OVERVIEW
The Sprints
© by IAAF
24:1; 7-17, 2009
By Jürgen Schiffer
AUTHOR
Jürgen Schiffer, PhD, is the Vice-Director
of the Central Library of the German
Sport University in Cologne and the
Documentation Editor of NSA. He can be
contacted at: j.schiffer@dshs-koeln.de
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history;
some physiological and neuromuscular
aspects of sprinting;
sprinting mechanics;
sprint striding technique;
race phases;
training.
History
Introduction
ntil about 1960, the consensus was
that sprinters are born not made;
you either have the ability to sprint
or you don’t. Only with Armin Hary (FRG), the
1960 Olympic Champion over 100m, and
particularly with Valeriy Borzov (URS), the
1972 Olympic Champion over 100m and
200m, was there a realisation that even the
most talented sprinters could be developed
beyond what was previously accepted so as
to reach their true potential when performance was most important (DOHERTY, 2007).
With this, the traditional view of the sprints as
simple, natural events has been replaced by
the understanding that sprinting is a skill,
which has to be learnt. Today the sprints are
therefore regarded as technical events.
U
Moreover, analysis of the sprinting action
shows that there are significant differences in
technique between today’s top sprinters and
medium-level sprinters (SEAGRAVE, 1996;
VONSTEIN, 1996).
The purpose of this paper is to provide an
overview of the main aspects and discussion
points around this discipline as a starting
point for more detailed study. The points
covered will be:
First races and records
Racing short distances has been
described in the literature of almost every
people. There are artefacts proving that
sprinting was included in the ancient Greek
Olympics. Interestingly, excavations at
Olympia, Delphi, Corinth, and other cities of
the ancient games have revealed well
thought out devices for achieving a fair start
– the toughest problem in sprinting. For
example, at the Delphi stadium, 20 blocks of
marble for starting are now in place. In each
there are two grooves in which the racers set
their feet, and adjacent to those grooves, a
socket, in which a so-called “husplex”, i.e, a
post and arm was set. A string went from
each arm to the starter’s pit. By pulling all
strings at once, the starter could lift the arms
together and release the sprinters (DOHERTY,
2007).
Modern sprint races have their origin in
professional racing, which was prevalent in
England during the 19th century (DOHERTY,
2007). At first, various methods for starting
co-existed in a rather hybrid fashion until
eventually the inconveniences attending the
start “by mutual consent” (contenders often
tried to “out-fox” each other by resorting to
various stratagems, thus delaying the start
sometimes over an hour) finally led to the idea
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of using a pistol. In 1887, the American Charles
Sherrill was the first to use a crouch start.
The times of early races were recorded
under most difficult circumstances and for
several decades there were the oddest minimum fractions: halves, quarters and, only
later, fifths of a second. According to
QUERCETANI (2006), the question as to who
was the first to break 10 seconds for 100
yards is still subject to debate among historians. Some favour American John Owen, who
at age 29 was credited with 9 4/5 sec at the
AAU Championships held at Analostan
Island, Washington, DC, on 11 October
1890. This time, registered on three watches,
was later accepted by the AAU as the official
US record. Others tend to accept the authenticity of an unratified 9 4/5 sec achieved by
another American, Victor Schifferstein, at a
meet in St. Louis on 9 September 1888.
QUERCETANI points out that three years earlier, in Melbourne on 7 February 1885, Irishman Thomas Malone achieved an even faster
9 3/5 sec but doubts its credibility. The first
sub-10.0 performances for the 100m were
achieved by Jim Hines and Ronnie Ray
Smith, both USA, in Sacramento on 20 June
1968 (MEGEDE, 1987).
Development of starting techniques
According to DOHERTY (2007), techniques for foot placement in the starting
holes, a high support on the fingers, and an
effective ‘set’ position were all worked out in
the first decade of the 20th century. Starting
blocks were introduced in 1928-29 to facilitate
more reliable starting (PARRY et al., 2003).
Early in the 1930s, the so-called ‘kangaroo’
start, also known as the ‘bunch’ start
because the feet are close together, was
developed. DICKINSON (1934) proved that
this position was faster than any other for
clearance of the blocks and by the 1950s it
was the most common of all starting methods (DOHERTY, 2007).
Today, there are basically three block
placement positions relative to the starting
line in use:
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1. The ‘bunch’ start (front block approx. 40.5
cm from the starting line, with approx. 28
cm between blocks). Characteristics:
Allows fast block clearance but produces
low velocity, because the athlete spends
very little time producing force.
2. The ‘medium’ start (front block approx.
53.5 cm from the starting line, with
approx. 40.5 cm between blocks).
Characteristics: Allows the athlete to start
with high velocity, because of extended
time for applying force to the blocks.
3. The ‘elongated’ start (front block approx.
53.5 cm from the starting line, with
approx. 66 cm between blocks). Characteristics: Although it allows the greatest
application of force, this start also requires
tremendous strength and is therefore not
advantageous for most athletes.
According to GAMBETTA et al. (1989), the
‘medium’ start is the most generally recommended starting position.
Development of finish techniques
According to DOHERTY (2007), experimentation with finishing technique started
early in modern sprinting. By 1900, Arthur
Duffy of Great Britain had invented the
‘lunge’ finish, which consisted of throwing
the body forward with the chest out and the
arms far down and back. American Bernie
Wefers tried to improve Duffy’s method and
developed the ‘shrug’. This was accomplished by throwing one side of the body into
the string with one hand held high, and the
other held back behind the body. The
forward lean of the ‘lunge’ was maintained
but the tape could be broken roughly 12cm
sooner, since the side of the body could be
brought that much nearer the string than the
chest. As far back as 1904, J. W. Morton
attempted a ‘throw’ at the finish. About 20
yards from the tape he took a long breath,
pulling himself together for a final effort. In
the case of a close finish, at about eight feet
from the tape he threw himself off the right
leg, striking the tape with the left breast and
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saving himself from collapsing with the left
leg. During the 1920s, Charley Paddock
(USA) made occasional and successful use
of a full jump at the finish.
units and develops the coordination needed
for the high rates of firing that occur. This
system is maximally taxed in sprint training
(GAMBETTA et al., 1989).
Some physiological and neuromuscular
aspects of sprinting
Sprinting mechanics
The primary energy system used in events
of 100m or less (or up to 15 sec duration) is
the ATP-PC system (adenosine triphosphate
– phosphate creatine). In events longer than
the 100m (or 15 to 40 sec) the main system
is ATP-PC + lactic acid. The oxygen or aerobic system plays little part in sprint performance; it is, however, a factor in recovery
(GAMBETTA et al., 1989). In the 200m, for
example, the energy system percentage
requirements are estimated at: phosphate –
30%, lactic – 60% and aerobic – 10%
(ROBINSON, 1997).
Although the sprints are regarded as technical events, speed is, more than the other
physical abilities, genetically determined.
Olympic sprinters have a greater proportion
of type II fibres (also called fast-twitch fibres)
than the average person, in excess of 60% in
the propulsive muscles of the legs. Type II
fibres can be classified into IIa fibres, oxidative glycolytic, and IIb fibres, which are the
ultimate speed producers and rapidly fatigue.
The structure of any specific muscle is not
definitive. Each muscle has both fast and
slow fibres but contains what is known as
‘bridging fibres’. These are fibres that can be
trained to undertake a specific role. Should
the muscle be conditioned to work slowly,
then those fibres will be transformed into type
I (also called slow-twitch fibres). Should they
be conditioned to work quickly then they will
undertake that role, i. e. they will develop into
type II fibres (PAISH, 2002).
However, the preponderance of type II
fibres alone will not produce speed; the
muscles also need to have the appropriate
fast-acting nerve supply, which is also a
genetically determined trait. The neuromuscular system recruits appropriate motor
For sprinters, muscle power, neurological
innervation, and length of limbs are the most
important factors to consider. These factors
affect the two main components that determine running velocity: stride length and stride
frequency.
Stride length
Stride length is governed by the power the
sprinter exerts during the ground contact
period. Stride length in turn has an effect on
the angle of force to the ground. When sprinters overstride, or place the landing foot too far
forward of their centre of mass (CM), they
create braking forces that slow them down.
Although in principle, it is useful for sprinters
to try to lengthen their stride, by overstriding
they may actually cause their stride to shorten. The best way to improve stride length is
not by changing technique but rather by
improving the ability to produce power. Natural
increases in stride length occur when greater
power is applied to the ground due to
improvements in stride frequency.
Stride frequency
Stride frequency depends on the functioning of the central nervous system (the firing
ability of the nerves stimulating the muscles),
the muscle fibre type, and the length of the
limbs. The more FT fibres a sprinter has, the
greater stride frequency he or she can attain.
Shorter limbs can move with greater frequency.
Longer limbs have a lower frequency. Short
sprinters therefore typically run with a very
powerful stride and on average run short
races faster. Most tall sprinters run faster in
the longer sprint races, in which both speed
and endurance are needed (COH & TOMAZIN,
2005; FRYE, 2000).
The ratio between stride frequency and
stride length is unique to each individual and
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automatised (i. e., the higher the frequency,
the shorter the stride length, and vice versa).
Maximum running velocity is the result of an
optimal ratio between the stride length and
frequency. In biomechanical terms, sprinting
is a cyclic movement with central neuromuscular regulation, which also manifests itself
through the peripheral locomotor system
(COH & TOMAZIN, 2005).
Sprint striding technique
Traditional versus modern sprinting technique
In traditional coaching theory and practice,
the emphasis is on the driving phase of the
legs behind the body’s CM. This way, the
body is pushed forward by an extension of
the hip, knee and ankle joints. Speed, therefore, is limited mainly by the strength of the
extensor muscles of the thighs (m. quadriceps femoris). However, VONSTEIN (1996)
holds that this approach disregards the
results of technique and functional-anatomical analyses, which show that the “braking
phase” that takes place in front of the CM is
actually more important for producing
maximal velocity than the striding phase
taking place behind the CM. In fact, today’s
top-class sprinters running at maximum
velocity typically exhibit a technique that
differs slightly from traditional sprint theory.
The differences are particularly significant in
the maximum-velocity phase of the race.
According to TIDOW & WIEMANN (1994),
modern sprinting technique can be
described as follows:
• the sprinter’s body position is almost
upright; the athlete has the appearance
of running ‘very tall’;
• a relatively high knee action is followed by
a very active striking or clawing movement of the foot on the track;
• there seems to be only a slight knee
extension. However, the ankle and especially the hip joints are fully extended.
DICK (1987a) calls this technique, which
was well illustrated by, for example, Carl
Lewis, Linford Christie, Irina Privalova, and
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Florence Griffith-Joyner, the ‘sprint lift’ and
describes it as follows: “The leg action is
characterised by a high lifting/prancing
effect. It is a light, fast movement that is
associated with a quicker, more active and
lighter striking/clawing movement of the foot
onto the track.” (p. 40)
In addition to a very tall posture with a slight
forward lean and an active foot plant or a foot
that is moving backward under the body
upon landing, FRYE (2000) identifies the
following criteria of an effective technique:
• high heel recovery as the drive foot leaves
the ground;
• a support foot that touches down as
close as possible to a point under the
CM;
• the ankle of the forward swinging leg
should cross the support leg above the
knee;
• arms that are bent at the elbow, swing
backward as if reaching for the hip pocket,
and swing forward to a chin position into
the midline of the torso without crossing
the mid-line;
• relaxed hands, shoulders, neck, jaw, and
face;
• a dorsally flexed ankle joint (toe up) just
prior to the foot landing;
• an erect head with the eyes focused on
the finish line;
• a run on a straight line with very small
amount of lateral movement.
The importance of the support phase
The fact that it is ground reaction forces
that enable an athlete to sprint implies that
only when the foot is on the ground during the
supporting phase that forces can act and
thus influence horizontal velocity. Therefore,
the quality of the ground contact or support
phase is critical to sprinting. The support
phase has to be as short as possible with an
optimal ratio between the braking and propulsion phases (COH & TOMAZIN, 2005). The
importance of the support phase was also
shown by WEYAND et al. (2000), who conclude that runners reach higher top velocities
not by repositioning their limbs more rapidly in
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the air, but by applying greater forces to the
ground (see also JAKALSKI, 2002).
An effective support phase is characterised
by small negative forces and large positive
forces. Since, from a subjective point of view,
the ground is moving backward while the body
is moving forward, negative forces can be small
only if an athlete succeeds in synchronising his
leg/foot speed and direction with the ‘ground
speed’. According to VONSTEIN (1996), an
optimal foot movement has a curve like a ‘kidney bean’. The foot curve and direction is
closely related to the body’s posture, which
depends on the position and stability of the
pelvis. If the pelvis is tipped backwards, or if
there is too much forward lean, sprinting at
maximum speed is hindered because there is
an increase of negative forces. Instead of leaning forward, the athlete should:
• run tall;
• keep the pelvis upright;
• maintain a good tension in the abdominal
and dorsal muscles;
• move from the hip and knee joint with an
active striking or clawing foot movement.
The recovery phase
Shortly after the toes of the driving foot
leave the ground, the thigh begins an accelerating swing forward, then upward, which,
according to DYSON (1986, p. 111), “increases the forward force exerted by the ground,
thus increasing the speed with which the centre of gravity is moved away from the supporting foot.” According to DOHERTY (2007), this
is perhaps the source of the value that some
coaches place on bringing the leg forward
quickly and forcefully, with the thigh high and
the foot reaching forward. By the time the foot
reaches the ground, the body has moved forward so that the CM is above the foot.
Race phases
Traditionally, sprint races have been divided
into four phases (GAMBETTA et al., 1989)
1. Reaction time - the time between the firing of the gun and the start of muscular
reaction to it.
2. Acceleration - the rate of speed increase
from the starting position to the attainment of maximum speed.
3. The maximum-speed phase - consists of
the rapid repetition of neurophysiological
actions and reactions.
4. The decreasing-speed (speed-endurance)
phase - the portion of a sprint race where
either neuromuscular fatigue or metabolic
fatigue causes the sprinter to slow down.
In addition, DICK (1987b) has coined the
term ‘pick-up acceleration’ for the 30 to 60m
section of the 100m. The pick-up acceleration
phase represents the transition to maximal
velocity and is characterised by stabilising
stride length and contact times that are shorter than the flight phases (COH et al., 2006).
The importance of the acceleration phase
Acceleration ability is regarded as the
parameter with the greatest influence on
competition results (STEIN, 1999). Sprinters
can only run at the velocity to which they
have accelerated, or to put it the other way
round: maximum velocity is always the result
of the previous acceleration phase. For elite
sprinters, the distinction between initial
acceleration (immediately following the start)
and pick-up acceleration (from 30 to 60m) is
particularly important and several studies
have shown that this phase is a decisive performance factor in the 100m.
For example, BARTONIETZ and GÜLLICH
(1992) showed that within a homogeneous
group of highly qualified sprinters the superiority of the fastest is most marked in the
pick-up acceleration phase. Comparative
competition analyses by VONSTEIN &
LEHMANN (1996) showed that absolute top
sprinters are differentiated from German
sprinters mainly by a better pick-up acceleration and a higher and longer period of
maximum velocity. Although the acceleration
performances of the German sprinters were
above average, their pick-up acceleration
performances up to 60m and their maximal
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speed performances up to 100m were below
average. According the MICHEL (2001),
world-class sprinters clearly demonstrate
their superiority in the pick-up phase with a
‘rocket-like’ acceleration after the first 10 to
15m. Although well-developed speed
endurance plays an important role in sprint
races, lack of it can be compensated for by
strong pick-up acceleration in the second
phase of the start.
According to FRYE (2000), the technical
model during the acceleration phase, including the start, should have the following characteristics:
• acceleration is achieved by driving or
pushing with the drive leg, which requires
a good forward lean from the ground up
(the amount of lean an athlete exhibits is
directly proportional to acceleration. If a
line is drawn from the foot of the drive leg
through the CM, that line also should
extend through the shoulder joint and
head and should be at approximately a
45° angle from the ground);
• the free leg drives low and fast to place
the foot down under the body and may
even fall behind the CM depending on
how quickly the athlete accelerates (without proper acceleration the athlete will
stumble because of his or her extreme
forward lean);
• the heel recovery of the drive leg will be
very low coming out of the blocks in order
to get the foot down fast so as to drive
again and overcome inertia;
• with each succeeding drive step, the
athlete’s speed increases until he or she
reaches top velocity;
• along with the stride-by-stride decrease
in acceleration, the athlete’s heel should
rise higher as he or she gets into the
normal sprinting stride;
• the arm action during the acceleration
phase is similar to that during the sprint
striding phase;
• as the athlete moves from the acceleration phase into the normal stride, the
technical model for the sprint striding
phase applies (running tall!).
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The finish phase
As a poorly timed lunge at the finish can
cause the athlete to lose a close race, FRYE
(2002) suggests that the following characteristics of a proper finishing technique should
be striven for:
• the athlete maintains good sprint posture
and a normal stride action through the
finish line;
• the athlete maintains the same sprint
stride as in the middle of the race;
• good ankle dorsal flexion is maintained;
• The landing of the foot is moved backward under the CM;
• the athlete keeps his or her strides quick
instead of long;
• the vigorous drive of the arms is continued;
• as the athlete reaches the finish line, he or
she lunges forward in order to lean at the
tape (this must be done just as the athlete
takes his or her last stride through the
finish line);
• there are two leaning models: a) the athlete
steps onto the finish line with the head lowered and both arms thrust backward to
create a forward falling action, b) the athlete
drives the forward moving arm through the
line and drives the opposite arm back and
around to rotate the trunk (This technique
turns the shoulder forward fast, helping the
athlete to accelerate forward).
Training
Today, it is generally accepted that sprinting
performance, like endurance or strength performance, can improve considerably with
training. Strength training plays a key role in
this process and specialised strength training
is particularly important for sprinters. Maximum-strength training with repeated maximal
strength applications (especially in terms of
intramuscular coordination) should initially
precede special speed-strength development. In the subsequent transition phase,
dynamic force application methods must
have priority. These methods can be complemented by particularly effective variations of
plyometric strength training (STEIN, 1999).
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According to DELECLUSE (1997) the powerful extensions of the hip, knee and ankle
joints immediately following the start action
are the main accelerators of the body’s mass.
However, the hamstrings, the m. adductor
magnus and the m. gluteus maximus, make
the most important contribution in producing
maximum speed. Different training methods
are proposed to improve the power output of
these muscles. Some aim for hypertrophy
and others for specific adaptations of the
nervous system. This includes general
(hypertrophy and neuronal activation), velocityspecific (speed-strength) and movementspecific strength training (sprint-associated
exercises). Energy expenditure during the
foot-ground contact phase is less when the
resultant muscle forces applied culminate in
large horizontal forces at the foot-ground
interface with little or no energy being used to
control unnecessary movements or muscle
force imbalances. Thus, using resistance
training to prevent unnecessary movements
of core regions of the body (the pelvis, for
example) and to minimise muscle strength
imbalances reduces energy expenditure and
ultimately improves sprinting velocity, efficiency,
or both.
A second way to increase running velocity
is to improve the power-producing ability of
the muscles responsible for providing force
against the ground. Because power is a
function of both force and velocity (or
strength and speed), increasing an athlete’s
strength should improve the ability to produce power. Resistance training can be an
effective method for improving strength.
Given that adaptations to resistance training
have been shown to be specific to the
exercises used, those that mimic sprinting
technique may be more beneficial than
‘traditional’ resistance-training exercises
(BLAZEVICH, 2000).
When developing training strategies, it
should be kept in mind that strength, power
and speed are inherently related, because
they are all the output of the same functional
systems. As heavy resistance training results
in a fibre type IIb to fiber type IIa conversion,
the coach has to aim for an optimal balance
between sprint-specific and non-specific
training components. To achieve this, the
specific strength training demands for each
individual, based on performance capacity in
each specific phase of the sprint, must be
taken into consideration (DELECLUSE, 1997).
DONATI (1996) states that the main aim of
strength training for sprinting should be to
stimulate and develop the neuromuscular
recruitment capacity, rather than to build up
massive muscles. From this point of view,
long weight training sessions are a mistake;
much more emphasis should be placed on
faster exercises using only the body weight
as resistance. Moreover, the traditional exercises used in strength training have little in
common with the actual movements of
running. They are useful in building up a
foundation of muscular strength but they do
not develop the ability to recruit the maximum
possible number of fast-twitch muscle fibres.
Therefore, special ‘associated’ exercises,
which more closely reproduce the movements
of running and which can be modulated to
improve stride length or stride frequency,
should be added to the training programme
(see also GARDINER, 2005).
The training of acceleration ability
In an investigation of the capacities of
world-class sprinters based on evaluation of
their velocity-distance graphs, LETZELTER
(2000) showed that the development of sprint
strength should have a particular focus on the
improvement of starting and pick-up acceleration. STEIN (1999) holds that the relevant
muscle groups must be taxed at the highest
intensity for the optimisation of acceleration
ability. The decisive parameter to be developed is the specific speed-strength level,
which must be based on a very high level of
maximum strength. Horizontal jumps have a
particularly beneficial effect. Short jumps,
such as ankle jumps, one- or two-legged
single, triple or five jumps are as effective as
long jumps, i. e., bounding runs up to 80m, or
resistance jumps. Furthermore, it is important
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that the acceleration distances in training
must be such that maximum velocity is
reached. This means that distances of about
20m may be sufficient in youth training, but at
elite level the distances should be between 45
and 60m. As the energy for these efforts is
supplied by the anaerobic-alactic system, the
efficiency of which is highly dependent on the
length of the rest periods, the number of
repetitions and repetition series must be kept
low (1 minute rest for each 10m run). Resistances must also allow the typical competition movement structure to be maintained.
The following special training contents can be
used as examples:
• sprints from a crouch or standing start
under normal conditions up to 60m
(depending on the athlete’s performance
level);
• starts under facilitated conditions (downhill or being pulled);
• starts under more difficult conditions
(uphill or against pulling resistance);
• ins-and-outs;
• pushing trolleys, boxes, etc.
The training of maximum cyclic speed
Apart from acceleration ability, maximum
cyclic speed is the major factor in sprint performance and the maximum velocity achieved
is regarded as the key selection criterion for
sprinters (STEIN, 1999).
The main training method for improving
maximum cyclic speed is the repetition
method, with the athlete focusing on good
technique, high velocity and acceleration levels and complete rest periods. According to
STEIN (1999), the training of maximum cyclic
speed requires the highest intensities, short
loading durations, an energy supply that is
either alactic or only slightly lactic, long rest
periods within the training sessions and good
neuromuscular preparation. Further requirements are the improvement of intermuscular
coordination as well as a high quality of
movement technique and movement rhythm.
Training should only be started at maximal or
supramaximal intensities when good movement control is achieved.
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General non-cyclic and cyclic hopping,
jumping and sprint exercises can also be
used for improving maximum cyclic speed,
provided these exercises are similar to the
competition movement as far as their coordinative structure is concerned. The following
special exercises designed for the sprint can
be used to teach movement technique and
frequency on the basis of the competition
movement:
• coordination or innervation exercises from
the so-called sprinting ABC (e. g., ankle
running on the spot, fast-foot running
on the spot, running with heels flicked
to one’s bottom, hopping or bounding
runs);
• flying sprints (maximum-velocity sprints
over 10-30m from maximum-acceleration
runs);
• ins-and-outs;
• acceleration runs with the athlete reaching maximal velocity at the end;
• coordination runs.
According to CUNNINGHAM (2001), the
‘secret’ of pure speed lies in the concept of
over-speed. Athletes can only improve their
speed if they run fast in practice, but they
should not merely run fast, they should run
even faster than their current personal
record. They should aim to reach a velocity
up to 10% higher than normal through facilitated conditions. Anything over this leads to
a breakdown of technique, which in turn
teaches an incorrect, inefficient style of running, decreases stride length and increases
the chance of injuries. Supramaximal velocity
can be achieved by:
• running down moderately sloped hills;
• pull-support runs (surgical tubing or pulley
devices);
• running on motor-driven treadmills.
Another way of providing facilitated, but
also resistance, running is the ‘speedy’
system, which consists of two harnesses, a
rope and a pulley, with the advanced version
also providing a means of regulating the
amount of facilitation or resistance. The
merit of this system is that it simulates uphill
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and downhill running but can be employed
on a fast track surface, which is essential for
quality sprinting. In addition, automatic
disconnection from the harness allows the
pulled runner to try to convert the assisted
speed into unaided speed (SEBESTYEN,
1996).
In supramaximal training special attention
should be paid to the loading of the neuromuscular system. With elite athletes such
training should not take place more than two
or three times within a microcycle. Also,
instead of using standard maximum loads,
the loading should be varied to prevent the
development of a motor stereotype with a
resulting speed barrier.
The controversy about resisted and assisted sprint training
Some coaches have been cautious about
special training methods. In most cases,
they are concerned with the potential for biomechanical changes manifested as a result
of training with resisted or assisted methods.
This is certainly a valid concern, as several
studies have outlined the biomechanical
changes that take place under such conditions (SHEPPARD, 2004). For example, the
results of a study dealing with the biomechanical consequences of supramaximal
speed training using certain assisting techniques (e. g. pulling systems) conducted by
LETZELTER (2001) showed that when using
such systems, a reduction of the support
times and increased braking effects cannot
be avoided.
According to MOUCHBAHANI, GOLHOFER
and DICKHUTH (2004), assisted sprinting
should be used very individually, depending
on the athlete’s capabilities and technical
abilities. Inter- and intramuscular coordination
are necessary prerequisites in maximising
the benefits from assisted sprinting. The
over-speed achieved should be maintained
for a maximum of 10-15m. It is important that
the athletes run with higher stride frequency
without shortening the stride length. A useful
guide is:
•
•
Sprinters (men) with a 100m best of 11
sec and slower should not be assisted
more than 40 to 45m.
Sprinters faster than 11 sec can be
assisted up to 50 to 60m.
BARTONIETZ (2001) found that using
braking parachutes in sprint training changes
the technique as follows:
• the support leg is touched down at a
steeper angle and is more flexed at the
knee;
• the amortisation of the knee joint is
reduced;
• the push-off from the knee joint is more
pronounced;
• the forward lean of the trunk is more pronounced;
• the thigh of the swinging leg is higher and
the movement amplitude of the upper
arms is greater;
• the forward swing of the lower swinging
leg is less pronounced.
The after-effects of using braking parachutes are as follows:
• the support leg is touched down in a
more extended way;
• there is an increase in amortisation and
push-off;
• there is an increase in the forward lean of
the trunk;
• the movement amplitude of the upper
arms increases;
• the “reaching” movement of the lower leg
is more pronounced.
LOCKIE, MURPHY & SPINKS (2003)
explored the effects of sled towing – a common resisted sprint training technique – on
acceleration sprint kinematics in field-sport
athletes. They found that a heavier load
generally results in a greater disruption to
normal acceleration kinematics than a lighter
load and concluded that a lighter load is likely
best for use in a training programme.
As resisted and assisting sprinting is not yet
been entirely understood from a coaching or
sport-science perspective, resisted methods
New Studies in Athletics • no. 1/2009
15
The Sprints
should only be used with fully mature athletes,
who have established a very solid foundation
in sprinting. For reasons of caution, SHEPPARD
(2004) proposes the use of the wind for both
assistance and resistance. Running with the
wind, instead of downhill, eliminates the concerns of some about the potential for
increased braking forces during foot contact.
Running into the wind does not stress a particular point on the body (i. e., the hips) that
may affect the sprinter’s movement patterns.
Sample training week
GAMBETTA et al. (1989) provide sample
training programmes for high-school sprinters
running 100m in 10.7 to 11.0 sec and 200m
in 22.6 to 23.0 sec. The following week
comes from the special preparation phase.
Objectives: 1) To improve speed acceleration; 2) to improve absolute speed; 3) to
improve jumping power; 4) to improve
strength.
Monday:
Warm-up
2 x 30m acceleration from block start
2 x 30m towing with rubber cable
2 x 60m acceleration
1 x 120m from standing start
Jumping power:
2 x 50m speed bounds
2 x 10m hurdle rebounds
Weight training:
Clean, 3 x 6 @ 40% effort
Push-jerk, 3 x 6 @ 40% effort
Step-up, 3 x 10 each leg @ 50% body weight
Tuesday:
Warm-up
Extensive tempo endurance:
3 x 50m – 50m – 200m – 100m
Rest between runs by walking same distance as run
Wednesday: Warm-up
Jumping power: 5 x 10 hurdle rebounds
60m @ 90% effort
60m @ 95% effort
100m @ 90% effort
60m @ 95% effort
2 x 30m from 30m flying start
Thursday:
Warm-up
Jumping power combined with acceleration: 5 x 4 bounds plus acceleration to 30m
Weight training: same as Monday
Friday:
Rest
Saturday:
Warm-up: short
Weight training: power clean, 3 x 1 @ 90% effort
Jumping power: 2 x 10 hurdle rebounds
Absolute speed: 2 x 30m towing
Sunday:
Competition: 100m plus 200m
16
New Studies in Athletics • no. 1/2009
The Sprints
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