADSTAND DEPTH JUMP PERFOR
MANCE
The objective of this experiment was that to study the possibility of using the shock
method by high-level gymnasts to develop explosive strength and the reactive ability ex
pressed in the support phase ofthe headstand rebound exercises.
The subjects of the experiment performed a control exercise that corresponded to the
Depth Jump executed in a headstand position. The exercise was performed as follows:
from the headstand position on the box, the athlete let himself fall by inclining the legs
backward, touched the ground and immediately pushed upward. The flight height was rec
orded. The height of the fall was gradually (5 cm at a time) increased from 5cm up to 40
cm. The athletes performed eight Headstand Depth Jumps total.
The results of this experiment, presented in figure 2.19, help to make the following con
siderations:
-
A height of fall between 5 and 10 cm does not greatly influence the neuromuscular
system of the gymnasts; in this case, the biomechanical characteristics of the "re
bound" are inferior in comparison to those of the competitive exercises (horse vault
-
ing).
When the height of fall is over 30cm, the gymnast cannot handle the load in the
amortization phase; therefore, the excessive flexion of the elbow joint angle (up to
118
I Chapter 2
106°) negatively impacts the effectiveness of the push.
- The optimal height of the exercise performed with the upper body is between 15 and
25cm. In this case, the characteristics of the push are close to those encountered in
competition.
The best among the three types of interaction with the support:
a) "soft";
b) "hard";
c) "accentuated" is the last one.
In this variation, the
muscular tension starts
to develop before inter
action with the support
and the g5mnast con
tacts the support with an
movement.
energetic
This allows the athlete
to quickly recruit, and in
an elastic way, the mus
cles of the upper body at
the beginning of the
amortization phase and
to subsequently express,
in the push phase, an ac Fig. 2.19 - Change of the characteristics of the arms push with the in
crease ofthefall height
tive strength effort.
2.2.3.Shock method exercises with special equipments
To develop the explosive strength of the upper body of throwers, boxers, gymnasts, and
weightlifters, an-other form of shock method is efficacious. At this point, we remind you
that through an experiment in our laboratory, we established that an isometric action in a
stretched position increases the power of the following concentric action. Starting from
this experiment, we developed an effective version of the shock method for the develop
ment of the explosive strength of the arm extensors, using a special machine (Fig. 2.20),
based on the one used in the very experiment.
This special machine is equipped with stopping pins that allow the athlete to express a
high level of isometric tension (75-80% of maximum) of the arm extensors before the
amortization of the load and subsequent push. The pins automatically retract when the load
is amortized, so they are not in the way on its way up. The optimal load is 10-15% of the
119
CHAPTER 2S
to
of the maximum strength effort expressed at the lowest
point of the ROM (circa 6-10kg). The load height of fall
is chosen individually.
This shock muscular regime is also a powerful stimu
i
Carriage with load -
lating factor for the CNS that expresses itself concretely
with a higher excitability and a higher intensity of the
motor impulses to the muscles. For instance, the short
term effect of the execution of three sets of three shock
reps result, on average, in an increase of 1.5% in maxi
mum strength, 12% in explosive strength, and 11% in
starting strength. Using this variation of the shock
method for six weeks (500-600 total pushes), shot put
ters have increased their starting strength and explosive
strength by 25% and 20%, respectively.
Guide rail- t
Cushioning carriage-
I
Fig. 2.20 - The shock method equip
ment for the arm-press and arm
Another type of machine is used for the strength de- throwing exercise
velopment of the muscle groups involved in the over
head throw (javelin throw, water polo, baseball, Ameri
can football, handball, tennis). The machine works this
way: the loaded cart moves freely over two very tight
cables (Figure 2.21). After being thrown violently, the
cart rebounds against the net and, after being stopped, is
thrown again.
To improve the same movement, a pendulum device
can be used to create a shock regime (Figure 2.22). After pig_ 2.21 - The shock method equipthe throw, the pendulum rebounds against the elastic el- ment for the specific throwing exercise
ement on the wall and comes back at a higher velocity.
Stopping the pendulum and pushing it in the opposite direction creates an effective shock
load on the involved muscle groups.
With both machines, the stopping of the moving mass can happen at any of the two
working hand positions:
- In front of the head;
- at head level.
During a set, these points can be alternated.
The utilization of the pendulum principle for the creation of shock regime machines of
fers many possibilities, and we can show two more examples of such machines.
120
Chapter 2
The machine shown in Figure 2.23 allows three variants of shock ~
loading for the upper body. The simplest exercise consists of pushing
the pendulum forward with straight arms, using just the hands (Figure
2.23a). In the second exercise, the pendulum is slightly elevated (Fig
ure 2.23b) so that it can be pushed forward/upward using the upper
body muscles. In this variant, the shock regime increases, and its in
tensity is adjusted by changing either the pendulum’s height or the
body position relative to its axis.
In the third exercise, the pendulum is raised even higher (Figure
2.23c), and the athlete must push it up-ward. Here, the trunk and lower ^
Fig. 2.22 - The pen
body muscle groups also get involved, especially in the pendulum dulum devicefor the
method
amortization phase. The optimal volume in a training unit is 20-25 shock
throwing exercise
repetitions for the first exercise, 15-20 repetitions for the second exer
cise, and 10-15 repetitions for the third one. In a training
unit, three sets per exercise are performed. Gynmasts using
these exercises twice a week for six weeks have improved
their strength by 10% in the arm push in exercises like the
flic-flac and the rondata, and simultaneously, a 12.5% re
duction in the contact time and a 4.5% increase in the flight
time.
Another variant of the pendulum machine (Figure 2.24)
allows an even higher load and guarantees a higher shock
action on the upper body muscle groups.
Fig. 2.23 - Variant ofpendulum
The pendulum is suspended at 80cm by a special wall- devicefor reproducing the shock
bar. The athlete, leaning against the wall-bar, can bring the regime
elbows behind at the end of the amortization phase. The machine has
a spring activated stopping device that stops the movement of the
pendulum toward the athlete. A load (barbell plates) can be applied
to the arm of the pendulum. The load is chosen on an individual ba
sis. The optimal volume is 4x10-15 reps.
Machines based on the swinging model have been proven very ef
fective (Figure 2.25). The idea behind such machines is evident:
Here, the shock interaction with the contact surface is obtained and
adjusted by the amplitude of movement of the swing (determined by
the athlete himself, or a partner).
In Figure 2.25A, a simple model of such a machine is shown. In
2.24 - Other var
iant of a pendulum
Figure 2.25B, you can see the same model with sleeves for the loaddevicefor reproducing
ing plates, which increase the total mass of the swing and, therefore, the shock regime
121
Chapter 2
m
also increase the shock interaction be
tween the lower body muscle groups
and the contact surface. In Figure
2.25C, the same swing machine has a
platform that is attached to the seat
via rigid cables. The athlete is in con
tact with the platform; this allows
muscular tension to develop before
Fig. 2.25 - The swing equipment
the impact and an active recruitment
of the muscles involved. The length of the cables is adjusted in a way to have the knee
joints slightly bent.
Russian athletes used to use machines of this kind with tensiometers attached to the
wall at the point of push. The athlete could see the force expressed and the contact time of
each rep, displayed on a screen in front of him/her. This information allowed the athlete to
control hisdier force effort, creating a positive emotional state.
Machines with a cart
that moves on rails at var
iable inclines are also
very effective. Examples
of such machines are
shown in the figure 2.26. Fig. 2.26 - The shock method equipment with cart that moves on rails at
The machine in 2.26A variable inclines
is for the lower body, whereas the machines in 2.26B and 2.26C are for the upper body. In
all of the shown examples, the entity of the shock interaction is modulated by adjusting the
incline of the rail and, in the case of the machine in 2.26A, by adjusting the mass of the
cart (i.e. the weight of the plates). The optimal volume per training unit is 4 sets of 10 reps.
2.2.4. General considerations for applying the Shock Method exer
cises
The shock method has an extremely intense training effect; higher in comparison to
other methods of natural stimulation of muscular activity. For this reason, errors (excesses)
are not admitted in its optimal dosing and the duration of its utilization in the training pro
cess must not be brought over a certain limit. Before using the shock method, preliminary
preparation of the muscles,joints, ligaments, and tendons through resistance and jump ex
ercises is necessary.
122
Chapter 2
The shock method quickly brings an increase in the ability to express explosive efforts
of strength. However, in this case, the duration of such adaptation is short. For this reason,
such a method must be used in combination with other methods. In other terms, it is part of
the system of special physical preparation in which the training means of the shock method
must primarily guarantee a training effect on the central nervous system, while the re
sistance exercises of a different load must guarantee the muscular hypertrophy necessary
for the specific sport. It helps to keep in mind that a stable, higher level of the athlete’s
strength capacity is possible only if the improvement of the muscular function is based on
appropriate morphological transformations ofthe muscular structure.
It is important to stress that the possibilities of the shock method must not be overesti
mated; that it is one among other methods of intensification of the muscular work regime,
and that it caimot replace other methods, among which it must occupy one determined po
sition (usually, conclusive) within the system of special strength training. Its position in the
training system is defined by considering the specificities of the sport, the main and partial
objectives of the training process, the level of preparation of the athlete, and the competi
tive calendar.
The rational use ofthe shock method for the improvement of the explosive strength and
reactive ability of the athlete solves, in a considerable manner, the problem of training
economy, and guarantees an elevated level of special preparation without a great waste of
energy and time.
The training practiee and the research study results show that the incorrect utilization of
the Shock method can produce negative results: it can do harm if you apply it unwisely.
Remember, that an experienced coach should always know what kind of training method
he proposes to his athletes and foresee the results he wants to get.
Somebody once said: “Who can foresee is wise.” This is an aphorism that is valid in
every aspect of daily life and in every professional situation, but it seems that its author
was actually referring to the hard job of the coach.
The reader will agree that foreseeing the effect of a training load is a fundamental eharacteristic of the professional capacity of a coach. In fact, it is not possible to succeed in the
training process if the coach does not know what his final objective is. Therefore, foresight
that is based on the idea of what is necessary to do today in order to achieve the planned
objective for tomorrow, or the day after tomorrow, is an aspect that differentiates the intel
ligent professional coach from a rookie.
The capacity to foresee is essential, especially for the shock method. Therefore, it is
necessary to repeat some considerations that we already stressed:
1) The shock method is characterized by a high training effect on the neuromuscular sys
tem ofthe athlete. This is not an ordinary method, rather, a very powerful mean for the
123
Chapter 2
development of ex-plosive strength, and, as such, it must be utilized only when it is ob
jectively necessary. As we know, it can determine the success of the training, but it can
also cause negative effects.
2) It is advisable that the shock method be used in combination with other training means.
However, in the sequenced organization of special strength preparation means, it must
be placed at the end.
124
Chapters
Shock method training programs
The third part of this book contains practical shock method training programs verified
in the field. Coaches and athletes can use them either the way they are presented here or
can modify them, adapting the programs to the specifics of their sport or to the individual
characteristics of their athletes, or even develop new programs using these as a basis.
As the efficacy of these programs has been experimentally verified using special
equipment for the evaluation ofthe preparation status of the athletes, we have considered it
opportune to share the most interesting results of said experiments. We are convinced that
this way the coach can better understand the concept and the possibilities of the shock
method and have informed expectations regarding each program.
Before using these programs, 1 suggest the following preliminary program for athletes
who want to prepare their body and brain for the use of Depth Jumps.
For many years I worked as a consultant for the special physical preparation and
strength preparation of the Russian national teams of various sports (soccer, volleyball,
tennis, rugby, ice hockey, handball, and basketball).
One of the results of such numerous contacts was the design of a jump exercise pro
gram. The main objective of such a program consisted of the development of the legs’ explosive strength and reactive ability combined with strength coordination and maximum
anaerobic power. In figure 3.1, two groups of such exercises are shown:
First Circuit
1. Jump squat with a wide arm oscillation;
2. Full squat jump, hands on the knees, elbows out;
3. Tucking jump squat;
4. Jump squat reaching an object;
5. Alternate splitjump squat, emphasizing the upward push-off.
Second Circuit
1. Tucking jump squat;
2. Pike jump squat;
3. Back arching jump squats;
4. Alternate splitjump squat;
5. Alternate splitjump squat, emphasizing upward push-off;
125
Chapter 3
Each exercise is per
formed for 10 times. It
is very practical to have
the athletes in a circle
performing the exercis
es simultaneously; after
10 executions the coach
says either “to the right”
or “to the left” and the
group begins to jog and
shake the legs. After
that, the coach says
First Circuit
1 ●i
4^
second Circuit
=
“stop” and the athletes Fig. 3.1-Group ofjumping exercises performedfrom a dead start
begin the next exercise.
Each exercise, like the following jog, lasts 2 minutes; the whole circuit, 10 minutes.
Each exercise is performed continuously with a maximum strength effort and powerful
push-off. These circuits are performed at the end ofthe warm-up, when the leg muscles are
warm and loose.
We can guarantee that these jump exercise circuits will become very popular among the
teams that will use them. Being very effective at developing lower body explosive strength
and reactive ability, they create a positive emotional environment, especially when, among
the players, there are some that are good but not so coordinated.
3.1. Training Programsfor Track & Field jumpers and sprinters
3.1.1.Program for middle Level Long and High Jumpers
This program is designed for the training in the preparatory period and provides for the
conduction of training sessions twice a week for 10 weeks. It entails a total of 475 depth
jumps, 335 from a height of0.75m and 140 from 1.10m.
A specific part of warm-up may include a low volume of barbell exercises (circa 20
tons). These exercises must have a general development character.
The efficacy of this program was verified in the experiment with participation of two
equal groups of Track-and-Field jumpers (see Paragraph 1.4.2).
126
Chapter 3
Weeks
Workout
1
2
1
Drop Height of Depth Jumps(m)
Series x Repetitions
I
0.75
3x5
I
0.75
3x5
3
0.75
2x 10
4
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
1x5
2x5
5
0.75
2x 10
6
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
1 X 10
1 X 10
7
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
2x 10
1x5
8
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
2x 10
1 X 10
9
0.75
3 x 10
10
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
1x5
1x5
11
0.75
3x 10
12
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
3) 1.10
1x5
1x5
1 X 10
13
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
2x 10
1 X 10
14
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
1 x 10
1 X 10
15
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
2x 10
1 X 10
16
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
1 X 10
1 X 10
17
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
2x 10
1 X 10
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
0.75
2x 10
1 X 10
3x 10
1) 0.75
2) 1.10
1 x5
2x 10
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
^ ■ ■ r
18
19
10
20
127
Chapter 3
3.1.2.Program for increasing the speed of starting acceleration in
SPRINT RUNNING
This program was designed in 1963 for one of my athletes, the champion of the former
Soviet Union, European record holder, and Tokyo Olympics finalist (1964), the hurdler
Boris Zubov. Boris had excellent speed and speed endurance, in fact, he had no competitor
in the final part of the 200m. Yet, Boris did not have a high acceleration capacity after the
start.
We worked a lot, and without success, on the starting technique, until I realized that
speed and acceleration are determined by different capacities. Nature had given this athlete
the first capacity, forgetting to give him the second one.
I was right, and lately, the special strength preparation program we designed confimied
my assumption. Unfortunately, at that time I did not have any scientific equipment, only
the stopwatch and the tape measure, therefore I do not have convincing data. Yet, I re
member my great satisfaction when Boris improved the first steps after the block start by
60cm and his time over 30m from the blocks by 0.2 seconds. This was enough to make
him a stable part of the national squad and a competitor at the USSR-USA challenge and
later at the Tokyo Olympics.
Lately, the program has been improved, and it has been successfully utilized by hur
dlers, soccer, rugby and baseball players, rowers, ice skaters and athletes from other sports.
The program is performed twice a week for six weeks (for a total of twelve training
units) and it includes the following exercises:
- Barbell Squat, 80-95% of IRM,to develop maximum strength and tone the CNS;
- Vertical jumps with a bar of 50-60% of IRM (Half Squat Jump from a dead start) to
develop explosive strength and tone the CNS;
- Kettlebell Squat Jump, 16-24-32kg, to develop the muscles’ reactive ability;
- Depth Jumps,to develop explosive strength and the muscles’ reactive ability;
- Jumping Exercises, to develop the capacity to repeatedly express explosive strength
efforts and anaerobic power;
- Uphill Runs are hill sprints to develop anaerobic power.
- Stair jumps (of 2-3 stairs) are done with an upward/forward push to develop anaero
bic power. 6-10 executions are done.
128
Week
TrainING SES
SION
Exercises(overload
Setx
WEIGHT)
REP*
1
Barbell Squats
(85-90%)
2
Barbell Squats:
- (80%)
- (90%)
- (93-95%)
1
3
2
4
1. Vertical jumps with bar (5060%)
2-3 X 5-6
1 X 10
1x5
1x2
2x6-8
Rest be
tween SETS
Series
4-5
minutes
2-3
8-10
minutes
4-5
minutes
2-3
6-8
minutes
2-3
8-10
minutes
2
8-10
minutes
2-3
8-10
minutes
2-3
8-10
minutes
2
10-12 min.
15 min,(after two
series)
4-6
minutes
2. Six-fold jump from place
1 x4-5
4-6 min.(be
tween rep)
Barbell Squats:
- (70%)
- (80%)
- (85%)
- (90%)
1 x 12
1 X 10
1 x6-7
1x4-5
5-6
minutes
1. Depth Jumps (0.75 m.)
2x 10
4-6
minutes
5
2. Ten-fold jump from place
1x3
4-6 min.(be
tween rep)
1. Kettlebell Squat Jumps
3x8
4-6
minutes
Rest
BETWEEN SERIES
3
7
4
2. Ten-fold jump from place
1x3-4
4-6 min.(be
tween rep)
1. Vertical jumps with bar (5060%)
2x8
4-6
minutes
2. Six-foldjump from place
1x3-4
4-6 min.(be
tween rep)
3. Uphill runs(15-25 m.)
1 x5-6
1
1. Depth Jumps (0.75 m.)
4x 10
4-6 min.(be
tween rep)
4-6
minutes
1
15 min.(after the
series)
2. Stadium Jumps
4x10
arbitrary (be
tween rep)
2
10-12
minutes
1. Barbell Squats(93-95%)
2x2-3
4-6
minutes
2-3
10-12 min.
15 min. (after the
series)
8
5
9
2. Depth Jumps (1.10 m.)
2x10
4-6
minutes
129
CHAPTER 3
TrainEXERCISES(OVERLOAD
WEIGHT)
Setx
3. Uphill Runs(15-25 m.)
1x5-6
Week ING SES
SION
1. Depth Jumps(1.10m.)
REP*
4x 10
6
Series
4-6 min.(be
tween rep)
1
Rest
BETWEEN SERIES
4-6
10-15 min.
(after the se
ries)
10
11
Rest be
tween SETS
2. Stadium Jumps:
4 X 10(23)
arbitrary (be
tween rep)
1. Barbell Squats(93-95%)
2x2-3
4-6
minutes
2-3
10-12
minutes
2
8-10 min.
15 min.(after the
series)
2. Depth Jumps(1.10 m.)
2x 10
4-6
minutes
3. Uphill Runs(15-25 m.)
1 X 5-6
4-6 min. (be
tween rep)
1
1. Depth Jumps(1.10 m.)
4x 10
10-15
minutes
1
2. Stadium Jumps:
4x 10
arbitrary (be
tween rep)
2-3
12
10-12
minutes
Note*: For the jumping exercises, the number of repetitions indicates the number of repetitions of a given
jump exercise in one set (not the number oftake-offs); the number of series indicates the number of sets.
Vertical Jumps with Barbell must not be executed as consecutive jumps, but as a “se
ries” of single jumps (see the figure 3.2). After each single jump execution, the athlete
must stop and re
lax (shake) the
legs, one after
another. In the
case
of
very
heavy
overload
weight,
before
each single squat
jump execution,
the athlete can al
so rack the bar
bell.
130
Fig. 3.2- Vertical Jump with Barbell
Chapter 3
Kettlebell Squat Jumps (see figure 3.3) are a series of consecutive vertical jumps
standing on two high parallel benches or plinths. During the execution of this exercise, the
kettlebell must arrive on the floor in the extreme low position, but not touch the floor: i:_
m
this way, one may assure the standard leg flexion angle, determined by the height of the
plinths.
9
»
i- ■
i
I:
Fig. 3.3 - Kettlebell Squat Jump
The weight(16, 24, 32 kg)is chosen depending upon the subject. If you do not have ac
cess to Russian Kettlebell of suitable weights you may use a dumbbell, which may be
found in nearly any athletic preparation hall (but they’re not very comfortable to hold in
the hands).
Uphill Runs are hill sprints (15-20m) which must be performed with a moderate fre
quency and accentuating the forward push and the stride length (the athlete must actively
bring the recovery leg forward). In Uphill Running it is necessary to be guided by the fol
lowing methodological rule; The main task is not the speed of locomotion but the accen
tuated take-off by the foot together with a vigorous upward and forward movement by the
thigh of the swing leg. A sprint with short and frequent steps, done not fully extending the
legs, is a big mistake that diminishes the specificity of the training effect of this exercise.
3.2. Universal preparatory programsfor improving Jumping Abil
ity
These are programs that might be useful in every case where an increase in jumping
ability is sought after. They can be used by athletes in any sport that requires faster sprints,
jumping, accelerating, changes of direction, and so on.
99
Such training programs have been developed on the basis of the “complex training
principle, i.e. they entail a positive interrelation (cumulative) of the training effects of dif131
Chapter 3E
ferent training means:
-
Barbell squats;
Barbell half-squat jumps (consecutive jumps with the bar on the shoulders) with the
-
weight of about 40% of maximum in the barbell squat);
Kettlebell squat jumps;
- Depth jumps.
In utilizing these means, three versions with different difficulty levels are advisable.
Such versions are presented here according to their increasing training effect on the neu
romuscular system.
When utilizing programs for the improvement ofjumping ability it is paramount to con
sider the following points:
1) The athlete must be well prepared for their utilization. This means that before using the
depth jumps in training, the athlete must perform a certain volume ofjumping and bar
bell exercises. Furthermore, the athlete must possess sound depth jump technique.
2) In a training unit, the jump capability programs can be combined with another kind of
work (technical work, core or upper body training, etc.) yet maintain their fundamental
role. In no case should they be considered “auxiliary” to other work.
3) The jump capability training cannot be combined with in-depth technical work or
speed work.
3.2.1.First Version
The first version of the program is performed twice a week for six weeks (a total of
twelve training units).
Week
Workout
3
132
Series(Sets)
X Repeti
tions*
Superseries
1
Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
3 X 10
2
Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
4x 10
3
Barbel] Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2-3x3
4
Depth Jumps from 1.10 m
4x 10
5
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
2x3
2x 10
2
6
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
1x3
1 X 10
3
7
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
1-2 X 3
2x 10
2
1
2
Exercises
Chapters
Week
Series(Sets)
X Repeti
tions*
Super
series**
Workout
Exercises
8
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Depth Jumps from 1.10 m
1x3
1 X 10
3-4
1)Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Depth Jumps from 1.10m
1 x3
1 X 10
4
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Depth Jumps from 1.10 m
1x3
2x 10
2
11
Depth Jumps from 1.10 m
4x 10
12
Depth Jumps from 1.10m
4x 10
9
4
10
5
Note*. The term “Series (Sets) x Repetitions” means:
1)For Depth Jumps - what number of single Depth Jumps must be performed in one series (the
intervals of rest between each repetition is free) and what number of such a series must be carried
out(the interval of rest between series is 4-6 min);
2)For Barbell Squats - what number of Barbell Squat repetitions must be performed in one set
and what number of sets must be canned out. The rest intervals between sets is 4-6 min.
Note**. The term “Super-series” means how many times the athletes must repeat the Super-series,
which includes two exercises (1 and 2), carried out with the prescribed number of series (or sets)
and repetitions. The rest intervals between the super-series is 8-10 min.
For example, in the 5th workout, the athlete must perform, at first, 2 sets of Barbell Squats with
the weight of90-93%(3 reps) having 4-6 min of rest between the sets. After the end of last set, he
must rest 8-10 min and to cany out 2 series of 10 Depth Jumps with 3-5 min rest between these
series. The execution of tliese two exercises(2 sets of Barbell Squats and 2 series of 10 Depth
Jumps)constitutes one super-series. In the training workout, the athlete must carry out two of
these super-series with a rest period of 8-10 min between them.
3.2.2.Second Version
The second version of the program is performed twice a week for six weeks (a total of
twelve training units).
Week
Workout
Exercises
Series x
REPETITIONS
1
Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
3 X 10
2
1) Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
2)Depth Jumps from 1.10m
2x 10
2x 10
1
Superseries
133
Chapter 3IZ u I
Series x
WEEK
EXERCISES
WORKOUT
REPETITIONS
Superseries
3
Kettlebell Squat Jumps(24 kg)
4x 10
4
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
2-3x3
3 X 10
5
Depth Jumps from 1.10 m
4x 10
6
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of90-93%
2)Depth Jumps from 1.10m
2x3
1 xlO
3
7
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Kettlebell Squat Jumps(24 kg)
2x3
2x 10
2
8
Depth Jumps from 1.10 m
1 X 10
9
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Kettlebell Squat Jumps(32 kg)
1 X 10
10
Depth Jumps from 1.10 m
4x 10
11
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Kettlebell Squat Jumps(32 kg)
2x3
2x 10
2
12
1)Kettlebell Squat Jumps(32 kg)
2)Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
1 X 10
1 X 10
4
2
3
4
5
1
1x3
2-3
3.2.3.Third Version
The third version of the program is very effective for the development ofjumping abil
ity because it utilizes the principle of the strength training loads concentration in a limited
period oftime. So, it necessitates an adequate preliminary preparation. The program is per
formed three times a week for five weeks(a total of fifteen training units).
Series x
SuperExercises
Week Workout
series**
REPETITIONS*
1
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2) Barbell Half-Squat Jumps with a weight
of 30-40%
1x2-3
2x8-10
2
Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
4x 10
3
Depth Jumps from 1.10m
4x 10
4
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Kettlebell Squat Jumps(24 kg)
3)Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
1x2-3
1 X 10
2x 10
2
1) Kettlebell Squat Jumps(24 kg
2)Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
2x 10
2x 10
2
1
2
5
134
1
Chapter 3
Week
3
Workout
Exercises
Series x
Repetitions*
Super
series**
6
Depth Jumps from 1.10 m
4x 10
7
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Kettlebell Squat Jumps(24 kg)
2x2-3
2x 10
2
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2)Kettlebell Squat Jumps(24 kg
3)Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
2x2-3
2x 10
2x 10
2
9
Depth Jumps from 1.10 m
4x 10
10
1) Barbell Squats with a weight of 90-93%
2) Barbell Half-Squat Jumps with a weight
of 30-40%
1 x2-3
2x10
3
11
1) Kettlebell Squat Jumps(32 kg)
2)Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
2x10
2x 10
2
12
1) Depth Jumps from 1.10m
4x 10
13
2)Barbell Squats with a weight of90-93%
3) Barbell Half-Squat Jumps with a weight
of 30-40%
1x2-3
2x 10
1) Barbell Half-Squat Jumps with a weight
of 30-40%
2x10
14
2)Kettlebell Squat Jumps(32 kg)
2x 10
1) Depth Jumps from 0.75 m
2)Depth Jumps from 1.10m
2x 10
2x 10
8
4
5
15
3
2
Note*. The term “Series (Sets) x Repetitions” means:
1)For Depth Jumps - what number of single Depth Jumps must be performed in one series (the in
tervals of rest between each repetition is free) and what number of such a series must be carried out
(the interval of rest between series is 3-5 min);
2)For Kettlebell Squat Jumps- what number of consecutive jumps must be performed in each ex
ercise (set) and what number of exercises (sets) must be carried out.
3)For Barbell Squats - what number of Barbell Squat repetitions must be performed in one set and
what number of sets must be carried out. The rest intervals between sets is 4-6 min.
Note**. The term “Super-series” means how much times the athletes must repeat the Super-series,
which includes two exercises(1 and 2), carried out with the prescribed numbers of series (or sets)
and repetitions. The rest intervals between the super-series is 8-10 min.
For example, in the 12th workout, the athlete must perform the following super-series:
1)4 series of 10 Depth Jumps from 1.10 m with a rest period of4 - 6 min;
2) 1 set of Barbell Squats with a weight of90-93%(3 reps) and a rest period of 4-6 min;
3)2 series of Barbell Half-Squat Jumps with a weight of 30-40%(10 consecutive jumps in each
series) with a 4-6 min rest between them.
The athlete must carry out 3 super-series with rest intervals of 8-10 min between them.
135
Chapter 3
The third version of
program is based on the
“specific load concentra
tion in a short period”
principle. This training
load organization modali
ty entails a remarkable
load on the organism that
usually leads to a depres
sion in a series of func
tional parameters, espe Fig. 3.4 - The Long Term Delayed Training Effect(LTDTE) of the con
cially the ability to per centrated strength loads - basic scheme
form explosive strength efforts. Yet, this phenomenon is not dangerous and is both tempo
rary and reversible. In fact, at the end of the five-week program, not only do the parame
ters rise back to the initial level, but they greatly surpass it.
This phenomenon has been studied and defined in our works (1978, 1985) as the Long
Term Delayed Training Effect (LTDTE). The essence of this phenomenon is that the
positive functional effect of a concentrated strength load is not realized immediately, but
rather, at the end of its utilization (Figure 3.4)
After the load concentration block (A) we have the so-called, paradoxical LTDTE
phase, during which the functional capacities of the athlete - in our case, the ability to ex
press the explosive strength effort,(J) decrease momentarily. After that, we have the reali
zation phase, characterized by a low volume, high intensity load (B), which not only fa
vors the return of the functional parameters to the initial level, but their increase by 2030%. The correct use of this method offers a lot of possibilities for designing training sys
tems for high level athletes.
3.3. Training Programsfor High Level Weightlifters
3.3.1.Basic program for the Pre-competition period
The basic program for the pre-competition period of weightlifters has been developed
for the three weeks of special training that begin four weeks before competition. The last
week before competition was dedicated to technical tune-up and the completion of prepa
ration.
The depth jumps are trained three times a week (for a total of nine training sessions).
136
3 Chapters
Week
1
2
3
Workout
Drop Height(m)
0.5
Series x Repetitions
1
2
0.5
2x10
3
0.5
3 X 10
4
0.5
4x 10
5
0.5
2x 10
6
0.7
2x 10
7
0.7
4x 10
8
0.7
4x 10
9
0.7
4x 10
2x10
In order to evaluate the effectiveness of this program, the experimental group (n=8)per
formed it with a total volume of 310 depth jumps. Simultaneously, the volume of barbell
squatting was reduced, and the other auxiliary jump exercises completely abolished Gump
on the pommel horse, jump ups, etc.). The total barbell volume was 786 repetitions (90
tons).
A control group, which was not performing the depth jumps, was studied. This group
performed 929 barbell repetitions(114 tons) and circa 300 auxiliary jump exercises.
Using a special dynamometric stand, UDS (see Figure 1.24), a set of biomechanical pa
rameters of the lower limb’s extension (Leg Press) performed with a maximum strength
effort was measured. The results of such an experiment are very important and rather fun
damental to understanding the very essence of the shock method’s training effect. For this
reason, they deserve attention.
The changes in weekly biomechanical parameters during a three-week stage are shown
in the figure 3.5. We want to direct your attention to the following points;
1) The experimental group experienced a remarkable increase in all the biomechanical pa
rameters; much greater than the control group;
2) The control group experienced a reduction in some of the parameters; for example, the
mean movement velocity, the maximum dynamic strength, the mean work power and
the starting strength;
3) During the three training weeks, an important parameter such as starting strength remained depressed for the athletes of the control group (lower than pre-training).
Using the curve F/t registration, the leg extension biomechanical parameters were recorded and divided into three zones of the range of motion. In figure 3.6 the modifications
produced in each zone throughout the three weeks of training are shown.
137
iiV-j---
CHAPTER 3 m
□ ControlGroup
40 1
□ ControlGroup
nExperimentalGroup
40
%
Average Speed
30 ■
20 ■
10
10
0
r
T
1
-10
60
%
^
0
I
T
2
3
2
-10 J
40
%
Average Power
30
20
Explosive Strength
□ Experimental Group
%
3
Starting Strength
30 ■
40 20 ■
10 ■
20 -
0
8 n
7 -
0
I
I
1
2
2
3
-10 -I
20 n
%
Fjyiax in Dinamic regime
%
Fjviax in Isometric Regime
6 5 4 10 ■
3 2 0
-1
2
3
Week
0
-2
1
2
3
Week
Fig. 3.5 - Changes in three weeks of the biomechanicai parameters of the Leg Press for the experimental and
the control group of weightlifters
We can easily note:
- The shock method produced a remarkable increase in the power output of each zone
of the range of motion (Experimental Group).
138
Chapter 3
The power out
put of the exper
imental group is
much
higher
than the control
group.
Is
50 -I
45 40 -
% Amplitude OF the
CONTROL MOVEMENT
□ First week □ Second week □ Third week
35 30 -
Experimental group
25 -
very
im
20 -
portant to notice
15 -
that the highest
increase in the
10 -
power
0
output
5
happens in the
1
first segment of
10
the range of mo
tion.
8
1%
2
3
CONTROL GROUP
6
4
At the end, we may
conclude that:
1) In three weeks, the
shock
method
training ensured a
remarkable
mcrease
in
2
0
-2
-4
-6
1
1, 2, 3 - indicate the segment of
the control movement
both
maximum isomet
ric strength (20%)
and
explosive
strength (58.8%);
2) The shock method
training ensured a
Fig. 3.6 - Changes in the power parameters of control movement (Leg Press)
remarkable
m- related to the three segments of the movement
crease in starting
strength (38.1%) and the power output in the first part of the range of motion (43.8%).
This is a very important detail as for the acceleration of the barbell, a great power out
put is necessary exactly at the beginning of the movement.
3) The shock method utilization allowed greater results in the snatch and the clean and
jerk compared to the control group. The increase in the “total” (the sum of the weights
lifted in the snatch and clean and jerk) for the experimental group was 6.7%, compared
to only 1.5% in the control group.
139
Chapter 31
4) We must stress that already after just one week of depth jump utilization, that is, three
special training units of a total volume of seven sets, each set of 10 repetitions from a
height of 0.50m (70 repetitions), a notable increase in the speed strength parameters
took place.
Based on the experimental data just presented, two more training programs for weightlifters were developed and verified, and can be suggested.
3.3.2.Advanced program for the Preparation period
The depth jumps were performed three times a week for four weeks. The load volume is
480 jumps, divided this way: 40 jumps from 0.50 m, 220 jumps from 0.70 m and 220
jumps from 1.00 m.
Week
1
2
3
4
140
Drop Height(m)
Series x Repetitions
0.5
0.7
3 X 10
1 X 10
2
0.5
0.7
1 X 10
3x10
3
0.7
4x 10
4
0.7
4x 10
5
0.7
1.0
3 X 10
1 X 10
6
0.7
1.0
2x10
2x 10
7
0.7
1.0
1 X 10
3 X 10
8
1.0
4x 10
9
1.0
4x 10
10
1.0
4x 10
11
1.0
4x 10
12
0.7
4x 10
workout
:;
m
Etol Chapters
3.3.3. Advanced Program for the Pre-competition period
The depth jumps were performed three times a week for three weeks. The load volume
is 360 jumps, divided this way; 30 jumps from 0.50m, 220 jumps from 0.70m and 110
jumps from 1.00m.
The last day of this program must coincide with the 8th to 10th day before the competi
tion.
Week
1
2
3
Workout
Drop Height(m)
Series x Repetitions
1
0.5
0.7
2x 10
2x 10
2
0.5
0.7
1 X 10
3 X 10
3
0.7
4x 10
4
0.7
4x 10
5
0.7
1.0
3 X 10
1 X 10
6
0.7
1.0
2x 10
2x 10
7
1.0
4x 10
8
1.0
4x 10
9
0.7
4x 10
Basically, the latter two training programs have the same training effect on the strength
preparation level of the athlete as the first program. Yet, during the verification of the third
program in the preparation phase, a peculiarity arose. In fact, not only did the shock meth
od increase the weightlifters’ special strength preparation level, but also their technical
proficiency as it was expressed in a faster and more powerful switch from the eccentric to
the concentric action in the execution of the snatch and the clean and jerk.
As an example, see figure 3.7, the vertical force component (Fy), the knee angle (a°),
and the barbell vertical velocity (Vy) during the lower body extension, before(A)and after
(B) the experimental training (four weeks of depth jump training), is shown. The P line
represents the sum of the load weight and the athlete’s bodyweight.
Let’s now analyze the movement changes elicited by such training:
1) The barbell acceleration time gets notably lower (by 22%). Specifically, the amortiza
tion phase (ti) diminishes by 12.5% and the concentric phase by 26.4%. We can easily
notice that during the concentric phase (t2) the barbell velocity during the pull (Vy) as
141
Chapter 3iffi
well as the knee extension speed (a°)
increase, whereas the amortization
knee flexion decreases (from 112° to
107°).
2) These modifications are obviously
determined by the higher power out
put and reactive ability of the mus
cles. This can be inferred by the
more concentrated strength effort
(Fy), by the steeper strength increase,
and its higher maximum level. Be
fore the depth jump training, the
maximum strength effort was 179%
of the sum of the barbell weight and
the athlete’s bodyweight, whereas af
ter the experimental training (i.e. the
depth jump training), it reached
211%. Simultaneously, both the ex
plosive strength and reactive ability
increased by 54% and 28%, respec
tively.
In conclusion, we remind you that de¬
spite a barbell volume reduction of
14.2% (940 repetitions), the total (snatch
+ clean and jerk) of the experimental
group was 12.3% (6.6kg) higher than the
control group, which was not training
with the depth jumps; the explosive
Fig. 3.7 - Changes in biomechanical parameters of the
jerk movement (with a barbell of150 kg) in the control
group (A - before experiment, B -after experiment)
strength and reactive ability of the con
trol group increased by 7% and 10% re
spectively.
This experience regarding the use of the depth jumps in weightlifters’ training allows us
to give the following directions:
1) In the preparatory phase, it is advisable to use depth jumps as an auxiliary training
mean in the general preparation. In this case, the main objective is the intensity in
crease of the special strength preparedness in order to directly develop the movements’
power output.
2) In the competitive phase the main objective ofthe depth jump training is the immediate
142
Chapter 3
increase in the special strength preparedness of the weightlifters. In this case, the depth
jump training must begin four to four and a half weeks before competitions and for no
more than three to four weeks. Simultaneously, it is necessary to reduce the total train
ing volume by reducing the barbell squat as well as the volume of competitive exercis
es. The last depth jump set must be performed 7 to 10 days before competition.
3) It is advisable to perform the depth jumps only after having completed a high volume
of barbell training.
4) In a training unit, the depth jumps must be performed after the base (technical) barbell
work (the special exercises finalized at the improving technique of execution of the
Olympic lifts), yet before the barbell squat and the competitive exercises.
5) In every training session the depth jumps must be preceded by a special warm-up that
includes jump-forward to jump-upward, and depth jumps from low heights (0.300.40m) with a sub-maximal strength effort.
6) Through the experiments conducted, we have established that the optimal intensity
(fall height) and volume (number of depth jumps) are those used in the shown pro
grams. Yet, considering the individual response to the depth jump training effect, those
parameters can be changed and adapted in a trial and error fashion; for example, ma
nipulating the volume and distribution of the jumps during the pre-competitive phase.
7) The depth jumps effectively improve both the weightlifters’ special strength prepara
tion and their technical proficiency. Therefore, during their preparation, both their
functional status and their technique must be monitored. This is the only way to find
the optimal program for the depth jumps utilization and benefit the athletes.
8) These exercises must not be used more than three times a week (every other day) and
for no more than four sets of ten reps in a training unit.
9) The elevated training effect of the depth jumps allows for the reduction of the total
training volume. Specifically, the mentioned training programs allowed a slight reduc
tion of barbell training (14 to 16%), mainly thru a reduction in the volume of barbell
squats and competitive exercises.
10)For the weightlifters in the weight classes between 60kg and 100kg, the optimal height
is up to 0.70m, whereas for the weightlifters over 100kg, it is between 0.50m and
0.60m.
3.4. Training program for High Level Gymnasts
This program is aimed at increasing the power output of upper body repelling move
ments that are typically performed during the floor exercises and vaults in Gymnastics.
The program lasts twelve weeks(a total of48 training units) of which:
- Four weeks represent the general preparation phase;
143
Chapter 3
"
-
Eight weeks represent the special preparation phase.
Six training units per week are performed:
Five training sessions are dedicated to the preparation of the main routine, after the
warm-up, the special strength circuits also are performed;
One session (the sixth, on Thursdays) is completely dedicated to special strength
-
preparation.
The main objectives of the General Preparation phase are:
- Preparing ligaments and muscles ofthe upper body to withstand a high shock load;
- Increasing the muscular strength of the upper body pushing muscle groups.
The following two circuits are alternated from week to week:
First Circuit
1) Pike position on the parallel bars, quickly hop forward with arm push(2 repetitions).
2) Flops forward from a handstand,(2x8).
3) Rope climb, arms only(2 repetitions).
4) Pike to handstand on the parallel bars, witli the help ofthe coach (2x5).
5) Handstand on two 10cm boxes, drop on the ground and rebound back on the boxes
(2x8)
6) Handstand forward and backward, move over 10m, either quickly or slowly.
V) Handstand jumps on the spot on a mini-trampoline (2x10).
8) Handstand push-ups at the parallel bars (2x10).
9) Barbell front raises, 85% of IRM (2x3)
Second Circuit
1) Handstand push-ups (2x8).
2) Handstand push-ups with a loaded belt of 3-4kg (2x8).
3) Rope climbing, arms only, fast up, slow down(2 repetitions).
4) Flandstand on rings
5) Body reclined with straight arms onto two 15cm boxes and legs parallel to the ground,
fall down and spring back up on the boxes(2x8)
6) Handstand fast push-ups on the parallel bars(2x6)
7) Handstand push-ups on a mini-trampoline (2x20)
The main objectives ofthe Special Preparation phase are:
-
The development of the explosive and reactive strength of the upper body muscles;
The increase in the motor potential of athletes relative to the most difficult exercises.
The special preparation phase is divided in two parts, lasting four weeks each.
In the first part, the third circuit is performed three times a week (Mondays, Wednes
days and Saturdays), while the fourth circuit is performed once a week (Thursdays).
144
@ Chapters
In the second part, the fourth circuit is performed twice a week (Tuesdays and Satur
days). Once a week, turnovers with support, which require an elevated pushing ability, are
introduced.
For example:
- Forward turnover, prone landing on 220cm high mats(4 repetitions);
- Inclined pommel horse vaulting; distal part is 10cm higher than the proximal one.
The execution of such exercises requires a higher power output of the arms against the
equipment(pommel horse). Thus, they demand an increase in the explosive capacity of the
arms’ and shoulder girdles’ muscle groups, producing a training effect on them.
Third Circuit
1) Handstand push-ups on a mini-trampoline (2x20).
2) Horizontal displacement handstand push-ups wearing a weighted (2-3kg) belt(2x10).
3) Handstand depth jumps from 15, 20, and 25cm boxes (3x5).
4) From a pike position to the handstand (with the help of the coach), at the parallel bars
(2x5).
5) Handstand fast push-ups at the parallel bars (2x6).
6) From a handstand position at the rings, slow slide to an inverted cross position and
quick recovery to the initial position.
7) Powerful handstand push-ups with a weighted (0.5-lkg) belt, flexing and extending the
legs (2x8).
8) Fast rope climb-up using just the arms, and slow descent(2 repetitions).
9) Advancement at the parallel bars at maximum speed via arms pushes(2 repetitions).
10)Reclined upper body and flexed hip (reclined open pike position), hands on two 20cm
boxes, depth jump and spring back up (high frequency, open elbow angle).
Fourth Circuit
1) Handstand push-ups on a mini-trampoline (2x20).
2) Horizontal displacement handstand push-ups wearing a weighted (2-3kg) belt(2x10).
3) Handstand depth jumps from a 25cm box (3x5).
4) From a pike position to the handstand (with the help of the coach), at the parallel bars
(2x7).
5) Powerful handstand push-ups with a weighted (0.5-lkg) belt, flexing and extending
the legs(2x8).
6) Advancement at the parallel bars at maximum speed via arm pushes(2 repetitions).
7) Fast rope climb-up using just the arms, and slow descent(2 repetitions).
8) Handstand depth jump over 15cm steps (3x5).
9) Powerful handstand push-ups with a weighted (0.5-lkg) belt, flexing and extending the
legs (2x8).
145
Chapter 3ffi
The following table synthesize the main points ofthe program.
Special Preparation Stage
General Preparation Stage
Main Objectives
Training
Schema
The
4 Weeks
4 Weeks
4 Weeks
Preparing ligaments and mus
cles ofthe upper body to
withstand a high shock load
Developing the explosive and reactive strength ofthe
upper body muscles
Increasing the muscular
strength ofthe upper body
pushing muscle groups
Increasing the motor potential of athletes relative to
the most difficult exercises
The 1®* and 2"‘‘ circuits are al
ternated from week to week
3’^^' circuit - Monday,
Wednesday and Saturday
4* circuit - Thursday
4“ circuit - Thursday
and Saturday.
Once a week - turnover
with support
experimental
evaluation of this program
showed a relevant im
%
50 n
provement in a series of
40 -
explosive strength and re
active ability tests for the
30 -
□ Experimental Group
□ Control Group
arm and shoulder girdle
muscle groups at push-off
20 -
(Figure 3.8). Such param
eters had higher values
for the athletes that used
10 -
said programs, compared
to the control group (that
0
1
2
3
4
5
is, the athletes that did not
use the special program Fig. 3.8 - Increase in the results of the expiosive strength and reactive abiiity tests during the experiment (controlgroup’s parameters are in dark):
for the development of 1 - Maximal number of repetitions of the Handstand push-ups.
explosive strength and re
active ability).
In figures 3.9 and 3.10,
the dynamograms of the
15 cm handstand depth
jumps are shown and
2 - Time to cover 3m moving forward with Handstand push-up jumps.
3 - Maximal height of the vertical Handstand push-up jump.
4 - Maximal height of the vertical Handstand push-up jump after the drop
ping from the 15 cm height.
5 - Maximal height of the vertical Handstand push-up jump after the drop
ping from the 25 cm height.
clearly illustrate how the interaction between the gymnast and the support has changed.
146
fm
Chapter 3
The push-off of the handstand
improves in both maximum force
and execution time (Figure 3.9).
The push-off of the handstand
depth jump improves in both max
imum force (second peak in
dynamogram A)and execution time
(Figure 3.10). The flight time in
creases (phase between the A pushoff and B landing). The initial value
of the shock interaction at the first
landing (first peak in dynamogram
A)did not change.
The positive changes in the ex
'
Dynamogram ofthe Handstand Depth Jump, 1- be»/“'■
‘verlmen,
plosive strength and reactive ability
of the gymnasts’ neuromuscular
system also guaranteed the im
provement of the push-off in the
control exercise (forward turnover
with 1.5 forward jump-turn). The
flight time after the arms push-off,
decreased by 0.117sec (13.7%) and
the flight height (over the pommel
horse) increased by 1.9cm (6.2%).
Such parameters changed for the
control group as well, by 0.007sec
(0.83%) and 1.4cm (1.12%), respectively. The score at the pommel
horse
increased
tor
the
experi-
mental group from 9.03 to 9.25
Fig. 3.10 - Dynamogram of the Handstand Depth Jump front
the height of 15cm, at landing (A), at the second landing after
the push-off (B). 1- before the experiment, 2- after the experi
f^ent
points (2.43%), while the control group improved from 8.97 to 9 points (0.44%).
3.5. Training Program for High Level Rowers
This program is aimed at developing the capacity to express a high level of explosive
strength and reactive ability of the legs in a fatigued condition and it entails that:
- The rowers already have a high enough level of maximum strength;
-
A special strength training program is also performed for the arms, shoulder girdle,
147
CHAPTER 3
and trunk muscles.
The main objective of the program is the increase of the leg extensors’ strength poten
tial, considering the specificity of their work in rowing. Concretely, this will result:
- In a maximum strength increase;
- In an explosive strength increase;
- In an improvement of the R (reactive ability) under specific endurance conditions;
- In an improvement of the muscles’ elastic capacity (capacity to recover mechanical
energy).
The program includes four fundamental exercises done in a shock regime, performed in
four different variants (Figure 3.11):
a) Barbell Squat Jumps (consecutive jumps with the bar on the shoulders) with a
weight of about 40% of maximum in the barbell squat (in the hard variant of the
use of the consecutive Squat Jumps, bend at the knees not until your thighs are at
least parallel to the floor, but as a full squat);
b) Kettlebell Squat Jumps(16, 24, 32 kg, individually selected);
c) Box Jumps (consecutive double leg jumps onto a box of 0.30 - 0.40m in height car
ried out in sets of consecutive take offs on the box and down on the floor; the rate
of the consecutive take offs should be gradually increased during the training stage);
d) Depth jumps using a height of 0.5 and 0.7m.
This program is based on the “series of intervals” method, where a brief, high intensity
set is followed by a short rest interval. Several repetitions constitute a set, several of such
sets constitute a series, which is followed
F
by a long rest interval.
f!
The total load is formed by:
- the number of repetitions in a set
and, therefore, its duration;
- the number of sets in a series;
a
- the number of series;
- the rest interval between sets;
- the rest interval between series.
A notation such as 8x10(3) means:
- 3 series
- of 8 sets
- of 10 repetitions.
Furthermore, the rest intervals be
tween the sets and series are indicated.
Fig. 3.11 - Training exercisesfor rowers
148
b
Chapters
The program is performed twice a week for eight weeks (for a total of 16 training
units).
Training
Rest between Rest between
Sets x Repetitions
Exercises
SESSION
SETS
series
(Series)
1
60 sec
8-12 min
Barbell Squat Jumps
4 X 8(2)
1. Barbell Squat Jumps
60 sec
8-12 min
5 X 8(2)
2. Depth Jumps(0.5m)
1-2 min
5-6 min
2 X 10(2)
1. Barbell Squat Jumps
60 sec
8-12 min
5 X 10(2)
2. Depth Jumps(0.7m)
1-2 min
5-6 min
4x 10(1)
1. Barbell Squat Jumps
60 sec
8-12 min
6 X 10(2)
2. Kettlebell Squat Jumps
4 min
1. Barbell Squat Jumps
60 sec
2. Kettlebell Squat Jumps
30 sec
1. Barbell Squats jump
30 sec
8-10 min
6 X 10(3)
2. Kettlebell Squat Jumps
30 sec
4-6 min
5 X 8(2)
1. Barbell Squat Jumps
30 sec
8-10 min
8 X 10(2)
2. Kettlebell Squat Jumps
10 sec
4-6 min
6 X 10(2)
1. Barbell Squatjumps
30 sec
8-10 min
10 X 10(2)
2. Kettlebell Squat Jumps
4-6 min
10 min
8 X 10(2)
1. Barbell Squatjumps
30 sec
8-10 min
10 X 10(4)
2. Kettlebell Squat Jumps
10 sec rest
4-6 min
8 X 10(2)
1. Barbell Squat Jumps
30 sec
8-10 min
10 X 10(3)
2. Kettlebell Squat Jumps
10 sec
4-6 min
10 X 10(3)
11
Barbell Squat Jumps
10 sec
8-10 min
10 X 10(4)
12
Barbell Squat Jumps
10 sec
8-10
10 X 10(4)
1. Barbell Squatjumps
2. Box Jumps at moderate
rate
10 sec
8-10 min
10 X 10(3)
13
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
14
Box Jumps at higher rate
4x 10(1)
8-10 min
4x8(1)
4 min
3 min
6 X 10(3)
4x 10(1)
10-12 min
4x50(2-3)
— 149
Chapter 3E
Training
Exercises
SESSION
Rest between
Rest between
SETS
SERIES
Sets X Repetitions
(Series)
15
Box Jumps at highest rate
2 min
10-15 min
5 X 50(2-3)
16
Box Jumps at highest rate
2 min
10-15 min
5 X 50(3-4)
Now we can do the following observations:
1) The suggested program is based on the principle of gradually increased specificity and
intensity of the training stimuli and it is es
pecially effective at achieving the proposed
objectives. Nevertheless, it can be consid
ered a bit monotonous by some coaches or
athletes. In such a case, it can be varied by
utilizing the following exercises (Figure
3.12):
a) Single Leg Jump Ups (height 80100cm), with a 3-4 steps run up fol
lowed by a double leg jump (2-4x10,
5-6’ R.I.).
b) Hurdle Jumps (height 40-60cm), with
an accentuated push (3x10, 1’ R.I).
c) Jumping rope in place, on both legs,
maximum speed (3x1’, 1’ R.I).
d) Explosive Push-Ups, with hand clap
ping in the flight phase (3x20, 1’ R.I).
e) 1
and
//
^
Fig. 3.12 - Auxiliary exercisesfor rowers
1/3 Bench Rowing (Figure
3.12e), 80% of IRM. Lifting the weight for 1/3 of the ROM,followed by a quick
eccentric and an explosive concentric to the chest (3x6-8, 4-6’ R.I). 2 series with
8-10’ R.I.
f) 1 and 1/3 Low Pulley Rowing,80% of IRM. Performed as the exercise above, im
itating the rowing motion.(3-4x8-10, 4-6’ R.I). 2-3 series with 10-12’ R.I.
When these exercises are utilized instead of those suggested before, the program design
must consider the principle of gradually increased specificity and intensity of the mus
cular work.
2) This program is especially geared toward the development of the explosive strength
and the reactive ability of the legs. Nevertheless, we must not forget to develop the
specific strength endurance of the trunk muscles (especially the Lats). For such an ob
jective, we can use another two days in the week. Therefore, the program for the spe-
150
xn'
Chapter 3
cial strength preparation can look like tliis:
- Monday: Lower body;
- Tuesday: Upper body;
- Thursday: Lower body;
- Friday: Upper body.
3) Finally, we can easily recognize that to precisely follow this program, with its rest in
tervals between sets and series, the athlete must spend a lot of time on it, almost every
day. This is a plus, not a minus, of the program. In fact, such organization of the train
ing load in the training unit allows an improvement of the central nervous regulation of
the muscular work, as well as of the specific energy systems for such work. Therefore,
this specialized strength work, for its effect on the organism, can be compared to many
hours of endurance work. In other words, it ensures an elevated preparation effect for
the athlete, yet with a lower utilization of his time and energy.
3.6. Training Programsfor Volleyball players.
Three programs are provided for volleyball players:
- First program: For middle level volleyball players.
- Second program: For high level volleyball players in the preparatory period.
- Third program: For high level volleyball players in the pre-competitive period.
3.6.1.Program for middle level athletes
This program is performed three times a week, for four weeks (for a total of twelve
training units) and it entails only the execution of depth jumps.
Drop Height(m)
Series x Repetitions
0.60
3X10
3
4
0.60
0.70
3x10
3x 10
0.70
4X 10
5
0.75
4X10
6
0.75
4X10
7
0.75
0.75
4X10
Week Workout
1
2
2
3
8
9
0.75
4X10
4x 10
151
Chapter 3r '
Drop Height(m)
Series x Repetitions
10
0.80
4x10
11
1.10
4x10
12
1.10
4x10
Week Workout
4
1) The suggested volume is indicated for athletes that already can perform the depth jump
correctly and it represents an optimal load limit that must be reached gradually and
must not be surpassed.
2) In every training unit the depth jumps must be preceded by a special warm-up that in
cludes vertical jumps and depth jumps from low heights (30-40cm) with half-effort
push-off.
3) The rest interval between sets is decided according to the athlete’s condition. It is not
opportune to either voluntarily decrease or increase the rest interval between sets. We
shall begin the next set when the athlete feels ready to continue (usually 3-5 minutes is
enough). The rest period should not be passive; instead, relaxation exercises, mobility
exercises, and light jogging should be employed to facilitate the restoration ofthe mus
cular system work capacity.
3.6.2.Program for the preparatory stage of high level athletes
This program is performed two times a week, for six weeks (for a total of twelve train
ing units) and it includes the following exercises:
1) Barbell Squat;
2) Vertical Jumps with bar;
3) Volleyball Spike Jump - 2-3 steps run-up jump forward on two legs-jump upward, try
ing to reach the lower part of basketball back-board or another object set at a height
(see figure 3.13).
4) Depth Jump.
UPWARD
downward
The Vertical Jump with
Barbell is different from
the Barbell Squat Jump
that was presented earlier
and must be not be exe
consecutive
as
cuted
jumps, but as a “sets” of
single jumps. In other
.i
f
i-li I % C
^
1
0
I,
Approach Phase 1 Approach Phase2
Fig. 3.13 - Volleyball Spike Jump
152
!
r
V"
Plant Phase
Chapters
words, the individual will reset themselves entirely before the subsequent repetition.
After each single jump repetition, the athlete must stop and relax (shake) the legs, one
after another. In the case of very heavy overload weight, before each single squat jump
repetition, the athlete can also rack the barbell. The athlete must be motivated to obtain the
maximal jump height without thinking about the knee angle at the end of concentric phase.
As in the case of the normal vertical jump (and also Depth Jump), the previous concentrie phase must be executed in the way that assures the best jump height “automatically,
thanks to the athlete’s correct understanding of the motor trend of this exercise
99
Week
Day
Exercise
Dosage
2-3 X 5-6
1
Barbell squats(85-90%)
Series are repeated 2-3 times. Rest between sets is 4-6 min,
between series, 6-8 min.
3 X 8-10
2
Barbell squats(80%)
3
1. Barbell squats(90-93%)
2. Vertical jumps with bar(40-50%)
4
1. Barbell squats(90-95%)
2. Vertical jumps with bar(40-50%)
Series are repeated 2 times. Rest between sets is 4-6 min.,
between series, 8-10 min.
2x2-3
2-3 x 6-8
Series is repeated 2 times. Rest between sets is 3-4 min, be
tween series, 8-10 min.
2x2-3
2x6
Series is repeated 3 times. Rest between sets is 3-4 min, be
tween series, 8-10 min.
5
1. Vertical jumps with bar(60-70%)
2. Volleyball Spike Jump
2x8
2x8
1. Barbell squats(90-95%)
2. Volleyball Spike Jump
Series are repeated 2 times. Rest between sets is 3-4 rain,
between series, 8-10 rain
2x2-3
2x8
2
3
6
7
1. Depth jumps(0.5m)
2. Volleyball Spike Jump
8
1. Depth jumps (0.7 m.)
2. Volleyball Spike Jump
Series are repeated 2-3 times. Rest between sets is 4-5 min.,
between series, 8-10 min.
2x8
2x8
Series are repeated 2 times. Rest between sets and rests be
tween series, 4-6 min
2x8
2x10
9
1. Barbell squats(90-95%)
2, Depth jumps(0.75 m.)
Series are repeated 2 times. Rest between sets 4-6 min.
2x2-3
2x 10
4
5
10
1. Depth jumps(0.75 m.)
2. Depth jumps(1.10 m.)
Series are repeated 2 times. Rest between sets, 4-6 min, be
tween series, 10-12 min.
2x 10
2x 10
Rest between sets is 4-6 min
153
Chapter 3
Week
Exercise
Day
DOSAGE
11
1. Barbell squats(90-95%)
2. Depth jumps (0.75 m.)
2x2-3
2x10
Series are repeated 2 times. Rest between sets is 4-6 min, be
tween series, 8-10 min.
12
1. Depth jumps(0.75 m.)
2. Depth jumps(1.10 m.)
1 X 10
3x 10
Rest between sets is 4-6 min.
6
3.6.3.Program for the pre-competition stage of high level athletes
The third program is performed three times a week for four weeks (for a total of 12
training units) and it includes the same exercises as the previous programs.
Week
Day
Exercise
Barbell squats(85-90%)
1
1
2
3
4
2
5
6
7
3
8
9
154
DOSAGE
2-3 X 5-6
Series are repeated 2 times. Rest between sets is 4-6
min, between series, 6-8 min.
1-2x2-3
1. Barbell squats(90-93%)
2. Vertical jumps with bar (40- 2x6-8
Series are repeated 2 times. Rest between sets is 4-6
50%)
min, between series, 8-10 min.
3x8-10
Barbell squats(80%)
Series are repeated 2 times. Rest between sets is 4-6
min, between series 8-10 min
2x2-3
1. Barbell squats(90-95%)
2. Vertical jumps with bar (40- 2x6
Series are repeated 2-3 times. Rest between sets, 4-6
50%)
min, between series, 10-12 min.
2x2-3
1. Barbell squats(90-95%)
2x8
2. Double leg squatjumps
1. Depth jumps(0.75 m.)
2. Depth jumps(1.10 m.)
Series are repeated 2-3 times. Rest between sets, 4-6
min, between series, 8-10 min.
2x 10
2x 10
Rest between sets is 4-6 min
1. Vertical jumps with bar (60- 2x8
2x8
70%)
Series are repeated 2-3 times. Rest between sets is, 4-6
2. Volleyball Spike Jump
min, between series, 8-10 min.
2x2-3
1. Barbell squats(90-95%)
2x 10
2. Depth jumps(0.75 m.)
Series are repeated 2 times. Rest between sets is 4-6
min, between series, 8-10 min.
1 X 10
1. Depth jumps(0.75 m.)
3
X 10
2. Depth jumps (1.10 m.)
Rest between sets is 4-6 min.
.:i Chapter3
Week
Day
10
Exercise
1. Barbell squats(90-95%)
2. Depth jumps(0.75 m.)
Dosage
1 x2-3
1 X 10
Series are repeated 4 times. Rest between sets is 4-6
min., between series, 10-12 min.
4
11
12
1. Vertical jumps with bar (60- 1 x6-8
1 x8-10
70%)
2. Volleyball Spike Jump
Series are repeated 4 times. Rest between sets is 4-6
min, between series, 8-10 min.
2x10
1. Depth jumps (0.75 m.)
2x 10
2. Depth jumps (1.10 m.)
Rest between sets is 4-6 min.
We can now describe some objective characteristics of the training effect of these pro
grams so that a coach can imagine what to expect from their implementation.
In figure 3.14, the maximum strength (Po) and explosive strength (J) dynamics of the
volleyball players who used
the third program are shown.
In virtue of previous obser
vations, the athletes began to
use the four-week program
eight weeks before the con
trol competitions and ten
weeks before the main com
petitions.
The concentrated shock
load (Group A) lead to an
abrupt decrease of the speedstrength
indexes.
After
wards, the functional param
eters (J and Po) were re
stored to the initial levels
and
then surpassed them
greatly. We remind you that
what we find here is the long
term delayed training effect
(LTDTE). The fimctional
parameters reached the high
Fig. 3.14 - Volleyball players legs’ maximum strength (Po) and explo
sive strength (J) dynamics, experimental group (A) and control group
est level for the main compe- (B).
titions (tenth week).
155
Chapter 3i
We think that coaches will be interested in knowing that after the fifth week, the train
ing direction was first aimed toward conditioning and later on the technical-tactical aspect
and game preparation.
We must stress that the team using the special strength preparation program obtained
great results, whereas the team using the traditional methods (group B)showed more mod
est results.
3.7. Training Program for water polo players
This program entails a combination of shots with lighter and heavier implements, per
formed with special equipment illustrated previously (figure 2.21).
To define the weight of the implement, it is necessary to assess the value of the strength
effort at the start of the shot with a UDS dynamometer. The weight of the light implement
is 40% of such value, while the heavy implement is 80%. For instance, if the starting
strength effort is 20kg, the implements’ weights are 8kg and 16kg, respectively. For the
weighted shots we use the “series of sets” method. A series includes shots with both light
and heavy implements. At the beginning of the series, the heavy implement shots are per
formed. For example, 1x4 (Fleavy) and 2x7 (Light); meaning that a set of 4 shots with the
heavy implement is followed by two sets of 7 shots with the light one. The rest interval is
1-2 minutes.
The series can be performed several times. In this case, the rest interval between series
would be 4-6 minutes.
The program lasts six weeks for a total of 29 training units. 1913 shots are performed
with a ratio of 4:1 between the light and heavy implement shots.
In the following table, the volume progression for the heavy and light implement shots
executed with the special equipment is indicated.
Training
DAYS
fExercises with heavy weight
2“’ Exercises with light weight
Series
ft"WEEK
1
1 set of4 repetitions
2 sets of7 repetitions
2
2
1 set of4 repetitions
3 sets of7 repetitions
2
3
1 set of4 repetitions
3 sets of7 repetitions
2
4
1 set of4 repetitions
4 sets of8 repetitions
2
5
1 set of4 repetitions
2 sets of3 repetitions
2
3 sets of7 repetitions
2
2’® WEEK
1
156
1 set of4 repetitions
Chapter 3
Training
DAYS
1®^ Exercises with heavy weight
2
1 set of4 repetitions
3 sets of7 repetitions
2
3
1 set of5 repetitions
3 sets of8 repetitions
2
4
1 set of5 repetitions
5 sets of8 repetitions
2
5
1 set of5 repetitions
3 sets of8 repetitions
2
1 set of4 repetitions
2 sets of7 repetitions
2
1 set of4 repetitions
3 sets of7 repetitions
1
1 set of5 repetitions
2 sets of7 repetitions
2
1 set of5 repetitions
3 sets of7 repetitions
1
1 set of6 repetitions
3 sets of8 repetitions
2
1 set of6 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
1
1 set of6 repetitions
3 sets of8 repetitions
2
1 set of6 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
1
1 set of6 repetitions
3 sets of8 repetitions
2
2 sets of8 repetitions
1
1 set of4 repetitions
3 sets of7 repetitions
3
1 set of4 repetitions
3 sets of7 repetitions
3
1 set of4 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
j
1 set of4 repetitions
3 sets of8 repetitions
1
1 set of4 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
2
1 set of4 repetitions
3 sets of8 repetitions
1
1 set of5 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
3
1 set of5 repetitions
3 sets of8 repetitions
1
Exercises with light weight
Series
3WEEK
1
2
3
4
5
1 set of6 repetitions
4™ WEEK
2
3
4
5
5™ WEEK
1
1 set of5 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
4
2
1 set of5 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
4
1 set of6 repetitions
1 set of8 repetitions
2
1 set of6 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
3
1 set of6 repetitions
1 set of8 repetitions
2
1 set of6 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
3
1 set of6 repetitions
1 sets of8 repetitions
2
1 set of6 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
3
3
4
5
157
Chapter 3
Training
1"’’ EXERCISES with HEAVY WEIGHT
2*^ Exercises with light weight
Series
DAYS
6™ WEEK
1 set of 5 repetitions
2 sets of7 repetitions
2
1 set of5 repetitions
3 sets of7 repetitions
1
1 set of 5 repetitions
2 sets of7 repetitions
2
1 set of5 repetitions
3 sets of7 repetitions
1
1 set of 5 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
2
1 set of5 repetitions
3 sets of 8 repetitions
1
1 set of 5 repetitions
2 sets of8 repetitions
2
1 set of5 repetitions
3 sets of8 repetitions
1
1
2
3
4
This program (using the same special equipment) has been successfully used by high
level basketball, volleyball, baseball, handball, and tennis players. And certainly it can be
useful for American football players.
We will show an example of preparation for high level water polo players. In order to
record the training effect, every week, for 14 weeks, the players underwent some tests giv
ing the following parameters:
1) The starting speed of different weight implements(using the special machine):
-
Regular ball;
a
Light” ball (2.4kg);
Heavy” ball (6kg).
2) The explosive strength of the (pulling) muscles recruited to get into shooting position
and the isometric explosive strength of the muscles recruited for the shooting.
The figure 3.15 shows the dynamics of the parameters in the 14 weekly tests:
a) The action of a concentrated shock load for six weeks leads to a decrease in the ex
plosive strength and starting speed ofthe implements of various weight,
b) After a concentrated shock load for six weeks, all the control parameters showed an
intense increase that surpassed the initial value,
c) The highest increase of the control parameters happened between the tenth and
fourteenth weeks.
The experience of employing this program allows us to draw the following conclusions
and give the following methodological advice:
1) The best period to use the shock training program coincides with the twelfth week pre
ceding the competitive phase.
158
Chapter 3
2) Considering the fact that dur
ing the program implementa
%
Starting speed of the equipment
140 -T
,V3
tion maximum strength in
creases, both the light and
V2
120-
✓
✓✓
✓
✓✓
heavy implement weight must
be adjusted. In this experi
100
80
strength increase (14%) by
the end of the second week.
160 n
%
A
Explosive Strength
3) During the program imple
mentation, especially starting
from the third week, the ath
letes lose the “feel for the
*/
//
N
N
\\
ment we already noticed a
remarkable
maximum
V1
"B
140 120-
ball,” i.e. the shots become
100
less precise and the athletes
cannot control the shot power.
This is the natural result of a
s
✓✓
✓
✓/
/
/
✓/
✓
/✓
✓
c
✓
80
Stages
high-volume strength period.
In this case, the coach must
Stage of
CONCENTRATED
explain the reasons behind
this to the athletes and reas
STRENGTH LOADS
sure them that it is reversible.
1 2
1—1
1
1
3 4 5 6
To do this, it would be suffi
Pre
Competition
competition
Stage
Stage
1—I—r~
I I I
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Weeks
cient to show them figure Fig. 3.15 - Water polo players control parameters dynamics:
3.15 and explain the meaning
of the graphics to them.
4) During the five weeks of con
centrated load, we must re
member the reduced shot ca
●
●
VI - Staring speed, regular ball.
V2- Staring speed, light ball.
●
●
V3 - Staring speed, heavy ball.
A - Hand flexion.
●
●
B - Pulling muscles.
C - Forearm extension.
pability during the game preparation units.
5) During the program implementation, an important role is played by the period between
the seventh and the tenth week, that is the period that follows the concentrated strength
work and precedes the competition phase (i.e. the pre-competitive phase). During this
period, it is important to completely abolish any load for the shooting arm for the dura
tion of a week and after that, progressively increase the shooting power during the
technical training sessions. At the end of the pre-competitive phase, it is very important
to participate in 1-2 friendly games to “feel” the shot in game conditions. After that.
159
Chapter 3
the athletes will feel the shot and its power well under game conditions.
6) The duration of the phases depicted in figure 3.15 can vary on a case to case basis. To
correctly define the phases’ duration, it is necessary to follow these principles:
a) An indicator of optimal shock load volume could be the decrease of the speed
strength parameters and movement speed measured in different ways;
b) The optimal duration ofthe shock load phase is determined by:
- A plateau or decrease in speed strength indices (objectively);
- The level of perceived fatigue and the loss of shooting power (subjectively)
c) The duration of the pre-competitive phase is determined mostly by the individual
tolerance to a high-volume shock load. Usually, four weeks are enough to recover
the “feeling for the shot” and feel the increase in its power. In this case, it is im
portant not to increase the shooting power too quickly, but rather do it gradually so
that the “feeling for the shof’ can be recovered at the beginning of the competitive
phase.
3.8. Training Program for ice hockey players
This program is for developing the shooting speed of ice hockey players and it includes
an original variation of the shock method.
The basic exercise used in this program should be performed with a partner and consists
of precise passing with a heavier puck. The assignment of the exercise is to quickly stop
the sliding puck on the ice and pass it precisely to the partner. The abrupt stop (shock) of
the puck stretches the arms and shoulder girdle muscles and guarantees more powerful
work in the following puck acceleration. The main aspect is the switch from the yielding
muscle action (amortization) to the positive muscle action, fundamental to accelerating the
puck.
This exercise is very effective to develop explosive strength and offers several ad
vantages: it does not require complicated equipment or a lot of time and, simultaneously, it
greatly favors technical perfecting and an increase in the puck flight speed.
In this heavy implement work, it is necessary to keep in mind the following methodo¬
logical advice:
a) The optimal “heavy” puck weight ranges from 0.6 to 0.8kg. Yet, the weight must
be chosen individually for each athlete, according to his ability to make the puck
fly on the ice. It is advisable not to use a puck so heavy that the athlete cannot
make it fly, otherwise it can alter the motor pattern and negatively influence the
pass and shot technique;
b) It is necessary to alternate the “heavy” and regular puck in training. The optimal
volume in a session is 90-120, 30% of which with a “heavy” puck. Three sets of
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Chapters
10-12 stops and passes (shots) are performed. After a 3-4 minute rest interval, a
regular puck is used for the same exercises, focusing either on the shooting power
or its precision;
c) The distance between the two partners is experimentally defined between 10 and
20m, according to the speed-strength capacity and technical abilities of the players.
At the beginning, the exercise is performed with a half strength effort, later on, the
strength effort must be increased and the distance between the two partners de
creased,
d) Considering that, in this exercise, the shock load acting upon the shoulder girdle
muscles is very high, a “heavy” puck set must not be over 10-15 pass or shots;
e) The shock exercises with a “heavy” puck have a high training effect yet do not
negatively affect the technical abilities of the players. On the contrary, they favor
the technical perfecting and execution velocity of the pass and shot. It is advisable
to use such exercises during the competitive phase.
The efficacy of such exercises can be inferred from figure 3.16, where the increase in
the puck’s starting speed (both in the shots and the passes) of the experimental and control
group over a four-week training period is shown.
%of increasing
20 1
□ Experimental Group
□ Control Group
15 10 5 0
Starting Pass
Speed
Starting Shot
Speed
J - Explosive
Strength
Q - Staring
Strength
Fig. 3.16- Increase in, the puck starting speed in the pass (1) and in the shot (2),
the explosive strength (3) and the starting strength (4) of the hand rotation.
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Chapter 3i
3.9. Training Program for ihgh level American football players
This program is aimed at developing the legs’ explosive strength and reactive ability in
a game specific fatigued condition. The program lasts 12 weeks. The program is performed
twice weekly for the first eight weeks and starting from the ninth week (from the 27th or
28th day), three times a week.
Four primary exercises are used in this program:
1) Barbell Squat;
2) Consecutive Barbell Jumps (Barbell Squat Jumps and Barbell Scissor-lunge Jumps);
3) Depth jumps;
4) Box Jumps.
The loads used in the program are as follows:
-
The weight of the bar is indicated in % of maximum, as for example “barbell squats
(80%).” This means a weight equal to 80% of the maximum weight(IRM)the ath
lete can handle for 1 squat.
-
The dosage of 8 x 10(2) means that 2 series are executed. In each series there are 8
sets of 10 repetitions.
Setx
Training
Week
SESSION
1
Exercises(load weight)and rest intervals
1. Barbell Squats(90%). Rest is 4-5 min between sets
2. Rest 6-8 min before the following exercise execution
3. Barbell Squats(80%). Rest is 2 min between sets.
(SERIES NUM
BER)
2-4x5
I 2-3 X 10-12
1. Barbell Squats (93-95%). Rest is 4-5 min between sets 2-4x3
1
2
I
2. Rest 6-8 min before the following exercise execution
3. Barbell Squats(80%). Rest is 2-3 min between sets
3
1. Barbell Squats (93-95%). Rest between sets is 4-6
min.
2. Rest 6-8 min before the following exercise execution.
3. Barbell Squats(85%)- See Note*. Rest between sets
is arbitrary
4
Barbell Squats:
- (80%)
- (90%)
- (90-95%)
Rest between sets is 4-5 min
This series is repeated 2-3 times
Rest is 6-8 min between series
2
162
REPETITIONS
3-5x8-10
3-5 X 2-3
2x8(+2-3)
(2-3)
1 X 10
1x5
1x2
I Chapter 3
Week
Training
SESSION
5
Setx
REPETITIONS
(SERIES NUM
BER)
3-5 X 2-3
Exercises(load weight)and rest intervals
1. Barbell Squats(93-95%). Rest is 4-6 min. between
sets
2. Rest 6-8 min before the following exercise execution.
3. Barbell Squats(80%)Rest is 2-3 min between sets
3-5x8-10
6
Barbell Squats;
- (70%)
- (80%)
- (85%)
Rest between sets is 5-6 min.
This series is repeated 2-3 times.
Rest is 8-10 min between series
(2-3)
1 X 12
1 X 10
1x7
Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest interval between sets is 60 sec.
Rest interval between series is 8-12 min
5 X 8(2)
7
8
Barbell Squats(85-90%) using the interval method - See
Note**
4-5 X 1-3
Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest interval between sets is 60 sec.
Rest interval between series is 8-12 min
8 X 8(2)
9
10
Barbell Squats (95%) using the interval method (See 8
day program)
4-5 X 1-3
1. Depth Jumps (0.75 m.)
2. Depth Jumps (1.10 m.)
3. Rest 10-12 min before the following exercise execution
2x 10
1 X 10
3
5
th
11
6
12
7
8x10(6)
4. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest between sets is 60 sec.
Rest between series is 10-12 min
13
1. Depth Jumps (0.75 m.)
2. Depth Jumps (0.10 m.)
3. Rest 8-10 min before the following exercise execution
4. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest between sets is 30 sec.
Rest between series is 8-12 min.
1. Depth Jumps (0.75 m.)
2. Depth Jumps (0.10 m.)
3. Rest 8-10 min before the following exercise execution
4. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest between sets is 60 sec.
Rest between series is 8-12 min.
2x 10
2x 10
6 x 8(2)
3x 10
1 X 10
10 X 10(2-3)
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Chapter 3
Setx
WEEK
Training
SESSION
REPETITIONS
Exercises(load weight)and rest intervals
4x 10
14
1. Depth Jumps (0.75 m.)
2. Rest 8-10 min before the following exercise execution
3. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest interval between sets is 30 sec.
Rest interval between series is 8-12 min
2x 10
2x 10
15
1. Depth Jumps (0.75 m.)
2. Depth Jumps(1.10)
3. Rest 8-10 min before the following exercise execution
4. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest interval between sets is 10 sec.
Rest between series is 8-12 min.
2x 10
2x 10
16
1. Depth Jumps (0.75 m.)
2. Depth Jumps(1.10m.)
3. Rest 6-8 min before the following exercise execution
4. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest interval between sets is 30 sec.
Rest between series is 8-12 min.
4x 10
17
1. Depth Jumps(1.10 m.)
2. Rest 8-10 min before the following exercise execution
3. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest interval between sets is 30 sec.
Rest between series is 8- 12 min.
4x 10
18
1. Depth Jumps (0.75 m.)
2. Rest 8-10 min before the following exercise execution
3. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest Interval between sets is 30 sec.
Rest interval between series is 8-12 min.
Box Jumps (0.4-0. 5 m.)
Rest between sets is 3-4 min.
Rest between series is 10-12 min.
4 X 40(2)
19
4 X 10
20
1. Depth Jumps(1.10 m.)
2. Rest 8-10 min before the following exercise execution
3. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest interval between sets is 10 sec.
Rest between series is 8-12 min.
4x 10
21
1. Depth jumps(0.75 m.)
2. Rest 8-10 min before the following exercise execution
3. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest between sets is 10 sec.
Rest between series is 10-12 min.
Box Jumps (0.5-0.6 m.)
Rest between sets is 3-4 min.
Rest between series is 10-15 min.
6 X 40(2)
22
8
9
10
164
(SERIES NUM
BER)
8 X 8 (2)
6x10(2)
8 X 10 (2-3)
8 X 10(2-3)
10 X 10(2-3)
10 X 10(2)
10 X 10 (2-3)
Chapters
Setx
Week
Training
SESSION
Exercises(load weight)and rest intervals
4x 10
23
1. Depth Jumps(1.10m.)
2. Rest 8-10 min before the following exercise execution
3. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest interval between sets is 10 sec.
Rest interval between series is 8-12 min
4x 10
24
1. Depth Jumps(0.75 m.)
2. Rest 8-10 min before the following exercise execution
3. Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest interval between sets is 10 sec.
Rest interval between series is 10-15 min
Box Jumps (0.7-0.8 m.)
Rest interval between sets is 2-3 min
Rest interval between series is 10-15 min.
5x50(3)
25
Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest interval between sets is 10 sec.
Rest interval between series is 10-15 min.
lOx 10 (3-4)
26
Consecutive Barbell Jumps(40%)
Rest interval between sets is 10 sec.
Rest interval between series is 10-15 min.
10 X 10(3-4)
27
Box Jumps (0.7 -0.8m.)
Rest interval between sets is 2 min.
Rest between series is 10-15 min.
6x50(3)
28
11
12
REPETITIONS
(SERIES NUM
BER)
10x10(2-3)
lOx 10 (3-4)
Note*: After completion ofthe last repetition in the squat with the weight at 85%, it is necessary to
do 2-3 additional repetitions.
Note**: In the interval method, it is possible to execute one series of several sets consisting of 1-2
repetitions using a heavy weight(85-90%) and with limited rest pauses. At the end ofthe series, the
number of repetitions decreases, and the duration of rest pauses increases. For example, in the first
set of3 repetitions the rest pause is 30-40 seconds; in the second set of2-3 repetitions the rest pause
is 40-60 seconds; in the third set consisting of 1-2 repetitions, the rest pause is 60-90 seconds, and in
the in the 4th set there is one repetition.
The program load is indicated as follows:
a) The barbell weight is indicated as a percentage of the IRM. For example, the back
squat at 80%, means using 80% of the maximum weight that can be used for one
repetition of full squat,
b) The 8x10(2) notation means two series of eight sets of ten repetitions.
This program is quite demanding, but the nature-blessed “supermen” that can play
American football can withstand it easily.
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Chapter 3El
Yet we should make some observations:
1) This program is intended for well prepared players with high muscular strength;
2) The program is geared toward the development of the lower body muscle groups and,
therefore, does not include exercises for the arms, shoulder girdle, and trunk; for their
development a parallel program can be used, based on the one just suggested for the
water polo players. Such a combination can produce excellent results, especially if in
tegrated with exercises for the trunk and the neck.
3) It is important to note that:
- The program is designed in such a way to progressively increase both the specificity
and the intensity of the load. Therefore, it is not advisable to change the order of the
training means as each training unit prepares the organism for the effective realiza
tion of the following one.
- In the “series of sets” method, each repetition must be executed at maximum inten
sity.
- In the “series of sets” method, the vertical jump(40% of the IRM), for the sake of
variety, can be performed in two ways:
a)As a jump squat;
b)As an alternated split jump squat;
- Given the fact that the back squat increases the legs’ strength, the load (40% of the
IRM)used for the vertical jump exercises must be adjusted accordingly.
- In the “series of sets” method the rest intervals are extremely important to maintain
the specific work capacity. During the rest interval, it is advisable to execute a low
amount of work at 60-70% of the Voimax- As suggested for the rower’s program,
the working muscles must be the same for the main work and the light work done
during the rest interval.
With some changes, this program can also be successfully used for the preparation of
handball, baseball, rugby, and other contact and running sports.
166