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Abridged Contents
Preface
About the authors
Chapter 1
Introduction to psychology and
organisational psychology Ziel Bergh
industrial
and
Chapter 2
Frameworks for thought and practice in I-O psychology Ziel
Bergh
Chapter 3
Biology in work behaviour Elrie Botha
Chapter 4
Human and career development across the lifespan Ziel
Bergh
Chapter 5
Sensory and perceptual processes in work behaviour Ziel
Bergh
Chapter 6
Cognitive processes Amanda Werner
Chapter 7
Workplace learning Jerome Kiley
Chapter 8
Workplace motivation and emotion Jerome Kiley
Chapter 9
Social processes in the workplace Amanda Werner
Chapter 10
Work-related attitudes and values Amanda Werner
Chapter 11
Psychological well-being and maladjustment at work Ziel
Bergh
Chapter 12
Psychological assessment and research in the work context
Elrie Botha
References
Acronyms
Glossary
Index
Table of contents
Preface
About the authors
1 Introduction to psychology and industrial and organisational
psychology
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Work in the 2020s and beyond: The 4IR and other changes
1.2.1
Virtual working
1.2.2
Future work environments beyond the 2020s
1.2.3
Role of I-O psychologists and other human resource
experts
1.3
Psychology and subfields
1.4
I-O psychology: Identity, subfields and speciality skills
1.4.1
I-O psychology: Identity and status
1.4.2
I-O psychology: Subfields and practice areas
1.4.2.1
Organisational psychology
1.4.2.2
Personnel psychology
1.4.2.3
Career/counselling psychology
1.4.2.4
Employment relations
1.4.2.5
Research methodology
1.4.2.6
Psychological assessment/psychometrics
1.4.2.7
Employee and organisational well-being
1.4.2.8
Cross-cultural I-O psychology
1.4.2.9
Ergonomics
1.4.2.10
Consumer psychology
1.4.3
I-O psychologists: Expert skills and tasks
1.4.3.1
I-O psychologists and HR practitioners
The scope for job and career opportunities in I-O
psychology
1.4.5
The scientific status of psychology disciplines
1.4.6
I-O psychology: A brief history
1.4.6.1
Early developments
1.4.6.2
World War I (1914-1918) and World War
II (1939-1945) and the period between
these wars
1.4.6.3
The period after the world wars: 1950s to
the early 1990s
1.4.6.4
Modern times: 1994 and beyond
1.4.6.5
Development of governance bodies in
South African psychology
1.4.7
Practice framework for psychologists: Registration
categories
1.5
Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
1.4.4
2 Frameworks for thought and practice in I-O psychology
2.1
Introduction and background
2.2
Psychological schools of thought
2.2.1
Structuralism
2.2.2
Functionalism
2.2.3
Behaviourism
2.2.4
Gestalt psychology
2.2.5
The psychoanalytic paradigm
2.2.6
Humanism
2.2.7
Cognitive psychology
2.2.8
Biological and evolutionary perspectives
2.2.9
Positive psychology
2.2.10 The trait psychology approach
2.2.11
Socio-cultural approach
2.2.12 An African approach
2.2.13 Eastern/Asian approaches
2.2.14 An eco-systemic perspective
Utilising multiple perspectives
2.3.1
Metapsychology
2.3.2
Postmodernism
2.4
Approaches unique to I-O psychology
2.4.1
Thinking frameworks related to the nature of work
and employees
2.4.2
Thinking frameworks related to employee and
organisational management
2.5
Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
2.3
3 Biology in work behaviour
3.1
Introduction
3.2
Genetic and environmental influences
3.2.1
Implications of hereditary factors in the workplace
3.3
Structure of the neuron
3.4
Types and communication of neurons
3.4.1
The three types of neurons
3.4.2
Communication of neurons
3.5
Neurotransmitters
3.6
Structure of the nervous system
3.7
The brain and its functions
3.7.1
Divisions of the brain
3.7.1.1
The hindbrain
3.7.1.2
The midbrain
3.7.1.3
The forebrain
3.7.2
Scientific investigation of the brain
3.7.3
Brain functioning and implications in the workplace
3.8
The impact of automation and robotics on biological
processes
3.9
Ergonomics in the workplace
3.10
Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
4 Human and career development across the lifespan
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Change and new technologies in work, now and beyond the
2020s
4.3
The nature and characteristics of human development
4.4
Determinants of human development
4.4.1
Hereditary and biological influences
4.4.2
Socio-cultural influences: Environmental learning
4.4.3
The interaction between person and environment
4.5
Domains of human development
4.5.1
Physical or biological development
4.5.2
Cognitive development
4.5.3
Psychosocial development
4.5.4
The domain of career or occupational development
4.5.4.1
Career
development
theories
or
approaches
4.5.4.2
Career patterns, formats, growth and
success
4.6
Lifespan development and career stages and tasks
4.6.1
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
4.6.1.1
Trust versus mistrust (first year of life –
sensory) (oral)
4.6.1.2
Autonomy versus shame and doubt (two
to three years – muscular) (anal)
4.6.1.3
Initiative versus guilt (four to five years
– locomotor) (phallic)
4.6.1.4
Industry versus inferiority (6–11 years
through to puberty – latency)
4.6.1.5
Identity versus role diffusion (12–18
years – puberty or early adolescence)
4.6.1.6
Intimacy
versus
isolation
(late
adolescence/early adulthood)
4.6.1.7
Generativity
versus
stagnation
(adulthood)
4.6.1.8
Ego-integrity
versus
despair
(ageing/maturity)
4.7
Specific career transitions and tasks
4.7.1
Influence of the early childhood years
4.7.2
Adolescence: Occupational choice and preparation
4.7.3
Adult career development
4.7.3.1
Early adulthood: Job entry, establishment
and achievement in the workplace
4.7.3.2
Middle
adulthood:
Consolidation
maintenance and change
4.7.3.3
Late adulthood: Disengagement and
retirement
4.8
Career development and management issues
4.8.1
Diverse generations in work forces
4.8.2
Career anchors
4.8.3
Unemployment, obsolescence and career plateauing
4.8.4
Lifelong learning, adaptation and employability
4.8.5
Employee well-being and the impact of technology
4.9
Future of work in the 2020s and beyond?
4.10
Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
5 Sensory and perceptual processes in work behaviour
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Nature and function of sensation and perceptual processes
5.2.1
The sensation process
5.2.2
Thresholds
5.2.2.1
Absolute thresholds
5.2.2.2
Just-noticeable difference
5.2.3
Signal detection and feature analysis
5.2.4
Subliminal perception
5.2.5
Sensory adaptation and attention
5.3
Visual perception
5.3.1
Form perception
5.3.2
Depth or spatial perception
5.3.3
Perceptual constancy
5.3.4
Perception of movement
5.3.5
Visual or perceptual illusions
5.3.6
Colour vision
5.4
Factors influencing sensation and perception
5.4.1
Attributes of the perceiver
5.4.2
Attributes of stimuli
5.4.3
The role of situations in perception
5.5
Person or interpersonal perception
5.5.1
Forming impressions through cognitive schemata
5.5.2
Perceptual distortions in person perception
5.5.2.1
The primacy effect
5.5.2.2
Physical appearance and other attraction
determinants
5.5.2.3
Stereotypes
5.5.2.4
Halo effect
5.5.2.5
Contrast effect
5.5.2.6
Projection
5.5.3
Internal personal and external situational factors in
attributions
5.5.4
Attribution in perception and perceptual errors
5.5.4.1
Fundamental attribution error
5.5.4.2
Defensive attribution bias
5.5.4.3
Just-world hypothesis
5.5.5
The value of impression management
5.6
Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
6 Cognitive processes
6.1
Introduction
6.2
Productive thinking and concept formation
6.2.1
Concept formation
6.3
Memory
6.3.1
Stages of memory
6.3.1.1
Sensory memory
6.3.1.2
Short-term memory
6.3.1.3
Long-term memory
6.3.2
Enhancing memory
6.3.3
Forgetting
6.3.3.1
Interference effects
6.3.3.2
Motivated forgetting
6.3.3.3
Distortion
6.3.3.4
False memories
6.3.3.5
Mood
6.4
Language
6.5
Intelligence
6.5.1
The intelligence quotient
6.5.2
Approaches to intelligence
6.5.2.1
The structural approach
6.5.2.2
The dynamic approach
6.6
Problem solving and decision-making
6.6.1
Problem-solving strategies
6.7
Creativity
6.7.1
The creative process
6.7.2
Characteristics of creative people and managers
6.7.3
Developing the creative potential of employees
6.8
Implications for managers
6.9
Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
7 Workplace learning
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Core concepts in workplace learning
7.3
Approaches to adult learning
7.3.1
Understanding the process of learning through
different theories of learning
7.3.2
Adults as learners
7.3.3
Different ways of learning
7.4
7.5
7.6
The purpose of workplace learning
Conducting workplace learning in a systematic manner
7.5.1
Analysing performance deficits
7.5.1.1
Analysis techniques
7.5.1.2
Collection of the data required for an
analysis
7.5.2
Designing learning interventions
7.5.2.1
Specifying
outcomes,
goals
and
objectives
7.5.2.2
Developing an instructional plan
7.5.3
Delivering learning: Different training methods
7.5.3.1
Instructor-led classroom methods
7.5.3.2
Workplace-centred training methods
7.5.3.3
Distance education, training and learning
7.5.3.4
Blended methods
7.5.4
Delivering workplace learning interventions
7.5.4.1
Training versus facilitation
7.5.4.2
Materials that support the delivery of
learning
7.5.5
Managing the learning experience
7.5.6
Assessment of learning
7.5.7
Evaluating the effectiveness of workplace learning
7.5.7.1
Evaluating the effectiveness of the
learning
experience:
Kirkpatrick’s
hierarchy
7.5.7.2
Measuring the economic value of
training: Phillips’s return on investment
7.5.7.3
Evaluating the design and development
of training: Nadler’s model
Workplace learning in the South African context
7.6.1
Training legislation in South Africa
7.6.1.1
The National Qualifications Framework
7.6.1.2
Developing skills in the workplace
7.6.1.3
The national Occupational Learning
System
7.7
Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
8 Workplace motivation and emotion
8.1
Introduction
8.2
The nature of motivation
8.2.1
Extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation
8.3
Theories of motivation and their applications
8.3.1
Motivators brought into the organisation by the
employee
8.3.1.1
Physiological needs: Homeostatic drive
theory
8.3.1.2
Personality differences and values that
direct motivations
8.3.1.3
Talents, abilities and motivation
8.3.2
Motivation theories focusing on organisational
factors
8.3.2.1
Quality of work life
8.3.2.2
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
8.3.2.3
Job design
8.3.3
Theories focusing on employee factors
8.3.3.1
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
8.3.3.2
Alderfer’s ERG theory
8.3.3.3
McClelland’s needs theory
8.3.4
Motivating people by facilitating change in
behaviours
8.3.4.1
Goal-setting theory
8.3.4.2
Behaviour modification
8.3.5
Theories focusing on people’s beliefs
8.3.5.1
Expectancy theory
8.3.5.2
Equity theory
8.3.5.3
Self-efficacy theory
8.3.5.4
Cognitive evaluation theory
8.3.6
Management-centred theories of motivation
McGregor’s theories X and Y and the selffulfilling prophecy
8.3.6.2
Facilitating and stimulating performance:
Practical management strategies
8.4
The nature of emotion
8.4.1
Mood, temperament and the expression of emotions
8.5
Theories of emotion
8.5.1
Physiological theories of emotion
8.5.1.1
The James-Lange theory of emotion
8.5.1.2
The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
8.5.2
Evolutionary theories of emotion
8.5.3
Theories of emotion based on cognitive appraisal
8.5.3.1
The two-factor theory of emotion
8.5.3.2
Arnold and Lazarus’s theory
8.6
Culture and emotion
8.7
Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
8.3.6.1
9 Social processes in the workplace
9.1
Introduction
9.2
Viewing the organisation as a system
9.3
Organisational design
9.3.1
Traditional organisational designs
9.3.1.1
Bureaucracy
9.3.1.2
Matrix structure
9.3.2
Contemporary organisational designs
9.3.2.1
The virtual organisation
9.3.2.2
Team-based organisations
9.3.2.3
Future organisations and networks
9.4
Groups
9.4.1
Group development
9.4.1.1
The
five-stage
model
of
group
development
9.4.1.2
The punctuated equilibrium model
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
Group structure
9.5.1
Leadership
9.5.2
Roles
9.5.2.1
Role identity
9.5.2.2
Role perception
9.5.2.3
Role expectation
9.5.2.4
Role conflict and work-life integration
9.5.3
Norms
9.5.3.1
Performance-related norms
9.5.3.2
Appearance-related norms
9.5.3.3
Social-arrangement norms
9.5.3.4
Allocation of resources
9.5.4
Status
9.5.5
Group size
9.5.6
Group diversity
Group processes
9.6.1
Group dynamics
9.6.2
Group cohesion
9.6.3
Group communication
9.6.4
Influence, power and organisational politics
9.6.5
Conflict, collaboration and team altruism
9.6.6
Trust and ethics
9.6.7
Group decision-making
9.6.8
Group-think and group-shift
9.6.8.1
Group-think
9.6.8.2
Group-shift
Group decision-making techniques
9.7.1
Brainstorming
9.7.2
The nominal group technique
9.7.3
The Delphi technique
9.7.4
SWOT analysis
9.7.5
Online decision-making
Organisational culture
9.8.1
How organisational culture is formed
Organisational socialisation and onboarding
9.8.2.1
Stages of socialisation
9.9
Organisations and social change
9.9.1
The organisational change process
9.9.2
Types of social interventions
9.10
Implication of social processes for managers
9.11
Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
9.8.2
10 Work-related attitudes and values
10.1
Introduction
10.2
The nature of attitudes
10.3
Attitude change
10.3.1
Benefits derived from having an attitude
10.3.2 Self-induced attitude change
10.3.2.1
Correcting cognitive dissonance
10.3.2.2
Attitude change through self-perception
and reflective practice
10.3.3 Attitude change through persuasive communication
10.3.3.1
A persuasive communicator
10.3.3.2
Crafting a persuasive message
10.3.3.3
Using
suitable
channels
of
communication
10.3.3.4
Involving the target group
10.4
Work-related attitudes
10.4.1
Job satisfaction
10.4.2 Organisational commitment
10.4.3 Engagement
10.4.4 Happiness at work
10.5
The nature of values
10.6
Values as part of personality
10.6.1
Schwartz’ theory of basic values
10.7
Cultural values in an organisational context
10.7.1
Hofstede and Feldman and Msibi’s cultural value
dimensions
10.7.1.1
Power distance (large versus small)
10.7.1.2
Individualism versus collectivism
10.7.1.3
Gender equalitarianism (masculinity and
femininity)
10.7.1.4
Uncertainty avoidance
10.7.1.5
Assertiveness
10.7.1.6
Future orientation
10.7.1.7
Performance orientation
10.7.1.8
Human orientation
10.7.2 Cultural values in African organisations: Research
results
10.8
Changing corporate values and attitudes
10.8.1
Ethics and integrity
10.8.2 Diversity and inclusivity
10.8.3 Economic and humanistic values
10.8.4 Corporate social responsibility
10.9
Implication of values and attitude systems for the manager
10.10 Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
11 Psychological well-being and maladjustment at work
11.1
Introduction
11.2
Value of work in psychological health and well-being
11.3
Defining psychological health and maladjustment
11.4
Contemporary approaches to understanding psychological
health
11.4.1
A pathological or well-being orientation?
11.4.2
Classical psychological theories on psychological
adjustment
11.4.2.1
Psychological well-being according to
positive psychology
11.4.3
Stress approaches
11.4.4
Socio-cultural perspectives
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
Determinants of psychological health and maladjustment
11.5.1
Personal unique factors
11.5.2
External factors
11.5.3
Personal and work stressors
11.5.3.1
Everyday hassles and uplifts
11.5.3.2
Changes in life events
11.5.4
An integrated model of work stress
Criteria and classification of psychological maladjustment
and well-being
11.6.1
Diagnoses and classification according to positive
psychology constructs
11.6.2
The DSM and ICD diagnostic and classification
systems
11.6.3
Classification of work dysfunctions
Psychological disorders and work
11.7.1
Trauma and stressor-related disorders
11.7.2
Anxiety and fear-related disorders
11.7.3
Obsessive-compulsive and related disorders
11.7.4
Dissociative disorders
11.7.5
Somatic symptom disorder and related disorders
11.7.6
Bipolar and related disorders
11.7.7
Personality disorders
11.7.8
Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders
11.7.9
Substance-related and addictive disorders
11.7.10 Disruptive, impulse-control and conduct disorders
11.7.11 Neurocognitive disorders
Work dysfunctions
11.8.1
Patterns of undercommitment
11.8.2
Patterns of overcommitment
11.8.2.1
Workaholism
11.8.2.2
Type A personality and work performance
11.8.2.3
Burnout
11.8.3
Work-related anxiety, fear and depression
11.8.4
Personality and behavioural dysfunctions at work
11.8.5
Dysfunctional work-life balance
11.8.6
Career development problems
11.9
Organisational health and related community issues and
problems
11.10 Promoting and managing employee and organisational wellbeing
11.10.1 Responsibilities and roles in health promotion
11.10.2 Types of psychological health promotion approaches
11.10.3 Specific health-promotion intervention levels
11.10.3.1
Individual level interventions
11.10.3.2
Group-level interventions
11.10.3.3
Managerial and organisational levels
11.11
Evaluating health-promotion initiatives
11.12 Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
12 Psychological assessment and research in the work context
12.1
Introduction
12.2
Definitions used in the psychological assessment context
12.3
Approaches used in psychological assessment
12.4
Methods of psychological assessment in the workplace
12.4.1
CV screening and biodata
12.4.2 Interviews
12.4.3 Assessment centres
12.4.4 Psychological testing
12.5
Applications of psychological assessment in the work context
12.6
Domains of psychological assessment
12.7
Psychological research
12.7.1
Approaches used in psychological research
12.7.2 Data-collection techniques in research
12.7.2.1
Observation
12.7.2.2
Interviews
12.7.2.3
Experiments
12.7.2.4
Psychological and other questionnaires
12.7.3 Data analysing techniques
12.7.4 Steps in planning and executing research
12.8
Requirements for effective assessment and research
12.8.1
Reliability and validity in psychological assessment
and research
12.9
Professionalism, ethical codes and legal issues
12.9.1
Specific ethical codes
12.10
Summary and reflection
Assessment tasks
References
Acronyms
Glossary
Index
Preface
The revised third edition of Introduction to Work Psychology introduces the
learner and reader to the study of employee, group and organisational
behaviour, which is the study and practice area of industrial and
organisational psychology (I-O psychology) and all its subfields. The
development and revision of this book arises from an expressed need in the
market for a focused and applied textbook aimed at a broad range of
students. The book introduces students who are studying psychology, I-O
psychology and human resource management for the first time to
fundamental concepts and assumptions and their application in the
workplace.
I-O psychology utilises psychological knowledge to enhance the fit
between employees and the workplace, facilitate employee and
organisational health and enhance employee engagement and business
performance. This book offers fundamental knowledge of human
behaviour and psychological processes, both of which are necessary to
understand people in their work contexts. Human behaviour is complex,
and its various aspects are interrelated. These notions are illustrated
through cross-references in the book, to the knowledge body of I-O
psychology, and through the use of concepts in the various contexts of I-O
psychology.
The content provides a balanced mix of theory, and the application of
the theory in practical examples. The applied nature of the book will also
serve as a valuable resource for senior students of I-O psychology and
related fields, as well as for practising psychologists and practitioners in the
field of human resource management.
The book aims, among other things, to foster a respect for people’s
dignity in diverse environments, and since this book is an educational
resource, it alludes, where applicable, to the ethical and legislative
implications of I-O psychology practices. The book also takes into account
the broader cultural context of human behaviour.
Chapters 1 and 2 outline psychology and I-O psychology as the
scientific study of human behaviour in various contexts. In Chapter 1, the
various subfields of psychology and I-O psychology and their applications
are discussed, and possible work and career opportunities are introduced. A
new focus on how the concept of work is changing and an examination of
the virtual work environment and the future role of human resource
experts is included. Chapter 2 looks at the various schools of thought in
psychology and I-O psychology, which provide various ways of thinking
and doing in the science and practice of work psychology. Chapters 3 to 8
focus on basic biological and psychological behaviour and related
processes, including biological processes, human and career development,
sensory and perceptual processes, cognitive processes, workplace learning
and workplace motivation and emotion. Chapters 9 and 10 introduce
social processes, such as group functioning, organisational culture, and
attitudes and values, which are imperative in a world of work that is
characterised by diversity, teamwork, networking and other social systems.
Chapter 11 deals with issues related to the psychological health or wellbeing of employees and organisations. Chapter 12 concludes with themes
on the assessment of psychological behaviour in the work context and how
scientific research is applied in psychological disciplines.
In this new edition, the impact of the convergence of new technologies
of the Fourth Industrial Revolution, including the impact of remote/virtual
working, and the effect thereof on employee well-being, group structure,
and managing performance remotely, are examined. The need for an agile,
flexible approach to career paths and the future workplace are considered,
asking the question, what does employability mean in the future
workplace? The book considers the requirement for both the quick
adaptation of learning and skills and lifelong learning.
The features in this book include a list of important concepts for each
chapter, which are contained in a glossary for easy reference. Ethical
readers will allow students to critically reflect on the content, while
example and information features provide additional practical material to
support and illustrate the theoretical content of each chapter. Case studies
will assist students to solve practical problems in the work context.
Ziel Bergh
Content editor
About the authors
Content editor
Ziel Bergh was employed as a senior lecturer in industrial psychology in
the Department of Industrial and Organisational Psychology at the
University of South Africa (UNISA). He has taught, practiced and
researched in various areas of psychology and work psychology with special
interests in general psychology, career psychology, psychological
assessment, and employee and organisational wellness.
Authors
Elrie Botha is an associate professor at the North-West University
(NWU) and Director of the School of Industrial Psychology and Human
Resource Management. Her specialisation is in people development and
psychological assessments. She is also the co-founder of Inpsyght
Consulting.
Jerome Kiley lectures in the Department of Human Resource
Management at Cape Peninsula University of Technology (CPUT),
heading the Advanced Diploma Programme in HRD. He previously
lectured in the Department of Industrial Psychology at the University of
the Western Cape (UWC). He has contributed chapters to several
textbooks on industrial psychology, personnel psychology, business
management, and training management.
Amanda Werner is an associate professor in the School of Industrial
Psychology and Human Resource Management at the Nelson Mandela
University (NMU). She teaches/facilitates modules in the field of
organisational behaviour and organisational development.
Introduction to psychology and
industrial and organisational
psychology
Ziel Bergh
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Reflect on change and technology in and beyond the work environment of the 2020s
Explain the Fourth Industrial Revolution and related technologies
Describe virtual working with reference to employment in South Africa, its future and
advantages and disadvantages
Describe the study fields and subfields of psychology and organisational and industrial
psychology (I-O) psychology
Give examples of jobs and careers related to applied fields of I-O psychology
Describe and compare the tasks of I-O psychologists and human resource practitioners
Reflect on the ideas and needs for the indigenisation of psychology in South Africa
Comment on the identity and scientific status of I-O psychology in general and in South
Africa
Explain issues related to the training, registration, practice, and governance of psychology
in South Africa
Consider the future challenges of I-O psychology, both globally and in South Africa.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
5G technology
Africanisation
Applied research
Artificial intelligence
Automation
Basic research
Central life interest
Cross-cultural
Culture
Culture competent
Digitisation
Diversity management
Emic research
Employee assistance programme
Employment management
Etic research
Fourth Industrial Revolution
Gig economy
Hawthorne effect
Human capital
Human resource management
Indigenisation
Industrial and organisational psychology
Industry 4.0
Information technology
Psychology
Psychometrist
Scientific inquiry
Scientist-practitioner model
Scope of practice
Taylorism
Virtual working
Work
1.1
Introduction
Work in some form has always been a part of human life, although not
necessarily associated with formal paid work in organisational contexts. In
ancient times, work was necessary for survival, and only later became
defined and differentiated from other activities and managed in a more
scientific way (Statt, 2004; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016). Through work as
a meaningful and valuable activity, employees and business enterprises find
most of their physical, financial, emotional and social needs and values
satisfied. Collectively, work efforts will contribute to a country’s economy
and health and ability to provide services to its people as well as offer
investment opportunities. The needs and accompanying values of
employees relating to work may differ depending on socio-economic and
cultural contexts and other factors. For example, in the African context,
where ubuntu is an acknowledged shared value, employees will most likely
experience more need satisfaction if they are allowed to work together,
express themselves collectively, their work quality is appraised based on
group output and recognition is given to the group rather than the
individual. A Westernised work and career orientation predominantly
emphasises individuality, competition, prestige, achievement, autonomy
and growth opportunities.
Much evidence supports the importance of work for the health and
well-being of both employees and society (Rothmann & Cooper, 2014;
Keshwa, 2019). However, throughout history, there have been many
changes and influences on work environments. Employees were often
exploited and subjected to poor and unhealthy work environments, both
globally and in South Africa (SA). In the modern and highly competitive
business world, employee health and safety are often neglected in order to
achieve higher profits. In an increasingly digital and technological world of
work, should work still be considered as a central life interest because of
its meaning in human life? Work has a role in other important life areas
and interests, such as family, religion or spirituality and even leisure
(Bluestein, 2013; van der Walt & Steyn, 2019; Schreuder & Coetzee,
2016).
The importance of work for peoples’ livelihoods and well-being is
particularly evident during the absence or scarcity of work, such as during
traumatic events such as the global Covid-19 pandemic, where many
people have lost their work, or the development of new technologies,
which has led to increasing unemployment (Teagle, 2020). Looking at the
future of work in the 2020s and beyond, it is clear that many aspects in the
science and practices of work will have to be redefined and reflected on by
work psychologists and other work-related experts. Thought will need to
be given as to how people should work and how workplaces and
organisations should be managed effectively. In the current world of work,
most organisations consider employees as human resources or human
capital and arguably value them equally with other business and
organisational resources (Day, Kelloway & Hurrell, 2014; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). Employees add value through their knowledge,
relationships, experience, creativity and innovative behaviour, and should
therefore be developed in such a manner that both they and the
organisation benefit.
The primary aim of this book is to introduce you to industrial and
organisational (I-O) psychology and its subfields as study and practice
areas in the understanding of work, and employee and organisational
behaviour in various contexts. However, psychology is briefly introduced
given that it is the mother science of all psychological disciplines and some
of its theory and practices still influence those used in I-O psychology.
1.2
Work in the 2020s and beyond:
The 4IR and other changes
In this text, the terms Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) and Industry
4.0 are often used interchangeably, both indicating the enormous influence
and change of new and emerging technologies on society, current and
future workplaces and organisations, jobs and careers, human work and
productivity (Hirschi, 2018; Lent, 2018; McGinnis, 2020; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). Together, these two concepts represent a new way of
organising, executing and controlling the industrial value chain, including
machine and human productivity. The 4IR relates more to the advanced
status of and fusion between technologies, and how continuous changes
and application of many current and emerging technologies will
revolutionise workplaces and influence societies in many areas. Industry
4.0 relates more to the digital and smart transformation, integration and
application of current and emerging technologies (associated with the 4IR)
in general life and industry.
Klaus Schwab coined the term Fourth Industrial Revolution at the
World Economic Forum in 2018 when he stated:
The First Industrial Revolution used water and steam power to
mechanize production. The Second used electric power to create mass
production. The Third used electronics and information technology to
automate production. Now a Fourth Industrial Revolution is building
on the Third, the digital revolution that has been occurring since the
middle of the last century. It is characterized by a fusion of technologies
that is blurring the lines between the physical, digital and biological
spheres. The possibilities of billions of people connected by mobile devices
with unprecedented processing power, storage capacity, and access to
knowledge, are unlimited. And these possibilities will be multiplied by
emerging technology breakthroughs in fields such as artificial
intelligence, robotics, the Internet of Things, autonomous vehicles, 3D
printing, nanotechnology, biotechnology, materials science, energy
storage, and quantum computing (Schwab, 2018).
Schwab refers to change and disruption in life and work, the meaning and
value of work, and how people work, communicate and interact. Change
is, after all, the only constant factor. Employers, employees and experts in
human resources will have to adapt to stay relevant and employable.
Employees are often caught in the middle of change, experiencing fears of
being made redundant, of high unemployment and the related economic
and health consequences (Ghislieri, Molino & Cortese, 2018; Teagle,
2020). Schwab (2018) emphasised the enormous and progressive influence
of the technologies of the 4IR on all aspects of life.
The 4IR and Industry 4.0 is characterised by rapid and ongoing
advances in technology that impact practically all spheres of life. These
technologies include digitalisation, virtual reality, artificial intelligence
(AI), robotics, 3D printing, quantum and Cloud computing, bio-and
nano-technology, genetic engineering, the Internet of Things (IoT), big
data, 5G technology and other smart technologies.
Many organisations make use of these new technologies to some
extent. Advanced technologies are disruptive in that they result in the loss
of certain types of jobs, but, as in previous industrial revolutions, this has
brought about other types of work and prosperity. Change is necessary to
provide more consumer resources and ensure a cleaner atmosphere in a
world that has overspent its resources (Deli, 2018).
Work in the modern technologically driven work environment is
referred to in various ways, including digital work, automatisation, IT
work, techno-work, AI, robotics and machine work. This new digital work
environment will not make traditional work disappear, but it will change
how some work processes are executed, create new types of work and
change how organisations and business are structured and managed
(Ghisieri et al., 2018; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
It is in this context that I-O psychology and related disciplines need to
be ready to facilitate organisations to adapt to change, stay relevant in
business, and that individuals remain employable.
Although the positive influence of the 4IR and related technologies in
work and society is real, there are, however, fears of further inequality in
societies with regards to standards of living. These concerns include the
dehumanising of labour, less job opportunities for people, traditional jobs
disappearing and less human involvement in the production of goods and
services. The question is, how will human production capacities compete
with strong, quick and clever machines (Langridge & Willings, 2019;
Jackson/Stone & Partners, 2019; Herwijer et al., 2020; Leberecht, 2020)?
The envisaged digital future of work is, therefore, not as equally
attractive for everyone, especially employees in less advanced sectors.
Given the vast differences in work, machine working will not be equally
applicable in all situations (Zervoudi, 2020). While routine jobs with
similar tasks, for example, construction, manufacturing, storage,
transportation, wholesale and call centres are more suited for digital
automation, jobs requiring advanced training comprising advanced
cognitive skills, creativity, critical thinking and other skills are less
susceptible to be replaced by automated processes (Zervoudi, 2020).
Many millions of employees with low qualifications and little work
experience are at risk of so-called ‘technological unemployment’ as a
consequence of automatisation. This sector of employees are possibly the
least capable of adapting to the realities of the 4IR because they lack the
education and skills or the resources available to learn new skills.
Organisations and governments have a responsibility to assist
designated employees by implementing policies to develop skills sets based
on these new technologies (Zervoudi, 2020; Ghislieri, Molino & Cortese,
2018). Updating employee knowledge and skills in Africa and becoming
‘future-ready’ for the 4IR will be crucial in managing current
unpreparedness and lack of skills. The future and purpose of the 4IR
technologies in labour sectors should be reflected in current and future
needs analysis and in policies, education and other work-related systems
and regulations relevant for both the protection and future of work
(Zervoudi, 2020; PwC, 2018a, 2018b, 2019).
Organisations are not, however, doing enough to prepare employees
for the challenges and requirements of future digital work (PwC, 2018b;
Zervoudi, 2020). Some of the global risk factors include poor data analysis,
and a lack of advanced computation and critical thinking skills as well as
change management skills. Social skills such as people management,
emotional intelligence (EI), judgement, decision-making, service
orientation, negotiation and cognitive flexibility are important in adapting
to the challenges of the 4IR (Leberecht, 2020).
Industrial revolutions do not occur in isolation; change, like in the 4IR,
happens in the social, economic and political contexts of a society. The
impact of the 4IR in SA is evident in government strategies, business
enterprise practices, human resource practices and the provision of health
and other services, although this is still fairly limited (Gillwald, 2019;
Ndung’u & Signe, 2020; National Development Plan, 2030). The SA
Government has initialised a 4IR forum of digital experts to investigate
possible SA strategies and opportunities (Accenture Consulting, 2017;
Jackson/Stone & Partners, 2019). Leaders in SA realise that early
application of 4IR technologies will bring about economic benefits. There
are, however, doubts whether the 4IR expectations of the SA Government
are realistic considering the poor economic growth and high levels of
unemployment (BusinessTech, 2020; Gillwald, 2019).
Figure 1.1
Human interaction with 4IR robot technology
SOURCE Shutterstock Zapp2Photo
Changes in modern technology, and the accompanying changes in the
nature of work and consumer needs for products and services, will require
employees, employers and organisations to adapt to remain relevant and
sustainable (Harve, 2019; Coetzee, 2019b; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
However, there are fears that new work technologies will increase the high
levels of inequality in SA.
The Covid-19 pandemic has also accelerated digital transformation
and the application of technology and processes related to the 4IR
(Dwolatzky & Harris, 2020), driving virtual working from home. Digitalbased work environments are forums for training and creativity and may
contribute to the creation of more employment opportunities.
The media attempts to predict many trends in the economy,
unemployment and work, organisations and management (Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021; PwC, 2018a, 2018b, 2019). The impact of change on the
structure and type of work in SA in the future is, however, difficult to
accurately predict. The implementation of 4IR technology should benefit
all in society (Gillwald, 2019; PwC, 2018b), however, there are
uncertainties as to whether this new era of artificial or industrialised
intelligence will maintain a balance between machine and human labour.
Artificial intelligence has the capacity to outperform human workers and
will likely impact on work values and the meaning of work and our current
views of careers.
The hope is that the 4IR will stimulate world economies and
transformation in business and society, and create many new employment
opportunities. New technologies in space, health, communication and
transport, which increasingly influence our lives in positive ways, are
already creating new jobs and careers that were previously unheard of
(Science focus, 2019; Langridge & Willings, 2019).
1.2.1
Virtual working
Many organisations are utilising virtual or remote workplaces away from
physical work venues, including across borders, because of changes in
technology and work circumstances, see the information box, Virtual
working and related technologies.
Figure 1.2
Virtual working
SOURCE Shutterstock Flamingo Images
INFORMATION BOX Virtual working and related technologies
Virtual working is when individuals and work teams are allowed to spend their working time
in a non-traditional workspace such as a remote office, at home or even in a coffee shop
(Rozier, 2017). Formal office space is often not needed, and even group work, as in meetings
or conferences, can be managed online. Virtual working originated in the 1980s and is now
referred to by various names including working from home, online work, remote working,
telecommuting or virtual office. In the initial phase of virtual working, employees made use
of traditional telephones, emails and SMS’s and worked on less advanced computers. In the
second phase, advanced connectivity through mobile phones, mobile networks and the
Internet allowed more flexible working hours away from the workplace. The third phase is
characterised by improved global connectivity and remote work execution using 4IR
technology (Johns & Gratton, 2013; Birdie & Jain, 2016; Marr, 2019).
Virtual working is a relatively new type of employment relationship. Depending on job
levels and job descriptions, distributed virtual working may be structured, executed and
managed in hybrid format with some traditional office tasks combined with remote
completion of certain tasks or projects. The mindset of traditional work spaces is adapting
with full- or part-time contract employment and the use of external consultants or freelance
workers becoming more commonplace.
While many traditional meanings and values related to work will remain the same, others
will change as a result of remote working. Personnel and organisational management issues
such as the monitoring of work, training, career development, work ethics, leave and
employee well-being will require new strategies. Virtual working has benefits such as cost
savings for the organisation (no office costs) and employee (no travel costs); it may be
easier for disabled employees and may provide better work-life balance or flexibility.
Disadvantages include limited work relations and personal interaction, isolation and
feeling neglected. The supervision and monitoring of work time and performance may in fact
be easier as this can be done electronically. In remote working, it is particularly important
that organisations focus on performance outcomes. IT security and costs relating to the
provision of data and related technology is a possible challenge. Remote working is not
necessarily a solution for employee well-being if it is not well planned and managed, and
employees may become depressed, stressed and over-worked and suffer burnout as the
boundaries between work and home life become blurred. Work-family interactions may
provide new challenges with work and family roles becoming possible sources of conflict
(BrandonGaille, 2019; Teagle, 2020).
1.2.2
Future work environments beyond the
2020s
Change is a reality and employees should accept and prepare for change in
order to remain relevant, employable and sustainable (see Chapter 4). Jobs
are becoming more mobile and short-term, and people are moving
between many jobs and organisations in their careers (Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). Time frames for jobs and careers will be less predictable
with labour forces comprising both traditional and non-traditional types of
employers and jobs (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). Employees will have to
be creative in finding opportunities to be relevant and employable and will
have to self-manage the meaningfulness, sustainability and success of their
jobs through the processes of adaptation, ongoing learning and renewal
(Breevaart et al., 2014; Gratton, 2011; Hirschi, 2015, 2018; Lent, 2018).
Employability will be determined by individuals’ entrepreneurial skills,
creative thinking, flexibility, internal motivation and preparedness to learn
and adapt to change.
Four career streams have been identified, namely:
• Traditional organisational jobs and careers
• Free-floating jobs and careers mainly held by professionals and expert
consultants
• Entrepreneurs who are self-employed
• Jobs and careers characterised by many changes and flexibility.
The flexible career will likely be most applicable to those who have
initiative, creativity and can adapt quickly and self-manage their careers
(Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
The gig economy refers to employers creating non-permanent but
market-required work opportunities where employees can execute
necessary tasks and projects to produce certain services and products for
relevant consumers (Sargeant, 2017; BusinessTech, 2020). The idea of
flexibility and change in the concept of the gig economy also fits with the
last three above-mentioned career streams, and specifically with the
boundaryless and protean type of careers (see Chapter 4).
There are many different ideas about the future business world, work,
jobs and their accompanying organisational structures (see the example
box, Possible work environments beyond the 2020s) (Gratton, 2011; Coetzee
& Schreuder, 2021; McKinsey Global Institute, 2016). Organisations will
implement technology extensively. Success and autonomy in a job and
career will be largely determined by employees themselves through selfmanaging many work opportunities in boundaryless and protean careers
(see Chapter 4). Individuals will need to be entrepreneurial and stay
abreast of the latest job knowledge and skills by adopting lifelong learning
mindsets and developing capacities to deal with change in order to remain
employable (Herr, 2013; Visagie & Koekemoer, 2014, 2019; Hirschi et al.,
2015; Peeters et al., 2020; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). Organisational
structures and management styles will have to allow for initiative,
creativity, entrepreneurship and autonomy with rewards based on
performance and not rigid salary structures. A few scenarios are outlined in
the following example box, but other ideas also exist (PwC, 2018; PEW
Research Center, 2020). These scenarios will be influenced by new
technologies, new trends in employment, jobs and work environments,
labour forces and socio-political, educational and economic factors.
Example box
Possible work environments beyond the 2020s
A first scenario is that employee and organisational management becomes less hierarchical
and is based on the completion of specific tasks, projects or products by work teams.
Innovation will be emphasised. Employees will be required to adapt quickly and have
specialised, critical social and technical skills and have high levels of emotional intelligence
(EI). Transparency in many work aspects (for example, salary) will be required to build trust
between employers and employees. Employee health and well-being will be a high priority.
A second scenario emphasises the corporate world, and anticipates some organisations
becoming powerful and using big data to execute tasks that governments currently do, such
as the provision of education, health services, water and electricity. Such organisations will
create formal jobs and positions for well qualified and talented individuals, but with little
sense of social responsibility for others.
A third scenario emphasises the importance of social responsibility for society and the
environment, including lower consumer prices for goods and services. Employers will have to
be transparent and adhere to regulations regarding employment on an equal basis for all, as
well as for environ-mental care. Employee health will be emphasised and flexible working
hours will be the norm.
The final scenario emphasises human value, which enables people to value the intrinsic
meaning of work in society. It emphasises employee relations at work, transparency, work
ethics and the fair distribution of wealth among people. Though very independent in some
respects, employers will be dependent on external funding from government and the public.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
These scenarios and other factors in the expected future of work beyond
the 2020s and 2030s have implications for the training and skills required
by I-O psychologists and human resource management (HRM) experts.
1.2.3
Role of I-O psychologists and other
human resource experts
Industrial and organisational psychologists and other human resource
(HR) practitioners are involved in studying work environments as well as
employee and organisational behaviour. Their main tasks involve
facilitating the best fit between employees and their workplaces using
psychological knowledge and practices to enhance optimal employee and
organisational performance and well-being. I-O psychology shares some
historical, scientific, and other practices with psychology (Arnold &
Randall et al., 2010, 2016; Morris & Maisto, 2010, 2016). Thus, I-O
psychologists are psychologists in the work context.
Changes to work and work environments such as technology, virtual
working, market competition, new consumer demands, unemployment,
devaluing of currencies and poverty present challenging socio-economicpolitical contexts in which psychologists function. In SA, work psychology
faces challenges to develop and adapt psychological knowledge and
practices to be relevant to the needs of diverse work forces and work
situations. Recent technological influences such as the 4IR have resulted in
an increase of virtual working environments and changes in the types of
business and job requirements. This necessitates the ongoing adaptation
and learning of work-related competencies (knowledge and skills) in
standard training institutions and online training (Ghisliri, Molino &
Cortese, 2018). Diversity in culture will increasingly influence work
relations and behaviour. Culture refers to the preferred and shared
behaviours, thinking or ways of doing things. Culture through customs,
norms, values, and institutions is passed socially across generations in
different ethnic and other groups (Weiten, 2011, 2016). Cultural diversity
must always be considered in the theory and practices of I-O psychology in
order to render it relevant and useful in various contexts. Psychologists
across registration categories and subfields have important roles to play in
the current SA, where there is significant change in improving social and
economic conditions, in relationships and the well-being of individuals,
communities and the country at large. More psychologists across ethnic,
cultural, and language groups are necessary in SA, and their importance
and contributions should be increasingly valued by all stakeholders in SA.
It is evident that psychologists will also have to adapt their knowledge
and skills in the increasing digitisation of future work environments.
However, psychological work, knowledge, and skills cannot be easily
automated by machine workers (robots).
The field of I-O psychology provides a wide array of study and career
possibilities in many subjects and activities, and on many levels. Examples
of the work and tasks of the I-O psychologist and HR practitioner are
demonstrated in the chapters of this book. The chapters that follow
introduce you to various aspects in the study and practices of the work life
of employees and related aspects in organisations. In this chapter, we will
discuss the following topics: what does I-O psychology and its various
subfields entail, what does each offer in terms of study and work and other
aspects of psychology as a profession? The following themes are discussed
in this textbook: what thinking frameworks and theories can be used to
explain work behaviour; why is human development, biological and
perceptual factors, cognitive processes, motivation, attitudes and values
important in the work context; which social and other organisational
processes influence work behaviour; how can possible psychological and
work adjustment problems be recognised and managed; how can
employees be assessed for selection and other purposes, and why and how
is work-related research executed?
An interesting aspect of studying a psychological discipline is that your
study involves you and your various life contexts as the subjects of study.
Psychology, in this sense then, is a very practical field of study because it is
about us and our daily lives. It is possible to find examples and applications
for psychological theories and concepts in our own lives, for example, in
our study and work, individual and group behaviour, on TV and in other
media, in relationships and communication between friends, relaxation and
sport, politics, buying behaviour, ethnicity and culture, in community life,
the country at large, and in governance. South Africa is a diverse and
multicultural society and the range of possible applications in both its
history and current context is rich and varied.
1.3
Psychology and subfields
Psychology is the umbrella discipline for the scientific study of human
behaviour and the related mental processes (feelings, thoughts and actions)
that underpin human behaviour (Arnold & Randall, 2010, 2016; Morris &
Maisto, 2010, 2016; Wade & Tavris, 2017). The Organising Framework
for Occupations (OFO) of the Department of Higher Education and
Training in SA explains the skills and task specialisation of psychologists
in researching and studying the behaviour and mental processes of people
as individuals or in groups, and utilising this psychological knowledge to
enhance their personal, social, educational and occupational development
and well-being (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016; DHET, 2015). This
definition is related to the various subfields of psychology and is
sufficiently broad to include different perspectives and nuances from
various cultures, such as African, Western and Asian cultures. Psychology
has a primary emphasis on the individual as a unit of study; however,
human behaviour in social contexts is also examined, that is, in groups,
families, and communities.
African psychology places strong emphasis on an Afrocentric way of
thinking, with an emphasis on cultural, collective, communal and spiritual
aspects of human behaviour. There is a need to generate more research on
human and social behaviour from an Afrocentric rather than an American
or Western psychological perspective (Nwoye, 2015; Meyer, Moore &
Viljoen, 2008; Chinyamurindi, 2019). African psychology explains
psychological knowledge from both a universal perspective and one that
applies to an African context, with an emphasis on the interrelatedness of
body, soul, mind and behaviour.
Psychology provides explanations for most domains of human
behaviour including biological, cognitive, emotional, social, spiritual, moral
and work behaviour. It can be used to explain health and wellness,
psychological problems or maladjustment and related research and
assessment and treatment procedures. The study of personality or
personology (see Chapter 2), is an important study theme in psychology
and I-O psychology and involves and integrates most domains of human
functioning.
As a science, psychology and I-O psychology and its subfields have
goals of understanding, describing, influencing and predicting human
behaviour and enhancing the general wellness of people (Maree, 2019). In
order to address questions with regards to the various domains of human
behaviour, psychology utilises scientific inquiry or research and many
related methods to assess human behaviour and to obtain and process
information (see Chapter 12). Psychology involves basic research to build
theories, knowledge and related concepts in order to understand, influence
and develop human behaviour. For these reasons, however, psychology, as
an applied science, utilises applied research to address practical challenges,
and develop, verify or test knowledge and practices in many areas. Both
types of research contribute to continuously advancing the understanding
of human behaviour by developing new knowledge and verifying existing
knowledge and practices. One of the important and ongoing themes in
psychology, is the question of whether the causes or determinants of
human behaviour are in peoples’ genetic and biological attributes (nature),
or whether learning as a result of environmental influences (nurture) is the
dominant cause. Currently, an accepted middle-ground indicates that
genetic and environmental influences each have an important and
supplementary role in human behaviour (Wade & Tavris, 2009, 2017;
Weiten, 2011, 2016).
Most professional registered psychologists, including I-O
psychologists, are trained in what is known as the scientist-practitioner
model. This model aims to integrate science and practice or application
(Lowman, 2012; Aamodt, 2010, 2016; Muchinsky & Howes, 2019).
Being a scientist involves the necessary research skills to build or develop
knowledge and to develop, verify or test existing knowledge, as well as
have acquired the necessary skills to apply theoretical knowledge in various
practices. The practitioner side of the model entails having the knowledge
and skills to know how to apply knowledge through relevant methods and
practices in certain situations. Psychologists must be registered with the
Professional Board for Psychology (PBP) (see Table 1.1). There are
employees with academic psychology training who are not professionally
registered, but only have theoretical training and who elect to work in
occupational settings with psychological content. In such practices, the
execution of certain psychological acts like therapy, counselling and
psychometric assessment may not be executed by non-registered persons,
but only by professionally trained and registered psychologists. Examples
where non-registered psychology trained persons may find employment
include academic or administrative positions, training, consulting,
mentoring and coaching, research, business and personnel management or
HR positions. In HR positions, such persons may have HR qualifications,
but may not necessarily be registered as a psychologist.
In SA, the scientific status of psychology is promoted by annual
conferences, the authoring of books locally and internationally, publication
of research findings through scientific journals, such as the South African
Journal of Psychology published by the Psychological Society of South Africa
(PsySSA). In the broader African context, a number of journals are active,
for example, the Journal of Psychology in Africa, Psychology in Society (PINS)
and various other subfield and subject journals, for example, and The
African Journal of Drug and Alcohol Studies. Psychology in SA, as a health
profession, falls under the Health Professions Council of South Africa
(HPCSA), while the specific governing body (within the HPCSA) for
psychology is the Professional Board for Psychology. PsySSA represents
the interests of all psychological disciplines, except for I-O psychology,
which has its own society, the Society for Industrial and Organisational
Psychology of South Africa (SIOPSA).
Psychology has a number of subfields that are related to specific subject
content, practices and jobs or careers (Shafiq, 2019). Some have a greater
application in psychology training courses, like the various professional
registration categories in psychology (see Table 1.1), and others are more
relevant in psychological research. The registration categories that exist for
registered professional psychologists with the Professional Board for
Psychology at the HPCSA, are outlined in Table 1.1. Registering as a
psychologist, for example, an industrial psychologist, is the highest level of
registration. However, you may register as a counsellor in one of the fields
of psychology, or as a psychometrist, depending on your level of education
in the particular field. Compulsory registrations exist for students while
they are studying to become a psychologist or completing their internships
(see Section 1.4.7).
Table 1.1
Categories for professional psychologists
**
Registration
categories
Brief scope of practice descriptions
Counselling
psychology
Provides counselling to people to assist them in coping
with everyday problems, such as relationship problems,
stress, sorrow and trauma.
Clinical
psychology
Clinical psychology provides therapy to people with
psychological disorders and severe emotional and life
problems.
Educational
psychology
Specialises in educational and learning difficulties.
Industrial
psychology
Focuses on optimising the potential of employees and
organisations; applies psychology in the workplace.
Research
psychology
Researches questions and factors relating to psychology
in various contexts.
Neuropsychology
Specialises in the biology of behaviour; how the brain
functions and influences behaviour.
Forensic
psychology
Investigative psychology; assesses the criminal capacity
of an accused; custody of children cases; and degree of
psychological damage in third party claims.
** Registration categories for counsellors and psychometrists after honours study are not indicated in Table 1.1
(see Section 1.4.7).
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Note that each of the psychology subfields comprises an independent
subject and study field. These contribute to certain applications, however,
not all of them lead to professional psychologist registration. The various
psychology registration categories (see Table 1.1) are predominantly
related to the similarly named subfield, but studying and eventually
registering in a professional category involves study in other subfields as
well. For example, becoming a counselling psychologist will involve major
studies in counselling psychology in your undergraduate and postgraduate
studies. However, this will include themes from developmental, personality
and therapeutic psychology, possibly cross-cultural and community
psychology, as well as psychological assessment and research psychology.
Similarly, registration as an I-O psychologist is a combination of many
subfields in I-O psychology, as well as other disciplines in undergraduate
study.
The various registration categories have a specific scope of practice,
that is, each subfield can lead to certain job or career path. I-O psychology
as a subject is generally not offered in psychology curricula in psychology
departments because it is offered separately from psychology subjects or in
separate I-O psychology departments.
Table 1.1 contains brief descriptions of the psychology subfields that
lead to professional registration in psychology. In Table 1.2, brief
descriptions are provided of a number of subfields related to the
registration categories in psychology. There are many other subfields, all of
which structure psychological training and may lead to certain jobs and
careers. Possible study directions and jobs and careers are implicated in the
titles and brief descriptions of the various subfields.
Figure 1.3
A psychologist influencing and facilitating human behaviour
SOURCE Shutterstock Rawpixel.com
Table 1.2
Other psychological subfields that influence the science and practice of psychology
and I-O psychology
Health
psychology
Studies and enhances general wellness in people
and aims to understand the relationship between
emotional, behavioural and physical factors that
contribute to health and illness. In most
workplaces, there is a strong emphasis on
occupational physical and psychological health and
safety.
Therapeutic
psychology
Involves the study of various types of psychotherapeutic techniques, utilised by qualified
counselling and clinical psychologists to alleviate
undue pain and discomfort caused by emotional
problems and psychological disorders.
Social
psychology
Involves studying human social interaction by
understanding the influence of peoples’ behaviour,
perceptions, beliefs and feelings. Social processes
form the basis for interaction between individuals,
in work groups and in organisations (see Chapters
9 and 10).
Personality
psychology
Entails the study of the consistent patterns of
behaviour and related individual differences and
similarities in people, and the influencing factors
in the formation of personality. The study of
personality and individual differences is related to
psychological assessment, for example, in
personnel selection and career counselling.
Developmental
psychology
It is concerned with age- and stage-related
changes across the lifespan examining the motor,
emotional, social, intellectual and moral elements
that contribute to adult life roles such as work and
career competencies. This is a knowledge and
applied field for educational, clinical and
counselling psychologists.
Positive
psychology
Rather than emphasising problems or illness,
positive psychology advances a more positive
approach to human behaviour, especially regarding
the health, well-being, optimal functioning,
strengths and resilience in human and
organisational functioning. SIOPSA has an Interest
Group for Positive Organisational Psychology
(IGPOP).
Abnormal
psychology or
psychopathology
Studies the nature and causes of mental or
psychological disorders (see Chapter 11). I-O
psychologists should have some knowledge of
psychopathology in order to recognise possible
symptoms of psychological disorders. It is
important to understand how these may be related
to work dysfunctions, and then to refer
appropriately.
Community
psychology
Involves using psychological knowledge to improve
the quality of life in human communities,
especially for deprived and disadvantaged
individuals and groups. It started in SA in the
political climate of the 1980s in an effort to
psychologically liberate and empower oppressed
communities and facilitate cultural assertiveness.
Consulting
psychology
Consulting psychology is closely related to many of
the fields in psychology as the knowledge base of
various disciplines serves as a resource for
consulting psychologists with regard to knowledge,
theory, practice, and skills.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Other subfields and applications of psychology include cognitive,
differential, applied, evolutionary, cultural and cross-cultural psychology.
Subfields that may be particularly relevant in areas of study and work
include environmental, sport, military, rehabilitation, comparative or
animal psychology, family, religion or spirituality, traffic, safety, police,
critical, women or female psychology and media psychology. Cultural and
cross-cultural psychology are now important study fields in psychology
and are discussed in Section 1.4.2.8, while psychometrics and
psychological research (see Chapter 12) are important training and practice
fields in I-O psychology and are discussed in more detail in Section
1.4.2.6.
The following sections relate to I-O psychology as an independent
applied field of psychology and one of the registration categories in
psychology in SA. Other chapters in this book include various aspects of
the science and practice of I-O psychology, which highlight the subfields,
tasks and contributions of I-O psychologists and HR practitioners.
1.4
I-O
psychology:
Identity,
subfields and speciality skills
Industrial and organisational psychology and its subfields involve the
scientific study, understanding and facilitation of employee and
organisational behaviour in workplaces and is defined by its identity,
subfields and specialised skills.
1.4.1
I-O psychology: Identity and status
Industrial and organisational psychology is an independent science and
practice field that shares a common history and development with
psychology (Arnold & Randall, 2010, 2016; Spector, 2012). I-O
psychologists are psychologists in the work context. I-O psychologists and
HR practitioners should be aware that events in the world, as well as
thinking and developments in other disciplines, also influence the science
and practices in I-O psychology and the work context. This is evident in
modern I-O psychology where literature and practices are
multidisciplinary. The effect of global events on I-O psychology is
demonstrated by the impact of the 4IR and the Covid-19 pandemic and
the consequences thereof, which have generated a great deal of
psychological research both in SA and globally (Dwolatzky & Harris,
2020; Teagle, 2020).
I-O psychology has developed its own identity, with unique theories,
research areas, applications and academic and professional training
programmes. Examples of these can be found in job design and selection
strategies, assessment methodologies, training and development
techniques, career development, organisational development, work
motivation, work-related attitudes, management and leadership and
employee and organisational health. As in psychology, the effective I-O
psychologist or HR practitioner must be both scientist and practitioner
(Lowman, 2012). They must be involved in scientific research to build and
verify knowledge. They are required to develop and apply knowledge in
relevant practices to influence organisational effectiveness by developing
and optimising the performance, relationships and wellness of employees.
In SA, research in all the fields of I-O psychology is published in the SA
Journal of Industrial Psychology (available electronically at www.sajip.co.za).
Other significant journals include the SA Journal for Human Resource
Management and the Southern African Business Review.
Historically, industrial psychology is associated with personnel
psychology in which the emphasis was on individual differences and their
measurement in the work context (Aamodt, 2010, 2016; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2016; Cascio & Aguinis, 2019). The term industrial
psychology has been used as the brand name to describe what is known
today as I-O psychology. Organisational psychology arguably has earlier
origins in the organisational or corporate side of work life and was
emphasised between 1950 and 1970, when the concept organisational was
added to the study field’s name. Thus, industrial psychology later became
known as I-O psychology, which involves the scientific study of human
behaviour in the work or organisational context (Coetzee & Schreuder,
2016; Schultz & Schultz, 2010, 2015; Sutton, 2015). The terms industrial
psychology and I-O psychology are used interchangeably in SA. Currently,
the term work psychology is used to refer to both personnel or industrial
and organisational aspects of work. In the analysis of literature under these
different titles, the themes and content are more similar than different. To
add to these variations in names, the South African Organising
Framework for Occupations (OFO) (DHET, 2015) refers to an I-O
psychologist as an organisational psychologist and suggests the alternative
term of industrial and occupational psychologist. However, for professional
registration purposes, the HPCSA uses the title industrial psychologist
(HPCSA, 2011).
Organisational psychology is part of I-O psychology and, together with
other subfields, forms the knowledge base for I-O psychology. However,
the term organisational psychology cannot be a replacement title for I-O
psychology because organisational psychology does not include all the
employment issues covered in the tasks of I-O psychologists (Coetzee &
Van Zyl, 2014; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016). In an analysis of the global
status of I-O psychology, Porter and Schneider (2014) found, for the same
reasons, a strong preference internationally for the ongoing use of I-O
psychology as the brand name for this field of study.
You may encounter terms like business psychology, the psychology of
work, work organisational psychology, personnel psychology and the
psychology of work and organisations. These terms reflect specific
emphasis or refer to contemporary roles played by I-O psychologists to
develop human potential and maximise effective employee and
organisational behaviour.
I-O psychology is a professional psychologist registration category, and
the various subfields that contribute to I-O psychology’s identity as a
science and practice field will be discussed in the section that follows.
1.4.2
I-O psychology: Subfields and practice
areas
The main subfields of I-O psychology are regarded as organisational
psychology, personnel psychology, psychological research, psychological
assessment, career psychology, employee and organisational well-being,
consumer psychology, ergonomics and employment relations.
These subfields are used to structure training in I-O psychology at
academic institutions in SA. The professional I-O psychologist is thus a
generalist (Short, 2019). Other areas or related themes have evolved and
may be included in I-O psychology training such as leadership,
management and entrepreneurial psychology, consulting psychology,
cross-cultural industrial psychology and HRM. The specialist skills profile
of registered I-O psychologists (see Section 1.4.3) as generalists will
generally include content from the main subfields. The HPCSA does not
provide for specialist I-O psychology registration categories, and
specialisation can be indicated by further qualifications and training, as
well as by experience in a specific field of practice. Examples are an I-O
psychologist specialising in the field of psychological assessment, labour
relations, consumer psychology, personnel psychology, HRM, forensic
psychology, career counselling, organisational psychology, ergonomics,
employee and organisational well-being or even a more specific theme.
1.4.2.1
Organisational psychology
Organisational psychology is concerned with work organisations as living
social-technical systems involving individual employees, work-group
behaviour, as well as the structure and dynamics of organisations (Luthans,
2008; Spector, 2012; Cooper, 2019).
The emphasis in organisational psychology is on how social and
organisational processes influence employee behaviour (see Chapter 9).
The primary aim of organisational psychology is to facilitate employee
commitment, productivity and adjustment and organisational efficiency. In
the continuously changing world of work, organisational change and
transformation necessitated by technology, changing work processes, new
organisational structures and changes in organisational climate and culture
are an important focus (Latham, 2019).
1.4.2.2
Personnel psychology
Historically referred to as industrial psychology, personnel psychology is an
applied field that emphasises the scientific study of individual differences
to facilitate the best decisions with regard to employees in their
workplaces. The main tasks of personnel psychologists include facilitating
and improving employee performance and effectiveness through the
selection of the most suitable applicants and purposeful training (Porter &
Schneider, 2014; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016; Cascio & Aguinis, 2019)
(see Table 1.3).
I-O psychologists specialising in personnel psychology focus on the
assessment and appraisal of employees, personnel selection, placement,
promotion and other personnel functions. This is referred to as the
procurement, retention and performance management of employees in the
workplace. Personnel psychology overlaps with HRM and a subfield of
HRM, talent management. Talent management is the way organisations
plan and anticipate their needs for certain types of strategic employment.
Talent management is part of the HR function in organisations to attract,
develop, train and motivate designated employees, especially high-
performing employees (Cascio & Aquinis, 2019). Depending on their
employment, personnel psychologists can be involved in various types of
assessment procedures, labour relations and other organisational
procedures.
The I-O psychologist specialising in personnel psychology should have
in-depth knowledge and skills in research, some business knowledge, an
awareness of national and local labour force trends, financial management,
labour legislation and other related topics such as sociology. The personnel
psychology specialist should be a source of information and a mentor for
HR managers and other experts with regard to employment issues. The
aim is to render an in-depth psychological understanding of human
behaviour, and related principles and techniques. This should enhance the
HR manager’s task of understanding and managing an organisation’s
employees or the employment relationship, in order to achieve optimal
performance and benefits for employees and the organisation (Aamodt,
2010, 2016; Arnold & Randall, 2010; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016: Noe et
al., 2016).
Many I-O psychologists who specialise in personnel psychology are
involved in personnel or HR management when acting as managers in
private practice, as consultants or in other HR positions. Their jobs may
demand expert psychological knowledge, skills and tasks and all the
common managerial functions of planning, organising, leading, delegating,
controlling and developing employees. This will include administrative
tasks related to many HR functions in the workplace.
Figure 1.4
I-O psychologists emphasise not only the individual employee, but the social
aspects of work and organisations
SOURCE Shutterstock Rawpixel.com
1.4.2.3
Career/counselling psychology
Career/vocational psychology and career counselling involves issues related
to the nature of work, career planning and development, the nature of
employment and unemployment, career-related issues in organisations, as
well as influencing factors unrelated to work (Hartung, 2010; Schreuder &
Coetzee, 2016). Career psychology and career counselling as a practice
field are important for the career development of all citizens and are
emphasised in SA by governmental guidelines (DHET, 2013, 2015).
Issues in career development, such as career choice, congruence between
job and career choices, coping with work and organisational change,
conflicts in career progression, work stress and work-life and non-work
conflicts are addressed by career counsellors.
Career psychology is related to developmental, counselling and
personality psychology. Career psychologists and counsellors have an
important task in assisting people to be flexible and adaptable to change,
entrepreneurial and to self-manage their careers in order to stay
employable (Herr, 2013; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). This is of crucial
importance in a continuously changing work environment where
digitisation and AI may dictate employment and career development.
Instead of permanent jobs, future careers and jobs will be characterised by
mobility and entrepreneurship; people will need to adapt quickly and be
competent to do a variety of jobs for specific purposes, employers and
customers.
In SA, career psychologists need to develop or use indigenous
knowledge, methods and measurements of career-related concepts, such as
career choice and career resiliency (Savickas, 2012; Ferreira, 2016; Coetzee
& Schreuder, 2021). A Western knowledge base and measuring
techniques may not be suitable for all clients and may even be detrimental
to their understanding of career progress and counselling efforts. A need
exists to develop and share indigenous knowledge and narratives related to
cultural values, beliefs, practice, and concepts with the view of developing
more appropriate measures and interventions for the African context.
Different South African clients, for example, might understand the
meaning of test items differently, prefer different learning techniques and
approaches and express different interpretations of career success and
status.
In order to address the current scarcity of research in career
psychology, researchers need to initiate and conduct research on the
relevancy of career psychology with regard to changing work
environments, related technology and career development amidst high
levels of unemployment.
1.4.2.4
Employment relations
Employment relations, previously referred to as labour relations or
industrial relations, is concerned with behavioural dynamics,
communication and conflict management, employees (labour unions),
employers and the government. Employee relations specialists focus on
facilitating conflict resolution and assisting in negotiations on employee
demands. These professionals require legal knowledge, especially with
regard to labour legislation. They are concerned with the underlying
dynamics of employer-employee-labour union relationships; the reasons
why labour unions exist and how they function; why employees choose to
join or not join unions and behaviour during negotiations and labour
actions, such as strikes and other forms of protest. I-O psychologists who
are competent in employment relations may also be involved in other HR
functions, such as selection, promotion, remuneration, mergers,
acquisitions, grievances, disciplinary procedures, retrenchment and
dismissal in organisations, which would give them a broader view of the
dynamics and expectations during negotiations.
Figure 1.5
Labour disputes often follow distorted employment relations
SOURCE Shutterstock Eric Crama
1.4.2.5
Research methodology
Research methodology (see Chapter 12) in I-O psychology is similar to
research practices in all scientific disciplines. The objectives of research are
to find, explore or verify psychological knowledge in a systematic and
controlled manner, using various methods of obtaining and processing
information to reach and interpret findings in a credible manner (Efendic
& Van Zyl, 2019; Van Zyl, 2019). Research with regard to work-related
human behaviour and processes in the various subfields of I-O psychology
may be of a basic nature such as developing or testing theory or applied in
examining how existing knowledge can be used. Although research
psychology is one of the professional psychology registration categories in
SA, and requires specific qualifications and experience in the field of
research, psychologists specialising in any of the other subfields should be
research competent and are expected to execute work-related research
(Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2014; Spector, 2012; Coetzee, 2019a). Research, as a
specialised skill, is an important performance outcome for I-O
psychologists and is included at all universities in I-O training syllabi.
1.4.2.6
Psychological assessment/psychometrics
Psychological assessment and psychometrics entails the development and
utilisation of various types of tests and other assessment instruments to
measure attributes and behaviours of people. This is used in various
applications such as the selection, promotion, counselling and training of
employees (see Chapter 12). This needs to be conducted with
consideration of the cultural diversity and different contexts of respondents
(Ferreira, 2016; Laher & Cockcroft, 2014; Foxcroft & Roodt, 2013;
Moerdyk, 2015; Muleya, Fourie & Schlebusch, 2017). An important
aspect of psychometric research is determining the measurement qualities
of instruments, that is, whether they measure what they are supposed to
measure (validity) and whether measurement findings are consistent across
users, using similar techniques and applied in similar situations (reliability).
A key question is also whether psychometric instruments can be used
fairly, that is, they are not biased against certain people or groups. The
time and cost involved in obtaining and administering the instruments
needs to be considered.
Psychological assessment is a support function in many subfields.
Legislation views psychological assessment as a psychological act and it is
thus a professional registration category. A graduate who has completed a
honours degree in I-O psychology, psychology or educational psychology
and a relevant internship can register as a psychometrist with the PBP.
SIOPSA has an interest group, People Assessment in Industry (PAI),
to ensure that psychological testing and assessment in workplaces is a value
adding and ethical practice in SA. The PAI publications include codes of
practice for psychological assessment and guidelines on the validation and
use of assessment processes in workplaces. This is over and above the legal
regulations and ethical codes found specified and the Health Professions
Act (56 of 1974) (HPCSA, 2011), the Employment Equity Act (55 of
1998) and as amended in 2013 (Government Gazette, 2014; Scheepers,
2013) and other work-related legislation. Various psychological assessment
interest groups in SA are currently collaborating to find a best practice
model for the control and use of psychological assessment in the context of
the South African work environment (Bischoff, 2018).
1.4.2.7
Employee and organisational well-being
Employee and organisational health or well-being (see Chapter 11) is the
study of employee and organisational factors, conditions and behaviours
that may facilitate or hinder employee and organisational performance and
effectiveness. It relates to the methods of evaluating, managing and
promoting workplace health and well-being, including the treatment of
impaired work behaviours and facilitating health resources in employees
and organisations (Cooper, 2011; Day et al., 2014). In both theory and
practice, employee and organisational health or well-being may be
included in topics like psychopathology of work, industrial clinical
psychology, work stress, productive and counter-productive employee and
organisational behaviour, career and work dysfunctions, positive
psychological health, employee counselling, occupational diseases and
health and safety at work. It can be managed through health-promoting
initiatives, like employee assistance programmes (EAPs).
Employee assistance programmes are integrated health initiatives inor outside workplaces, offering various types of activities and services to
promote employee and organisational health with regard to various needs
and intervention levels. The importance of employee and organisational
health in SA is illustrated by the fact that it is recognised as a separate
professional training and practice area by the HPCSA in the registered
counsellor category. Psychological well-being in workplaces is considered a
necessary criterion and outcome in effective work performance
management. Enhancing psychological health at work is deemed a
speciality task for I-O psychologists and other HR practitioners.
Psychological well-being in workplaces may often be neglected, or only
attended to in the management of the physical health and safety aspects in
workplaces. However, it has recently seen an increased emphasis in the
theory and practice of work and a greater focus in research (Coetzee &
Van Zyl, 2014; Coetzee, 2019; Day et al., 2014; Mills, Fleck &
Kozikowski, 2013).
1.4.2.8
Cross-cultural I-O psychology
Cross-cultural psychology is the study of how culture influences
behaviour. It considers cultural aspects, such as language, norms,
traditions, values and beliefs and how these cultural aspects influence
perceptions (such as that of work and authority) and relationships in
different cultural contexts (Aycan & Gelfand, 2012; Morris & Maisto,
2010, 2016; Spector, 2012).
Initial psychological research on culture studied the manifestations of
psychological phenomena in specific cultures (emic research), for example,
the manifestation of modes of thinking, habits, emotions, motivation,
attitudes, personality, self-esteem, masculinity versus femininity,
behaviour, language, speaking, marriage and religion. However, with the
emphasis on the dominant influence of Western psychologies on other
cultures, and the globalisation of work and business, concepts of
indigenisation, relevance and Africanisation of psychology have emerged,
which encouraged cross-cultural or multicultural psychological research
(etic research). Etic research involves studying the applicability of cultural
theory and explanations for, and between various groups (Austin et al.,
2012, 2019; Cooper, 2011). Unique cultural aspects can influence how
people think and behave differently in many domains of life. In the work
context, conflicts in value systems between employee and employer values
have, can and will influence work behaviour and decision-making (Arnold
& Randall, 2010; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016). Employees across the
world who are subjected to similar concepts, assessment, training content
and practices and procedures that influence their quality of work life,
should, ideally, share a universal meaning. Large differences will only
enhance the possibility of conflict and labour disputes. An interesting
finding, for example, is that globalisation and the influence of Western
and other cultures does not necessarily change deep-seated values and
behaviours instilled by the mother culture. Such fundamental cultural
values may re-emerge once the influence of another culture has
diminished, or during conflict.
Cultural accommodation and cultural learning in workplaces can help
I-O psychologists and other HR practitioners execute better diversity
management, for example, in selection, promotion, training and in work
teams. This will facilitate improved adjustment, co-operation between
employees and groups of different cultures, thereby minimising
discrimination and exclusion. However, despite this awareness, cultural
and cross-cultural psychology is still not a recognised and prescribed
subfield in I-O psychology training in SA, although themes from crosscultural psychology are used in many subfields and in I-O psychology
training. SIOPSA is associated with the International Association of
Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP).
The following factors necessitate multicultural understanding and
practice in SA: increasing social and economic globalisation and contact;
integration between diverse ethnic groups; increasing urbanisation;
diversity of languages; diverse labour forces in workplaces; technological
changes in workplaces; current and future requirements in work
competencies and the needs in consumer markets and events like mergers
and acquisitions. The many changes in the world of work should stimulate
the awareness of cultural factors between individuals and groups in
workplaces and encourage all stakeholders to become culture sensitive and
culture competent, that is, understand one’s own and other cultures and
the mutual influences in various situations.
Figure 1.6
More similar than different or more unique than similar?
SOURCE Shutterstock Rawpixel.com
Culture and modern technology have mutual influences. Technology,
like digitisation, AI, robotics and social media changes people’s cultural
experience because they observe and process it in unique ways (Council of
Europe, 2019; Levin, 2018). It is, therefore, necessary to have cultural
policies and guidelines to provide satisfactory experiences that will not
suppress, but rather foster individual and collective techno-culture and
cultural creativity in and among cultures. Even if differences exist,
technology must be presented in a way that all cultures will experience
technology in an equal and democratic way that respects cultural heritage
and human rights. For example, if English is not understood in a particular
country, sign language or illustrations on instructions could go a long way
in bridging language barriers.
INFORMATION BOX Relevance of psychological knowledge
and critical practice
The relevance or applicability debate in global and South African psychology involves the
cultural, market and social value of existing psychological knowledge. Cultural relevance
relates to whether existing psychologies are sufficiently Afrocentric to contribute to the
psychological well-being and needs of all African people. Market relevance is about the
international applicability of African psychology.
Social relevance involves the contributions of psychology to the welfare and
psychological well-being of the collective African society (Long & Foster, 2013; Maree,
2019). Criticisms of existing psychological knowledge in SA as being heavily based on
Western psychology indicate it is an issue that must be questioned and researched (Macleod
& Howell, 2013; Sher & Long, 2012; Long, 2013; Nwoye, 2015). Voices for indigenisation and
Africanisation ask the same question; are Western psychologies appropriate in non-Western
cultures? Perhaps we will only find a universal psychology once all indigenous psychologies
have been integrated into mainstream psychology. It might be valuable for South African
scientists, possibly in association with other African universities, psychological societies,
interest groups and practitioners, to embark on a positive, planned and intentional crosscultural or multicultural research project focusing on designated topics to affirm and verify
the value of existing and generic psychological knowledge in SA and the broader African
context.
This might include the adaptation and development of applicable knowledge and
practices for SA and Africa in the context of multicultural work forces. Existing psychological
knowledge within the subject field will still be universally applicable because there are a
great number of similarities between people. However, it must be acknowledged that
important differences do exist in terms of how people think, their behaviour, their cultural
beliefs and their environments. There are instances in which psychological knowledge and
practices can be used in a discriminatory and exclusionary way if it is not executed in a
scientific and professional manner. Critical psychology has contributed much to create an
awareness of the power of the misuse of psychological knowledge (Sher & Long, 2012;
Cooper, 2013, 2014; Van Zyl & Junker, 2019). However, many psychologists practice with
great integrity and use psychological knowledge that has been adapted to local contexts and
contributes to indigenisation and Africanisation.
It is time to make contributions to the development of South African psychology and to
give South African and African psychology its own identity and voice that reflects inclusivity,
a human development orientation and professionalism.
The ethical reader, Diversity management, relates to the management of
various differences between employees in organisations. As noted in crosscultural industrial psychology, these are important issues in contemporary
industrial psychology and people-management practices (Aycan &
Gelfand, 2012; McCallaghan, Jackson & Heyns, 2019).
Ethical reader
Diversity management
The concept of diversity management is a consequence of cultural, multicultural or crosscultural aspects in workplaces and includes gender and sexual orientation, race, ethnicity,
perceptions and age differences. It was only from the 1950s onwards that psychologists
started to address how the influence of culture, race, ethnicity, gender and other cultural
issues impacts on the domains of human life and behaviour (Lopez et al., 2015; Morris &
Maisto, 2016).
Integration or inclusion and diversity have been a neglected topic and practice, both
generally and in psychology. Contributions to the field of psychology by women have been
ignored and in the work context they have been excluded from many types of work and
positions. The situation has improved both globally and in SA (Wood, 2017; Sunday Times,
2019). However, issues of inequality, discrimination and exclusion on many levels, which are
based on factors like gender, ethnicity, minority status and age are still raised (Career
Junction, 2019). Unemployment is generally much higher for women compared to men in SA
(Statistics South Africa, 2018; South African Market Insights, 2020). The existence of many
labour laws and ongoing court cases with regard to inequality and labour discrimination
highlights ongoing discrimination and exclusion across the world.
Effective diversity management in workplaces assists in avoiding later corrective actions
(like affirmative or legal action). In order to minimise any exclusions and discrimination of
and against employees or groups, all possible resources and influencing factors need to be
considered. Effective diversity management will contribute to the structuring of work teams
for optimal results in performance and creativity, assisting each employee to reach their
potential and creating more compassionate mindsets, which will benefit the organisation as
well as employees. It entails considering and managing the many factors that influence
employee behaviour and, therefore, workplaces, or that contribute to the structure and
composition of organisations, as well as resolving conflict in work groups.
Differences between individuals can occur along socio-economic factors, traditions,
norms, religion, politics, as well as personality and behavioural differences. This is especially
true in diverse workforces – such as in SA – and for employees from other countries. Even
seemingly small perceived insensitivities in work policies, for example, with regard to
employee habits, clothing, physical appearances and beliefs may cause dissatisfaction and
conflict. Specific cultural influences, for example, work ethics, religion and values and
traditions can have a decisive influence in the workplace, as they give direction to certain
work motivations and work behaviours and demands. Certain personality orientations and
beliefs may manifest in phenomena such as prejudice, racism and discrimination. Changes in
workplaces like virtual working, new technology and automation, changing socio-political
dispensations and related labour laws and regulations affect different employees in different
ways, as do closures, and mergers and acquisitions in business and personnel reductions.
1.4.2.9
Ergonomics
Ergonomics (ergo = work; nomics = rules or laws of work) is also referred to
as human-factors engineering (HFE) and human-machine systems (Statt,
2004). Ergonomics may be viewed as an engineering field and a borderline
I-O field of study, and is concerned with the study of work design and
how employees and the technical, physical and social aspects of workplaces
fit together and interact. This includes health and safety in workplaces.
The term ergonomics was developed in 1950, and its origin was strongly
influenced by WWII and previous time-and-motion studies (to determine
work processes).
The study of ergonomics, therefore, started when early psychologists
measured employees’ physical and mental features and applied the
principles learned from the information processing of pilots in WWII.
Ergonomic principles are integrated into other aspects of human
interaction, such as in the design of buildings, technology and transport.
Ergonomics psychology is a multi-disciplinary applied field, and I-O
psychologists should be involved in the science and practice of work design
to create optimally safe and healthy workplaces and positive work
experiences. The importance of this field should encourage more research
and practice in ergonomics as well as in South African I-O psychology
(Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2014). The 4IR technology may stimulate a renewed
interest in ergonomics because of the new and varied types of humantechnology interactions that 4IR technologies bring. New technologies
have implications for work and workplace design, job descriptions and
performance management, as well as sensation and perceptual processes.
1.4.2.10
Consumer psychology
Consumer psychology is referred to as economic and market psychology
and is considered in some circles to form part of the economic or
marketing sciences. Consumer psychology studies the psychological
aspects of consumer or buyer decisions, commitment and behaviour. This
involves the needs, values, interests and other personal attributes that
facilitate decision-making and motivation in buyers as they search for,
purchase, use and evaluate goods and services (Cant, Brink & Brijball,
2006). Du Plessis (2008) indicates how various brain and psychological
processes, such as intelligence, learning, memory, attention, liking
behaviours and emotions, are involved in experiencing marketing of
products and services and can be utilised in advertisements or marketing
strategies. This may include misleading ways of advertising and marketing
to influence consumer and buying behaviour. I-O psychologists in this
field may be involved in behaviour and market research to determine
marketing strategies that will elicit certain consumer responses, particularly
decisions to buy goods or to use services (Du Plessis, 2008).
Consumer psychology is valuable in workplaces to understand and
influence internal and external customer and service behaviours and
perceptions. Consider, for example, the reliance on, and competition
between departments in organisations for certain services and rewards; car
dealers and other salespersons offer excellent sales and after-sales service to
attract and keep their customers. Customer-service experts may be
involved in making organisations aware of their own internal customer and
service relationships (for example, how interdependent departments in an
organisation use and consume their specific goods and services).
In summary, we suggest that consumer psychology should be an
integrative theme in professional I-O psychology training, as must crosscultural psychology and possibly community psychology. Phenomena like
social media and the growth in new technologies and the implications
thereof should be prominent themes for HR practitioners, in business and
for study and consulting. Given the misuse of global resources, it may be
appropriate for environmental and ecological psychology to receive more
attention. New technologies will play a large role in ensuring cleaner living
and health for people and nature. I-O psychologists should facilitate
employee and organisational sensitivity for the unity in and between
things, and people’s relatedness to and dependency on their physical and
natural environments.
1.4.3
I-O psychologists: Expert skills and
tasks
The OFO (Organising Framework for Occupations) in SA (code 272303)
describes the skills specialisation of the I-O psycho-logist (OFO use the
term organisational psychologist) as the application of psychological
principles and methods with a view to studying work behaviour, working
conditions and organisational structure, and solving problems related to
work performance and organisational design. In addition, the South
African Professional Board for Psychology (PBP), explains the practice
field of I-O psychologists as the application of psychological principles to
the behaviour of well-adjusted individuals and other aspects in work
situations, with the objective of facilitating optimal performance and
wellness in individual employees, groups and organisations. (Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2016).
The PBP and HPCSA, as well as relevant literature, indicates specific
areas in the scope of practice of I-O psychologists. These include:
psychological assessment; recruitment, selection and placement; facilitating
individual and group processes; executing consumer psychology tasks
(marketing and related research); work design (ergonomic) assessments;
performing short-term counselling interventions with regard to career
issues and employee well-being; performance appraisal; employee training
and development; industrial relations; organisational behaviour;
involvement in technological and organisational change; occupational
health and safety and determining the quality of work life (HPCSA, 2011;
Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016).
The tasks and roles of I-O psychologists can be dictated by the field in
which they are specialised or focus on, or they may be involved in a
combination of tasks from various fields. An example is an I-O
psychologist who only does assessment or counselling, or works as an HR
manager or consultant, where different tasks are involved. Thus,
applications of psychological knowledge in a work context can be aimed at
routine personnel or HR management functions (employment
management) or include functions in organisational dynamics. The
training as a professional psychologist (as certified by the PBP and
HPCSA) is generalist because undergraduate, post-graduate and
professional training involves general psychology, some economic and
management subjects and designated I-O psychology subfields and themes
from other subjects. I-O psychologists should have an in-depth
psychological knowledge of personality and individual differences, human
development, attitudes and values, learning, motivation and emotion,
perception and cognition, organisational behaviour and psychological
adjustment. They need to be well informed and skilled in employee
relations, psychological assessment and research, as well as in the economic
and management sciences, including personnel or HR management issues.
Depending on the type and level of jobs, an I-O psychologist can therefore
be responsible for the HRM functions and related organisational functions
in workplaces (Noe et al., 2016; Wärnich et al., 2015).
In the information box, Content themes in I-O psychology, organisational
psychology and HRM, some of the similarities and differences in these three
fields of study and practice are indicated.
INFORMATION BOX Content themes in I-O psychology,
organisational psychology and HRM
Books with I-O psychology, work psychology and even personnel psychology in the title will
usually contain topics (or content themes) related to the industrial or personnel side of
work, and some themes related to the organisational aspects. Examples of industrial topics
are: research in I-O psychology; personnel or HR planning; job analysis and criterion;
decision-making; psychological assessment; recruitment and personnel selection; employee
training; performance appraisal and reward and remuneration (Aamodt, 2016; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2016; Muchinsky, 2006).
Literature in organisational psychology concentrates more on organisational themes and
may include some personnel aspects. Examples of content themes in organisational
psychology include: employee motivation and emotion; career development; work-related or
job attitudes; productive and counterproductive employee and organisational behaviour;
employee/labour relations; occupational stress and health; well-being and dysfunctional
work behaviour; work groups and teams; organisational communication; leadership and
power; diversity management and organisational development and change (Luthans, 2008;
Rothmann & Cooper, 2015).
Human resource management literature has similarities to the content covered by both
personnel and I-O psychology, but with an emphasis on practical management aspects and
little in-depth coverage of psychological content (Noe et al., 2016: Wärnich et al., 2015;
Cascio & Aguinis, 2019). Some examples are: HR technology; diversity management; strategic
HR planning; talent management; job design and analysis; recruitment and selection;
employee orientation; motivation and retention; career and performance management;
training and development; employee compensation and benefits; health and safety; union
management; disciplinary and dismissal issues and international HR management.
Sections 1.4.2, 1.4.3 and the feature above emphasise the possible areas of
work and roles of the I-O or industrial psychologist with regard to
individual employees, groups and the organisation at large. The following
specialised skills, tasks and responsibilities are associated with the practice
of the I-O psychologist (Aamodt, 2006; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016;
HPCSA, 2011; Riggio, 2009; Spector, 2012):
• Applying appropriate psychological knowledge in the work context to
relatively well-adjusted employees.
• Facilitating improved work performance and the well-being of
employees and the organisation.
• Executing work-related research to develop psychological knowledge
of work behaviour and to test and verify existing knowledge and
applications.
• Executing purposeful psychological analysis and assessment using
appropriate techniques for various purposes like selection, career
counselling and attitude and culture assessment.
• Conducting psychological interventions, for example, counselling for
work-related problems, career development and organisational change.
• Assessing and enhancing relationships and conflict resolution between
individual employees and in groups.
• Being involved in HR planning, job analysis and work design to
determine a best fit between employees and workplaces.
• Mentoring and monitoring business relationships in, and between,
organisational departments and with regard to external consumers and
other interest groups or stakeholders.
• Being involved in employee training, motivation and performance
management.
• Being involved in remuneration and benefits planning and
implementation.
• Acting as consulting psychologists or mentoring and coaching
individuals, groups, organisations and HR management.
From the above descriptions of the subfields, subject content and the roles
and tasks involved in the I-O psychology field, it is evident that the I-O
psychologist’s training and competencies are founded upon the scientistpractitioner model. The I-O psychologist is both a scientific researcher
who obtains and tests knowledge and practices in work behaviour and
workplaces, and a professional practitioner of knowledge who develops and
influences employees and workplaces with the aim of achieving optimal
employee and business objectives.
The tasks of I-O psychologists are mirrored in the functions of wellestablished HR departments in work organisations (see Table 1.3), which
indicates the overlap with HR practi-tioners (Noe et al., 2016; Wärnich et
al., 2015). In current work environments, talent management is an
important HR function. Talent management ensures that suitable
employees have the applicable competencies for new job requirements
(Cascio & Aguinis, 2019).
Table 1.3
HR functions and related tasks of I-O psychologists and HR practitioners
Human resources and
organisational functions
Tasks of I-O psychologists and HR
practitioners
1. Job analysis and job
design/ergonomics
Analysing jobs/tasks and competencies,
ensuring work stations are an
ergonomically appropriate fit with
employees.
2. HR planning,
recruitment, selection
and placement of
employees
Advertising, developing assessment
techniques, executing assessment,
deciding on selecting and placement,
orientation of new and exiting
employees, identifying management
potential.
3. Planning and
administration of
remuneration/benefit
systems
Market surveys, matching wages and
benefits to job levels.
4. Employment training
and career development
Designing and applying training for
specific job competencies, assessing
individual and organisational training
needs, assessing training effectiveness,
planning and providing growth and
career opportunities, effect counselling.
5. Managing employee
motivation,
satisfaction and
performance
Specifying performance criteria and
measuring performance, giving feedback
and facilitating improvement.
6. Establishing and
administering
personnel policies
Regarding leave, study, medical, and
discipline.
7. Establishing and
maintaining
employee/customer
relations and managing
conflict
Assessing customer needs and
responses, planning market strategies,
establishing internal and external
communication channels, as well as
with unions and the media and solving
conflict.
8. Monitoring compliance
with labour and other
legislation and ethical
and behaviour codes
Understanding and applying labour and
related legislation, complying with
professional and ethical codes,
negotiating and solving disputes.
9. Managing and utilising
HR/personnel and
business data
Confidential safekeeping of data,
informed use of data.
10. Supporting and
administering
organisational HR
strategies on various
issues e.g. talent
management,
technology,
sustainability and
retaining stakeholders
HR-planning, observing talent or
potential of employees, keeping the
organisation relevant and sustainable,
satisfying stakeholder needs.
11. Managing occupational
health and
safety/quality of work
life
Enhancing productivity, observing job
satisfaction and job engagement,
facilitating good workplaces, ensuring
informed and trained employees, being
involved in occupational health
promotion facilities, redesigning
workplaces.
12. Monitoring and
facilitating
organisational
culture/climate change
Monitoring changes in the market (and
opponents), perceptual, value and
attitude changes.
13. Managing technological
change and use
Workplaces tools, IT and social media.
14. Executing
HR/personnel research
for management.
Researching factors influencing
employee and organisational
effectiveness, providing evidence-based
HR data to management.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
1.4.3.1
I-O psychologists and HR practitioners
The specialty knowledge, skills and tasks of I-O psychologists highlights
points of overlap between the profiles of I-O psychologists and HR
practitioners. This is due to similarities in their training content and
specialist skills and tasks in similar work environments. Although
differences in their qualifications, training, level and type of psychological
knowledge and level of work are indicated, I-O psychologists will often
function as HRM practitioners in jobs, consultation and private practice.
Human resource practitioners who are not qualified and registered as
psychologists, may not execute what is deemed a psychological act such as
psychotherapy, counselling and psychological assessment.
Human resource practitioners are involved in employment
management, which entails the daily running and management of the
employees (the human resources) of an organisation. This may include
management of employee development, retention, adjustment and change
management (Cascio & Aguinis, 2019). Human resource practitioners are
given a different occupational profile from I-O psychologists by the OFO
in SA (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016). The skills specialities of HRM
professionals entail the provision of services relating to the daily running of
a business with an emphasis on employment and related policies,
programmes, administrative functions and tasks.
Human resource management is not industrial psychology or personnel
psychology. The knowledge and skills required in HRM are indicated by
HR or personnel and organisational functions (see Table 1.3), some
economic and management science subjects and labour law. Human
resource practitioners do not receive in-depth training in any psychological
discipline except if registered as a psychologist. HRM qualifications may
be obtained by a degree, diploma or certificate in HRM. Preferred subjects
within the field of HRM are in business management, but other subjects
include the communication and social sciences, like organisational
behaviour and change (Wärnich et al., 2015). However, management and
organisational knowledge may be best obtained by experience in related
jobs and business environments. The types of jobs in which HR
practitioners find themselves will determine the knowledge needed. In a
designated job, there may be a technical requirement for IT for example.
Masters and doctorate qualifications are not a prerequisite for HRM
registrations with the SA Board for People Practices (SABPP), although
two of their advanced registration categories require masters and doctorate
qualifications.
The SABPP remains a non-statutory institution, although it is now
recognised as the Education and Training Quality Assurance body
(ETQA) for HR qualifications, and represents the quality and interests of
HRM practices in SA with regard to training and codes of behaviour
(Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016; Wärnich et al., 2015). As a result of cooperation between SIOPSA and the SABPP, both human resource
specialists and I-O psychologists may register with the SABPP once their
training complies with a number of HRM competencies and practices
(Coetzee and Schreuder, 2016; SABPP, 2020).
Human resource management is the planning, designing and
implementing of systems, procedures and practices to ensure its alignment
to organisational goals and policies. Interventions with employees, groups
and social processes in organisations that are related to in-depth
psychological knowledge, assessment or diagnosis, should ideally be
executed by registered I-O psychologists. The advanced, in-depth and
expert psychological knowledge and understanding of human behaviour,
and the ability to apply it in work situations as well as professional
registration indicates the important differences between I-O psychologists
and HRM qualified practitioners (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016).
Professional I-O psychologists have an important task to research workrelated human behaviour and therefore be a source of information
regarding employee behaviour and related practices, or become a mentor
for both HRM specialists and management by sharing evidence-based
information to prove that personnel or HR management contributes to
employee and organisational effectiveness.
Scientific and practice contributions from HR practitioners can be
published, inter alia, in the SA Journal of Human Resource Management
(www.sajhrm.co.za).
From the descriptions of the various subfields and skills, tasks and roles
and responsibilities of I-O psychologists and other HR practitioners, types
of jobs and careers may be inferred. These will be briefly discussed in the
next section.
1.4.4
The scope for job and career
opportunities in I-O psychology
Psychology and I-O psychology and its subfields are well established and
job and career possibilities and directions are growing in SA (SACAP,
2019; Nicholas, 2014). Table 1.3 and the subfield descriptions in Sections
1.4.2 and 1.4.3 indicate the types of activities or functions in personnel or
HR, the different types of jobs that exist and the different skills required
(Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016; Spector, 2012; Noe et al., 2016; Wärnich et
al., 2015). I-O psychologists and other HR practitioners can either pursue
jobs or tasks in line with subject or practice areas in I-O psychology or
HRM, or alternatively specialise in very specific areas in these fields. The
level of qualification, professional registration and expertise of an I-O
psychologist or HR practitioner will determine the level and type of jobs
and tasks a designated person is able to perform.
This is evident when consulting a source like the OFO in SA, which is
a classification system of occupations (OFO, Department of Higher
Education and Training DHET, 2015). Further searches can be made by
studying job advertisements or doing job searches for psychologists in the
media or on the Internet. The possibilities and opportunities for careers
and jobs for I-O psychologists can be determined while studying and
working, by attending career and job exhibitions, consulting with
professional societies, career counsellors and personnel consultants. All
these enquiries will confirm that I-O psychology has many subfields and
related themes, and I-O psychologists and other HR practitioners
qualified in these applied or practice areas can be employed in many types
of jobs and roles.
The job prospects for I-O psychologists and other psychology jobs in
the US and in SA are quite positive. In the US, I-O psychology is rated as
a fast growing occupation with average pay that far exceeds many other
career directions (Organizational Psychology, 2020; Cherry, 2020). The
American Psychological Association (APA) and the Society for Industrial
& Organisational Psychology (SIOP) in the US describe I-O psychologists
as versatile specialists and professional scientists who, through various
tasks, can reshape a post-pandemic workplace and contribute to the quality
of a future work life. They are able to determine the causes of optimal and
poor performance with a view to facilitating employee and organisational
behaviour (Farnham, 2014; Ohara, 2020). In SA, prospects for I-O
psychology jobs and careers are also encouraging, with opportunities in
post-Covid-19 research (College Consensus, 2020; Coetzee & Schreuder,
2021).
Projections of SA’s socio-economic and political situation for the
2020s and beyond is uncertain, especially with the unexpected
consequences of Covid-19, and the impact of the 4IR (Gillwald, 2019;
Magwentshu et al., 2019; Deloitte, 2020). To improve the labour situation
and work experiences for people in SA, it would appear that less favourable
influencing forces in SA will have to be turned around or stabilised. These
include poor competency levels among labour forces, especially with regard
to new technology, inefficient governance, business inefficiency and
corruption, ineffective management, slow acceptance and adaptation of
change in business and workplaces, high unemployment, a growth rate
below 5 per cent, ongoing labour unrest and other forms of social conflict.
Furthermore, an over 70 per cent projection of urbanisation will require
many millions more jobs in SA.
The challenges for wealth creation, inter alia, avoiding further
downgrades of the South African economy and the decrease of investment
in SA must be overcome (Nkomo, 2015; Bishop, 2020). An important
need exists for increased psychological interventions with regard to the
many societal and psychological challenges that exist in SA today. I-O
psychologists, with their specialised skill sets, could contribute to
improving some of these factors to achieve growth and stability in these
socio-economic circumstances, while creating job and career opportunities
for others and themselves, both in- and outside workplaces. Examples of
interventions are: change management, organisational consultation on
labour issues; skills training; career and work well-being; counselling
related to career self-management and entrepreneurship; conflict
resolution; positive thinking; healthy living and stress management.
1.4.5
The scientific status of psychology
disciplines
Psychology and industrial psychology in SA are well established and are
part of a global discipline. Work has been done with regard to the
inclusion of all parties in psychology structures and practices, and with
regard to the indigenisation and decolonisation of psychology. Psychology
in SA has achieved democratisation with regard to practice aspects,
psychological societies, psychological governance, student selection and
training, and psychology training content. African psychologists are
accommodated in all aspects of psychology of SA, including local and
international leadership positions and employment (Ngcobo, 2013;
Nicholas, 2014; Kagee, 2014).
South African psychologists have open global channels of interaction
and communication through shared publishing, conferences, societies,
research, mutual visits and lecturing contracts. Notable contributions have,
and are being made by South African psychologists, as reported in various
local and international scientific psychology journals. Many psychologists
have completed or advanced their studies at overseas universities under
well-known international psychologists. Many well-known international
psychologists in various sub-disciplines have visited and worked in SA
(Nicholas, 2014)
It is important to note that both psychology and I-O psychology are
considered sciences in their own right. Theoretical concepts and practices
have been established and verified by systematic and controlled research
processes (Briner & Rosseau, 2011; Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2014, 2015;
Coetzee, 2018, 2019a). These scientific requirements of inquiry or research
contribute to the trust learners and practitioners can have in psychological
knowledge and methods. Registered psychologists are trained in a sciencepractitioner model, which should enable them to utilise psychological
knowledge and related methods to practice psychology in a variety of
situations with reasonable certainty. I-O psychology, through its journal,
the SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, receives favourable citation and
journal listing ratings for its growth and local and international impact.
Research publications in the subject areas of I-O psychology have grown
and are more in line with international trends (Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2014).
This does not, however, stop ongoing reflection on the quality of research
published in relevant journals (Van Zyl, 2019; Van Zyl & Junker, 2019;
Efendic & Van Zyl, 2019).
A reflection on published scientific articles and conference proceedings
provides a good indication of the relevancy of I-O psychology in theory
and practice in SA. It appears that in recent years less emphasis has been
placed on personnel psychology and more on organisational psychology,
employee and organisational well-being, as well as on the content and
methodology of industrial psychology research (Van Zyl, 2019; Efendic &
Van Zyl, 2019; Cilliers, 2020; Van Zyl & Junker, 2019), while research in
psychological assessment has stayed consistent. Less research is reported
for career psychology, employment relations, consumer psychology and
ergonomics (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2010; Long, 2013; Long & Foster,
2013; Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2014; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016; Coetzee,
2019). Other findings assert that research in I-O psychology was in
agreement with the needs of researchers and problems of employers, but
was not sufficiently relevant or did not fully address organisational and
social issues, and did not sufficiently contribute to theory building in SA
(Ebersohn, 2012; Laher & Cockcroft, 2014; Long, 2014, 2016, 2017;
Macleod & Howell, 2013). It appears that practitioners may be slow in
applying theoretical or academic research findings, which indicates that a
gap may exist between theory and practice in research (Coetzee & Van
Zyl, 2015). The need for I-O psychology to become even more evidencebased has been emphasised (Briner & Rosseau, 2011). This means that I-
O practitioners must augment their own knowledge, experiences and
applications with the best evidence in research from expert users on the
same knowledge and practices. It means that in the practice of business
and HR management, human resource professionals must be able to show
that psychological knowledge is necessary for the sustainability of
organisations and for the good of all stakeholders.
Criticism may still be levelled at the real relevance of I-O psychology
research with regard to SA, for example, the intensive technology and
knowledge-driven nature of sectors in SA, as well as the current sociopolitical realities and socio-economic needs (Cooper, 2014; Long &
Foster, 2013; Nicholas, 2014; Pretorius, 2012). Specific issues of criticism
are the poor levels of health facilities, education and training for many
South Africans as well as the high levels of unemployment, which creates
barriers for many people in the field. Criticism has been directed at
training syllabi that still reflect Western psychology and are not sufficiently
indigenised, Africanised and decolonised (Clay, 2017). Many opinions and
suggestions have been voiced on forums with regard to the decolonising
and indigenisation or Africanisation of psychology theory and practice.
Africa and SA are diverse societies with many challenges, and psychology
must serve all its people. South Africans live and work in a world where
many universally accepted psychological concepts, processes and criteria
are applied. The psychology community should all, however, contribute to
developing a relevant psychology based on valuable existing theory,
research and practices, but also new or adapted contents specifically from
and for the realities of Africa and SA.
The history and development of I-O psychology can be viewed in
many ways; however, it is often viewed according to certain periods in time
and the corresponding influencing events, people and contributions. In the
following section, some broad trends are briefly indicated.
1.4.6
I-O psychology: A brief history
Influence from the field of psychology is still evident in I-O psychology,
although I-O psychology has its own characteristic knowledge and
practice. The interested student should consult literature on the history
and development of psychology and I-O psychology to understand the
origins, present status and possible future directions of psychology
disciplines. Important events in history, for example, the four industrial
revolutions, certain scientific inventions, political systems, war, economic
downswings and health pandemics have all had forming influences on
psychology. This may be observed in thinking paradigms, theories,
concepts and practices used during and after certain time periods in
history, for example, a more mechanical, social or cognitive view of human
phenomena.
A well-researched and integrated South African publication on the
history, development and contributions of psychology and industrial
psychology and related events globally and in SA would be a valuable
source and commentary, particularly with regard to indigenisation and
Africanisation (Coetzee & Van Zyl, 2014; Cooper, 2014; Nicholas, 2014).
The role and contributions of South African and African psychology and
I-O psychology in historical and current perspectives are seldom included
in mainstream psychology literature.
The history and development of industrial psychology can be linked to
a few progressive time periods, each with related events, theory, research,
publications and applications. Broadly speaking, the following periods
reflect early developments: World Wars I (1914–1918) and II (1939–
1945) (WWI and WWII) and the time period in between these wars; the
period after the world wars (from the 1950s to the 1990s); and last,
modern times (1994 and beyond).
1.4.6.1
Early developments
The establishment of psychology as an experimental science occurred in
1879 when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first experimental psychology
laboratory in Leipzig, Germany which researched physiological processes
and their measurements. The practical research applications of the time
included an early emphasis on, and measurement of individual differences.
This later influenced the study and measurement of individual differences
in psychology and industrial psychology (Statt, 2004; Muchinsky, 2006).
The scientific basis for industrial psychology and management is
attributed to Frederick W. Taylor, an engineer who in 1893 established
the so-called scientific management approach, or Taylorism (Aamodt,
2010, 2016; Coetzee and Schreuder, 2016; Muchinsky, 2006; Spector,
2012). In his ground-breaking publication, The principles of scientific
management, in 1911, Taylor’s important contribution was on the analysis
and redesigning of work processes to ensure the most efficient work
performance by employees. Taylor emphasised a scientific approach to
work and management, selection and training, best practices in doing
work, co-operation among employees and an equal division of work
between employees and management according to their skills (Muchinsky,
2006).
Hugo Münsterberg (clinical psychologist), and the founder of
industrial psychology, published Psychology and industrial efficiency in 1913
(Aamodt, 2010, 2016; Spector, 2012). Münsterberg, Walter Dill Scott and
others promulgated the application of psychology to work issues, like
selection, ergonomic work design, advertising and sales tasks. These
developments reached SA. Nicholas (2014) and van Ommen and Painter
(2008) discuss more than a century of South African psychology. Early
beginnings are from contacts with international psychology from around
the 1890s and early 1900s. An important influencing factor in mainstream
psychology, as well as in South African psychology, is the socio-economic
and political context of the time with all its implications. For example,
think about the socio-economic and political context in SA before and
after 1994, and the potential implications for the theory and practice of
industrial psychology.
1.4.6.2
World War I (1914-1918) and World War II (1939-1945) and
the period between these wars
World War I (WWI) (1914-1918) and World War II (WWII) (19391945) enhanced the establishment, expansion and specialisation of
industrial psychology, shifted the direction of work-related psychology
research, and established its status and acceptance as a contributing science
and practice in work and civilian contexts. A number of I-O subfields had
early origins in WWI and WWII and would develop further afterwards.
The emphasis during both wars, especially in the US, was on psychological
testing, soldier selection and classification, qualifications, job duties and
placements in which psychologists played an integral role. Psychologists,
both in- and outside the military, attended to other aspects, like morale,
group dynamics, motivation, psychological health, physical illness and
disciplinary issues (Muchinsky, 2006; Spector, 2012). In the US,
psychologists were used by the government to save labour costs, and workrelated psychological research was promoted. During WWII, industrial
psychology developed into a more acceptable, refined, diversified science
and applied field, partly because its techniques and methods proved to be
useful (Muchinsky, 2006; Muchinsky, Kriek & Schreuder, 2005).
The period between the two world wars is especially important because
of the well-known Hawthorne studies (1924-1939), still considered one of
the major influences on the expansion of I-O psychology. Findings of the
Hawthorne studies emphasised that social factors, motivation and other
organisational factors influence the relationships between work processes,
productivity and efficiency, and may be as important as the physical work
environment, remuneration and work processes (Zhong & House, 2012;
Muchinsky, 2006; Spector, 2012). Apart from creating a greater awareness
regarding the social and organisational aspects in industrial psychology, the
Hawthorne studies influenced the human-relations management approach
that emphasises social relations and human (or psychological factors) in
managing workplaces (see the information box, The Hawthorne study and
findings).
During this period, industrial psychology was widely introduced in
academic and professional training and, in 1921, the first doctorate degree
in industrial psychology was awarded in the US (Muchinsky, 2006;
Spector, 2012). In SA, R.W Wilcocks, who completed a doctorate in
Germany in around 1917, was the founder of the first independent
psychology department at the University of Stellenbosch (then Victoria
College). He based his experimental psychology laboratory on the same
physiological principles used by Wundt in 1879. E.G. Malherbe, who
completed his psychological studies in the US, introduced psychometric
testing in the SA military services in the 1930s, and was joined later by
Wilcocks (Nicholas, 2014).
During WWII, Simon Biesheuvel (who was regarded as the founder of
industrial psychology in SA) was requested by the government to start an
aptitude testing section in the South African Air Force. Another South
African psychologist, P.R. Skawran, worked on pilot selection in the South
African Air Force (Nicholas, 2014). After the end of WWII, in 1946, The
National Institute for Personnel Research (NIPR) was founded in SA
under Simon Biesheuvel and tasked with utilising psychological testing on
mine workers and in other applications. The NIPR was later closed and
replaced in 1969 by the still functioning Human Sciences Research
Council (HSRC). The initial tasks of the HSRC were psychological test
development, psychological research and other applications. Its current
focus is on large-scale, policy-relevant, social-scientific research; research
activities are aligned with the national development priorities of SA
(HSRC, 2020). Due to the fast-growing mining industry in SA,
regulations and legislation with regard to health and safety were passed
from the early 1900s (Acutt & Hattingh, 2011).
INFORMATION BOX The Hawthorne study and findings
The Hawthorne experiments, which were conducted between 1924 and 1939 at the
Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in the US, were particularly critical of
Taylorism for exploiting employees. Under the leadership of Elton Mayo, psychologists from
Harvard University researched the influence of physical work factors (such as levels of
illumination and lengths of rest periods) on work performance. The results indicated that few
changes in work performance occurred due to varying physical or technical factors. It was
evident, however, that employees’ work performance was influenced by many complex
factors. Work performance may vary among employees even if employees follow specific
procedures and standards under strict supervision. It was further established that certain
non-technical psychological and social factors in people and in workplaces, like forming
groups, socialising, internal motivation, wanting to do well when observed, being respected
and given recognition, influences work performances markedly. These findings were
important for organisational psychology. A further finding, referred to as the Hawthorne
effect, was that initial changes in work performance may wear off once employees stop
receiving special treatment by researchers, or once they get used to new practices or
changes in the workplace (Statt, 2004; Muchinsky, 2006; Spector, 2012). The findings
related to the Hawthorne effect are still applicable today and remind researchers and
practitioners to be mindful of the influence on findings research subjects may have because
they respond in certain ways as a result of being observed. Findings in new situations or
outside the original research settings may not necessarily be valid and applicable to other
contexts.
1.4.6.3
The period after the world wars: 1950s to the early 1990s
The period after WWII up to the 1970s is a watershed period, as the
industrial side of work psychology was established and further
specialisation took place. The social aspects in workplaces were strongly
emphasised due to the influence of the Hawthorne studies (Muchinsky,
2006).
In the US, the period from the 1960s onward was characterised by
government interventions in the work context, for example, a number of
legislative measures with regards to civil rights and labour issues were
passed. During this period, various concepts in organisational psychology
were developed, and in the 1970s, industrial psychology was renamed I-O
psychology.
In SA, in terms of training, the Department of Psychology at
Stellenbosch University has offered industrial psychology as a field of study
since 1943, and a separate Department of Industrial Psychology was
founded in 1963. The first doctorate (DCom) in industrial psychology in
SA was awarded in 1957 at Stellenbosch University (Schreuder, 2001).
However, most of the independent industrial psychology departments at
other universities in SA were only founded towards the end of the 1960s
and the 1970s. Prior to this, I-O psychology was only offered as a subject
in psychology departments.
In SA, the first psychological society, the South African Psychological
Association (SAPA) was founded in 1948. In 1994, it evolved into the
current Psychological Society of South Africa (PsySSA). The late 1950s
and 1960s introduced a fusion between disciplines, for example sociology,
cultural, health and industrial psychology as well as between subfields in
industrial psychology. This is evident in the content of modern literature
in I-O psychology (Arnold & Randall, 2010). During the 1970s, the
neglected topics of culture and cross-cultural research started to be
included in I-O psychology literature, research and applications
(Muchinsky, 2006; Berry & Poortinga, 2011).
1.4.6.4
Modern times: 1994 and beyond
Modern times refers to the mid-1990s and onwards. This period is
characterised by great advances in digital, information and
communications technology (Internet, cellphones and social media), all of
which are utilised in psychology. The advanced technology of the 2020s,
characterised by digital and related 4IR technology, will change the nature
of work, communication and doing business. Technology, and the
increased use of virtual and online working, has already changed the nature
of work interactions (and related aspects); and, in many instances, away
from fixed job descriptions and work venues.
Psychology, work and research relationships, and communication
among local and international psychologists, is now much more open and
psychology is integrated with other disciplines. The ongoing emphasis of
positive psychology since the late 1990s has influenced many subfields and
applications of psychology and brought a new dimension into the science
and practice of psychology disciplines, including work psychology and
workplaces (Cooper, 2011; Day et al., 2014; Sheldon et al., 2011; Janse
van Rensburg & Rothmann, 2020). Since the 1990s, psychology societies
in SA have become more unified. However, in 2005 the Society for
Industrial and Organisational Psychology (SIOP), in accordance with a
majority decision by its members, broke away from PsySSA to establish its
own independent society, named SIOPSA. I-O psychology in SA is now
recognised to be more or less on a par with international standards. This
period has seen a substantial growth of I-O psychological research in SA,
especially in the fields of personnel and organisational psychology,
psychological assessment, research psychology and employee well-being
(Coetzee & Van Zyl 2014; Coetzee, 2017, 2018, 2019). More research in
the subfields of career psychology, ergonomics, consumer psychology and
employment relations is encouraged.
Since the 1990s, government intervention in labour and workplaces in
SA has rapidly increased, with numerous legislative measures being
introduced; however, the country’s governance, economy and
unemployment status remains challenging. This will be increasingly
evident with the economic impact of Covid-19, including unemployment.
Much of the time and effort of I-O psychologists will arguably be spent on
issues relating to Covid-19 and related health and well-being aspects. The
implications of virtual working and 4IR technology in workplaces, as well
as talent management in employment and socio-economic changes in
society, will need to be considered.
I-O psychology, as a science and practice field, has become more
integrated, multidisciplinary and multicultural, although critical questions
are still raised around how relevant current theory and practice in
psychology is in different contexts (Long, 2013; Moyo, 2012; Pretorius,
2012). Psychology in SA has an opportunity to conduct relevant and indepth research and utilise new or adapted knowledge and applications that
embrace both cultural synergies and differences in diverse and
multicultural contexts and make a meaningful contribution to the local and
international body of psychology knowledge.
1.4.6.5
Development of governance bodies in South African
psychology
A number of institutions have contributed to the development of
psychology and industrial psychology as applied fields in SA.
The HPCSA and the Professional Board for Psychology (PBP), as
statutory bodies, have regulatory functions with regard to all psychologists
in SA. The South African Medical and Dental Council (SAMDC) was
founded in 1928, was renamed in 1974, and still functions as the Health
Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA) (www.hpcsa.co.za). The
HPCSA is the main controlling and regulatory body for all health-related
professions in SA, and, via the various professional boards, regulates
matters with regard to healthcare legislation, education and training,
professional conduct and ethical behaviour, scope of practice and
registration or certification, as well as the continuing development of
health professionals. The PBP, founded in 1974, has a regulatory function
with regard to education and training, examinations, registration and
related rules and regulations, scope of practice according to legislation,
policies, psychological test control and fees. In terms of legislation, all
psychology practitioners in SA study, train and practice according to the
Health Professions Act (56 of 1974) and as amended. However, there are
other laws and amendments related to healthcare and many are applicable
to labour or employment practices.
Two professional societies that allow membership to psychologists and
represent and promote the interests of psychology in SA currently exist
and function under the control of the HPCSA and the PBP. These are the
Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of South Africa
(SIOPSA) and the Psychological Society of South Africa (PsySSA); the
latter represents psychologists outside industrial psychology. These
societies, each with its own constitution, internal organisational structures
and guidelines and subgroups, promote the science and practice of
psychology locally and internationally by means of research publications,
conferences and social media (SIOPSA, 2020; PsySSA, 2020). SIOPSA
has various interest groups: People Assessments in Industry (PAI); Interest
Group in Coaching & Consulting Psychology (IGCCP); Systems
Psychodynamics of Organisations (IGSPO); Psycho-Legal Interest
Group, Interest Group for Diversity and Inclusion, Interest Group for
Applied Organizational Neuroscience (IGAON) and the International
Association of Cross-Cultural Psychology (IACCP) (SIOPSA, 2020).
There is also The Assessment Centre Study Group of South Africa
(ACSG). ACSG is associated with the SA Board for People Practices
(SABPP), with which SIOPSA is associated.
The current unity in organised psychology in SA has progressed from
periods of conflict and differences along political, race and language lines
from the 1940s to just prior to 1994. In 1948, the South African
Psychological Association (SAPA), to which industrial psychologists were
associated, was established. However, in 1961, Afrikaans-speaking
psychologists left SAPA and launched the Psychological Institute of the
Republic of South Africa (PIRSA). This caused a division between
psychologists along the lines of race and language (Louw & van Hoorn,
1997). Clinical psychologists, dissatisfied with both SAPA and PIRSA,
established the Institute for Clinical Psychology in 1977.
In 1983, as a result of membership issues regarding black African
psychologists and opposition to the then political dispensation in SA,
SAPA and PIRSA, and other psychological associations, were
reincorporated into one body, the Psychological Association of South
Africa (PASA) (van Ommen & Painter, 2008). In 1994, this was changed
to the still functioning Psychological Society of South Africa (PsySSA).
Subsequently, industrial psychologists broke away from PsySSA to
establish the Society for Industrial Psychology (SIOP). In 2005, SIOP
changed to the Society for Industrial and Organisational Psychology of
South Africa (SIOPSA).
Throughout the years, other organisations have contributed to the
development of psychology as a science and practice field in SA, the most
prominent of which were the National Institute for Personnel Research
(NIPR), formed in 1946, and the Human Sciences Research Council
(HSRC). Through the NIPR, many contributions in the form of
psychological research and applications were made, especially in the
development of psychological assessment techniques for personnel
selection in the mining industry. The NIPR later contributed to the
development of psychological assessment techniques for personnel
selection in other work situations, which proved important in the
formation and development of industrial psychology in SA. The NIPR has
since dissolved and some of its functions have been taken over by the
HSRC. The HSRC, established in 1969, was instrumental in the
development, application and distribution of psychological tests for use at
educational institutions and in business, as well as executing research in
various contexts. The HSRC research outputs are available on request.
The Institute for Manpower Research and Statistical Research has made
important contributions with regard to psychology and I-O psychology
research (Nicholas, 2014; HSRC, 2020). Various psychology departments
and institutes at universities also have contributed to psychology research,
assessment development and consultation. A number of private
consultation companies in SA specialise in the development and
application of psychological assessment techniques and are involved in
consultation and research. Examples include: JVR Psychometrics
(www.jvrpsychometrics.co.za); Psytech SA (www.psytech.co.za); TTS Top
Talent
Solutions
(www.tts-talent.com);
Knowledge
Resources
(www.kr.co.za) and SHL SA (www.shl.co.za).
1.4.7
Practice framework for psychologists:
Registration categories
The practice framework is formulated in accordance with the Health
Professions Act (56 of 1974), and amendments, by the PBP (a standards
generating body under the control of the HPCSA) and the Human
Resources Plan of the National Department of Health of South Africa, in
consultation with PsySSA, SIOPSA, HOD’s from psychology
departments at universities in SA, all professional licensed psychologists
and other relevant stakeholders. Each of the registration categories has
specific regulations and guidelines with regard to training and registration,
as well as the competency requirements and scope of practice (what tasks
or psychological acts are allowed in relevant practices). This information
can all be obtained from the HPCSA (www.hpcsa.co.za).
The professional practice frameworks includes the following categories.
Professional psychologists in the categories of clinical, counselling,
industrial, educational, research, forensic and neurology (see Table 1.1).
A brief explanation of each practice category with regards to
registration requirements follows:
• Mental health assistant: They must have a minimum applicable twoyear diploma qualification (NQF-6 level) that must include specified
psychological content and skills. Their main task is to facilitate health
and wellness in individuals, families and communities. Mental health
assistants cannot, however, perform psychotherapy and conduct
psychological testing.
• Psychometrists, counsellors and professional psychologists: These
are registered psychology professionals with different levels of training
and competence and different scopes of practice. All professional
psychologists should have competencies in psychological assessment as
well as research.
• Psychometrist: A person with an applicable accredited I-O honours or
psychology honours degree, who has completed an approved internship
(practical programme) of at least six months in an applicable work
context and has passed the PBP’s entrance examination may register as
a psychometrist. A psychometrist is trained to administer psychometric
testing, interpret test results and give feedback to clients. Certain types
of tests used in the process of identifying pathology cannot be executed
by psychometrists, and clients with pathology and development
problems must be referred to an applicable psychologist.
• Registered counsellor: A person with an applicable accredited I-O
honours or psychology honours degree, who has completed an
approved internship (practical programme) of at least six months in an
applicable work context and has passed the PBP’s entrance
examination may register in one or more specified counselling practice
areas. Counsellors are trained to do basic psychological screening
(testing) and execute short-term supportive counselling interventions
in context. Counsellors must refer clients to appropriate psychologists
for in-depth psychological assessment, counselling and therapy.
Different I-O psychology departments emphasise various practice
areas, for example, career counselling, employee well-being and human
resources. For honours degrees in psychology departments (other than
industrial psychology), similar and other types of practice areas have
been approved by the PBP. Each psychology department selects, trains
and supervises their own students who are training after their honours
and masters study.
• Psychologist: For selected students, including in I-O psychology,
registration as a professional psychologist can be applied for once a
master’s degree (consisting of a one-year course-work programme and
an examination), an academic/research thesis and a one-year approved
internship in an applicable work context have been completed, as well
as passing the PBP’s entrance or licensing examination.
Note: There are no formal specialisation categories in psychology that a
person can be registered in. Specialisation in other psychology subfields or
in the existing categories depends on personal interest and work
experience, as well as specific training courses, advanced study (for
example, doctoral studies) and specific practice applications.
Note: Not all psychology departments offer the same registration
categories, but the following course are generally offered: in psychology
(clinical, neuropsychology, counselling); in education (educational
psychologist); in I-O psychology departments (industrial); and research
psychologists.
While in the process of becoming a psychometrist, counsellor or
professional psychologist, registration as students-in-training is necessary
and is governed by the PBP and HPCSA in association with psychology
departments.
Although not related to psychological registration, various HRM
registration categories are possible with the SA Board for People Practices
(SABPP) for persons with HRM qualifications (degrees, diplomas and
certificates). The SABPP is not a statutory body, but is recognised by the
SA Government to ensure quality control with regard to HRM
qualifications (see Sections 1.4.3 and 1.4.3.1). HR practitioners who are
not psychologists may not practice in psychological acts; however, I-O
psychologists may register in designated HRM practitioner categories. The
training and competencies of both HRM qualified practitioners and I-O
psychologists must include themes and skills as approved by the SABPP to
be able to register in one of the following HRM practitioner categories
(SABPP, 2020; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016).
• Master HR professional: Masters/doctorate degree plus six years’ top
level experience (executive level)
• Chartered HR professional: Honours degree plus four years’ senior
experience (senior management)
• HR practitioner/professional: Degree/national diploma plus three
years’ experience (middle management)
• HR associate: Two-year diploma plus two years’ experience (junior
level)
• HR technician: Certificate plus one year’s experience (entry level)
• HR candidate programme: Completed three/four years’ HR-related
degree/diploma and is employed.
1.5
Summary and reflection
In the context of change, I-O psychology relates to the study of employee
behaviour and related organisational aspects. A new work environment,
characterised by increased digital and 4IR-technologies, virtual working
and related changes in organisations, management and jobs are already
present in SA in many areas of work. However, the structure and context
of the labour force in many sectors may, for various reasons, remain
traditional. The growth of gig economies may alleviate unemployment and
contribute to skills development.
This chapter fosters an understanding of I-O psychology as an applied
field of psychology, its current identity and scientific status, subfields and
possible job and career opportunities, its historical origins and
development, as well as aspects regarding the professional training and
registration or certification of psychologists and related categories.
In reflection, it is necessary to understand that the development of
psychology and I-O psychology occurred in a specific South African socioeconomic and political context, and is influenced by global events and
ongoing trends and changes in work and organisations. In SA, current
government legislation and other regulations by various stakeholders
regarding employment, training and practice frameworks, ethical codes
and codes of conduct, aim to achieve the fairest work-related experiences
for each employee and employer, without discrimination or exclusion.
Transformation is an ongoing process to achieve equality and improve
standards of living.
As a science and practice field, I-O psychology in SA has evolved as an
independent discipline, in line with international trends. This is not only
evident in the current unity in organised psychology, but in the body of
knowledge across many recognised I-O psychology fields, and how
knowledge is scientifically obtained and used in various ways. The everchanging nature of work, work competencies, organisations, market needs
and the rapidly increasing influence of technology and social media in
workplaces and business require new ways of thinking, as well as relevant
and credible research and practice.
Some criticism is, however, still levelled at the theory, research,
practices and training curricula for psychology. These aspects are seen by
some as not being market and socially relevant, and not sufficiently
addressing the needs of many individuals and societies. Some voices are
directed at the need to decolonise, indigenise and Africanise existing
psychologies more and develop psychological science and practices that
will truly reflect an African ethos. In contrast, some think psychology in
SA should be reflective about the knowledge, research and practices in
order to remain relevant in a diverse society. Reflection and debate in
psychology in SA is evident in critical psychology, reflection on annual
conferences, in psychology publications and in the vision statements and
reviews of psychology and I-O psychology societies. For example, a survey
by the HPCSA in 2016 aimed to evaluate the relevancy of psychological
services in SA, while considering the appropriateness of psychologist
training, competency profiles of psychologists and the number of
psychologists needed. Currently the impact of Covid-19, the 4IR and
unemployment are prominent issues.
Considering the diverse society in South Africa, the valuable
contributions of all psychologies – Western, African, Eastern and others –
should be used, contextualised and Africanised in training, theorising,
research and applications. The scientific utilisation of valuable theory,
concepts, research and useful practices must never be governed by
uninformed opinion, unbalanced ideology, criticism, emotions and politics.
Such attitudes will deter progression of a contextual psychology in SA and
ignore the many valuable contributions of psychologists. If industrial
psychologists adhere to high scientific standards of competency,
professionalism, ethics and fairness and follow confirmed best practices,
there should not be any question as to the relevance and value of industrial
psychology as a human and applied science.
The chapters in this book present important foundational knowledge,
research findings and applications. The book examines challenges that I-O
psychologists may face now and in the future. The book may help aspiring
I-O psychologists and HR practitioners to choose an appropriate study
and career direction. The material in this book will sensitise the reader to
the need to develop the knowledge and skills to help people in work
contexts in a fair, positive and appropriate way. The following points
illustrate some of the many challenges:
• Understanding the implications of digital and virtual working, new
technologies, social media, talent management and executing business.
• Understanding virtual working and the 4IR and the implications for
employment and employee and organisational well-being.
• Contributing to research and practical solutions with regard to postCovid-19 workplaces.
• Enhancing work engagement, health and well-being in workplaces,
work teams and individual employees by facilitating happy, satisfied
and appropriately rewarded employees.
• Enhancing work-life balance across multigenerational and
multicultural work forces, because work and life interests are becoming
increasingly fused.
• Developing new or adapted person and work-related theories and
practices in the South African context that will contribute to applicable
interventions in context.
• Consulting and career counselling need to encourage greater career
self-management, career adaptability, entrepreneurship and
employability amidst growing unemployment and decreasing formal
work opportunities.
• Becoming involved in changing the nature and approaches of
performance and reward management.
• Studying and projecting what competencies will be required for I-O
psychologists and employees beyond the 2020s and 2030s.
Assessment tasks
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Describe what virtual working implies, and the benefits and
disadvantages thereof.
2 Reflect on what the 4IR is, and the implications for employment
and society in SA.
3 Define psychology and I-O psychology and indicate similarities
and differences.
4 Briefly describe five fields of I-O psychology and indicate jobs
and career possibilities.
5 Differentiate between I-O psychologists specialising in
organisational and personnel psychology.
1
6 Differentiate between I-O psychology and HRM and indicate
any overlaps.
7 Outline the important points in the development of I-O
psychology in general, and in SA.
8 Comment on the identity and scientific status of I-O psychology
in SA.
9 Describe issues related to governance and practice frameworks of
psychologists in SA.
10 With examples, indicate your view on the decolonisation,
indigenisation and Africanisation of psychological knowledge.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
To which of the following statements is the study of psychology
most relevant?
a The behaviours and related mental processes of individuals
only
b The behaviours and adjustment processes of people in groups
c Positive behavioural acts and emotions in people and
organisations
d Behaviour and cognitive processes in work and organisational
settings
e Behaviour and related mental processes of people in all
contexts.
2 The scientist-practitioner model implies one of the following:
Psychologists:
a are receiving excellent practical training in order to
understand human behaviour
b should know how to execute research and utilise knowledge
in various practices
c understand the science of studying and influencing human
behaviour
d execute psychological acts that are controlled by legislation
e are experts in theory building and psychological assessment.
3 An important difference between psychology and I-O
psychology is that :
1
psychology puts more emphasis on the social context of
behaviour
b psychology has applied subfields and an extended
methodology
c psychology can be viewed as a scientific and applied
discipline
d psychology in general places an emphasis on the individual as
a study subject
e I-O psychology does not share any theory and practice with
psychology.
4 Assume, as a personnel psychologist, you are requested to assess
and monitor the possible behavioural and emotional effects the
Covid-19 lockdown may have had on employees who have
returned to the workplace. Rather than manage this task
yourself, you will refer it to:
a a research psychologist
b a cross-cultural psychologist
c a career counsellor
d an industrial psychologist
e a developmental psychologist.
5 Which statement is most descriptive of what virtual working
entails?
a Work with AI facilities that change the meaning of work
b Work from home or another space using telecommuting as
the main work tool
c Working in a hybrid work environment, that is, both in an
office and away from an office
d Work in or away from an office space using only advanced
4IR technology
e Working remotely away from traditional workplaces.
6 Which one of the following contributions of the Hawthorne
experiments represents an important milestone for I-O
psychology?
a The establishment of organisational and consumer
psychology in the 1900s
b Confirming that physical work factors are the most
important production factor
a
Establishment of the scientific and human-relations
management approach in the 1800s
d Findings that workplace interventions will always cause
enduring increases in work performance
e Findings that emphasise social factors as important in
employee work behaviour.
7 You have decided to prepare job descriptions for each one of the
10 operator and technician jobs. The jobs have similarities, but
there are differences in the time spent on tasks, difficulty level
and advanced technology being used. You have decided to do
precise assessments of the relevant tasks before you complete
each job description. You are advised to have the jobs assessed by
one of the following experts:
a consumer psychologist
b HRM expert
c ergonomist
d career counsellor
e psychometrist.
8 Which one of the following phrases do you think describes the
4IR in work best?
a Renewal of work values and the future meaning of work
b Connectivity of technology to influence work-life balance
c Digitisation and automation of work processes
d Connectivity between people and things by mobile data
e Replacement of human intelligence by industrialised
intelligence.
9 The type of research to establish the relevance of psychological
knowledge in specific groups of people who are different from
the origins of the knowledge under question, is referred to as …
research
a etic
b indigenous
c emic
d relevant
e action
10 Students in your HRM internship team must plan and design a
manual for supervisors in which the theory and practices of
c
performance management and career development must be
included to arrive at an instrument that the supervisors can apply
in their multicultural work teams. ……. is a central aspect to be
considered.
a Talent management
b Indigenisation
c Scientist-practitioner
d Relevancy
e Africanisation
CASE STUDY Future working
Due to a global pandemic, all 20 offices of CoMPUSol, locally and abroad,
have been closed until further notice to keep employees from being
infected. CoMPUSol is a medium-large IT organisation specialising in IT
and bank security, and its products and systems and processes are used
widely. The organisation is successful, but cannot close down for a
further period of time and needs to plan for the future in order to
withstand possible economic shocks. CoMPUSol currently utilises common
office equipment such as landline telephones and cellphones, as well as
computers equipped with access to the Internet and Microsoft software.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Questions
Reflect on the questions below, or work in a group and role play the
scenario.
1. Describe the type of work style/structure that the organisation will
have to adopt.
2. How will this new work style/structure influence the relationships
between management and employees and between employees
themselves?
3. How will management handle the 20 office spaces and possible
related issues?
4. Consider CoMPUSol’s existing situation and equipment to what they
may require in the future. Motivate what new and other technology
(4IR) they would need to execute their IT work and service their
customers. How will advanced new technology improve the
performance of the organisation and employees?
5. What role/s (if any) do you think I-O psychology consultants or HR
practitioners (or other experts) can have in the restructuring of work
processes?
Frameworks for thought and
practice in I-O psychology
Ziel Bergh
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Describe the focus of structuralism and functionalism and indicate their current relevance
Explain and compare how behaviourism, psychoanalysis and cognitive psychology study
the human psyche and personality
Compare the study of human behaviour and personality according to the trait, biological,
African and Eastern approaches
Explain humanist and positive psychology assumptions and their value in studying wellbeing
Discuss and compare the assumptions of gestalt psychology, eco-systemic, and cultural
approaches to explain human behaviour and personality
Evaluate the meaning and value of nature, nurture and context when used in psychology
Explain paradigms specific to I-O psychology with regard to employee and organisational
management
Discuss postmodernism and constructivism as approaches to adapt or change the meaning
of knowledge
Reason how the concepts of context and culture relate to diversity management in the
work context.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Cognition
Cognitive constructs
Conditioning
Consciousness
Constructivism
Control
Culture
Defence mechanisms
Direct observation
Epistemology
Evolution
Fixation
Free association
Holistic
Introspection
Management approaches
Metapsychology
Natural selection
Paradigm
Personage
Phi-phenomenon
Postmodernism
Principle of determination
Psychological theory
Self-concept
Social learning
Stimulus-response
Strengths
Subjective experiences
Traits
Ubuntu
Unconscious
Valuing
2.1
Introduction and background
A paradigm, translated from the Greek word paradeigma, means a pattern
or model. In psychology, including I-O psychology, paradigms refer to
schools of thought, which are broad models, approaches or frameworks, or
ways of thinking about, studying and understanding the human mind or
psyche (which is the study field of psychology and its sub-disciplines)
(Luthans, 2008; Weiten, 2016; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017).
Paradigms are based on an epistemology, which refers to a knowledge
base or a way of thinking, knowing and understanding things, the world
and people in a certain way. A paradigm is, therefore, a philosophical
perspective about how the world works such as positivism, postmodernism,
eco-systemic, personality, motivation, development, morality, work,
psychological adjustment, well-being, justice, religion and spirituality.
Paradigms may have similar or very different explanations for the same
questions or phenomena.
Psychologists use principles and concepts from different paradigms and
related theories to explain human behaviour. In practice, an employee’s
aggressive behaviour at work may be explained using one or more
paradigms and related theories. According to behaviourism, this behaviour
was learnt from the individual’s environments, while psychoanalysis will
attribute this to hidden or unconscious and unresolved feelings about
authority. Cultural explanations may relate it to the influence of spiritual
forces and beliefs, while a humanist approach will argue that this is because
the employee’s value and identity as a person is ignored at work. In
psychology and its subfields, there are many specific theories, concepts and
domains of study that fall within different paradigms. More specific
concepts may also be referred to as paradigms, for example, personality,
culture, ubuntu, information age, human strengths (in positive psychology),
traits, values, management, organisational culture, employability and
regression in human development theory.
A psychological theory exists within a certain paradigm and refers to
specific epistemologies or frameworks for studying, understanding and
predicting human behaviour, thoughts and emotions. In psychological
literature, various theories that explain and study human behaviour in a
similar way are associated with certain paradigms. Examples are the
various theories that explain personality in terms of observable behaviour
and learning (behaviourism) or the various conscious levels and constructs
in the human psyche (psychoanalysis), or to cognitive principles and selfconcepts. Psychological theories can be found on most topics related to
human behaviour, for example: work, careers, personality, development,
motivation, attachment, career choice, interests, intelligence, emotions,
attitudes and values. Psychological theory is often established by making
assumptions about human behaviour and then testing these assumptions
through empirical research. However, some theoretical explanations for
human behaviour may lack sufficient evidence based on scientific research.
Psychology developed as a scientific discipline in the last part of the
19th century, with validation of knowledge through experimental studies
in the physical sciences and perceptual processes. A milestone event took
place in 1879 when Wilhelm Wundt established the first scientific
psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany (see Chapter 1). At the time,
psychology was seen as physiological in nature, the study of conscious
experience, emphasising topics such as attention, memory, sensation and
reaction time. During this period, psychology was often interpreted very
mechanically. It was influenced by the principles of the physical sciences,
for example, physics, chemistry and physiology, as well as the First
Industrial Revolution. This early thinking stimulated much interest and
research in psychological phenomena and initiated a number of different
approaches to the study of psychology and the human mind. The most
recent being the cognitive and neuropsychology or biopsychology
approaches and positive psychology.
I-O psychology, as an applied field of psychology, has evolved and
utilises theories and concepts from the psychological schools of thought
and related theories to study and explain work behaviour, while developing
its own work-related theories and methodologies. An understanding by IO psychologists of the various ways of thinking is a necessary foundation
for the management and development of behaviours and processes
involved in employee and organisational functioning. Many influences
have encouraged I-O psychologists to critically reflect on their ways of
thinking, theories, concepts and methods or practices in order to remain
relevant in the science and services they offer. However, it is necessary for
the I-O psychologist and human resource (HR) practitioner to be aware of
other paradigms on reality (aside from thinking about human nature, the
mind or psyche in psychological terms) that can influence their science and
practices (Veldsman in Bergh & Geldenhuys, 2013). Examples are the
various thinking frameworks enquiring into the nature of science, human
work and society.
Figure 2.1
People, their behaviour and attributes are explained in many ways
SOURCE Shutterstock Dean Drobot
Paradigms can be classified in a number of ways, depending on the
author, theoretical research and applied preferences. Wade & Tavris
(2009) assert that in present day psychology, five influential approaches
have evolved. These are the biological, learning or behaviourist, cognitive,
socio-cultural and psychodynamic perspectives. In this chapter, we will
emphasise these approaches, but will include other thinking frameworks,
such as the trait approach and positive psychology. We will also examine
the eco-systemic perspective and ideas from African and Asian or Eastern
perspectives, the latter two because of their unique cultural emphasis and
way of thinking about people in a cultural context. Where applicable, we
also provide a brief summary of views on personality that flow from certain
paradigms because personality is a central aspect in being human and also
related to work and organisational performance (Statt, 2004; Moore,
Viljoen & Meyer, 2017).
The aim of this chapter is to provide an introduction to psychological
paradigms (some are historical in nature, others classical), as well as
contemporary approaches in psychology and industrial psychology. Both
classical and historical approaches retain an influence on contemporary
thinking. In other chapters, you will observe content and applications that
relate to these thinking frameworks and their related theories, concepts,
principles and practices. It is not in the scope of this book to provide
detailed discussions on psychological paradigms or personality and the
reader may do further research in both written and online resources
(Cervone & Pervin, 2008, 2017; Glassman & Hadad, 2013; Meyer,
Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017).
2.2
Psychological schools of thought
Schools of thought in psychology and related theories have been
developed, studied and applied in different parts of the world and have
been influenced by socio-cultural, economic, political, intellectual,
industrial and business events. The meanings represented in schools of
thought have become progressively integrated in psychology and other
disciplines (Morris & Maisto, 2010; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014;
Weiten, 2016; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017; Cervone & Markus, 2018).
In the following sections, the time periods indicating influence in
psychology are briefly discussed. Many approaches are still relevant in
psychology today, as are the related views on personality.
2.2.1
Structuralism
Structuralism (1875–1920s), the first psychological school of thought, was
influenced by Wundt (1821-1894) and his first psychological experimental
laboratory in 1879 in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt’s book Principles of
physiological psychology (1904) and his research in psychophysics on
measuring human sensation relate to the central ideas of structuralism. In
the United States of America (US), the work of Gustav Fechner in the
1860s in psychophysics and Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927) in
England made similar contributions. Titchener is arguably the founder of
structuralism, which, as a school of thought, largely ceased to exist when
he died (Weiten, 2011, 2016).
Influenced by the rise of the physical sciences, structuralism’s main
focus was on studying the structure of the human mind or consciousness
by analysing the elements of conscious experience and the relationship
between these elements. Consciousness was defined as mental or
psychological processes that could be observed by studying sensation and
perception. The elements of consciousness were determined by using a
method called analytical introspection. Introspection happens, for
example, when people observe or reflect upon their immediate experience
of stimuli in order to establish the sensations, feelings and thoughts that
the stimuli or experience evokes. Imagine you report on a fire in the
workplace, or eat a chocolate or drink wine and are required to identify and
report on the tastes, smells and bodily awareness of the sensations and
perceptions. The number and quality of sensations experienced after
stimuli would indicate the differences between people.
Although structuralism as an explanatory model is not used today,
introspection is still used as a method in contemporary psychology.
Examples are employees preparing verbal or written self-reports or
reflection on work and traumatic experiences at work. Physiology is still
recognised as an important aspect in human behaviour, and the study and
measurement between sensation and perception also relates to
psychophysics. Psychophysical measurements are used in medical science
and neuropsychology, including in lie-detector tests for honesty
assessments, where psychophysical responses and emotions are measured
following verbal questions and statements. However, the initial concepts
and methods of structuralism were criticised for being too limited,
subjective and inconsistent. An example of inconsistency is to assume that
the structure of the human mind is similar in all people. Structuralism’s
great contribution was to establish psychology as a science, scientific
inquiry through experimental research and the use of systematic methods
to identify, analyse and describe psychological phenomena. This
contributed a great deal to contemporary psychology and is an important
contribution to psychology as a science.
2.2.2
Functionalism
Functionalism (1888–1912) was initiated in the US, most notably by
William James (1842-1910), who opposed structuralism. James is regarded
as the founder of American psychology and his book, The Principles of
psychology (1890), is viewed by some as the most influential book written
on psychology (Weiten, 2011; Weiten, 2016). Functionalism emphasised
the functions of the human mind or consciousness and its elements; for
example, the awareness and perception of events, experiences, and
emotions in helping organisms to adapt. Influenced by Darwin’s ideas on
evolution, functionalists believed that the human mind is not stable or
static but a changing and adaptable process, which Darwin (1809-1882)
referred to as flow and James as the stream of consciousness. This implies
that adaptation is assisted by the awareness of the continuance of past,
present and future time. James was particularly influenced by Charles
Darwin’s theory of evolution and his book on natural selection, On the
origin of species, which was published in 1859 (Morris & Maisto, 2010,
2016; Weiten, 2016). The theory of evolution and the concept of natural
selection suggests that certain genetic attributes and behaviours are passed
on to the next generation, which enables certain organisms to adapt to
change in order to survive (survival of the fittest). New species may develop
as a result of this adaptive behaviour (Weiten, 2016). This influenced the
functionalists to emphasise learning as a process of change and adaptation,
which was later elaborated on by behaviourists. The functionalists used
methods of direct observation and laboratory experiments with animals
and people to indicate how the functions of consciousness relate to
adaptive and real-life behaviours.
Functionalism, influenced by Darwin’s work and research on evolution,
initiated the study of individual differences. This was promoted by the
work of Francis Galton, an English scientist, who studied heredity and
mental abilities, and compiled and applied ability tests, questionnaires and
statistical techniques. Galton’s ideas on the hereditary and physical basis of
intelligence, as well as his methods for measuring individual differences in
ability and personality between people, remain relevant in mainstream
scientific research and have been applied in many contexts in
contemporary psychology (Fuentes, 2020; Weiten, 2016). The
measurements of individual differences were an important influence in the
origins and expansion of work psychology and represent a major area of
specialisation skill for I-O psychologists. Functionalism had a complete
approach in explaining human behaviour, which led to studies in topics
like child psychology, mental testing, gender differences in behaviour,
emotion and motivation (Weiten, 2016). Functionalism as a complete
perspective is no longer used as a school of thought in contemporary
psychology and was criticised for only emphasising functional behaviour
and learning, whereas the dynamics of human nature involves many other
aspects. A lasting contribution of functionalism and its pragmatic approach
is present in applied psychology, for example, psychological assessment and
the use of statistics in psychological research, which is used in predicting
employee performance. (De Jong, Bem & Schouten, 2004).
2.2.3
Behaviourism
Behaviourism (1910–1960s and ongoing), or a learning perspective, was
initiated by John B. Watson (1878-1958), B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), E.
Thorndike (1874-1949) and Albert Bandura (1925–2021) in reaction to
structuralism and functionalism. Behaviourism is often referred to as the
so-called first force in psychology and it remains an influence on the
science and practice of psychology.
Classic or radical behaviourists, like Watson and Skinner, believed the
study of the structure and functions of consciousness to be too subjective,
and they rejected the idea of conscious and unconscious experiences. They
primarily studied animal behaviour and applied findings to human
behaviour. Human nature and the mind can only be studied objectively
through observable behaviour when people react to stimuli from their
internal and external environments, creating stimulus and response
associations (King, 2011; Weiten, 2016; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017).
A further assumption of classical behaviourism was that environmental
influences are deterministic or dominant causes because humans (like
animals) are reactive beings and what they are and become is determined
by causes outside themselves. Watson believed that behaviour could be
predetermined by controlling environmental factors. Later behaviourists
recognised the role of internal, cognitive processes and the role of genetics
in the learning process. Studying human nature through direct objective
observation and by experiments has the advantage of controlling research
variables and processes to allow accurate information and findings in order
to explain and predict behaviour.
Watson’s thinking and methods were influenced by the work of Ivan
Pavlov and Vladimir M. Bekhterev, both Russian scientists, who
specialised in animal psychology, as well as John Locke, a British
philosopher, all of whom emphasised the association between stimuli and
responses. Such associations form the basis of mental processes and
influence behaviour. This led to Watson’s assumptions that animal and
human behaviour can be described in terms of conditioning, or association
processes between stimuli from the environment or internal stimuli (like
hunger) and responses (like eating), which result in behaviour and habits
being formed. Learning, or change in behaviour only happens when the
associations between stimuli and responses are repeated and strengthened,
for example, obtaining food every time a hungry stimulus is received. This
became known as the stimulus-response (S-R) approach in psychology,
which represents the most basic form of conditioning or learning.
Examples include retracting one’s hand from a hot plate, eating when
hungry or a fear response when encountering an insect or reptile. In an
adaptation of Watson’s ideas, Skinner started to recognise people as being
more rational and in control, as well as recognising factors that may
influence the process of learning. Skinner coined the term operant
conditioning, which states that human behaviour and mental states are
shaped by the consequences of behaviour and not only the S-R association.
Edward Thorndike later named this the law of effect, namely, when a
stimulus gives rise to a response that is positive (for example, being
praised), it is likely to be repeated. People will repeat the enjoyable and
avoid the unpleasant consequences because there is an expectation of one
or the other. The consequences now become the stimulus, and, in this way,
behaviour will be strengthened or rewarded.
The later neo-behaviourist approaches, like social learning and socialcognitive perspectives (1930s-1960s), further emphasised that a person can
have cognitive control over the stimuli and the responses in order to
determine how learning happens. This process in learning was referred to
as the stimulus-organism-response principle (SOR-principle) and indicates
the mediation process between the stimuli and the responses (Cervone &
Pervin, 2017; King, 2011). An aspect of this in the social cognitive
behaviourist ideas, for example, by Rotter, Mischel and Bandura, is the
emphasis on vicarious or observational learning, that is, learning by
modelling or imitating what others do or what happens in situations. In
observational learning, social and cognitive processes like perception,
expectation, emotions and memory largely determine how human learning
takes place. This represents a more advanced form of learning, in that
people can make choices and influence learning, for example, the employee
will continue to perform because they enjoy the recognition that they
receive from performing well or they expect to be rewarded positively.
Aspects like values, intentions, emotions, interests, group affiliations,
imitation, previous experiences in certain situations and expectations may
influence motivation to perform (Bandura, 2001). Albert Bandura’s
concept of self-efficacy, or a person’s beliefs that they can achieve certain
goals, is a cognitive-control related concept and is prominent in
applications of career counselling and positive psychology (Bandura, 1997,
2001; Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Moore,
Viljoen & Meyer, 2017; Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016).
Personality, according to behaviourist theories, is characterised by
single, or patterns of acquired, observable behaviours, habits, expectations
and thoughts as learnt, rewarded and strengthened in the different
environments in which people function. These theories contend that
people’s environments and circumstances are determining causes of what
they become and may even override basic natural or genetic potential.
Personality develops because certain behaviours and patterns of behaviour
occur and are rewarded more often than others, and this can happen
continuously and across a lifespan. According to these theories, people are
continuously learning and, as changes occur in people and situations,
behaviour and personality will either remain relatively stable or changes
will take place. Individual differences between people are seen to depend
on how they have learnt and the type of environmental influences and
opportunities they have experienced. Psychological adjustment and
maladjustment can be associated with positive, negative or faulty learning,
all of which will depend on the quality of environmental influences.
Behaviourist principles and concepts remain one of the most widely
used approaches in many applied areas of psychology and industrial
psychology. Examples are different ways of learning and training,
designing learning programmes, therapy, counselling, advertising,
performance management, motivation of employees, study of individual
differences, psychological assessment, theory building and research in
which objective observation and experiments are emphasised.
2.2.4
Gestalt psychology
Gestalt psychology (1900–1930 and ongoing), founded by Max
Wertheimer (1830-1943) and contributors Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang
Köhler, is embodied in the concept of the German word gestalt that means
whole, form, configuration, shape and pattern (Cervone & Pervin, 2017;
Morris & Maisto, 2016; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017). The gestalt
approach in Europe emerged in opposition to structuralism and refers to a
person’s whole experience and not just certain elements of thought and
perception. This is defined by the well-known statement; the whole is
more than the sum of its parts. Wertheimer first illustrated the gestalt
principle in 1912 in experiments with two flashing lights, which created an
illusion in movement perception in that the lights were seen as one light.
This was referred to as the phi-phenomenon. This can be further
illustrated by the apparent motion in flickering lights and pictures, for
example, in neon lights and movies, which are seen as one light or picture
and therefore perceived as a whole. These examples illustrate the mind’s
ability to perceive, organise, and create a new reality by organising and
integrating separate stimuli to form an organised whole (Morris & Maisto,
2016; Weiten, 2011).
For the gestalt psychologist, the subject of study in psychology is the
human mind or consciousness as a whole and not just the individual
elements, which do not give the total meaning of things. All aspects of the
human mind and behaviour function according to an integrated or
interconnected whole. The gestalt principle is applicable in most areas of
human behaviour where understanding of peoples’ whole perceptual
experiences in situations must be considered. Perceiving a rose as beautiful,
for example, is not based on some of the rose’s petals and when listening to
an orchestra, the music will only have meaning if all the instruments are in
harmony and following the tune. The same principle applies to employee
and organisational effectiveness.
Figure 2.2
Gestalt psychology: The whole is more than the sum of the parts
SOURCE Shutterstock Rob Wilson
Gestalt psychology does not provide a specific theory of personality;
however, many personality theorists consider that personality should be
understood holistically, or as a gestalt, as opposed to only emphasising
certain attributes. When studying personality, all domains of development
and functioning – the physical, intellectual, psychological/emotional,
moral, social and spiritual, past and present – must be considered.
Personality and related behaviour cannot be fully understood if its various
contexts of functioning are not considered, for example, family, culture and
society.
The gestalt principles are now accepted in many aspects of life and
human behaviour as well as in other theories, such as African and Eastern
perspectives and in eco-systemic theory, whereby the interdependence of
subsystems to form a unity are accepted. The many perceptual laws (see
Chapter 5) illustrate that people use their senses to organise, integrate, and
interpret separate stimuli or sensations into what they consider the most
meaningful whole with regard to their perceptions and experiences.
Ideas from gestalt psychology are also applied in the work context to
interpret phenomena, such as culture in groups and organisations, morale
and work attitudes, for example, job satisfaction and organisational
climate. If individual employee perceptions and attitudes about various
aspects in a group, organisation, working conditions or management are
integrated, these phenomena can be interpreted as a collective or gestalt
opinion. People belonging to a certain culture or group usually have a
unified or collective perception of their identity and culture. The exclusion
of an individual by a negative emphasis on an aspect of a person’s culture
or ethnicity, for example, a habit, physical appearance or religion, may lead
to feelings of anger, shame and dissatisfaction. In contrast, a positive
emphasis of interests, values and attitudes important to employees, may
energise feelings of pride, satisfaction and co-operation.
2.2.5
The psychoanalytic paradigm
The psychoanalytic school of thought (1885-1960s and ongoing), with its
emphasis on the unconscious in human behaviour, was founded by
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), and gained momentum in about 1895. It
was very influential up to the 1960s, and has retained a strong influence on
most psychology disciplines (Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Meyer, Moore &
Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017; Weiten, 2016).
Psychoanalysis had many well-known followers, including: Carl Gustav
Jung and his analytical theory; neo-Freudians such as Otto Rank; ego
psychologists such as Erik Erikson; and the socially oriented
psychoanalysts, of whom Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm, Harry Stack
Sullivan and Karen Horney are examples (Cervone & Pervin, 2017;
Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017). Psychoanalytic theory is also referred to
as a psychodynamic perspective or depth psychology.
Freud used clinical observation and the treatment of mental disorders
to formulate his theory and therapeutic technique. The Victorian era had
strict moral codes that strongly influenced Freud’s ideas. The impact of the
sexual repression of the time caused people, particularly women, to be
considered emotionally ill (neurotic) (Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017).
Freud’s personal life, especially his close relationship with his mother and
distant relationship with his much older father, and his suffering from
cancer for which he underwent more than 30 operations, also influenced
his thinking (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer,
2017). The development of the physical sciences, as well as Freud’s
occupation as a physician, contributed to his ideas on the biological energy
and needs that energise human psychological behaviour.
Psychoanalysis is considered to be the second force in psychology and
views the subject matter of psychology and the human mind to primarily
be the unconscious or hidden psychological forces and motives in human
personality, motivation, and behaviour. Freud believed that all behaviour
has a cause and developed the principle of determination to explain the
energy (causes) of drives or instincts as biological in origin and a primary
source of energy for the basic, primitive instincts situated in the id-psychic
structure. Many unacceptable ideas, emotions, desires and memories that
people cannot cope with are often repressed to the hidden or unconscious
levels of the human mind or psyche from where they influence behaviour.
According to Freud, traumatic childhood experiences with parents or
caregivers, especially those of a sexual nature, are important determinants
of psychological content (ideas, emotions, desires, fantasies and memories).
As discussed, repressed unconscious mental content may influence
behaviour without people being aware of why they behave in certain ways,
or it may remain hidden for a long time until it becomes less threatening
and can be consciously expressed (Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Nevid et al.,
2013; King, 2011; Weiten, 2016; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014). An
example is an adult who, after years in psychoanalytic therapy or under
hypnosis, remembers traumatic experiences. These experiences then
become more conscious or, in time, less threatening. Similarly, in work, an
employee may respond with rebellion or aggression towards authority,
which may relate to unresolved conflicts from poor and aggressive
treatment by male or female figures in their childhood. This is often
related to frustrated sexual and gender identity formation. Once the adult
has recalled and expressed the unconscious content, he or she may feel
relieved and less anxious about life or relationships.
Freud’s psychotherapeutic technique, psychoanalysis, aims to bring
unconscious conflicts to a more conscious level of reality through a process
of free association where a person can talk freely about any experience.
This may facilitate a feeling of catharsis or stress relief (Meyer, Moore &
Viljoen, 2014; Austin et al., 2012). According to Freud’s views, and often a
point of criticism among authors, people are quite weak and their
behaviour is determined and controlled by unconscious forces and the
conflicts between the psychic structures. To explain how people can cope
with conflicts, Freud described a number of defence mechanisms that the
ego often uses to protect itself against anxiety and fear, as indicated in
Table 2.1. In some emotional disorders, certain defence mechanisms may
be consciously or unconsciously characteristic of related symptoms and
behaviours, for example, projection in the paranoid personality disorder.
Even well-adjusted people use defence mechanisms, for example, to
rationalise causes of behaviour. However, it becomes problematic when
defence mechanisms are very frequent or become the only way to cope
with challenges and reality.
Figure 2.3
Freudian psychoanalysis: Three levels of consciousness and related psychic structures
SOURCE: Bergh &Theron (2009: 263)
As indicated in Figure 2.3, Freud explains human nature in terms of three
levels of consciousness, each influenced by certain psychic structures. The
three levels or states of consciousness are often compared to an iceberg at
sea; only a little bit is visible above the water (conscious with ego); a
somewhat larger part is under the water and may or may not surface (preconscious and part of super-ego), while the largest part of the iceberg is
under water and may never surface (unconscious with id and part of super-
ego), except if brought to consciousness.
• The conscious comprises people’s awareness and contact with reality
and mostly entails the ego functions.
• The pre-conscious involves content just beneath the surface that can be
retrieved (for example, a name or date). It mostly relates to ego
functions, but the unconscious can influence it.
• The unconscious contains desires, memories and thoughts that are
repressed deep below the surface or consciousness (for example,
forgotten trauma, negative feelings). It is related to the id impulses.
Within the three levels of consciousness, three other psychic structures
direct human behaviour (see Figure 2.3):
• The id contains the primitive biological drives, for example, sex,
aggression, eating and sleeping that are situated in the unconscious and
directed at obtaining immediate pleasure and gratification. In this
regard, Freud asserted that two instincts or drives direct a great deal of
human behaviour. These are Eros or life drives (for example, sex and
work) and Thanatos or the death drive. The unconscious also contains
repressed emotions, wishes and memories that can unconsciously
influence conscious behaviour.
• The ego houses the centre of conscious and realistic thoughts,
behaviour and experiences. The ego mediates between the possible
conflicts of the id and the super-ego to delay immediate gratification
and make rational decisions.
• The super-ego represents people’s morality and conscience (for
example, feelings of guilt) and applies social standards to distinguish
right from wrong. It is mostly present in the ready knowledge and
memories of the pre-conscious, but parts are also situated in the
unconscious.
Freud believed that these levels of consciousness and psychic structures,
both in harmony or conflict, are present in peoples’ daily behaviour, in the
development of personality and in psychological adjustment and
maladjustment. The rational person (ego), in touch with the accepted
norms of reality, is in constant struggle between the id and super-ego. A
simple example of the working of the three psychic structures and their
conflict in daily life is if, in the middle of the work week, an employee
requests leave to attend a soccer match or musical show (experiencing id
impulses for immediate pleasure) and is angered when their leave is
disapproved by their supervisor because in terms of the work schedules and
customer contracts (ego reality and rationality) and the policies and rules of
the organisation (super-ego morality), employees cannot be absent from
work at this time except for proven illness. The next day the employee
does not appear at work, reportedly having contracted flu. The manager
responds, reminding the employee to bring a valid medical certificate,
which is a work policy for all employees. This example shows how the ego
(good person) is in a constant struggle between the id (childlike pleasure
seeking) and the super-ego (societal norms, the conscious and morality).
Table 2.1
Ego defence mechanisms according to Freud
Defence
mechanism
Characteristic
Example
Repression
Unconsciously
preventing or denying
threatening and painful
impulses, thoughts and
feelings buried in the
unconscious, to reach
consciousness.
An employee,
traumatised by
unemployment
experiences, forgets
appointments, fails to
perform tasks or
arrives late at work.
Projection
Ascribing of own, often
threatening and
undesirable thoughts,
feelings, mistakes or
motives to others.
An employee believes
he or she is not
promoted because of
the boss’s prejudice or
dislike of him/her.
Reaction
formation
Behaving in a manner
exactly the opposite of
one’s true, possibly
undesirable, feelings.
An employee boasts
about his or her
supervisor while
harbouring feelings of
rivalry.
Displacement
Directing negative
An employee who is
emotions or attitudes
away from their original
source to a substitute
person or object.
reprimanded at work,
or who is insecure, is
very strict and
demanding at home.
Fantasy
Fulfilling frustrated
needs by imaginary
achievements or wishful
thinking.
An insecure
subordinate imagines
being selected as
president of the
company.
Overcompensation
Protecting one’s selfimage or weaknesses by
over-emphasising
certain aspects.
An entrepreneur
achieves success to
compensate for
growing up in a poor
environment.
Intellectualisation
(isolation)
Isolating or insulating
threatening experiences
or emotions by speaking
rationally or
intellectually about
them.
An employee is fired
but when speaking
about the process
says that procedures
were followed exactly
according to the law.
Rationalisation
Finding logical,
plausible but false
excuses to justify
unacceptable or
irrational behaviour or
disappointments.
A student, after a
difficult exam, asserts
that he or she did not
study because he or
she knew that the
paper would be
unreasonable.
Regression
Avoiding painful
feelings and experiences
by reverting to earlier,
immature or less
A supervisor has
temper tantrums when
he or she doesn’t get
his or her way with
stressful patterns of
behaviour (a form of
fixation).
employees.
Identification
Defending against
threatening feelings or
low self-esteem by
relating to someone or
an idea.
A young employee is
very demanding in a
work group, emulating
the company’s
manager.
Sublimation
Channelling threatening
or socially undesirable
thoughts and impulses
into acceptable outlets.
(This is related to
displacement.)
The minister
transforms aggression
into preaching or the
artist sublimates
sexual frustration in
artistic expressions of
women.
SOURCE Bergh & Geldenhuys (2013)
Personality is structured around the three conscious levels and the psychic
structures of the id, ego and super-ego. The motivation, development and
adjustment in personality is mostly influenced and determined by
unconscious forces and related primitive or irrational elements of the id,
although the ego and super-ego also have guiding functions. Depth
psychology assumes that early childhood development up to approximately
six years is critical, formative and more important than development in
adult life. Unresolved problems in childhood development may have
disruptive influences in adult life across various domains of behaviour.
Personality is formed by the conflicts between the id, ego and superego and how unsolved unconscious conflicts are resolved, and includes the
psycho-sexual stages of development (see Table 2.2). Personality
development is centred on certain early psycho-sexual stages between birth
to approximately six years for the development and maturation of psychosexual behaviours. Psycho-sexual development in the oral, anal and phallic
stages centres around certain erogenous or pleasure zones of the body, for
example, the mouth, anus and genitals, at which the young child will
experience either pleasure and acceptance or discomfort and rejection,
depending how these functions are handled by caregivers and, in turn,
experienced by the child. Each phase implies the development of certain
social and emotional development tasks. Positive or negative social
experiences involving the psycho-sexual and other bonding experiences,
especially with caregivers, will leave their mark on the adult personality,
depending on how conflicts were resolved (see Table 2.2). If development
does not occur positively in a phase, fixation will result. This means that
personality development is stuck in a previous phase and does not move
smoothly between the progressive stages, while unresolved conflicts may be
hidden in the unconscious mind.
According to Freud, the type of bonds between boys and their mothers
(Oedipus complex) and girls and their fathers (Electra complex) have some
sexual connotations, which also represent conflicts that must be developed
and resolved to prevent later problems in psycho-sexual identification.
Developmental problems or conflicts in the psycho-sexual development of
children will result in anxiety, which influences the realistic functioning of
the ego and acceptable integration of id-impulses in behaviour. This may
lead to an over-emphasis of the morality principles of the super-ego, for
example, the person may experience constant guilt feelings by just thinking
about sexual aspects. Psychoanalysts may assert it is possible that many
rebellious and authority problems between employees and supervisors may
be related to unsolved Oedipus and Electra complexes.
Table 2.2
Summary of psycho-sexual stages in Freudian theory
SOURCE Compiled by the author
For Freud and other psychoanalysts, the main motivational force in human
behaviour and personality is situated in the basic life and death drives,
instincts or libido, which are the psychological expressions for biological
transformed energy (Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen,
2014; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017). These drives can be expressed
rationally and realistically through the ego functions, or possibly
unrealistically through the id-functions and especially negatively if, for
example, unresolved sexual and aggressive content is hidden in the
unconscious. The use of defence mechanisms can also be an important
factor in why and how people behave in certain ways, for example, a
person that is constantly suspicious about most things in life (see Table
2.1).
Freud believed maladjustment in personality is related to the conflicts
in and between the conscious levels and psychic structures. In these
processes, traumatic past experiences, fixation due to repressed mental
content, defence mechanisms, the weak ego and the strong influence of id
impulses and super-ego morality are strong influencing factors. Freud
described psychosis, personality disorders and neuroses (anxiety disorders),
emphasising the latter as resulting from the ego’s inability to cope with the
conflicts between the id and super-ego.
The psychodynamic theorists after Freud showed influence of Freud’s
ideas; they used some of them, added to them, or differed from his ideas,
for example, by putting less emphasis on sexuality and past events, and
more on the ego or self and social aspects in behaviour. Carl Gustav Jung’s
analytical theory and especially his concept of collective unconscious,
which is defined as the basis of the human mind and has associations in
African and Eastern psychologies, is often used in non-psychological
literature. Jung’s concept of the collective unconscious refers to the
inherited potential in the psyche of all people transmitted from previous
generations.
The collective unconscious consists of instincts and archetypes, which
influence present conscious life. Instincts are physiological impulses and
the archetypes are psychic images, predispositions, intuitions, behaviours,
ideas, symbols and myths that influence present conscious life. The
archetype of the mother, or being a mother, is not only a biological
possibility and learned, but is inherited across generations to be a universal
human experience. Jung described other archetypes: the persona, which
refers to a person’s public self or mask presented to oneself and to others;
the anima, which is the female archetype present in all males; the animus,
referring to the male archetype in all women; and the shadow. The shadow
refers to primitive animal-like instincts or needs, for example, sexual urges
and aggression that are inherited by all humans and are similar to Freud’s
concept of the id (Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen,
2014; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017). More modern interpretations in
the late 1900s and early 2000s of psychoanalytical theory are those of
Jacques Lacan and James Hillman (Meyer et al., 2014; Moore, Viljoen &
Meyer, 2017).
Though it is viewed by some as a meta-psychological theory with little
empirical support, Freud’s psychoanalytic theory is still used in theory,
research, subjective assessment techniques, academic training, the study of
psychological disorders and psychotherapeutic practices. In the work
context, psychodynamic theory is often a theme in I-O psychology training
and practice, for example, to explain possible unconscious dynamics in
teams, groups and organisations. This more contemporary application of
psychodynamic concepts and assumptions is used in South Africa and a
related interest group, the Systems Psychodynamics of Organisations
(IGSPO), is associated with SIOPSA (Cilliers, 2000; Cilliers & Koortzen,
2000; Jones & Elcock, 2001).
Following this approach, aspects such as past events in organisations,
employee and organisational fears, defence mechanisms, relationships,
management and leadership styles and role identities can be considered
from different levels of consciousness and the role of psychic structures.
Psychodynamic theories are criticised for being vague and for conceptual
subjectivity, which makes objective research difficult. In contrast, more
subjective and clinically oriented psychologists will argue its value in
understanding the unconscious or inner worlds of people and even
organisations (Kets de Vries, Korotov & Florent-Treacy, 2013; Steyn &
Cilliers, 2016; Statt, 2004; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017).
2.2.6
Humanism
Humanism (1950s ongoing) has as its prominent exponents Carl Rogers
(1902-1987) and Abraham Maslow (1908-1970), who named the
movement (Kirk et al., 2015). There are also other contributors and
influencing perspectives that include aspects of holism (coined by Jan
Christiaan Smuts, a former South African Premier, in 1926), as well as
gestalt psychology, phenomenology and existentialism. Humanism can be
viewed as part of a broader person-oriented approach, which has a more
positive, or optimistic view of being human. Humans are considered to be
integrated and whole beings, have personal worth and potential and are
rational and thinking (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen &
Meyer, 2017). Humanism emphasises the positive and conscious aspects of
being human in the world. People can actively contribute to their own
lives, are rational, strive to find meaning in life, have autonomy and
freedom of choice, are unique and have potential to grow and achieve selfactualisation (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Morris & Maisto, 2016;
Weiten, 2016; Cervone & Pervin, 2017).
In phenomenology, a person’s objective reality is explained as how each
person subjectively experiences and interprets reality. This is a concept that
psychologists must be able to grasp in their interventions. Existentialism
emphasised people as being in a process of evolving or emerging in the
world in which they exist; they experience and interpret subjectively, have
freedom of choice and find their own meanings. People have the ability to
transcend or rise above their circumstances, however, they must also be
responsible and reflective with regard to their choices and the positive and
negative consequences thereof (Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Meyer, Moore &
Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017).
Humanism is considered the third force in psychology and emerged
during the 1950s and 1960s in Europe and the US, in opposition to the
deterministic views of both behaviourism and psychoanalysis in which
people are considered to be helpless pawns of their environments, primitive
urges and past events. The ideas of the humanists were developed in the
midst of increasing technology, commercialisation and growth in the
world’s population; a context in which individuals may have lost their sense
of uniqueness and humanness and had become alienated from themselves
and other people.
Personality, according to the perspectives of humanists like Rogers,
Maslow, Kelly, and Frankl, emphasised the idea of each person’s subjective
experiences and being human (Kirk et al., 2015; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer,
2017; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014). Rogers’ view of personality
structure, development, motivation and adjustment centres on the personal
experiences of each individual, which are continually evaluated and
integrated into the emerging self-concept. Rogers emphasised the person
as a whole, and how each person’s unique subjective experiences of himor herself in their environment (experiential world) contributes to the
formation of unique self-perceptions. These self-experienced realities
define each person with regard to themself, the world and other people,
meaning in life and how choices are made. In Rogers’ view, the selfconcept, which is often seen as the integrating phenomenon in
personality, consists of a collection of perceptions, beliefs and values about
one’s own nature, qualities and behaviour. Through a valuing process,
adults can evaluate new experiences to determine the fit (or not) in the
existing and developing self-concept. An important formative influence in
personality development is the interaction with other persons, through
which people also learn the value of positive regard, unconditional
acceptance, affection, and congruence or honesty, in contrast to
conditional love. Rogers conceived the term actualising tendency, which
indicates a person’s inherent potential to grow and function at his or her
best (Cervone & Pervin, 2017). Maslow formulated the well-known
hierarchy of motivational needs, which also influences personality
development, and in which the highest motive for self-actualisation is the
need to fulfil one’s potential. Maslow and Rogers described a number of
attributes that the fully functioning or self-actualising person should have
and which are still used, including in positive psychology, to describe
psychological adjustment or well-being in people. These include: growing
openness to reality and experience, living in the moment, self-acceptance,
autonomy, freedom in choices, creativity, humour and living an active and
full life. Psychological maladjustment in the form of limitations and
malfunction in personality functioning, according to humanists like
Maslow and Rogers, is related to a lack of or over-gratification of need
satisfaction, not acknowledging potential, lack of self-knowledge,
incongruence in relationships, lack of positive regard and incorrect use of
defence mechanisms as well as incongruences between existing selfperceptions and new experiences in life (Nevid et al., 2013; Meyer, Moore
& Viljoen, 2014).
The human relations management approach, and similar approaches
that were stimulated by the Hawthorne studies (see Chapter 1), can be
associated with humanistic principles. The emphasis on the employee as a
person and interpersonal relations are still relevant in modern workplaces
and work motivation; employees want to be recognised, supported and
enjoy personal growth to optimise potential. Rogers’ approach and
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs are still used in performance management,
psychological training and practice. Humanistic ideas do not always enjoy
much research support, except with regard to self-concepts. Although
there is a divide between the two, humanistic ideas and concepts have been
re-emphasised in positive psychology as part of research and applications
on human strengths and in employee and organisational health
(Waterman, 2013; Day et al., 2014; Parks & Schueller, 2014). Perhaps the
humanists’ greatest contribution is their positive emphasis of what it means
to be a worthy human being and to aspire to positive regard and a state of
optimal functioning. To this end, Rogers’ client-centred therapy, or its
principles, is still used in many applications and practices to facilitate the
realisation of potential (Snyder & Lopez, 2002; Kirk et al., 2015).
2.2.7
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology (1950s ongoing) emerged strongly in reaction to
classical or the S-R approach in behaviourism. However, the later neobehaviourists’ social and cognitive learning approaches, and the SOR
approach, indicated how cognitive factors, like expectations, perceptions,
and abilities can influence a person’s choices in learning. Assumptions on
human perception in gestalt and humanist psychology also influenced the
cognitive perspective (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Morris & Maisto,
2016; Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017). In a way,
cognitive psychology signalled a return to studying consciousness, as in
structuralism and functionalism, however, now referring to it as cognition.
This is in comparison to radical behaviourism that ignored consciousness
or unobservable processes. It is said that cognitive psychology, with its
emphasis on cognition and on the relationship between body and mind,
brought back the psyche in psychology. Together with trait, biological and
evolutionary and the positive schools of thought, the cognitive approach is
one of the most recent and influential perspectives in psychology, with
important exponents being Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, Ulric Neisser,
George Kelly, Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis. (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen,
2014).
Cognitive psychologists believe that human behaviour must be studied
with an emphasis on higher mental processes, which include thoughts,
emotions and various states of consciousness (Morris & Maisto, 2016).
Assumptions in cognitive psychology have evolved to many other
psychology subfields and practices and involve cognition in aspects like
development, thinking, concept formation, creativity, decision-making,
problem solving, language, emotions, perception, attention, motivation,
engagement and learning and remembering (Sternberg et al., 2012; Joo,
Zigarmi & Nimon, 2017). The subject matter of cognitive psychology is
how people form their cognitive constructs and related meanings, come
to know things, or how the human mind obtains, processes and organises
information and knowledge through various cognitive processes.
Obtaining and organising knowledge is necessary in order to create
meaning, an understanding of the self, others and the world, and to be able
to anticipate or predict events. An example of cognitive processing in
attention is the so-called cocktail party effect that illustrates selective
attention. This is when one excludes all other voices and noise and only
listens to the person you are talking to, or, alternatively, eavesdropping on
a conversation behind you and not listening attentively to the person you
are talking to.
The increasing use of digitisation, information technology (IT),
artificial intelligence (AI), automatisation and other smart technology and
an emphasis on the value of knowledge has facilitated the use of cognitive
perspectives. This approach compares peoples’ biological intelligence with
artificial intelligence in complex machines like computers that take in data,
process it and provide results in a digital format. People are rational beings
and use various cognitive processes to process, interpret and explain
information using language. Information is used to create and change
personal or cognitive constructs, or schemas, which represent meaning
about people, ideas and things. An example is when a person chooses a
product or service, partner, job, employee, employer or political party
because they perceive their values to be the same as their own. In
organisations, work-related attitudes such as job satisfaction, climate and
culture are based on cognitive perceptions and appraisals of various aspects
of organisational life. In relationships, people also create relational
schemas, which are self-images of relationships and interactions with other
people (Baldwin, 2005).
Cognitive psychologists make use of direct observation; for example,
they observe how people complete tasks or remember information after
learning in order to obtain knowledge on memory and how information is
processed. Cognitive psychologists make use of brain-imaging techniques
to understand the underlying neurological mechanisms in cognitive
processes (Morris & Maisto, 2016; Wade & Tavris, 2009). There are
many studies showing the relationships between biological processes, for
example, brain processes and human cognitive behaviour (Weiten, 2016).
Personality, according to cognitive psychologists, such as George Kelly,
is formed, maintained and functions within a system of cognitive
constructs that people develop and adapt about themselves, things, ideas,
other people and the world at large. Cognitive constructs give meaning to
people; through these constructs, they can anticipate and understand what
to expect from events in life, for example, at work or in an interview.
Cognitive constructs can be adapted and changed so that people can cope
with life’s requirements and new cognitive information (Bergh &
Geldenhuys, 2013; Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer,
2017). You may have heard someone saying that they must make a
paradigm shift; in cognitive psychology, this indicates thinking differently
or changing one’s attitude. An example is when organisations introduce
culture change interventions, or when our freedom to make choices when
and where we like is suddenly changed, for instance, during the Covid-19
hard lockdown in South Africa. According to Kelly’s choice construct, this
change or restriction can frustrate or anger people and they may act
unacceptably. Alternatively, they can be creative and think about other
ways to retain autonomy in decisions or explore ways of how to avoid
transgressing the new regulations. With cultural changes in organisations
and larger systems, like South Africa after the 1994 democratic elections,
people had to start thinking and acting differently in order to achieve unity
and peace, a process that is still ongoing. Psychological adjustment in
people is enhanced when their constructs or meaning systems are in place
and valid for all or most aspects and situations in life. In contrast, when
constructs or meaning systems are not in place, are not valid or applicable
to important situations, or are rigid and unrealistic, it will create conflict,
stress, discomfort and maladjustment in peoples’ lives.
In contemporary psychology, cognitive psychology has many
applications in psychological theory, research and practice. It has
contributed to explaining various cognitive processes like intelligence,
learning styles, attention, motivation, perception and moral development
and in decision-making in the selection and promotion of employees. It is
used in therapeutic procedures and is applied in organisations when a
change in attitudes is required. Like people, organisations are also
considered to be information-processing systems with certain inputs
(resources) that are processed (work and other organisational processes) to
provide certain outputs (consequences for employees and the organisation).
2.2.8
Biological
perspectives
and
evolutionary
Biological psychology (1800s, ongoing) is also referred to as
biopsychology, physiological psychology or neuroscience. Biological
perspectives study how biological processes influence people’s behaviour,
feelings and thinking. Physiological psychology has ancient origins, but
found a renewed interest and place in modern psychology, as well as in its
relationships with many other fields of study, for example, in the biological
basis of personality and psychological disorders (Austin et al., 2014;
Weiten, 2016; Cervone & Pervin, 2017). Biopsychology asserts that the
human mind and consciousness must be studied through an understanding
of the intricate relationships and influences of genetic and neurological
factors and human behaviour. With regard to neurological and
physiological determination, it is known that particular sites in the brain
are important for human mental functioning. For instance, the frontal
lobes are important for foresight and anticipation and other parts for
aggression and other emotions (Buck, 1999). In 1981, Roger Sperry
received a Nobel Prize for his finding that the left and right halves of the
brain have different mental tasks in human behaviour. Information or
signals from our senses are processed and interpreted in the brain (Weiten,
2011, 2016). Certain physical and medical conditions are related to
psychological or emotional illnesses and expressions and vice versa. It is
well known that the deterioration of brain processes and brain functioning
contributes to psychological maladjustment (Austin et al., 2017; Nevid et
al., 2013). Particular hormones, such as testosterone, are important for
sociability, positive emotions, aggression and sexuality, while the
neurotransmitters are functional in the regulation of emotions (Dabbs,
Strong & Milun, 1997; Knutson et al., 1998). Research on the similarities
and differences in people found evidence of genetic or biological influences
in twin and adoption studies (Ashton, 2007, 2017; Cervone & Pervin,
2017; Maltby, Day & Macaskill, 2007; Morris & Maisto, 2016).
Evolutionary psychology (1800s ongoing) can be considered a special
application of biological psychology, namely in its approach that brain
functions contribute to natural selection and are an important area of study
in psychology (Weiten, 2016). The origin of evolutionary psychology is
related to Charles Darwin’s On the origin of species. Francis Galton (1822-
1911) also carried out important genetic research that emphasised
individual differences in human behaviour. Evolutionary psychology asserts
that human behaviour and attributes are predetermined or genetically and
historically programmed to direct people to act and think in certain ways.
A central focus then, for evolutionists, is the study of the genetic biology of
animal and human behaviour and processes with regard to its adaptive
strengths or value across time and generations in changing circumstances.
An important assumption is natural selection in which certain genetic and
reproductive advantages may favour some species, groups and individuals
and pass on genetic material that will enhance the adaptive capabilities
across time and generations.
There are, however, few biological or evolutionary theories of
personality. The role of biology, like brain processes and genetics, is
recognised and emphasised in personality research and in many personality
theories. Examples are in the formation and existence of a certain
temperament and personality traits in a number of personality theories,
including those of Eysenck, Cattell, Murray, Grey and Cloninger
(Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Morris & Maisto, 2016; Wade & Tavris, 2009).
Henry Murray (1893-1988) indicated a strong impact of brain processes in
personality in his personality theory of psychogenic needs. Nature or
genetics and the related biological attributes in people are recognised as
being as equally important as a determinant of behaviour and individual
differences in people as nurture or environmental influences. The human
personality (and related behaviour) is also viewed as a function of transfer
from generation to generation as a result of evolutionary processes. The
assumptions are that the biological nature of behaviour is common to all
people and that behaviours that evolved in previous generations will
manifest in current generations. These behaviours, can, however be
changed (Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Morris & Maisto, 2016). Evolutionary
psychologists have studied topics such as personality traits, perception,
learning, language, helping behaviour, aggression and violence, parenting,
emotions, sexual attraction and mating preferences and jealousy in order to
assess changes and similarities across generations (Weiten, 2016).
Processes like cultural and social learning enhance adaptation and survival
in changing circumstances, and this may relate to changes in physical and
psychosocial behavioural patterns. Individual differences occur because
people have different traits and temperaments, acquired through
inheritance and social-survival behaviours and strategies. Personality is
quite stable in people over time, because of genetic influences and the
influence of people’s inherent need for social interaction. The latter is
illustrated in people’s innate or inborn dependence on, and need for,
affiliation and attachment in many circumstances, from birth across the
lifespan.
The role of biology in human behaviour and personality will always be
recognised and it affirms the mutual relationship between body and mind
or psyche (Austin et al., 2012, 2017). In practice, biological screening
happens frequently in medical and psychiatric consultations and
occasionally in a work context. Though evolutionary psychology is
criticised for subjectivity and difficulty in testing evolutionary assumptions,
research since the 1980s on the influence of genetic biology on human
behaviour and adaptation (behaviour genetics) may have established
biological and evolutionary psychology as an important psychological
paradigm for the future (Fuentes, 2009).
2.2.9
Positive psychology
Positive psychology is viewed by many as the most recent subfield and
influential paradigm in contemporary psychology. Positive psychology (late
1900s ongoing) is concerned with the good life, subjective human wellbeing, happiness, prosperity and flourishing, even in the face of adversity
(Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Ryff, 2014; Seligman, 2011; Joseph,
2015). Positive psychology asserts that the study of psychology and the
human mind should focus on strengths and virtues in people. These are
internal dispositions (attributes and feelings), and positive resources and
values in people, like love, positive emotions, happiness and courage. An
important aspect is self-knowledge and self-awareness, which gives people
a measure and feeling of subjective well-being. Many concepts of positive
psychology and well-being have stimulated a lot of research and practice
interest since the late 1990s, including in South Africa (Fredrickson, 2013;
Lopez, Pedrotti & Snyder, 2015; Wissing, 2013; Wissing et al., 2014).
Positive psychology has early origins and is influenced by other subdisciplines of psychology. These are humanistic psychology, behaviouristic
assumptions and concepts, phenomenology and existentialism (Jorgensen
& Nafstad, 2005). Humanists Maslow and Rogers emphasised the
subjective experiences of people, the inherent potential to grow and selfactualise and postulated attributes and conditions for optimal functioning
and healthiness. Maslow coined the term positive psychology in 1956. In
the early origins of behaviourism, William James emphasised peoples’
subjective experiences, while phenomenology and existentialism postulated
concepts like finding meaning in life, freedom of choice, people as whole
human beings and transcendence or the ability to rise above their
circumstances.
In 1998, Martin Seligman introduced positive psychology to the
American Psychological Association (APA). This was considered a reemphasis on positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000;
Strümpfer, 2005; Joseph, 2015). The focus on well-being in positive
psychology was a reaction to the negative emphasis in psychology on
suffering, weakness, problems and pathology or illness. A positive
emphasis encourages strengths like self-control, resiliency, energy,
creativity, coping and healthiness in people, as well as their natural
goodness and potential to grow, self-actualise and find meaning in life
(Coetzee & Viviers, 2007; Compton, 2005; Parks & Scheuller, 2015).
Positive psychology does not deny weaknesses in people, but by
emphasising the strengths in both the positive and negative aspects of life,
positive psychology supports a more balanced view of human functioning
(Lopez, Pedrotti & Snyder, 2015). The principles of positive psychology
are valuable in facilitating the strengths and potential of well-adjusted
people as well as understanding psychological strengths in the treatment of
mental health challenges, therefore understanding and integrating the
positive aspects of human functioning with the negative aspects of human
behaviour. While acknowledging positive psychological concepts and
approaches, it must be emphasised that not all theory and practices in
psychology are negative; many practices in different psychology disciplines
have a positive objective and achieve good outcomes. Examples in
psychology applications that encourage positive outcomes are in
organisational activities like selection and promotion, training, improving
job satisfaction, organisational commitment and engagement, career
development, organisational consultation, psychological assessment,
therapy and counselling and health promotion. On the other hand,
difficulties in life arise and psychological problems exist; this explains why
some psychological subfields have a main focus in helping troubled people
in difficult situations through interventions in clinical, counselling and I-O
psychology. As positive psychology mainly emphasises the positive
psychological health and well-being of people and organisations in various
contexts, these aspects are dealt with in more detail in Chapter 11 (see
Section 11.4.2.1).
Figure 2.4
People have the potential to function optimally
SOURCE Shutterstock
INFORMATION BOX Study and application areas in positive
psychology
Studying psychology from a positive psychology paradigm involves the following:
• Studying positive experiences and emotions that stimulate hope, optimism, courage,
happiness, humour and satisfaction. Happiness is a central assumption in the facilitation
of subjective well-being in people and is indicated by three kinds of happiness; leading a
life of pleasure with maximum positive emotions (hedonic pleasure or well-being);
engagement that relates to using your strengths in the selection and experience of
activities that promote enjoyment or flow and meaning; and eudemonic pleasure or wellbeing that refers to using your strengths in serving something (family, society, and
country) that is larger than yourself. Later, Seligman added relationships and
accomplishment as other happiness factors.
• Identifying and facilitating positive human traits, for example, certain character
strengths and virtues: tolerance, integrity, personal hardiness, sense of coherence, selfefficacy, learned resourcefulness, courage, perseverance, nurturance and creativity. In
•
this regard, comparative research is executed with other assessments of personality
traits, for example, in trait psychology (see Section 2.2.10). The objective is to affirm
the validity of positive psychology constructs, in other words, do these constructs
measure what they are supposed to measure (Wissing et al., 2014; Bhullar, Schutte &
Wall, 2018; Temane, Khumalo & Wissing, 2014)?
Working with institutions, situations or environments that are willing to be positively
enhanced, even in adversity. In the latter instance, families, organisations and societies
are encouraged to find the positive or success factors that had worked in the past
(Luthans et al., 2007).
The study of personality is not specifically offered by positive psychology.
Positive psychology is rather a paradigm emphasising well-being. At best,
positive psychology identifies human attributes or traits and virtues that
can be measured and facilitated to achieve positive health. The concepts
contain motivational and development value for individuals and
institutions. Many of the assumptions, concepts and applications in
Maslow and Rogers’ humanistic personality theories are positive in nature
and have influenced many ideas and concepts in positive psychology
(Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017). The assumptions, concepts, research
and practices of positive psychology also have implications for existing
personality theory, concepts, assessment, practices and research findings
(Day et al., 2014; Lopez et al., 2015; Sheldon et al., 2011; Wissing et al.,
2014). It has been found that certain personality traits, for example,
extroversion, are predictors of high levels of happiness and life satisfaction.
This implies that the human strengths that facilitate happiness and life
satisfaction must be explored in therapy, counselling, selection and in
organisational interventions. Positive psychology also postulates
requirements or criteria for personality development, and the management
of possible developmental and psychological problems. In accordance with
Rogers and Maslow, positive psychology agrees with their assumptions on
positive regard, interpersonal influences and the fully functioning or selfactualising aspects in personality.
Positive psychology has a positive influence on the science and practice
of psychology in general, as well as in various subfields and in the
knowledge and practices of employment and organisational functioning
(Day, Kelloway & Hurrell, 2014; Lopez, Pedrotti & Snyder, 2015;
Hefferon & Boniwell, 2011; Parks & Schueller, 2014).
The influence on organisational functioning has put a new emphasis
on the optimal performance and well-being of employees and workplaces
(Day et al., 2014; Hefferon & Boniwell, 2011; Parks & Schueller, 2014).
Though positive psychology is criticised for its optimistic and subjective
views and concepts, positive psychologists defend themselves by referring
to their scientific way of knowledge and practice building, that is, to
measure and study positive emotions and other strengths or health
resources to determine how they influence life satisfaction, work
performance and well-being or health. In this regard, Sheldon et al. (2011)
and in South Africa, Wissing (2013), Wissing et al. (2014) and Temane et
al. (2014) report research findings on promising validity indications of
many positive psychology concepts in relation to personality traits and
other variables. However, an important issue is that many validity issues
with regard to positive psychology concepts, for example, strength and
happiness and their measuring instruments, may still be questioned and
require further research.
2.2.10
The trait psychology approach
Trait psychology, also referred to as a psychometric approach, is not always
considered a separate paradigm, but rather a theory on, and application of,
personality research and assessment. Trait psychology has, however, grown
into an objective approach that was established through empirical research
and psychometric assessment, and is applied in many subfields of
psychology. According to trait and type theories, human behaviour is
characterised by enduring and consistent traits or attributes and patterns of
behaviour described in concepts such as dispositions, dimensions, traits,
factors, types and styles. Traits are viewed as neuro-psychic structures that
exist and are partly biologically encoded inside a person, motivate
behaviour, are distinguishable in and among people and can be measured
by many psychometric instruments (for example, psychological tests for
abilities, personality, interests and values). Traits may have a dominant
genetic and neurological basis, whereas environmental influences have a
less formative influence (Ruston et al., 2008; Wade & Tavris, 2009;
Morris & Maisto, 2016).
Describing personality and temperament has a long history, however,
and some of the more recent exponents are Gordon Allport, Raymond
Cattell, Hans Eysenck and the contributors to the Five-Factor Model
(FFM) of personality, that is, Lewis Goldberg, Paul Costa, Robert
McCrae and L. M. Hough (Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Morris & Maisto,
2010).
Contemporary trait psychology has developed into an integrated
approach that accommodates many aspects of psychology and personality,
and, through its research and assessment practices, is applied in many
practices and domains of psychology. Examples of the latter are in
specifying criteria for work performance, attributes or traits for
organisations, leadership, management, well-being, optimal functioning,
interests, values, intelligence, abilities, motivational needs and personality
disorders. More recently, personality disorders are being diagnosed and
explained according to maladaptive personality trait models, based on the
FFM of personality (Helle & Mullins-Sweat, 2017) (see Chapter 11).
Personality, according to trait psychologists, consists of general and
specific traits that people possess and that represent the enduring
characteristics of a person across their lifetime and in various situations.
Enduring personality traits direct and organise behaviour and provide each
individual with a fairly identifiable and consistent personality profile.
Raymond Cattell, for example, specifically defines personality as how a
person will behave in given situations, reflecting the influence of the
situation (Cattell, 1966). Allport, an eclectic psychologist (using
contributions from a range of sources), defines personality as “the dynamic
organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that
determine his characteristic behavior and thought”(Allport, 1961;
Cervone, 2008). In this definition, note the emphasis on the wholeness or
organisation of personality, biological and psychological factors, the
systemic interaction between behaviour and thought and the dynamics of
personality. It can change and grow. Trait descriptions are hypothetical
constructs used by theorists, assessors, researchers and practitioners to
indicate human behaviour and attributes as observed and inferred in
objective measurements. Trait theories classify personality into integrated
trait and type models or clusters, such as Eysenck’s Three-Factor Model,
Cattell’s Sixteen-Factor Model and the Five-Factor Model, the latter
indicated in Table 2.3 (Cervone & Pervin, 2008, 2017; Wade & Tavris,
2009; van Thiel, 2020). Trait psychologists, like Cattell, started with large
numbers of traits and by way of factor analysis identified factors that
cluster together or are related. These groups of factors were then given
descriptive trait names, for example, emotionally stable, conscientious,
persevering and so on. As indicated in Table 2.3, in personality test scores,
a low score on, for example, emotional stability, may indicate emotional
control, being calm and reserved, while a high score may indicate less
emotional stability, excitability, anxiety and nervousness. Various trait
psychologists, like Allport and Cattell, termed types of traits to indicate,
for example, source or central traits, more general or unique and specific
traits and dynamic traits, the latter indicating human motivation. With
regard to motivational traits, Allport’s concept of functional autonomy, for
example, indicates a state of motivation when original motives or needs
during childhood have developed into independent adult motivation. For
example, becoming an engineer or veterinarian to make a living is quite
different in meaning from a child playing with Meccano sets or having a
special interest in nature and animals.
Trait psychology contributed significantly to knowledge about the
consistency of human behaviour in individuals and groups across time
periods and in different situations. Differences of findings were reported
(Laher & Dockrat, 2019; Morris & Maisto, 2016; Weiten, 2016); high
consistency exists from childhood to adulthood, but changes in personality
are also reported as a result of changed behaviour through the influence of
different situations. These factors may explain different measurable
expressions of personality in behaviour. Arguably, the most important
contribution of trait psychology is in the assessment, classification and
psychological measurement of individual differences through the use of
objective instruments, such as personality questionnaires. Individual
differences are the diverse personality-related factors, for example,
personality traits, physical attributes, values, attitudes, interests, abilities,
historical factors such as age, race, culture and place of origin (for example,
rural or urban) and even types of experiences (Fetvadjiev et al., 2017).
Trait models, especially the Three-, Sixteen- and Five-Factor Models,
have contributed to a holistic view of personality, as well as the application
of personality traits across many cultures and domains of psychology. It has
been useful in personality assessment and the study of personality,
personality disorders and work stress, career and personnel assessment and
in cross-cultural personality research, including South African studies
(Barrick & Ryan, 2003; Mlacic & Goldberg, 2007; McCrae et al., 1998).
In organisational or work life, many aspects are expressed according to
traits or dimensions. An important application is in job descriptions and
the assessment of work competencies for selection purposes and in research
to determine the work-relatedness of personality traits. Trait theories and
research have identified many traits in domains of human functioning, for
example, cognitive abilities, motivational states, interpersonal behaviours,
emotions, beliefs, goals, attitudes, interests, values, absenteeism,
managerial behaviours, entrepreneurial traits and organisationaleffectiveness criteria; the latter often an attempt to give work organisations
personality-type characteristics (Barrick & Ryan, 2003; Cervone & Pervin,
2017; Morris & Maisto, 2016).
In work-related personality research, trait concepts have validity to
many aspects of work performance, psychological disorders, emotions,
motivation, consumer behaviour, entrepreneurship and leadership
(Ashton, 2017; Chamorro-Premuzic, 2011; Morris & Maisto, 2016). All
the factors in the FFM, especially conscientiousness, have been found to
correlate positively with many work performance criteria. Cross-cultural
research (Meiring et al., 2005; Saucier, 2017; Fetvadjiev et al., 2017)
indicates personality similarities across cultures, as well as unique
personality expressions. Research by Mlacic & Goldberg (2007) and in
Church (2017) and Saucier (2017) demonstrates the cross-cultural
applicability of the FFM.
Trait psychology is accepted as an important paradigm in applied
psychology, especially with its contributions to objective psychological
assessment, personality and individual differences and work-related
personality research through questionnaires and correlational research. It
also does well in indicating and describing personality structure and
explaining motivation through certain traits. Criticism is directed at the
trait paradigm as being restricted in its ability to explain the human mind
and personality in totality and in more depth. Trait psychology lacks the
ability to explain the human mind as an integrated phenomenon. It does
not sufficiently explain personality dynamics, such as its development and
psychological adjustment, as well as the causes of behaviour.
Table 2.3
Trait descriptions from the Five-Factor Model
Factor
Factor
Factor
Factor
1. Extroversion (surgency)
Warmth, assertiveness, activityseeking, excitement, gregariousness,
Introversion
Silent, unadventurous, timid,
unenergetic, unassertive
positive emotions
2. Agreeableness (friendliness)
Trust, tender-mindedness,
straightforwardness, altruism,
compliance, modesty
Antagonism
Ungenerous, unkind, selfish,
distrustful, unhelpful
3. Conscientiousness
(dependability)
Order, competence, achievement,
striving, deliberation, self-discipline,
dutifulness
Lack of direction
Impractical, lazy,
disorganised, irresponsible,
careless
4. Emotional stability
Relaxed, calm, contented,
unemotional, stable
Neuroticism (emotional
instability)
Hostility, anger, anxiety,
impulsiveness, depression,
self-consciousness
5. Openness to experience
(intellect)
Values, fantasy, aesthetics, actions,
feelings, ideas.
Closedness
Uncreative, uninquisitive,
unreflective, unsophisticated,
unimaginative.
SOURCE Adapted and reproduced by special permission of the Publisher, Psychological Assessment
Resources, Inc., 16204 North Florida Avenue, Lutz, Florida 33549, from the NEO Personality
Inventory-3 by Paul T. Costa Jr., PhD and Robert R. McCrae, PhD, Copyright 1978, 1985, 1989,
1991, 1992, 2010 by Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. (PAR). Further reproduction is prohibited
without permission from PAR
2.2.11
Socio-cultural approach
A socio-cultural approach refers to social determinants like parents, family,
friends and environmental social influences from educational systems like
schools, groups, sport, work and social media, as well as culture as a
specific social influence. The influence of socio-cultural factors on many
aspects of human behaviour are recognised in psychology. Culture refers
to a system of acquired knowledge, habits, rules, norms, communication,
beliefs and values that are shared by most or all members of a specific
community, are passed on from generation to generation and direct a way
of life. Combined with genetic factors, culture and ethnicity can explain
both uniqueness and similarities, as well as how different life roles (such as
work, marriage, parenting and citizenship) are expressed and executed by
people through their personalities and behaviour (Church, 2017; Squire,
2003; Weiten, 2016). A cultural approach in psychology emphasises the
need to consider the context and relevance of knowledge and practices and
not only use knowledge from a specific source or paradigm.
Environmental and related social factors are indicated in some
paradigms, theories and research as important determinants in human
behaviour, individual differences and personality. An early assumption in
the study of human behaviour was that people are social beings with
instinctive social needs to belong and be loved. This led to research on
bonding and attachment behaviours in people, healing, and the communal
nature and advantages of social interacting and groups in human life
(Baldwin, 2005; Cervone & Pervin, 2017; Flett, 2007). The early and
ongoing issue of nature versus nurture in psychology also entails aspects of
culture with regard to socio-economic circumstances, educational and
caring practices in families in different cultures. As a result of the
Hawthorne findings, social factors in workplaces and management were
emphasised in I-O psychology as important motivational and performance
factors. Since the 1950s, cultural factors have been specifically emphasised
as a determinant that influences human behaviour across many domains,
indicating important similarities between and differences in individuals
and groups.
In all collectives, that is, different nations, cultures, groups and
organisations, the meanings of culture are emphasised in some way as an
important indicator for peoples’ preferred behaviour and motivation to act
in certain ways. Peoples’ mother culture, or acquired cultures, influence
many aspects of their lives, habits, how they behave, think, eat and drink,
dress, why and how they work, and their norms and values with regard to
spirituality, marriage, family and many other issues in life. Potokri (2015),
for example, indicates how some women in Ethiopia, Nigeria, Ghana and
South Africa experience their private and public lives as being defined,
confined and even devalued because of restrictive cultural norms.
In modern psychology, there is an emphasis on how culture influences
human behaviour, and in cross-cultural psychology, an emphasis on the
comparison of cultures. An objective of cross-cultural research is to
determine the relevance of existing psychological science and practice for
different cultures with an aim to indigenise existing psychology or to
develop indigenous psychologies. In modern organisational psychology,
social factors in organisations are emphasised and organisational culture is
considered an important part of organisational socialisation, climate and a
strong motivational and influencing factor in employee and organisational
performance (Luthans, 2011). Aycan and Gelfand (2012) and Kotze and
Massyn (2019) found that the issue of cultural values, especially
collectivism compared to individualism (see Chapter 9), attracted the most
cross-cultural organisational research, explaining many of the differences
in organisational behaviour across cultures (Taras et al., 2016).
In South Africa, with its diverse workforce, cultural misunderstandings
may occur, especially in workplaces where organisational values are
strongly based on a Western orientation. The influences of organisational
culture on employee identity and employee satisfaction is a reason why, in
certain circumstances, organisational change interventions are necessary. In
South Africa, such change interventions may involve establishing
multicultural or cross-cultural management and leadership teams that are
not dominated by any one cultural style. This may result in more
integrated organisational values and facilitate improved organisational and
human resource management (HRM) practices (Feldman & Msibi, 2016;
Xing et al., 2016).
Despite a need for African management concepts, there is not a wide
body of theory, research and practice examples (Seny Kan, 2015). Existing
efforts in this regard are also influenced by political ideology, for example,
based on culture, colonialism, apartheid and Western influences. The
concept of ubuntu is often suggested as a central idea in leadership and
management proposals because it relates to a variety of social and
humanistic ideas that may be more applicable to African cultures
(Brougne, 2015). Some approaches are suggested by Whyte & Auala
(2018) from the Namibia Business School. In an informative article (see
references), they propose an African matrix model based on various
management and leadership approaches, concepts, principles and practices
as well as cultural and political aspects.
A socio-cultural paradigm should thus have been established as an
important and enduring theme in psychology in various contexts to study
the social and cultural aspects of the human mind or psyche, behaviour and
personality (Austin et al., 2014; Hook, Watts & Cockcroft, 2002; Sheldon
et al., 2011; Weiten, 2016). Social, cultural and cross-cultural factors are
usually only emphasised as influencing factors. In modern psychology,
there isn’t a single or integrated social-cultural paradigm or theory to study
human behaviour in all domains, although socio-cultural aspects are
emphasised in African and Eastern psychologies. Some single-area
theories exist that explain specific social and cultural aspects in human
behaviour, for example, with regard to human development (see Chapter
4). An example is the socio-cultural theory on cognitive development by
Vygotsky (a Russian psychologist) which was developed in the 1930s
under the cultural influence of communist Marxist thinking in Russian
politics. This theory maintains an influence on research on cognitive
development. According to Vygotsky, culture and social influences,
especially parents, the community and the level of education at schools
have a strong influence on the cognitive development of children (Weiten,
2016).
Personality, according to a socio-cultural perspective, is not integrated
in one personality theory. Many personality theories and subfields
emphasise socio-cultural factors in being human, human development,
personality and human functioning and adjustment (Kelland, 2015, 2017).
The socially oriented psychoanalysts attended to social and cultural factors
in being human, as did their social learning theorists and the humanistic
theories. Carl Gustav Jung, a psychoanalyst who adapted some of Freud’s
ideas to form his own theory, known as analytical psychology, also studied
various cultures, which contributed to some of his ideas (Cervone &
Pervin, 2017; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer,
2017).
What is accepted in personology (the study of personality) is that
mutual influences exist between personality and culture, and certain
behaviours are a consequence of cultural learning and are not motivated by
a personality trait or disposition or genetic influence (Wade & Tavris,
2009). Personality and culture are commonly studied by studying
personality in depth in specific cultures (emic research), comparing
personality measures across cultures (etic research) and a combination of
both. There are a number of personality-related cultural and cross-cultural
South African studies (Fetvadejiev et al., 2017; Valchev et al., 2017;
Meiring et al., 2005; King, 2011; Cheung, van de Vijver & Leong, 2011).
Views on culture and human behaviour may differ, for example,
perceiving a culture to be different to another, or indicating that culture is
a strong influence on personality and that personality must be seen in the
context of each culture (Church, 2016; Chielozona, 2014). In African
culture in general, personality and personality development are viewed
more as a collectivist phenomenon and are associated with group and
communal influences, for example, ubuntu and the notion of ‘I am, because
we are’. In contrast, in Western culture, personality is viewed more as an
individualistic phenomenon and associated more with aspects of ego or
self-development (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014).
Mainstream psychology from a Western perspective may provide a
one-sided view of psychological maladjustment and adjustment (including
wellness) and space is required for alternative views. Explaining different
human behaviour and personality traits according to cultural factors may
contribute to understanding people and how they function in specific
contexts, however, there are also many similarities that exist in people of
different cultures. In current psychology, it is accepted as an enduring
theme that culture, including race and ethnicity, influences many aspects
of people’s behaviour and lives (Markus & Hamedani, 2007; Markus &
Kitayama, 2008; Morris & Maisto, 2016; Triandis, 2007). Problems will
arise though when cultural explanations of human behaviour are provided
from only one cultural perspective. At the same time, one should also take
into consideration that within a cultural group with sub-groups, one will
find unique behaviour and personality attributes. Therefore, it cannot be
assumed that all people belonging to a specific cultural group will
necessarily share the same characteristics and behaviours.
Ethical reader
Science versus prejudice – in a cultural context
Insensitivity to cultural factors and influences is one of the main factors of prejudice in
human interaction and work-related practices. Examples are racial and gender discrimination
in personnel assessment, selection, financial remuneration and promotion and training.
Aside from ethics, it is also necessary to ensure relevance in knowledge and practices by
considering alternative explanations for human behaviour, such as utilising cross-cultural
knowledge and indigenous psychologies and alternative research, assessment and
intervention methods in human behaviour in applicable contexts.
It is important that social scientists understand the otherness or foreignness of each
culture, especially as far as minorities and disadvantaged groups within other cultures are
concerned. It is essential to grasp the difference between considering and applying
individual differences scientifically and optimally to the advantage of people, as opposed to
being prejudiced, discriminatory and exclusionary because of differences. Social scientists
have a responsibility to find commonalities between cultures, as well as understand both
commonalities and uniqueness from the point of view of existing psychological knowledge.
The importance of fair psychological practices is also evidenced by the South African
Employment Equity Act (55 of 1998), as amended. In summary, this regulates that no
discrimination on any grounds may occur and that all employees must be fairly treated and
managed and enjoy equal opportunities in work performance and development.
Other legislation, ethical guidelines and codes of behaviour also place human rights as a
central issue in the theory and practices of psychology and employers. This implies that any
intervention (for example, corrective actions like affirmative-action strategies), as well as
other policies and practices for empowering people, must be based on principles of justice
and equality. An emphasis on cultural stereotypes should not be allowed to encourage
discrimination against any individual or group. This is especially relevant in today’s global
society in which economics and technology facilitate increasing cross-cultural contact, or in
societies where culturally diverse peoples coexist. It is only in recent times, with the
influence of psychologists calling for the indigenisation of psychology, that more knowledge
of African culture, psychology and personality has emerged in order to differentiate African
from Western or Eastern thinking (Azibo, 1996, 2015; Cooper, 2012; Cooper, 2013; Nwoye,
2015). Earlier assumptions on African-oriented psychology were often based on speculative
ideas and on African-American psychology (Nwoye, 2015). However, it appears that many
assumptions, concepts, processes and practices used in existing general and personality
psychology can be used to explain personality across cultures. Therefore, cultural heritage
should not be used as an ideological or emotional excuse for the exclusion of any existing
psychological ideas or practices that best explain individual differences and similarities
within a particular context. An example is the systems paradigm that explains holism, unity,
relatedness and connection between many aspects of human behaviour. This assumption of
oneness and interaction with nature and between humans and systems is also important in
African and Eastern cultures. Many personality theories adequately explain the individual as
a person in relation to other people, to the physical environment and to spiritual matters,
such as religion. The latter, for instance, is addressed in the theories of Jung, Maslow and
Allport. The notion of ubuntu (which indicates humaneness) in some African cultures is
congruent with concepts in humanistic and positive psychology, Rogerian theory and
concepts such as self, positive regard, empathy, transparency and acceptance, all of which
relate to how people should interact or be treated. Similarly, processes such as personality
development, as seen in African psychology, have some commonalities to Western views, for
example, the view that personality development is a lifelong integrative process that
develops in stages in which certain developmental tasks must be acquired.
The valuable truths on human behaviour established by Western psychologies need to be
acknowledged. However, such knowledge and practices cannot be universally true unless they
also consider viewpoints from other cultures, especially from countries where people of
diverse cultures coexist. The cultures of minority and disadvantaged groups are often
weakened in diverse societies in the context of globalisation as well as by dominant cultures,
for example, in Africa by Western or Eastern cultures, or when individuals and groups are
compelled to accept new cultural values, which can cause problems in adaptation.
Being culturally competent is to realise that scientific and personal views on human
behaviour and personality in any culture will be influenced by basic epistemological and
ontological points of departure (that is, fundamental views about knowledge, science and
people’s existence in the world). However, social scientists must also realise that Western,
Eastern and African cultures and psychologies are only umbrella concepts to describe general
trends. Each of these groups and psychologies consist of subcultures and sub-disciplines that
are influenced by many factors, which will cause differences in cultures and even in
subgroups, such as families. It is therefore a sound principle to always interpret expressions
of human behaviour relative to the specific cultural context in which individuals acquired
such behaviours.
Although many paradigms and theories use culture as an explanatory or
influencing factor, some paradigms, like African and Eastern, have an
emphasis on the role of culture in understanding the ethos of being human
in these cultures. African and Eastern approaches have many similarities,
but there are also unique differences.
2.2.12
An African approach
An African perspective on personality and behaviour is discussed separately
here because of the unique cultural or indigenous African context and
thinking in explaining human behaviour and personality (Townsend, 2016;
Kelland, 2015, 2017). It is important to remember that the African psyche
and psychology is made up of diverse groups. The various African cultures
have, over time, been exposed to many colonial, cross-cultural and other
global transitions and influences, and therefore a description of African
culture or African psychology remains challenging. In this respect, Petzer
(2005) and Nwoye (2015) posit the following questions: “Of which culture
is African culture the culture of?” and “Of which psychology is African
psychology the psychology of”? These questions about African psychology
may apply to many themes in psychology such as personality, HRM as
well as I-O psychology themes and practices. However, some African
psychologists believe that indigenous African psychology has sufficient
substance for the existence of a single African paradigm that is sufficiently
different to other approaches and represents the ethos of Africa, its ways of
life, thinking, values and behaviours (Azibo, 1996; Holdstock, 2000;
Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014). It may be viable to think about
psychology as a globally recognised study field in which science and
practice find specific applications related to cultural contexts.
The study of the human mind and personality cannot, therefore, be
separated from African world views and views based on holism and
anthropocentrism, which reflect African realities, values, behaviour and
ways of life (Hooke et al., 2004; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Moore,
Viljoen & Meyer, 2017) (see Table 2.4). According to African psychology,
understanding the psyche or human mind is to understand the relatedness
of people to the greater cosmos, unity and connection with their god, the
metaphysical, nature and other people. This implies that people are the
central point of the universe from where everything is understood and
explained. Aspects of this relate to the importance and survival of the
collective and communal life, which gives form to individual needs. There
is a special emphasis on respect for the aged, the rhythms of time, the past
and present rather than dwelling on the future.
Spirituality in some African experiences is very much part of the
macro-cosmos experiences in the community and is a central aspect that
influences many parts of life. It is expressed in church going, folklore,
narratives and expressions, art, music, dance, rituals and symbols. The
relationship with God, through the medium of ancestors, is often part of
the daily existence of people. Part of the meso-cosmic African experience
is made up of individual and collective imagination and myths around the
metaphysical reality, that is, believing in the unseen and the unnatural. It is
a no man’s land and is represented by beliefs and interaction with the
forces of ancestors (who mediate between God, the living and the dead),
malignant spirits, sorcerers and other forces in real life (people and
animals), as well as natural and physical forces (trees, mountains, weather,
rivers and so on). Meso-cosmic experiences and the individual’s behaviour
in this regard can bring both good and bad for the individual. Many issues
related to conflict, illness and death are associated with meso-cosmic
experiences. The content of meso-cosmic experiences is deemed the area
that sangomas, healers and rain-makers use to influence people and
perform related practices (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen
& Meyer, 2017). The micro-cosmic level (the individual’s experiences in
his or her daily life), which are subject to the influence of macro- and
meso-cosmic powers, is strongly characterised by a person’s relationships.
The various cosmic levels and experiences may have correspondence with
psychoanalytical theory, especially Freud and Jung.
Table 2.4
African and Western views of the world and humankind
African
Principles
Western
Survival of the
community/ethnic group
Unity/one with nature
Ethos
Survival of the
best/fittest
Control over nature
Co-operation
Collective/ group
responsibility
Interdependence through
co-operation
Values and
customs
Competition
Individual rights
Independence and
uniqueness
Group orientation
Sameness/equality
Commonality.
Psychological
modalities.
Individuality
Uniqueness
Differences.
SOURCE Adapted from Nobles (1991b: 299)
The Western view of the world and people tends towards a more
individualistic and deterministic expression of the human psyche,
behaviour and related aspects in science, research and practice. Examples
include an emphasis on: individual differences, uniqueness, self-concepts,
independence, self-efficacy, identity, self-actualisation, achievement,
motivation, competition, autonomy, objective rationally defined evidence,
assessment, control and prediction of things and scientific method. In
contrast, African views are based on more collectivist and holistic
assumptions, like the holistic connection between things, importance of
communal or group and social behaviour, spirituality, intuition and cooperation in which human behaviour is less of an individual expression.
The good of the community and people are often expressed, for example,
in social demonstrations by labour unions. The individual remains part of
his or her community, but in a general sense is also part of all living, past
and future people and communities. The African view of the world
embodies a more subjective, philosophical and intuitive approach to the
acquisition of knowledge of the African psyche (Holdstock, 2000; Nobles,
1991a; Petzer, 2005).
The concept or paradigm of ubuntu, which is associated with many
African cultures, has become central to understanding and living the true
ethos of being African. In South Africa, ubuntu (Zulu) or batho (Sotho) is
used to denote humaneness or human kindness as a life orientation.
Ubuntu reflects in interpersonal and interactional behaviour through
demonstrations of empathy, forgiveness, sharing, generosity, caring,
compassion and respect (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen
& Meyer, 2017). From a Western psychology perspective, aspects of
ubuntu can be compared to principles of humanistic and positive
psychology, especially Rogers’ ideas on empathy and conditions for
positive regard in being human.
In a broader sense, ubuntu involves aspects like communal
relationships, connection and mutual caring among people. Demonstrating
ubuntu means to be a good person in a social sense, as well as having these
attributes in you as a person. The concept of ubuntu in many instances is
considered to be an ideal only and is interpreted in an idealistic and
positive way (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014). Ubuntu is contradicted by
phenomena such as conflict and xenophobia, with social violence reflecting
a darker side of the human psyche.
Personality according to an African perspective, reflects African views
on the world and people, and these views may differ from one cultural
group to another (Azibo, 2015). Different cultures may differ on what
personality consists of and associate it with body, some representations of
soul and a guiding spirit and other similar representations. From African
views, it is evident that the experienced personality can consist of material,
quasi-material and immaterial or metaphysical aspects, all of which are
part of a unified whole. An African view of personality as a collective
existence can be summarised by the statement that a person grows into
personhood and is a person or individual through being at one with other
people. In short, ‘I am because of you’ or ‘because you are, therefore I am’
with less emphasis on individual identity and more on the us- or we-ness
of personal identity (Hook et al., 2004; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014;
Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017). The emphasis on communal identity and
social order does not exclude needs for independence and rights or selfactualisation; however, the good of all people has priority.
Typically, African psychology explains personality and personality
development as purposeful behaviour, a unitary or holistic concept of
interdependent physical, mental and spiritual dimensions in harmony with
the values of history, ecology, nature and the laws of life. Personhood, or
the development of self-concept in an African context, is an ongoing
process subject to the influences of the social order and communal context.
This also has similarities to mainstream psychology views on personality.
The living philosophy of ubuntu is part of the formation, development
and adjustment of personality in the sense that the person and their
personhood (self-concept) is part of all relationships in the community and
extended connections in the various cosmic experiences. Thus, the person
has an extended sense of self rooted in all levels and connected to all
entities in the greater universe as well as being part of an unbroken circle
encompassing an infinite past and future that includes all past and
contemporary Africans (Azibo, 1996, 2015; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen,
2014). The culture, family, communities, its spiritual and other values,
beliefs, institutions, ways of life, rituals, myths, the past and ancestors all
contribute to the meanings a person associates with themself in relation to
the collective and holistic nature of their existence (Hook et al., 2004;
Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014). The basic natural ingredient of the
human personality is spiritual, and, from before birth, a guiding spirit is
present and preserved through all other physical and mental experiences in
interaction with nature.
Cultural experiences such as artistic expressions, rituals and symbols
are aimed at unifying possible opposing forces between the individual,
society and the spiritual world. If one analyses African views on personality
structure, development, motivation and psychological adjustment, the
integrated nature of all these personality domains becomes clear, especially
the fusion between the individual’s being and their functioning in
continuous interaction with the communal existence, the collective
influence, and an attachment to history and the universe. The physical
dimension of personality focuses on survival activities. The mental or
intellectual domain focuses on obtaining knowledge about the world and
self to create order in knowledge and events and especially to communicate
knowledge meaningfully. Both the physical and mental domains serve the
spiritual survival of humans. All other aspects of existence should be
secondary to this spiritual desire. Although spirituality and religion are
obtained in many ways, for instance, through churches, traditional healers,
song, dance, prayer and priests, spirituality is also strongly related to
ancestors.
The African view of spiritual and social interconnectedness, which
represents a more balanced use of both brain hemispheres, could imply a
greater capacity for dealing with stress and anxiety. In addition to utilising
the interventions from traditional healers and Western therapies, Meyer
suggests that traditional black African people may also experience stress
release through their collective existence and from spiritual activities,
music, art and dance (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014). From an African
view, the manifestation of any health problem or psychological disorder is
related to fragmentation in the unity between body and mind. Therefore,
all psychological disorders should be viewed as psycho-physiological or
psychosomatic, because body and soul is connected, and both will be
subjected to pain and discomfort. Treatment in a traditional African
context is based more on interventions from traditional healers and
medicine/therapy that is applied within a community context (Meyer,
Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017).
African paradigms have interesting principles, although they may be
open to criticism for vague and mystical concepts and principles that are
difficult to verify and use in workable practices in a modern world. No
personality structure is offered, which is difficult in terms of assessment
and research, while the collective identity of personhood, arguably, may
leave little room for a personal identity with regard to performance and
self-actualisation. Similar challenges exist for the mental health
practitioner if psychological problems are related to the collective, mystical
influences, dreams and malignant powers. However, progress has been
made with the description of culture-bound syndromes (CBS) in that
some symptoms of illness and processes that are related to cultural
experiences have been included in mainstream mental disease
classifications, as well as in utilising and recognising traditional forms of
treatment and healing (Austin et al., 2014; Sorsdahl et al., 2009; Nevid et
al., 2008, 2013).
2.2.13
Eastern/Asian approaches
In modern psychology, it appears that Eastern psychologies are well versed
in mainstream psychology. The influence of Chinese, Japanese and Indian
business cultures across Africa is increasing, which will ensure a mutual
influence. In Eastern psychology, there is an acceptance of Western and
other psychology influences and training. Both traditional and modern
approaches in indigenous Eastern psychology are strongly influenced by
different philosophical and religious views, especially Hinduism and
Buddhism (Ho, 1988; Kelland, 2015; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014;
Townsend et al., 2016).
Each religious subdivision may influence a specific psychological
interpretation by researchers, authors and practitioners. In general, Eastern
psychology may have more in common with African psychology with its
emphasis on various states of consciousness, less emphasis on the ‘I’ or
ego-identity of people and an emphasis on collectivism, unity and
connection with the cosmos, nature and other people (Meyer, Moore &
Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017).
The origins of Eastern psychologies also contain religious or spiritual
and metaphysical aspects. They have a more subjective and intuitive
approach, using direct subjective experience, as well as empirical method,
to study the human mind and create an integrative view of the human soul.
In some Eastern psychologies, for example, Vedanta (a Hindu approach),
the main objective is to facilitate self-realisation in people by
understanding as much as possible of the human soul. In others, like the
Buddhist approach of Abhihamma, being human is based on endless states
of nirvana or consciousness and the striving to avoid any selfish ego or ‘I’
identities. The goal should be to attain the ongoing state of consciousness
and happiness in nirvana without the Western focus on personal identity
and the me and mine experiences (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014).
Personality in some Eastern psychologies, is denied as a concept in the
Western sense of an individualised self and is considered to be too an
individualistic or self-centred phenomenon. The idea of personage relates
to interpersonal relationships and has a collective or contextualised
meaning. It relates to how a person’s external behaviour and activities
succeed in satisfying interpersonal standards in society and culture,
including family, which then relates to a familial or we-centred self
(Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014).
The spiritual self also involves relationships, but outside of the family
and personage; for example, a person’s transcendence outside him- or
herself in exemplary service to the community. Personal achievements
must not only be directed at self-gratification. Eastern psychology also
differentiates individual differences or personality types on the grounds of
biological and socialised or acquired differences between people.
Some Eastern psychologies study psychology and personality along
similar lines to Western psychologies or paradigms, arguably more so than
in African psychology, where there are still different opinions as to what
African psychology should entail (Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Weiten,
2016). In Eastern psychologies, there is usually a central rationale, which
influences all or most assumptions on personality, for example, selfrealisation, states of consciousness or a religious figure. The structure of
personality is described, for example, according to the Hindu school of
Vedanta, as different levels of jiva, much the same as Freud used id, ego
and super-ego, although with different meanings. Motivation and
dynamics of behaviour are described, for example, in the law of karma,
which states that all activities of the living and life after death are
determined and controlled by pre-existing forces in the world and cosmos
where nothing happens by chance. Personality development is described in
life stages, characterised by psycho-religious stages necessary for the
achievement of complete disinterest or renunciation of ego identities and
world interests. Personality adjustment and psychological well-being is
optimal in the person who has developed a complete state of consciousness
or as reflected in Vedanta, achieved self-realisation that is not controlled
by ego desires and needs or personal ambitions. This state of consciousness
will provide the coping skills required to minimise stress, fear and anxiety.
Some Eastern concepts in psychology, for example, on being human or
consciousness, are subjective and vague and often presuppose an idealistic
state, which would be difficult to achieve or research and verify. However,
in other instances, Vedanta, for example, offers techniques in subjective
and more empirical observation to obtain and verify concepts and
practices.
2.2.14
An eco-systemic perspective
An eco-systemic approach is a combination of the knowledge base from
general systems theory, cybernetics and ecology that all share similar ways
of thinking. General systems theory, founded by Ludwig von Bertalanffy
(1950), is based on holism (in which all systems consist of subsystems, but
are related or interconnected). Cybernetics involves how information is
controlled or regulated, processed and exchanged (Meyer, Moore &
Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017). Ecology states that all
things in nature and the cosmos are related or connected in a complex but
systemic way (Keeney, 1979; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017). The
principles in an eco-systemic paradigm, applied from general systems,
cybernetic and ecological thinking, can be applied to any living organism.
An eco-systemic perspective is not a psychological theory or paradigm
as such, but a way to study and think about phenomena, for instance, an
organisation, the human psyche and related behaviours and phenomena.
An eco-systemic approach in psychological disciplines is important in
order to understand and consider the interaction and relationships between
all possible factors that define, explain and influence the context of the
functioning of a system – for example, a person, family, work group,
organisation or country – and its surrounding environments. A system, as
in the concept of gestalt, can also be defined as consisting of more than the
sum of its parts; a system consists of its subsystems, attributes and
relationships and the interaction between these subsystems, attributes and
relationships, like in a relationship or personality (Keeney, 1979). This
approach suggests that people must be seen as whole persons, that human
behaviour can be complex and that there is often more than what a first
impression indicates.
The eco-systemic theory can then be said to emphasise a number of
approaches and constructs; gestalt, holism, connectedness or
interrelatedness and contextualisation, much like African and Eastern
approaches. Contextualisation or context in the eco-systemic approach
means that phenomena such as human behaviour and experiences can only
be understood fully if the contexts, environments or influencing factors
within which they take place are considered (Moore, Viljoen & Meyer,
2017; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Adams, Hester & Bradley, 2013).
In a sense then, concepts like indigenisation and Africanisation of
psychological content relates to contextualisation. The concept of context
embraces many aspects of human existence, each with its specific subcontexts, for example: biological, psychological, emotional, interpersonal,
economic, family, work, spiritual or religious, group, ethnic, community,
country and many more.
An eco-systemic and related contextual approach to human behaviour
should form the foundation of psychological study and can serve to
accommodate and integrate many other approaches. In this book, the term
context will mostly imply establishing and exploring the meaning of
behaviour, experiences, processes, events and other phenomena by
considering all of the elements in the context. In human behaviour, it does
not make sense to only emphasise certain elements of the human psyche or
behaviour. This does, however, happen in psychological theory and
practices as it is often difficult to assess and to consider all aspects.
Examples include the treatment of an alcoholic father or employee without
including the family, or disciplining a supervisor without considering
whether the team were at fault, or selecting employees on experience and
gender only. What is forgotten is that all aspects related to such events
actually function in an integrated and gestalt way and the reported
problems in one element of the system may represent the symptom bearer
only, and not that of a bigger picture. In many cases though, separate
elements – for example, a troubled employee – are important and must be
addressed, but the influence of factors that impact on that employee must
at least be considered.
In a workplace, for example, after a seemingly positive organisational
merging process, morale and work performance in the organisation may
decline quickly and stress levels of employees may increase. This example
illustrates that not all factors, for example, the attitudes and anxiety of
existing and new employees, had been considered. Researchers,
psychologists, politicians, managers and people sometimes give only
elements of meaning to human behaviour. This is in accordance with the
way in which they interpret research findings, understand things, or it may
simply be the meaning they want. Eco-systemic theory suggests that few
things in life remain static, but are dynamic and will change to reach new
forms of homeostasis or balance and meaning, which will change again
when the system requires it. The Covid-19 pandemic and the
technological restructuring of human employment and subsequent changes
to society are influences that will have a ripple effect globally, both
mentally and psychologically (Serafini et al., 2020; Teagle, 2020).
Figure 2.5
Organisations are living socio-technical systems
SOURCE Bergh & Geldenhuys (2013: xviii)
Personality in terms of a systems perspective is a fluid concept because a
view of the world and people depends on how the psychologist or author
defines personality in relationship to the individual’s constructions of himor herself, which is the psychologist’s construction of reality (Meyer,
Moore & Viljoen, 2014; Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017). In a family or
group, each group member will have their unique construction of reality
(for example, of their own personalities, authority and parents and so on).
This illustrates the complexities of any system, for example, a work
organisation or diversity in a workplace. The more comprehensive
personality theories all use a systemic framework in that various elements
of personality are explained, for example, structure, development and
psychological adjustment.
Personality structure in a systems view does not exist as elements but in
the synergy and gestalt that all of the elements form. An indication of the
complexity and gestalt of personality that must be considered are all the
influences of subsystems on an individual as a personality or self-system.
The self-system consists of the individual, immediate close relationships,
family and other groups, community, culture, country and world
(remember each person in a group has different constructions and
meanings of issues and their attributes and relationships in these various
subsystems). In addition, a person’s self-system also consists of various
subsystems (physical, social, emotions, cognitive, language or
communication, spiritual, etc.) that influence them and other subsystems
(Moore, Viljoen & Meyer, 2017; Meyer, Moore & Viljoen, 2014). The
motivation and development of a system like personality or a group, is a
function of how it is organised and structured, which will influence its
flexibility and potential for change.
There are various roles, relationships and ways of communication in a
system and between subsystems that determine the flow of activities and
interactions. People in systems communicate through verbal and nonverbal means and their relationships are determined by the what and how
of their communication, as well as how certain interactions unfold. The
balance or homeostasis in a system like a person, family or organisation is
regulated by a continuous or circular feedback system (for example,
complaints, praise, performance and illness) that may be either positive or
negative. When a system appears to need change, and positive feedback
supports the need for change, it means the system is not static and will
change to achieve new balance or growth. This will happen, for example, if
management implements an organisational culture change or a virtual
working initiative based on feedback from its employees and the external
environment. Negative feedback indicates a rigid system’s inability to react
to the need for change, for example, when a marriage breaks down or an
organisation consistently experiences internal conflicts or must close
business. Serious problems may result if negative feedback remains
unresolved. This is usually characterised by rigidness in a system, like
authoritative control and a closed attitude, that does not allow the inside
system to be enriched by positive internal or external influences and
feedback; the disequilibrium, incongruence or imbalance thus remains the
same. Well-being in a system, like a family or work organisation, will
depend on whether there is balance and integration of feedback that
satisfies the collective and parts of the system.
Systems theory is mostly integrated in the theory and practices of I-O
psychology and HRM practices. Work organisations are considered to be
socio-technical, but are living systems where people and other resources
are utilised and developed optimally and serve as inputs in the many
dynamic work and production processes (through-put) that eventually lead
to certain outputs, or consequences for employees and employers. In the
context, design and culture of organisation, “organization structure is more
than boxes on a chart; it is a pattern of interactions and co-ordination that
links the technology, tasks, and human components of the organization to
ensure that the organization accomplishes its purposes” (Luthans, 2008;
Luthans et al., 2015). I-O psychologists and HR practitioners have as their
main task the optimisation of the fit between employees and work
environments and, in this process, need to consider all the influencing
factors in this interaction. These include the management and
development of cultural diversity among employees and within the
organisation.
An eclectic or meta-psychological approach is currently taken in the
science and practices of psychologists in the work context. Knowledge,
principles and concepts from multiple schools of thought or paradigms in
psychology are used, as well as knowledge from other disciplines where
and when applicable. There are a variety of ways of thinking and doing
that are relevant to the specialised knowledge and skills of I-O
psychologists and HR practitioners in working with people, organisational
management and leadership. I-O psychologists and HR practitioners
should reflect on the relevance and future fitness of work psychology in a
changing South African context.
2.3
Utilising multiple perspectives
In conclusion, the assumptions of metapsychology and postmodernism,
including constructivism, must be briefly considered because they
emphasise how knowledge and meaning can be used, interpreted and
changed in various and new ways. These perspectives coincide with
contemporary psychology, which considers the thinking frameworks as
complimentary and makes use of concepts and explanations where they
best apply. Contemporary workplaces are complex entities with changing
employee needs, market requirements and work environments. To
understand employee and organisational behaviour and address challenges
requires creativity, an eclectic or integrative approach and the use of all
possible perspectives.
2.3.1
Metapsychology
In a broader sense, metapsychology is “the scientific investigation of
psychology as a science. It questions the basic assumptions that underpin
research paradigms and monitors the progress of psychological science as a
whole” (Schimmack & Carlson, 2018). In metapsychology, meta relates
to a view or theory on the structure and attributes beyond a psychological
theory itself (for example, ego, id or archetypes). Thus, metascience in any
discipline refers to theories about theories used in a discipline. All sciences
have stated metatheoretical assumptions before they are verified by
research and practice, and often meaning is given to theory with little or no
empirical evidence. Freud’s theory is sometimes referred to as a
metapsychology theory; his thinking and some concepts and processes are
related to other disciplines and his subjective clinical observations and
philosophical ideas have little empirical support.
Currently, in psychology, as in other disciplines, a great deal of
knowledge has been established by objective measures. However, there are
still speculative concepts, assumptions and meanings. In psychoanalytic,
positive psychology, evolutionary, African and Eastern psychology, some
meanings of ideas, concepts and processes are, for example, possibly
derived from philosophical and theoretical speculation, subjective
perception or transferred through language and culture.
2.3.2
Postmodernism
Postmodernism, compared to modernism, refers to a broad cultural
approach in which other disciplines, methods and knowledge are used to
interpret psychological phenomena or to find new meanings in existing
knowledge (Liebrucks, 2001; Ligorio, 2004). Modernism originated in art,
literature and philosophy where the meaning of things was interpreted
differently to traditional perspectives. Postmodernism asserts that universal
or absolute truths do not exist or apply to all individuals and groups, for
example, in a diverse society like in South Africa. All South African
subgroups can define their own meanings and realities if their unique
experiences and discourse in their cultural and social contexts are studied.
Within postmodernism, the concept of constructivism entails that people
cognitively, socially and emotionally create and change their own personal
constructs or knowledge. This will give meaning and validity to their
experiences and help them understand themselves, others and the world
(Geldenhuys, 2015). The concept of deconstructivism suggests that
existing meaning in the written and spoken word, in art and other forms of
human expression can be changed by reinterpreting it.
In positive psychology, the meaning of illness or pathology in
psychology was deconstructed by looking at the meanings of well-being in
the same phenomena (Sim, 2001). Organisations that support the ideas of
lifelong learning, change and transformation actually apply the ideas of
constructivism, for example, working online. In contemporary psychology,
social constructivism indicates that knowledge and meaning is derived
from culture, social interaction and relationships between people and in
groups. It has become commonplace to analyse people’s stories and
discourse in order to find the real meanings in people’s lives in the context
of their experiences and realities. In discourse or narrative analysis, when
different cultural groups meet in cross-cultural discussions, existing
meanings may be changed to find shared meanings among groups and
individuals (Buck, 2005).
The ideas of postmodernism illustrate the power that knowledge can
have because in many instances of people’s daily existence, their identities
and behaviour are determined by the constructions from other powerful
influences and groups. These ideas alert the I-O psychologist to reflect on
existing theories, assumptions, concepts and practices with regard to
people in their various contexts to ensure that the study and application of
psychology remains relevant, valid and applicable.
2.4
Approaches
psychology
unique
to
I-O
The above-mentioned schools of psychological thought or paradigms and
theories are views of the human psyche that all have implications for
thinking and practice in science and the work context. These paradigms
are often used to explain human behaviour, assessment and research
results. They serve as a rationale for understanding human behaviour or
planning interventions in the workplace, for instance, therapy, counselling,
organisational restructuring and other initiatives that influence human
behaviour, as well as techniques for research and training.
However, in I-O psychology and its subfields, there are also specific
work-related ways of thinking (paradigms) and related practices with
regard to work, employees, management and organisational processes,
some of which you will find in each chapter of this book. Work-related
paradigms in the different subfields of I-O psychology may either be
related to the human psyche schools of thought, or are the result of specific
theorising, research and practice in I-O psychology.
In contrast to psychology, few integrated texts exist on thinking
frameworks for work psychology in I-O psychology. Some views and
theories on the nature of employees, employee/organisational health and
well-being, motivation and management and leadership, and to applied
fields such as organisational behaviour, career psychology and personnel
management are established.
The I-O psychologist and HR practitioner should be informed of
specific models of thinking and practice in I-O psychology to provide
them with a broader view, because these frameworks influence the science
and practice of I-O psychology. This is the reason why, in most of the
chapters of this book, for example, on career development, motivation,
cognition, attitudes and values, organisational psychology, psychological
assessment and well-being, specific paradigms and related concepts are
presented. Some of the concepts and thinking frameworks overlap in
applications, for example, the paradigm from which the nature of
employees is viewed will have some similarities to paradigms from which
they are managed, developed, motivated and rewarded. This section
presents a brief summary of some thinking frameworks related to certain
themes on employees and employee/organisational management. Further
discussions and applications of these frameworks are found in later
chapters on specific topics (Aamodt, 2016; Arnold et al., 2016; Day et al.,
2015; Luthans, 2008; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021; Coetzee & Schreuder,
2016; Spector, 2012; Rothmann & Cooper, 2014).
2.4.1
Thinking frameworks related to the
nature of work and employees
From the 1700s to the early 1900s, core work values and work design were
focused primarily on self-interest and maximum profit-making. This
represented a rational and economic paradigm. Workers were often viewed
as lazy, untrustworthy and as a means of production and profit, and were
therefore managed firmly. Work was designed to improve efficiency and
production for increased production and higher profits. Although a focus
on profit remains, in the latter part of the 1900s to today, a consideration
of the following aspects has become increasingly important: service
delivery and information technology have become important resources for
profit; the social and humane aspects in work; the quality of work life and
meaning in work; a balance between employer, employee, societal and
other interests; and work design that considers an optimal fit between
people and other work resources. In contemporary times, a more
humanistic paradigm is followed, while hybrid forms of management
provide more synergy between individual and organisational need
satisfaction. Fears that ongoing developments in technology, digitisation,
advanced computation, connectivity technology, AI and robotics may
eventually replace human competencies and labour in the production of
goods and services need to be managed. The question is, how will work
and work values change?
2.4.2
Thinking frameworks related to
employee
and
organisational
management
These frameworks relate to how employees and organisations were
previously (and still are) managed. This involved a scientific or classical
organisational management approach that primarily emphasised the
technical and structural aspects of work and organisations. Management
was mechanical, impersonal and prescriptive, and control processes and
regulations were designed to render work processes and procedures
efficient, predictable and effective.
Classical management remains relevant but, as a result of many
developments and changes in workplaces, organisations are now seen in
the context of complex living socio-technical systems in which all elements
and behaviours are related and influential (Mele, Pels & Polese, 2010).
The social, emotional and cognitive needs of employees, relationships in
workplaces and social considerations by management are important.
Employees are considered human capital and, critically, their internal
resources (skills and knowledge) must be developed to be utilised
effectively in business in conjunction with the available technical and
economic resources.
Employees and organisations must be able to change and adapt quickly
and use current information or intelligence and communications
technology effectively in order to function and remain relevant today.
Although information and AI technology have been present for some
time, more advanced technologies will emerge in the 2020s and beyond,
arguably decreasing the need for human labour, while also creating new
jobs, tasks and opportunities. The era of technological management will
require management to facilitate the best fit between employees and
machines in work environments, as well as preparing them to be future fit
and adaptable with the necessary social, emotional and work skills. Future
work management will comprise an increasing involvement in employees
and their families in remote or virtual work environments, including the
fostering of their health and well-being.
2.5
Summary and reflection
The necessary aims of I-O psychologists are to utilise psychological
knowledge to study, understand and facilitate human behaviour in the
work context and to understand factors that influence the performance of
employees in work organisations. Although I-O psychology has developed
its own theories and methods, it shares a common history with psychology
and still utilises knowledge and practices from psychological paradigms,
theories and applied psychology. Therefore, the professional study of, and
training in I-O psychology requires insight into thinking frameworks in
both general psychology and I-O psychology as these paradigms influence
the science and practice of psychology.
Psychology has a history of divergent schools of thought or paradigms
and related theories that psychologists use as frameworks for thinking and
practice with regard to human behaviour in the work context. Some of the
approaches explained in this chapter have concepts and principles with
similar meanings and orientations, while others are quite different in their
explanations of the nature of people, the human mind or psyche and
human behaviour and personality. However, each school of thought or
paradigm has distinct central ideas influenced by the socio-economic,
political and scientific developments of the period in which the theorists
lived (Van Ommen & Painter, 2008; Collin et al., 2012). The study of the
human psyche varies from studying the elements and functions of
consciousness or the human mind, unconscious aspects, observable
behaviour, subjective experiences, cognition, personality traits, sociocultural influences and the systemic and gestalt relatedness in human
behaviour to an understanding of the human mind through cultural
thinking and interpretations of the relatedness in the cosmos and past
events.
Thinking frameworks in I-O psychology and HR practices are
influenced by the psychological perspectives, but have also developed their
own paradigms or perspectives on how to study and manage employees
and organisations. These perspectives involve many principles. However,
in summary, three central themes stand out: scientific management, which
emphasises structural and production processes; management, which
emphasises structural and social factors related to employees and
organisations; and more recent approaches which emphasise employee and
organisational management based on information and communications
technology, the importance of human resources and knowledge
management and virtual work. Technological management relates to the
anticipated growth in influence of advanced technologies and what will be
required of employees, and how they manage in such environments. All
these management perspectives have a similar objective: to optimise
employee fit in organisations and to manage employee and organisational
processes to optimise employee and organisational performance.
Despite the differences in concepts and meaning in the assumptions of
the paradigms of psychology and I-O psychology, there are enduring or
unifying themes: the roles of genetic and environmental influences, and
motivational and developmental processes in human functioning. The
differences and similarities between paradigms also explain why
contemporary psychology must be open to other thinking frameworks in
an integrated world. Social scientists have multiple theories, concepts and
methods to use as best practices in working with people, depending on the
requirements of particular situations. Postmodernism, constructivism and
cross-cultural psychology use existing concepts to create new or adapted
ways of thinking, and to make psychological concepts applicable and
relevant in more than one culture and situation. Despite many thinking
frameworks, I-O psychologists and HR practitioners have an ongoing
challenge to reflect on their thinking and practices to ensure the relevance
of their science and practices in the modern world of work.
Assessment tasks
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Explain and compare what a paradigm and a theory in
psychology is by giving examples from various approaches.
2 Compare structuralism and functionalism and indicate whether
these assumptions still apply in modern psychology.
3 Discuss and compare the study of the human mind according to
behaviourism and psychoanalysis.
4 Explain how humanistic psychology and positive psychology are
possibly related in their assumptions and concepts.
5 Indicate similarities/differences in the assumptions of the gestalt,
eco-systemic and African and Eastern perspectives.
6 Explain the value of trait psychology and biological perspectives
in the understanding of human behaviour and give examples or
applications.
7 Discuss frameworks for understanding the nature of employees
and organisational management, and indicate why you say that
these approaches are currently relevant in workplaces.
8 Explain the value of cultural and contextual assumptions for
understanding employee and organisational behaviour.
9 Explain the concepts of determination, nature and nurture in
explanations of human behaviour.
10 Briefly indicate how meanings in psychological knowledge and
concepts can be changed to have specific or wider application.
1
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1
Working from a certain knowledge base and thinking in certain
ways to explain meanings in the world can be said to represent
a/n:
a epistemology
b theory
c free association
d paradigm
e introspection.
2 Why do you think contemporary psychology, including I-O
psychology, can be considered a scientific discipline?
a The two disciplines have a long and shared history
b Both disciplines are supported by various thinking paradigms
c Most knowledge is evidence-based through sound research
d There is no subjectivity in the theory and practices of the
disciplines
e Psychology concepts and methods are utilised in I-O
psychology.
3 The experience when you enjoy the various colours and facets of
a beautiful sunset in the country can theoretically best be
explained by the … principle.
a gestalt
b sensation
c context
d valuing
e functionalism.
4 Studying the human mind by emphasising the levels of
consciousness, connections and holistic nature or unity in things
is at best a description of one of the following groupings.
a Psychoanalysis, cognitive psychology and Eastern psychology
b Psychoanalysis, African psychology and Eastern psychology
c Humanism, gestalt psychology and functionalism
d Positive psychology, humanism and African psychology
e Eco-systemic theory, African and Eastern psychology.
5 How would a humanist attempt to understand the anxious
behaviour of an employee in the work context?
a By finding out how the work environment conflicts with the
employee’s cultural beliefs
b By enquiring about possible unresolved stressful conflicts in
the employee’s past
c By determining what employee behaviours have been
acquired and rewarded in the workplace
Evaluating the employee’s self-perceptions and the meaning
and experiences in the work situation
e By finding out whether the employee has achieved selfrealisation and I or ego identities.
6 If we say that the principle of ubuntu is a good principle to utilise
d
in designing and applying a South African management system,
what thinking framework/s would you use for theoretical
support?
a Behaviourist and functionalism
b Humanistic and socio-cultural
c Socio-cultural and psychoanalytic
d Cognitive and eco-systemic
e Constructivism and metapsychology.
7 You are appointed to assist company IMT to remain competitive
by using up to date information on developments in the HR
market. Your assistance to company IMT suggests that their
strategic thinking falls within a/n …approach.
a scientific management
b intelligence enterprise
c classic organisational management
d learning organisational
e postmodern
8 A psychologist and anthropologist study management
approaches in Africa and suggest that the concepts of ubuntu,
spirituality and communality should feature in future
management models in South Africa. What assumptions or
principles would best apply if the researchers’ suggestions are
applied?
a Constructivism and market relevance
b Determination and social relevance
c Indigenisation and contextualisation
d Contextualisation and nurturance
e Complexity and social relevance.
9 When people start to think that unemployment need not be
worklessness and worthlessness, which one of the following
concepts indicates the inherent difference in thinking?
a Deconstructivism
b Relevance
c Postmodernism
d Metanalysis
e Paradigm shift.
10 How would cognitive psychology attempt to understand the
human psyche of employees at work?
a Execute a wide range of mental tests
b Observe and analyse the meanings in their thoughts about
work, colleagues and the workplace
c Hire a consultant to assess employees’ ability to adapt to new
technologies in the 4IR workplace
d Measure and analyse employee neuropsychic structures to
assess their higher mental processes
e Determine what feedback systems exist in the organisation to
assess cognitive schemas.
CASE STUDY Managing employee behaviour in
the workplace
Work and time seems to have little personal value for 30-year-old Telane.
She has feelings of helplessness about her life and work. She does not
appear to be engaged in her work, and shows little initiative, accepting
things as they are. Nevertheless, she works steadily throughout her
eight-hour-day at the office. She is used to the work routine of her day,
and accomplishes her tasks automatically.
However, it angers Telane when her male supervisor tells her what to
do. She feels defiant as she sees the organisation’s management style as
authoritarian, not allowing employees autonomy. In meetings, Telane
mostly remains quiet even when other employees speak their minds; she
does not want to be seen as aggressive. She thinks people will not like
her if she expresses different views. She often feels lonely and other
employees do not speak to her much.
In these difficult times, Telane appreciates the financial security of
her job. However, she wishes to study further and make personal
progress, but feels thwarted because her manager neither gives her
guidance nor challenges her. Telane feels underutilised, that her skills
are not acknowledged and she wonders why she has been overlooked for
promotion.
Telane is the eldest of three children, and was raised in a
traditionally conservative family, for example, as a schoolgirl, her father
did not allow her friendships with boys. She did very well, completing
Grade 12 with a couple of distinctions, and was the leader of a
multicultural discussion group. When her parents got divorced, she
wondered if she was part of the cause. She envied her younger prettier
sister who was clearly a favoured child. Telane does not consider herself
to be attractive, although other people do. She does not have any close
friends, nor any romantic relationships.
Her success at school does not appear to have been carried forward
into the workplace. As HR manager, you have received reports indicating
that Telane is seen to have negative emotions and attitudes and, as a
result of this behaviour, is being isolated by her colleagues.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Questions
1. List the challenges that must be addressed in this situation and in
Telane’s behaviour.
2. Why, and how could you use a humanist and positive psychology
approach to address Telane’s challenges at work and in her personal
life?
3. Why do you think a behaviourist paradigm could be utilised to assist
Telane within her work group?
4. Which approaches would you use to apply the principles of context
and gestalt?
5. Explain why a meta-theoretical approach like psychoanalysis could
have value in Telane’s case?
Biology in work behaviour
Elrie Botha
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Discuss the roles of genetics and environmental influences in human behaviour
Describe the nervous system with regard to neurons, and the different divisions of the
central nervous system
Explain the different areas of the brain and their functions
Indicate the various biological systems, and the implications for the workplace
Discuss the impact of robotics on biological processes related to the workplace
Refer to the ergonomic work design.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Cardiovascular system
Central nervous system
Division of the brain
Endocrine system
Environmental influences
Ergonomics
Genetic influences
Genetics
Hereditary factors
Immune system
Muscle system
Neurons
Neurotransmitters
Peripheral nervous system
Respiratory system
Robotics
Sensory system
3.1
Introduction
The way an employee behaves has an influence on their own performance
and several aspects of their work. Behaviour can have an influence on the
performance of colleagues or even the image of the organisation. If this is
so important, why do people sometimes behave in a less favourable
manner? These behaviours may be determined by various influences, such
as biological factors and environmental learning. These are the most
important determinants of individual differences. This chapter reflects the
psychobiological paradigm and explains how biological processes are
important influences in employee behaviour, health and work performance
(Morris & Maisto, 2010; Muchinsky, 2006). Industrial and organisational
(I-O) psychologists should understand how biological processes influence
employee behaviour, emotions and thinking in workplaces. Understanding
the biological processes that may affect employee behaviour will help
human resource practitioners consider individual differences related to
biological factors. A consideration of biological factors in the workplace
contributes to an understanding of the full context of employee behaviour
and assists employees to optimise their full potential.
Although no prior knowledge of biology is required to learn more
about this topic, it is very important to know why industrial and
organisational (I-O) psychologists need to understand and appreciate the
value and practical implications of biological factors in the execution of
work tasks.
The aim of this chapter is to introduce students and readers to the
various biological factors and processes in human behaviour and how these
processes and related problems influence work behaviour.
3.2
Genetic
and
influences
environ-mental
The question, are you born with it, or did you learn it, is an ongoing
debate. Characteristics that you inherited from your parents, such as eye
colour and height, for example, are called genetic influences, also referred
to as nature. Characteristics such as the language you speak and how you
behave can be labelled environmental influences. Examples of genetic
influences are easily observed when you compare parents and children in
terms of their physical characteristics, for example, baldness or hair type
and stature, such as height or form of the body. However, many genetic
influences are not easily noticeable and may be ingrained in neurological
structures and biological processes. Such influences will only be expressed
once the implications become clear (for example, an employee who cannot
distinguish colours), or when illnesses and even psychological behaviour
and attributes become evident. Genetic potential is developed or inhibited
under favourable or poor environmental conditions (Morris & Maisto,
2010). Environmental influences, also referred to as nurture, are evident in
physical circumstances, but especially in social influences. An example of
an environmental influence is how parents and other models, such as
sports heroes and film characters, influence children’s behaviour.
Inside the nucleus of each human cell are genes, the functional units of
heredity. Genes form part of a larger molecule called DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) and carry the hereditary transmissions from parents
to children (Pluess, 2015). DNA molecules are twisted around a central
strand to form a chromosome. Each human has 23 pairs of chromosomes
and each pair of chromosomes has one chromosome from each parent.
Between the 46 chromosomes, 3 billion base pairs of DNA are found,
which contain between 30 000–40 000 protein-coding genes. Single genes
may contribute to a genetic attribute, but mostly a combination of genes
contribute to genetic attributes, and sometimes mutations of genes play a
role in, for example, a person’s proneness to disease, which may also be
influenced by environmental factors (National Center for Biotechnology
Information, n.d.). Gender, for example, is determined by a chromosome
from the father. Figure 3.1 indicates that the pair of chromosomes for a
female is XX and, for a male, XY. The mother thus always contributes an
X chromosome; the father contributes either an X or a Y chromosome and
therefore determines the gender of a baby.
Figure 3.1
Pairs of male and female chromosomes
SOURCE: Compiled by the author
Each individual has a unique genetic blue-print, referred to as the
genotype. The geno-type predisposes aspects such as intelligence,
personality traits, temperament and even illnesses, such as cystic fibrosis,
muscular dystrophy and some forms of cancer (Fromlet, Bogdan &
Ramsey, 2016). The extent to which genes show themselves in individual
differences and human behaviour – the study field of behaviour genetics –
is determined by environmental influences and is referred to as the
phenotype (Fromlet et al., 2016). Interest in the field of behaviour genetics
is growing. An interesting way to learn more about the influence of
genetics and environment is to read about twin studies. In these studies,
twins are followed throughout their lives and analysed. Another way is to
study people from different cultures to observe the influence of the sociocultural environment. In South Africa, we have the advantage of a number
of cultures that we can observe and study the impact of the environment
on the characteristics of people. In a study reported by the South African
Archaeological Society (2012), evidence is shared that different Khoi and
San groups adapted genetically to their geographic environment in
southern Africa. Traits that were found to be adapted are UV-light
protection, immune response and muscle functioning. The general public
can also make use of genetic services. For example, where there is a risk of
hereditary illnesses, parents can be tested. The first genetics service
laboratories in South Africa were set up in the late 1960s in Johannesburg.
It has grown to be a high-quality service, which is comparable with other
such facilities in the world. Unfortunately, because of a lack of funding,
they are currently only able to provide limited services (Kromberg &
Krause, 2013). Some of the conditions that can indicate a genetic referral
are listed in Table 3.1.
Figure 3.2
Genetic transmission is mostly noticeable in physical attributes
SOURCE Shutterstock Felix Mizioznilov
Table 3.1
Indications for genetic testing
Prenatal or preconception
Paediatric
patients
Adult patients
Personal or family history of
pregnancy complications
associated with genes
Neurological or
developmental
problems
Cancers
associated with
specific genes
Exposure to radiation, high risk
infections, drugs, alcohol, etc.
Immune
problems or
muscle
deficiency
Mental illnesses
Either member of the couple has
a chromosomal abnormality.
Significant
family history of
disorders.
Recurrent
pregnancy
losses.
SOURCE Pletcher et al. (2007)
3.2.1
Implications of hereditary factors in
the workplace
Genetic attributes in employees may influence many aspects of employee
health and behaviour in workplaces (Shirom et al., 2015). Genetic
differences in people may include factors of a chemical nature, such as
sensitivities related to hormones, blood sugar and hypertension. In the
workplace, these may be visible as physiological sensitivities to physical
substances and temperatures and as stress and fatigue related to physical
and psychological work stressors. Physical disability as a result of a genetic
problem may hamper work performance. In biological and evolutionary
psychology research on behavioural genetics, there are findings that
indicate that individual differences in psychological behaviours and
attributes of people are related to genetic factors. Examples are intelligence
factors; temperament (for example, reactivity or soothability in emotions);
affiliation behaviours and certain personality attributes, such as
introversion and extroversion (Morris & Maisto, 2010; Wade & Tavris,
2009). A number of psychological disorders are influenced by genetic
factors (Venables et al., 2016).
The design of the workplace must take possible genetic attributes and
problems in employees into account. Examples are whether substances and
other physical attributes in workplaces are safe and healthy for all
employees, and the type of socialisation workstations allow. Workplace
hazards include certain types of work activities (for example, lifting heavy
objects); distinguishing colours; temperature sensitivity; sensitivity to
chemical substances; waste from work processes (for example, dust);
susceptibility to infections; sensitivity to high levels of noise and certain
types of lighting. One of the subfields in industrial and organisational
psychology, ergonomics, focuses specifically on these implications.
Employers may want to counter the effects and risks of genetic influences
on work performance by effective work design and by applying what is
known as gene testing as part of employee selection. Gene testing or
genetic screening involves analysing a person’s DNA by using blood or
other body fluids and doing biochemical analyses to detect problems in
gene structures and missing proteins. In medical research and diagnosis,
DNA analysis is used to determine possible indicators for physical and
psychological diseases. However, gene testing in business, for example, in
the insurance industry and in employment practices, is controversial and
has legal and ethical implications, while also being an expensive procedure.
Ethical issues may relate to people considering gene testing to be
discriminatory and an invasion of their privacy and rights. Nevertheless,
genetic screening may help medical experts, employees and employers
make informed health-related and employment decisions if the nature of
an individual’s genotype is known.
Ethical reader
Genetic screening in the workplace
Chem-Industries is a chemical plant. The chemicals are sold and transported to other
industries to be used in their processes or products. Because most of the work areas at
Chem-Industries have contact with chemicals, the organisation is very stringent about the
health and safety aspects. One of the precautionary measures they take is to request gene
screening for cystic fibrosis during the recruitment process. Cystic fibrosis is a geneticrelated illness that causes thick mucus to build up in the airways of a person, which makes
them prone to lung infections that are not easily cured by normal antibiotics.
Craig is excited about his new job at Chem-Industries and goes for the final medical
assessments. This includes the mandatory gene screening. The organisation informs him that
he is a high-risk candidate for cystic fibrosis, as indicated by the gene screening. Although it
is better for him not to take the risk of working at Chem-Industries, he is now faced with the
burden of knowledge regarding his proneness to cystic fibrosis. He wonders if he should
share this information with his fiancée as one of the consequences of this illness is
infertility in men.
What started off as a wonderful opportunity in his career is now a burden. He feels that
this is an unfair situation as it isn’t definite that he will get cystic fibrosis, but he needs to
deal with the consequences of him being prone to developing it.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Example box
Colour blindness and work behaviour
Colour blindness in a person is inherited from their parents and affects more males than
females. There are different forms of colour blindness, all of which can impact the lives of
people who have this condition. Read more about this condition at
https://www.colourblindawareness.org/
Brian recently started a new job and has not disclosed to his employer that he is colour
blind. A client comes to collect a parcel. Brian goes to the warehouse to sign it out, but the
manager is too busy to assist him. He tells Brian that it is the box with the red label on the
second shelf. Because Brian sees red as a form of green, it is difficult for him to find the
correct parcel. It takes him a long time as he needs to read each label to ensure he picks the
correct one. Both the manager and the client are frustrated with his slow service. After
explaining to the manager that he is colour blind, they changed the labels to symbols rather
than colours so that Brian can easily distinguish between orders.
SOURCE Compiled by the author and information from Colour Blind Awareness (2020)
The effects of conditions related to genetic factors can have an influence
on employee behaviour and work performance. By understanding genetic
factors in employees and how they influence work behaviour, the I-O
psychologist can assist employees by adapting not only working conditions
where possible, but also the employee’s own work behaviours, for example,
by using only black markers during presentations if colour-blind employees
are present.
The following sections deal with the human nervous system and
discuss neurons and their functions in the nervous system’s communication
processes and the structure and functions of the nervous system and the
brain. The brain is the most important segment of the nervous system.
3.3
Structure of the neuron
People are born with more than 100 billion neurons. These are cells that
specialise in the communication of information throughout the nervous
system. Glial cells can also be found in the nervous system and are used to
clean up cellular debris and act as a barrier to prevent certain substances in
the bloodstream reaching the brain. Although neurons have different
shapes and sizes, they all include dendrites, a cell body, an axon and
terminal buttons. Figure 3.3 is an illustration of a typical neuron; it is
followed by a brief explanation of each part.
Figure 3.3
Structure of a neuron
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Notes to Figure 3.3:
A. Dendrite (input). The dendrites, or nerve branches, receive
information from other neurons.
B. Cell body (soma). The cell body contains the nucleus that carries
genetic information and provides the cell with energy.
C. Axon (output). The axon carries the information away from the cell
body. Only one axon emerges from the cell body, but can branch out in
more axons to supply output to different areas of the human body.
D. Myelin sheath (protection). Myelin is a fatty substance that protects
the axon. The degeneration of the myelin sheath can cause illnesses
such as multiple sclerosis (MS), which is characterised by jerky,
uncoordinated movements.
E. Nodes of Ranvier (relay). The nodes of Ranvier are gaps more or less
every two mm in the myelin sheath. Ions jump from one gap to
another to relay information.
F. Axon terminals (end branches). The axon branches into axon
terminals, which form the end part of the axon and carry the axon
terminal buttons.
G. Axon (terminal) buttons (carry neurotransmitters). Axon buttons are
round vesicles, or small knobs, at the end of the axon terminals and
contain chemicals called neurotransmitters, which serve as messengers
to activate neighbouring neurons.
H. Synapse area (release area). Synapses are the areas between the axon
terminals of one neuron and the dendrites of another neuron. Synapses
are the junction where information is released or transmitted to
connect with other neurons.
The next section deals with types of neurons and how communication in
the neuron structure works.
3.4
Types
and
communication
of
neurons
Different types of neurons have specified functions with regard to
receiving, integrating and transmitting information about the human body
and the external world.
Figure 3.4
An illustration of the communication process of neurons
SOURCE Compiled by the author
3.4.1
The three types of neurons
• Sensory neurons: Receive information from the outside world via the
senses of hearing, smell, touch and vision. Sensory neurons
communicate information to the brain and are, therefore, afferent.
• Motor neurons: Receive information from the brain and communicate
it to the body and muscles and are, therefore, efferent.
• Association neurons/interneurons: Communicate with other neurons
and link all the information in order for humans to remember, think
and perceive.
Figure 3.4 is an example of how the process of communication between
neurons works. When your skin feels hot water, the sensory neurons take
the message to the brain. The brain processes the information and gives
the motor neurons a message to take to the muscles. When the muscles
receive the message, your hand pulls away. All of this happens in seconds.
To communicate effectively, neurons utilise a medium to transfer
impulses, the neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are located within the
terminal buttons and are the topic of Section 3.5.
3.4.2
Communication of neurons
Neurons are energised or activated through stimuli, or neural impulses,
which are complex electrochemical reactions. Inside and outside the
neurons are positively and negatively charged fluids or ions, which flow
back and forth at different speeds across cell membranes. This difference
in crossing speed causes slightly higher negative-loaded ions inside cells,
which casts the cell to be inactive or at rest. The neuron possesses resting
potential energy when it is at rest, that is, when it is polarised (it has a
negative and positive side) negatively, and the cell is inactive until a
stimulus changes the voltage of the electrically charged membrane of the
neuron. A basic type of signal within the neuron caused by either external
stimulation (heat or sound, for example) or internal stimulation (chemical
messages from other neurons) represents graded potential. Depending on
the intensity of the stimulus, the change in this graded potential can be
weaker or stronger (for example, a dim light or a strong light). If the
graded potential reaches a strong enough magnitude that exceeds the
threshold, an action potential occurs that causes the neuron to fire. The
action potential moves along the axon by jumping from one node of
Ranvier to the other until it reaches the axon terminals. From the axon
terminals, the chemical substances (neurotransmitters) can be released in
the synapse area where they relay the message to the dendrites of the
correct matching neuron.
3.5
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are the chemicals released during the communication
in the synapse area. A neurotransmitter can be either excitatory or
inhibitory. If a neurotransmitter has an excitatory effect, it makes it more
likely for the neuron to fire or be activated. If a neurotransmitter has an
inhibitory effect, it makes it less likely for the neuron to fire. Table 3.2 lists
some neurotransmitters and their functions and effects, which provide an
indication of how they can influence human behaviour, including
behaviour in the work context. For example, a long-distance truck driver
needs the correct amount of norepinephrine to ensure he or she stays alert
while driving. It should also be evident why the use of substances like
alcohol and drugs may have profound effects on the functioning of
neurotransmitters.
Table 3.2
Neurotransmitters and their effects
Acetylcholine
Facilitates muscle contraction and plays a role in
memory and learning.
Underactivity of acetylcholine, which has a negative
influence on memory, was found to be linked to
Alzheimer’s.
In a stressful situation, this neurotransmitter should
help you to react.
Dopamine
Alcohol, nicotine and some forms of drugs, for
example, cocaine, increase the levels of dopamine,
which creates a sensation of feeling good.
A shortage of dopamine has a negative influence on
movement and is associated with Parkinson’s
disease, which causes uncontrollable tremors.
Overactivity of dopamine is associated with
schizophrenia. The blocking of dopamine is used in
the treatment of schizophrenia.
GABA (gammaamino-butyric
acid)
(inhibitory)
Regulates anxiety by slowing down excitatory
neurotransmitters.
Tranquillisers and sleeping pills works by stimulating
the release of GABA.
Norepinephrine
Involved in alertness and wakefulness.
Increases heart rate and blood pressure. Therefore,
in a stressful situation, it can help you to react, but
long-term increase of this neurotransmitter can lead
to heart problems.
Serotonin
Low levels lead to depression, problems with anger
control and increase in appetite for carbohydrate
foods.
Serotonin activity can be stimulated by tryptophanrich foods, such as bananas, dates, peanuts and
milk.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
As people grow older, some neurons die and are not replaced. However,
people have many of the same or original neurons. Neurons are often
referred to as the building blocks of the nervous system. In the following
section, the structure of the nervous system is discussed.
3.6
Structure of the nervous system
As indicated in Figure 3.5, the nervous system is divided into the central
nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous
system consists of the brain and the spinal cord; the peripheral nervous
system consists of the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.
Figure 3.5
Organisation of the nervous system
SOURCE Compiled by the author
The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The
brain will be discussed in more detail in Section 3.7. The spinal cord is a
long tube of nerves protected by a vertebral column. The spinal cord relays
communication between the body and the brain. For example, if you touch
a hot plate it stimulates the pain receptors in your fingers, which influence
the sensory neurons. The motor neurons receive a message through the
association neurons in the spinal cord; this relays the message to the
muscles of your hand to pull it away from the source of pain. The spinal
cord is, therefore, needed for voluntary movement and injury to the spinal
cord can cause loss of movement because the communication with the
brain is affected.
The peripheral nervous system consists of the somatic and autonomic
nervous systems. The somatic nervous system controls voluntary
movement. It controls the skeletal muscles and, through the sensory
nerves, carries information from the skin, muscles and joints to the central
nervous system. This way, the somatic nervous system provides feedback to
the brain about voluntary movement in the form of sensory information,
such as when you kick a ball, brush your hair or type on a keyboard. The
somatic system, together with other parts of the nervous system and the
brain, plays an important role in the muscle system. In the work context,
the muscle system enables employees to be effective in various working
positions; standing, sitting and walking. The autonomic nervous system is
regulated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. It
controls the functioning of the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles and
glands. The sympathetic nervous system mobilises the body when action is
needed and plays an important role in flight reaction and reaction towards
stressors, such as slamming the brakes on when another car suddenly cuts
in front of you. The parasympathetic nervous system restores and
maintains activities of the organs under normal circumstances. For
example, it slows heart rate, reduces blood pressure and promotes
digestion.
Although we mostly associate the brain with thought, it has a much
more complex and integrative role in human functioning. The next section
illustrates how physical and other damage to the brain influences human
behaviour.
3.7
The brain and its functions
The human brain weighs between 1,4–1,5 kg and has to fit into the
limited space available in the skull. What is often referred to as grey matter
is the folded wrinkles that make up the outer surface of the brain, known
as the cerebral cortex. These wrinkles are nature’s clever way of fitting the
brain matter into the restricted space of the skull. About 80 per cent of
complex thought is processed in the cerebral cortex. There are various ways
of classifying the different parts of the brain, but for simplicity’s sake only
the hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain will be discussed.
3.7.1
Divisions of the brain
3.7.1.1
The hindbrain
The hindbrain is the link between the spinal cord and the brain. The
hindbrain comprises the medulla, pons and cerebellum.
• Medulla: Can be found just above the spinal cord. It regulates
important processes, such as breathing and heart rate. The function of
the medulla can be suppressed by heroin, depressant drugs and large
amounts of alcohol.
• Pons: Is the link between the hindbrain and the midbrain. It plays a
role in respiration, sleep and arousal.
• Cerebellum: Looks like a smaller version of the brain. It coordinates
movement and balance. It assists in the maintenance of body posture
and muscle tone. Damage to this area causes lack of balance and
uncoordinated movements. Substances, such as alcohol, affect the
functioning of the cerebellum; a person under the influence of a
substance can often be identified by uncoordinated movements.
3.7.1.2
The midbrain
The midbrain is part of the brainstem and is located between the
hindbrain and the forebrain. It is responsible for communicating sensory
and motor impulses between the hindbrain and the forebrain. The
midbrain also coordinates visual and auditory reflexes. The so-called
reticular activation, or formation system, runs through the hindbrain and
midbrain and is situated at the centre of the brainstem. It is responsible for
the modulation of muscles, reflexes, breathing, pain perception and,
especially, sleep and wakefulness.
3.7.1.3
The forebrain
The forebrain consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus and cerebral cortex.
This is the largest part of the brain. It is divided into left and right
hemispheres that are held together by a large nerve fibre, the corpus
callosum. Complex processing takes place in the forebrain.
• Thalamus: Is situated above the hypothalamus. The thalamus is
responsible for recognising sensory stimuli and relaying them to the
cerebral cortex.
• Hypothalamus: Can be found between the pons and the thalamus. It
helps the medulla control the functioning of the heart. The
hypothalamus is also responsible for regulating water balance in the
body, as well as hunger and sex drives. It serves as the centre between
thoughts generated in the cerebral cortex and their impact on internal
organs. To illustrate with an example, when one is embarrassed
(thought generated in the cerebral cortex), it may cause blushing (effect
on internal organ).
• Cerebral cortex or cerebrum: Is divided by the corpus callosum into a
left and right hemisphere and plays a central role in processing
complex human thought. Each of these hemispheres has its own
unique functions. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the
body and vice versa. The cerebral cortex consists of four lobes: the
frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes, as illustrated in Figure
3.6.
Figure 3.6
The four lobes of the cerebral cortex
Notes to Figure 3.6:
A. Frontal lobe: The primary role of the frontal lobe is the control of
motor functions. The frontal lobe is the largest part of the cerebral
cortex. It monitors recent events and calculates possible actions in
response to these events by using memory to determine the possible
outcome of each plan and the emotional value of each outcome. It
controls fine movements, such as moving one finger at a time. The
right side controls voluntary movement on the body’s left side and the
left side controls voluntary movement on the right side. Located in the
frontal lobe, Broca’s area is responsible for speaking (movement of the
mouth and tongue).
Damage to the frontal lobe may cause a person to experience problems
with effective decision-making and problem solving. The person may
not be able to understand the consequences of actions and react
impulsively. Other potential consequences are the loss of finer
movements and speech difficulties.
B. Parietal lobe: Its primary role is related to the body senses, in other
words, responding to sensory information (from your five senses) and
performing sensory motor tasks. Another function of the parietal lobe
is detecting movement in the environment. It also assists with the
location of objects (spatial orientation). The parietal lobe registers and
interprets sensations such as pain, pressure, temperature and touch.
Damage to the parietal lobe may result in the loss of a person’s ability
to distinguish the feeling of different textures. It may also be difficult
to judge the distance and mass of objects.
C. Temporal lobe: The temporal lobes are primarily associated with
auditory functions. They are found on the side of each hemisphere and
process sound and language. The left temporal lobe contains a part
called Wernicke’s area that is responsible for understanding spoken
language. Olfactory (smell) impulses are also detected by the temporal
lobes.
Damage to the left temporal lobe where the Wernicke’s area is situated
will hamper the understanding of spoken words.
D. Occipital lobe: The primary role is control of the visual functions, in
that stimuli from the eyes are received and translated into perceptions
of visual stimuli. In other words, the occipital lobe has the function of
making sense of what is seen.
Damage to the visual pathways impairs the function of the left side’s
control of right vision and vice versa. Therefore, damage to one side
causes visual problems to the other side.
3.7.2
Scientific investigation of the brain
The investigative techniques explained in Table 3.3 are sophisticated
scientific methods that are used to analyse the brain through the thick
skull without damaging the sensitive neurons. If troubled employees
experience what is suspected to be brain-related symptoms, they may agree
to medical intervention. In these cases, medical experts may execute brain
scans by using some of these methods to diagnose or exclude possible
problems.
Table 3.3
Scientific techniques to study the brain
TECHNIQUE
FUNCTION
PET scan (positronemission tomography)
Measures radioactive glucose in different
areas of the brain and sends this
information to a computer. The glucose
levels vary with the levels of brain activity
and thereby an image of the activity level
of the brain can be obtained.
CAT scan (computerassisted axial
tomography)
A three-dimensional imaging technique
created by passing X-rays through the brain.
The computer organises the individual
images into a total picture. CAT scans help
determine the brain area damaged by a
stroke, causing language disorders and
memory loss.
MRI scan (magneticresonance imaging)
By passing harmless radio frequencies
through the brain an MRI scan creates a
magnetic field around the body and uses
the radio waves to form images of the brain
tissue and its biochemical activity.
EEG
(electroencephalogram)
The electrical activity of the brain is
recorded by placing electrodes on the
person’s scalp. Epilepsy, brain damage and
other problems can be detected through an
EEG.
Single-unit recordings
Through this technique, a single neuron’s
activity can be monitored.
SOURCE: Compiled by the author
The brain performs important biological functions in order to integrate
information from inside and outside the body. Many of these functions are
important in the execution of work, such as talking, planning,
remembering, creating and thinking.
3.7.3
Brain functioning and implications in
the workplace
If one analyses the functions of the different parts of the brain and
compares them with daily activities in general or at work, it becomes clear
how important the brain functions are in peoples’ work lives. Brain
functions must be taken into account when planning and designing work
tasks. They should also be considered in the training and development of
employees in order to create interesting, creative and challenging
workplaces and facilitate the optimal performance of employees. Boring
workplaces and tasks, for example, will not make employees use their brain
capacity to the full. A safe, healthy workplace helps avoid accidents.
Furthermore, harmful environments and substances may impair brain
functions. It is important for the I-O psychologist to recognise the basic
symptoms of brain damage or disease; an employee can then be referred to
a relevant specialist. An awareness of the symptoms of potential problems
in brain functioning means that people can be treated or moved to more
appropriate work situations. The health and safety of other employees
could potentially be in danger if an employee with affected brain
functioning is not treated correctly in the workplace.
The brain and other biological systems also influence human
behaviour. Table 3.4 provides a summary of the various biological systems
and their potential impact on the workplace.
Table 3.4
Biological systems and their implication for the workplace
Biological system
Implications for
the workplace
Endocrine system: Made up of glands that secrete
hormones (chemical substances) into the blood in
order to stimulate or fight changes in target
organs.
One of the
major problems
associated with
the endocrine
system is
diabetes
(Nevid, Rathus
& Greene,
2008). Diabetes
is an illness
whereby the
body does not
manufacture or
properly use
the hormone
insulin. Insulin
enables glucose
in the blood to
enter the cells
to provide
energy. When
insufficient
levels of insulin
are produced,
or resistance to
insulin
develops, the
glucose remains
in the
bloodstream
causing a
condition called
hyperglycaemia.
The I-O
psychologist
can assist the
organisation in
the following
ways: by
creating
awareness of
diabetes and
other endocrine
illnesses;
promoting the
identification
of risk factors
in order to
increase early
detection; and
helping
diabetic
employees to
adhere to a
health regimen.
Cardiovascular system: Consists of the heart,
arteries and veins (blood vessels). It acts as the
body’s transport system for blood, oxygen and
nutrients and disposes of carbon dioxide and other
waste material. The heart rate is influenced by
factors such as exercise, stress, emotional
excitement, illness and fear. Risk factors to
consider in terms of cardiovascular disease are a
family history of such problems, high blood
High and low
blood pressure
will cause
employees to
feel ill, have
low energy and
not be able to
concentrate
well and handle
pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, smoking, an
unhealthy diet, anxiety, depression and high levels
of negative stress and frustration (Muchinsky,
2006; Wade & Tavris, 2009).
work stress
(Taylor, 2006).
The I-O
psychologist
can create
awareness of
the importance
of a healthy life
style and the
dangers
associated with
an unhealthy
cardiovascular
system.
Respiratory system: Ensures that the body receives
the oxygen it needs and gets rid of waste carbon
dioxide. Through contraction of the muscles,
inspiration of air causes the lungs to expand inside
the thorax (chest wall). The medulla inside the
brain controls the actions of the respiratory system.
If the carbon dioxide levels are too high, the
respiratory system will be stimulated to increase
respiration until it returns to normal levels.
Respiratoryrelated health
problems may
impair
employees’
capabilities,
restricting them
from
performing
certain tasks or
even preventing
them from
working at all.
I-O
psychologists
need to be
aware of the
respiratory
requirements of
people in the
workplace.
Workplace
design is
required to
make provision
for wellventilated and
healthy
buildings and
workstations.
The I-O
psychologist
and HR
practitioner
should be
aware of the
risk factors,
such as poor
ventilation, and
dust and
chemicals,
which can have
an impact on
the respiratory
system
(Muchinsky,
2006).
Immune system: The immune system is a network
of cells, tissues, organs and hormone glands that
protects or balances the body against harmful
invaders that can cause illness and other problems
(Weiten, 2008). Invaders of the immune defensive
system come in the form of bacteria, toxins,
microbes, viruses, parasites, illnesses and chronic
stress. The body produces antibodies when a threat
is detected; antibodies remain in the system.
Therefore, it is unlikely that people will contract
I-O
psychologists
and HR
practitioners
should be
aware of the
implications of
work design
and working
conditions, for
diseases like measles or chickenpox more than
once. In the case of immunisation against such
threats, a small amount of the antigen is given
without making the person ill, but enough to
trigger the production of antibodies. When the
immune system fails to combat a disease, further
complications ensue as the resistance of the body
as a whole is lowered. Immune deficiency disorder
occurs when the immune system is lacking one or
more of its parts. It can be inherited, acquired
through infection, produced as a side effect of
drugs used in the treatment of illnesses, such as
cancer, or in people who receive transplants. Aids
(acquired immune deficiency syndrome) is an
immune deficiency disorder caused by the human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which infects the
immune cells (National Institute of Allergy and
Infectious Diseases, 2010).
example, high
levels of work
stress, on the
immune
systems of
employees.
Employee
health will be
weakened if
working
conditions
impair or
suppress the
immune
functioning;
this reduces the
resilience of
employees and
their ability to
function
optimally.
The I-O
psychologist
should liaise
with healthand-safety
professionals in
organisations
in order to
ensure welldesigned,
healthy
workplaces.
Workplaces
need to be kept
and managed
according to
certain
standards in
order to
minimise work
stress and
control risk
factors for
infectious
diseases.
The I-O
psychologist
also has a role
in the selection
and placement
of employees to
make sure that
employees with
immune
sensitivities are
in positions
that best fit
their health
profile.
Employee and
organisational
wellness is
covered in more
detail in
Chapter 11.
Muscle system: Consists of three categories,
namely smooth muscles, skeletal muscles and
cardiac muscles. Smooth muscles control the
movements of internal organs. The skeletal muscles
assist the movement of the body in accordance
with its environment. The cardiac muscles (heart
The ideal work
design is for
employees to
involve dynamic
muscular
activity, which
muscles) have properties to intermediate between
the smooth and the skeletal muscles (Kalat, 2001).
Irrespective of whether it is voluntary or
involuntary, all movement is the end result of
communication between the brain and the motor
and sensory neurons, discussed in previous
sections. Muscles can be either slow-moving or
fast-moving. Each individual has different
percentages of slow- and fast-moving muscles and
has the ability to adapt muscle use depending on
situations in which types of muscles are used to a
lesser or greater degree. An example is when an
athlete moves into high-season training; the fastmoving muscles will be used more than normal, and
the allocation of muscle use shifts more to fastmoving muscles and less to slow-moving muscles.
entails a
balanced
contraction and
relaxation of
muscles.
However, this is
not always
possible, which
means that
action in the
workplace has
the potential of
causing injuries
to the muscular
system.
It is important
for the I-O
psychologist to
be aware of
how the
ergonomics of
work design
(see Section
3.9), or the fit
between
employees and
their
workstations
can impact on
muscle strain.
The physical
layout of the
workplace and
other
considerations,
such as the
structuring of
work tasks (for
example, rest
periods, shift
work), may
prevent
unnecessary
muscle fatigue
and injuries.
The following
are factors that
could help
prevent muscle
injuries in the
workplace:
• Allow
regular rest
periods to
break the
pattern of a
fixed
posture.
• The job
design
should
include all
muscle
activities:
sitting,
walking and
standing.
• When doing
a job, all
muscles and
joints
should be
as relaxed
•
•
•
•
and
comfortable
as possible.
Give
attention to
furniture
and
equipment
design to
prevent bad
working
posture.
Encourage
employees
to stretch
during work
time and
exercise
muscles
after work
time.
Teach best
practices
and the
correct
techniques
for
performing
tasks and
using work
tools, for
example,
how to pick
up a heavy
object.
Make use of
an
ergonomic
keyboard
that is
specifically
designed to
reduce
muscle
strain.
It is important
to consider not
only obvious
job design
factors in
physical tasks,
which can
cause muscle
strain, but also
the long-term
effects of
lighter, but
repetitive tasks,
which may
cause fatigue
and injuries,
even in less
physical jobs.
The I-O
psychologist
and HR
practitioner
should take
these factors
into account
when advising
management on
the ergonomics
of work, that is,
the best
practices with
regard to
providing
employees with
the most safe
and healthy
workplaces and
work tools.
Sensory system: Responsible for the awareness of
the employee of his or her environment. It is a
warning system, signalling when a person needs to
react. Hearing and vision are the senses that are
most easily affected. This can lead to
communication problems. Hearing can be
influenced by constant loud or high pitch noise,
which may result in loss of hearing. It may be
difficult for such an employee to follow a
conversation where there is more than one person
speaking or if there is background noise. Working
on machines that vibrate can also damage the inner
ear space. Employees may notice a constant ringing
in the ear and have trouble with balance. Vision
can be affected by intense or regular flashing of
light. With age, it is more difficult to tell blues
from greens than reds from yellow. It is interesting
that safety boards mostly feature red and yellow.
The sense of smell can detect danger when there is
smoke, gas, or other chemicals that have a smell.
Diseases, smoking or exposure to harmful particles
can cause a decrease in smell. Touch is also a sense
that can keep an employee safe as it makes a
person aware of heat or cold and pressure. Injuries
Employees
make use of all
five senses
(hearing,
vision, taste,
smell and
touch) to stay
alert (see
Chapter 5). As
people get
older, these
senses become
less sharp.
Factors at work,
such as noise,
heat and cold,
intense light
and chemicals,
can also
contribute to a
decrease in the
effectiveness of
senses
(Stromme,
can occur because of frostbite or hypothermia
(dangerously low body temperature) burns. Pressure
ulcers are caused by constant pressure on a specific
area of the skin. These sores are created because
blood cannot flow freely to this area. Senses are
very important in a person’s awareness of the
environment.
2004).
Ears have the
function of
hearing and
also of
maintaining
balance. Sound
vibrations cross
the eardrum to
the inner ear
where they
change to nerve
signals and are
carried to the
brain by the
auditory nerve.
Balance is
controlled by
fluids and small
hairs in the
inner ear that
stimulate the
auditory nerve.
Eyes have the
function of
vision. Light is
processed and
interpreted by
the brain
through the
cornea.
Taste buds and
the nose have
the function of
taste and smell
and work
together. The
sense of smell
begins high in
the lining of
the nose. There
are over 9000
taste buds that
can distinguish
between salty,
sweet, bitter
and sour tastes.
The skin is
responsible for
the sense of
touch. Touch
results in
sensations such
as pain,
pressure,
vibration,
temperature
and body
position.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Example box
Examples of ways organisations take care of their employees’ health
South African organisations take the lead in employee wellness when it comes to diseases
affecting the immune system, such as HIV and Aids.
The Clicks Group Employee Wellness Programme originated from a HIV project that started
as a group initiative in 2005. This comprehensive employee wellness programme has
achieved over 2065 employees completing wellness screenings on national wellness days in
2019; these included blood pressure, glucose, cholesterol, body mass index and HIV tests.
Similarly, Woolworths Holdings Limited believes that HIV and Aids should be managed
and monitored by effective leadership, planning and the implementation of sustainable
strategies to manage the impact on the organisation and its employees.
These organisations have the following in common:
• Awareness campaigns
• Encouragement and opportunities to be tested
• Counselling and support to employees and their immediate families
• Access to treatment
• Interventions and strategies to support both the employee and the organisation.
SOURCES Clicks, 2019; Woolworths Holdings, 2020
3.8
The impact of automation and
robotics on biological processes
Automation has been part of the world of work for centuries where
machines have been used to enhance production or optimise the work
environment. With the introduction of machines that mimic human
behaviour, a new era of robotics was born. Researchers initially looked at
biology to create and improve robots, but, more recently, robots are being
used to improve and understand biological systems (Gravish & Lauder,
2018). Categories are mostly referred to as classical and interactive robotics
(Daterri, 2020). Classical robotics are those that are engineered on the
patterns of human biology. Classical robotics is used either to better
research problems of a biological nature or to replace biological actions, as
can be seen in humanoids (robots that have human features) or bots
(robots that communicate like a human). Bots can provide a service faceto-face, telephonically or via the Internet. Interactive robotics interact with
biological systems that link to the human body, for example, artificial
limbs.
In the workplace, classic robotics are an advantage where it is
dangerous for humans to work, for example, certain tasks in an
underground mine or as part of a rescue team in a collapsed building. In
the Covid-19 pandemic, social distancing forms an important factor for
the health and safety of employees. Robots are able to contribute to
maintaining organisational operations and assist with decontamination
processes, food delivery to people in quarantine and basic service delivery
(Morgan, 2020).
3.9
Ergonomics in the workplace
Employees are a valuable, but expensive resource in an organisation. Based
on the information discussed in previous sections about the biological
systems of employees, it is important to ensure an effective workplace
design to prevent accidents and frustration as well as to maximise the
energy use of employees. The science of designing the workplace to
optimise the physical abilities and limitations of employees is called
ergonomics. In Chapter 1, ergonomics is discussed as one of the subfields
of industrial psychology. According to the Department of Labour (DOL),
employees have to be protected against occupational diseases and
workplace injuries arising from hazards and risks, including ergonomic
risks. Details can be found under section 43 of the Occupational Health
and Safety Act (85 of 1993) in regulations made to the Schedule,
Ergonomic Regulations, 2019.
Figure 3.7
Ergonomics at a workstation
Ergonomics is an important aspect in the workplace. In Figure 3.7, a man
is sitting at his workstation. There are a few aspects of ergonomics
mentioned in this figure that need to be considered: the position he is
sitting in – his feet are flat on the floor without any restriction; there is
adequate space under the worktop for his knees; and there are armrests for
ease of sitting down, standing up or a change of posture. The chair should
be comfortable and the height of the chair in relation to the table and the
person’s height should be correct. The support of the back is also
important, with a backrest to provide lumbar support in the lumbar region.
Finally, if you are using a computer, the height and distance of the screen
from your eyes should be considered in order not to strain them.
Some of the risks to consider in workplace design are as follows:
• Task repetition refers to tasks that are not necessarily difficult or
strenuous, but are repeated frequently, for example, using thumbs to
text on a cellphone. Over a period of time carpal tunnel syndrome
(CTS) may develop because of the strain on these muscles.
• Forceful actions are actions that require the lifting or moving of heavy
objects. This can cause accidents or serious muscle injuries.
• Repetitive/strange positions are often found when people sit in an
uncomfortable position for long periods of time or have to bend or
stretch to perform a task. Working with a light that flickers can cause
stress on the eyes.
The I-O specialist can contribute by:
• Implementing an ergonomics programme that would typical fall under
the existing health and safety programme of an organisation.
• Training employees on the principles of ergonomics to help them
protect themselves.
• Creating awareness about ergonomics to ensure any new furniture,
machinery or space is ergonomically friendly.
• Assisting in the implementation of risk controls to have a system in
place that can prevent hazards.
• Supporting a medical station on site to deal with injuries and do health
screening to prevent injuries.
Creating an ergonomically well-designed workplace will ensure an efficient
work force.
INFORMATION BOX Typical solutions to ergonomic problems
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Special office chairs to best support the body, especially the back.
Keyboards that are designed to limit strain on wrists and shoulders.
Encourage employees who sit or stand in one position for long periods of time to take
regular breaks and to stretch muscles frequently.
Make use of trolleys to carry heavy objects.
Use boxes with handles.
Wear gloves for protection against heat and cold as well as chemical substances.
When working with tools that vibrate, operate tools at the lowest speed and ensure tools
are well maintained.
Use tools with padded handles and texture grips.
Wear hearing protection in areas with constant or loud noise.
Use eye drops and rest eyes regularly when having to read or focus for long periods of
time.
Ensure that all lights are working effectively.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
3.10 Summary and reflection
In this chapter, the importance of various human biological processes is
discussed. The question whether behaviour is inherited or learnt was
asked. There is sufficient evidence to conclude that much of human
behaviour can be attributed to a combination of both environmental and
genetic factors (Weiten, 2008). The I-O psychologist and many other
parties have a role in creating the type of environment that will optimally
foster the development of genetic potential in a positive way.
Genes, the functional units of what people inherit from their biological
parents, can contribute to healthy biological functioning, but mutations
and other genetic problems can also cause physical problems, illness and
disorders. Genetically transferred attributes, for example, may render
employees more or less susceptible to reaction to environmental influences.
The neurons, or nerve cells, and their functions are important
communication pathways in the body’s neurological systems. Neurons are
the building blocks of the nervous system and are central to
communication with the brain. Different types of neurotransmitters work
to produce or inhibit certain responses.
The various parts of the nervous system are important for a balanced,
integrated bodily functioning, as are the hindbrain, midbrain and other
sections of the brain, such as the four lobes of the cerebral cortex in the
forebrain. The forebrain’s various parts are responsible for distinguishing
humans from other species with regard to the human facility for complex
thought. The endocrine system and its related hormones maintain balance
in the human body’s functions, influence growth and control stress
responses. Lifestyle seems to contribute to many of the disorders related to
the endocrine system and, therefore, problems can be minimised. The
same can be said of the cardiovascular system; it is important to keep it
healthy through a good lifestyle, especially when its important role is taken
into account.
The respiratory system is sensitive to the environment and respiratory
diseases can cause serious dysfunctions and work-performance problems
for employees. The immune system plays a role in protecting the human
body against infections that occur in many workplaces. Strain to the
muscle system is an important factor to consider in work design because
muscle injuries influence work performance and increase absenteeism. A
loss in senses can lead to communication problems or other safety hazards.
Automation and robotics provide an additional view on human
behaviour and health and safety in the workplace. Robots are able to
manage functions that are important but dangerous to humans.
The role of biological processes in the workplace and in task execution
is too often misunderstood, or is insufficiently valued. Emphasising the
role of biological factors in the workplace is important in order to make the
learner and I-O psychologist aware of the complexity of human behaviour.
Indeed, the total context of human behaviour should always be taken into
account, including physical or biological, psychological, social, cultural,
spiritual and other factors. Biological attributes arguably contribute most
to individual differences and the uniqueness of each individual and,
therefore, must be considered in all workplaces.
In the work environment, it is the role of the I-O psychologist to assess
these factors and ensure that employees and management alike are aware
of the role of their biological attributes and their functions. The field of
ergonomics is a scientific way to ensure that the human body can be
optimised, and risks are decreased. It is important to facilitate health and
safety in the workplace in order to encourage employees to take care of
their bodily functions, and to be aware of possible problems and diseases
that are related to biological processes and may impair their work
performance.
Assessment tasks
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Discuss the roles of genetics and environmental influences in
human behaviour.
2 Explain the different areas of the brain and their functions.
3 How would ergonomics add value in the design of the
workplace?
4 What are the implications of lifestyle and stress on the different
biological systems?
5 Discuss the function of robots in the health and safety of the
workplace.
6 What is the impact of diabetes on the employee in the
workplace?
7 Provide a practical example of how each of the three neurons use
information.
8 Describe the role of the sensory system.
9 Draw a figure of the neuron and label the functions.
10 Name the scientific methods to study the brain.
1
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
1
The neurons that receive information from the outside world are
the:
a motor neurons
b sensory neurons
c association neurons
d interneurons
2
3
4
5
6
7
e sensing neurons.
The large nerve fibre holding the left and right hemispheres
together is the:
a corpus callosum
b thalamus
c medulla
d cerebral cortex
e grey matter.
The hormone that enables glucose in the blood to enter the cells
to provide energy is:
a testosterone
b sugar
c amino acids
d insulin
e serotonin.
Which of the following illness are not associated with the
respiratory system?
a Colds
b Tuberculosis
c Carpal tunnel syndrome
d Lung cancer
e Covid-19.
In a workspace, what is the best way to move heavy boxes
according to an ergonomically safe manner?
a Carry it alone
b Use a trolley
c Two people can carry it
d Pack out the contents and move it bit by bit
e Push it instead of lifting it.
The neurotransmitter serotonin will act as:
a inhibitory if you eat bananas
b excitatory if you eat dates or peanuts
c a replacement for neurons that are lost with age
d inhibitory if you drink milk
e a replacement for insulin.
As an I-O psychologist, your company asks you to ensure that
they comply with Health and Safety Act regulations relating to
ergonomics. Which of the following steps will not be part of
your plan?
a Increase salaries
b Provide training to employees
c Support medical services to do screening
d Implement risk controls
e Provide health and safety information sessions.
8 The mine you are working for has had parts flooded during
recent heavy rainfall. What is the safest way to determine which
parts workers can enter?
a Send in divers to see how deep the water is
b Use your most experienced workers to do a risk analysis
c Use robotic technology to determine which areas are safe
d Wait until the flood waters have subsided
e Ask experienced workers what they think.
9 Which would be the least effective ergonomically safe area to
work in for employees working from home?
a In an area where there is free flow of air
b An area where there are no other people
c At a desk with a comfortable chair
d In a room with good natural light.
e An area where electronic cables are neatly secured against the
wall.
10 Which paradigm explains how biological processes are important
influences in employee behaviour, health and performance?
a Psychobiological paradigm
b Psychosocial paradigm
c Health paradigm
d Behaviouristic paradigm
e Cognitive paradigm.
CASE STUDY Stress factors in the workplace
Thabisa works in a laboratory analysing Covid-19 tests. In the beginning,
she felt proud to be part of such an important team. She and the rest of
the team have always understood how important it is that they work
quickly and accurately. No mistakes can be made and the demand is
increasing exponentially. They all, therefore, work much longer hours
than anticipated. Thabisa stands for many hours at a time slightly bend
over a microscope as part of the analysis process. She can feel the strain
in her back and neck. Over the past few months she has also begun to
experience frequent headaches. She is unsure if this is because of the
long hours she works with very little time off to rest or her levels of
stress about possible infection while working in the laboratory. She has
fears about her family and friends becoming infected because of the
nature of her work.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Questions
As an I-O practitioner, what recommendations can you make to improve
Thabisa’s quality of work? Indicate your recommendations to improve
Thabisa’s quality of work by executing the following tasks.
1. Explain the factors that impact on her headaches.
2. Suggest an ergonomically better work area or physical position.
3. Explain why even during busy times at work, good rest for employees
is still important to ensure quality work.
4. Suggest ways for Thabisa (and co-workers) to get enough rest.
5. Explain how the acknowledgment of her fear and discussions on how
to help keep herself and her family safe could enhance her work
performance.
Human and career development
across the lifespan
Ziel Bergh
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Define human and career development and related concepts
Explain the determinants and domains of human development
Indicate how sensitive periods influence human and career development
Evaluate the importance of human development for career development
Explain the various stages of career development and related developmental tasks
Explain types of careers and career success
Discuss cultural and gender-related career issues in human development
Discuss the issues of career anchors and life-work balance in career development
Evaluate continuous learning, adaptability and employability in career development
Evaluate the relevance of human and career development theory and practices.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Accommodation
Adolescence
Adulthood
Assimilation
Career adaptation
Career agility
Career anchors
Career construction
Career patterns
Career plateauing
Career preoccupation
Career stages
Career success
Critical periods
Development
Development task
Dialectical thinking
Ecological systems model
Ego-identity
Employability
Epigenetic
Human development
Lifespan development
Maturation
Midlife
Morality
Obsolescence
Parenting styles
Self-management
Spirituality
Sustainability
Wisdom
Work-life balance
Work personality
4.1
Introduction
Try to imagine the following birthday gathering in South Africa: the
retired grandparents are enjoying the company of their children and
grandchildren, possibly giving the adolescents and young adults advice on
how to run their lives; the parents are worrying about the poor economy,
changes in the world of work, how to meet the cost of living, pay for their
children’s education and how to prepare for retirement. A young adult son
has completed his studies and is lucky to be self-employed and now
wonders how best to invest his money to make provision for a home. A
couple of university students are waiting for their final examination results
and thinking about career possibilities, and a young married couple are
talking about their expected promotions in their jobs, while their three
children – a preschool boy, a daughter at primary school and a son of 15 –
are watching Netflix and playing computer games. What the two
university students did not bargain for is an unplanned pregnancy; a baby
in a few months’ time.
This scenario, which is applicable across many cultural contexts,
illustrates the varying phases and aspects of human development from
youth to old age, including related expectations, needs, tasks, behaviours
and influencing factors. However, individual development is unique,
irrespective of culture, as each person is exposed to a unique set of
developmental experiences. Other factors have an influence, for example,
the development of vulnerable children in South Africa is further
compromised by factors like poverty, HIV and Aids (Weiten, 2016) and
the impact of Covid-19. Human development must be also understood in
the context of interconnected socio-economic, political, historical,
technological and other factors that all determine the circumstances and
opportunities in development, including career development.
Figure 4.1
Progressive phases in age
SOURCE Shutterstock Top concept
Human development across the lifespan is about all the age-related
changes and growth in the physical, psychological, social, intellectual and
moral domains of personality and human functioning. This includes
development in life, work and career roles from youth to old age.
Caregivers, educators and other agents of influence, such as life coaches,
have an important task to facilitate the applicable developmental tasks or
behaviour, knowledge, skills and values necessary for life and work.
In a changing work environment, I-O psychologists, human resource
(HR) specialists and organisational managers have a responsibility to
facilitate career development to satisfy the personal and growth-related
needs of employees as well as enhance organisational efficiency (Sutton,
2015; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). However, individual employees need
to self-manage their careers in the midst of continuing changes, demands
and requirements at work and in society. Many I-O and other specialists
offer developmental and career counselling in organisations, and applicable
knowledge and competencies are incorporated in academic and
professional I-O psychology and psychology counselling programmes.
Developmental psychology has contributed significantly to
psychological knowledge across all domains of human functioning,
especially with regard to individual differences, the stability of human
behaviour across time and the roles of genetic and environmental factors in
human behaviour (King, 2011; Morris & Maisto, 2016; Louw & Louw,
2019). Studying human development is necessary in order to assist us in
understanding what to expect from people at different stages of
development, to manage individual differences and to understand how
people develop and adapt knowledge, skills and values related to work and
their careers.
The aim of this chapter is to introduce the reader to the nature of
human development in general, and career development in people across
the lifespan. A related aim is to create awareness of the relevance of the
theory, practices and research of developmental psychology, which, where
necessary, must be developed, indigenised and adapted for specific cultural
contexts (Callaghan et al., 2015; Ebersohn, 2012). The chapter first briefly
reviews the changes in work environments, especially technological
influences (see also Chapter 1). An important objective of human
development in general, and career development in particular, is to prepare
people for employment. This relates to facilitating job and career
developmental tasks.
4.2
Change and new technologies in
work, now and beyond the 2020s
In the new world of work and career development, change is the most
consistent factor, and the consequences of change are often speculation
(Gratton, 2011; Lent, 2018; Intuit Report, 2020; Coetzee & Schreuder,
2021). We cannot predict the outcome of a poor local and global economy
and the impact of smart technology, a characteristic of the Fourth
Industrial Revolution (4IR). Digital technologies, such as complex
computation, artificial intelligence (AI), automation and 5G data systems,
already have an impact on society, work organisations, types of available
work as well as on human production, performance and well-being. Most
economies and employment contexts are disrupted by uncertainty around
increased unemployment and the increased use of technology in the
manufacturing of goods and the provision of services. However, change
and new technologies in the world of work are creating many new
opportunities for people.
The new era of employment will, in all likelihood, include a hybrid
form of manual and automated processes. In South Africa, many existing,
traditional jobs may be protected by labour laws. Virtual or online working
is fairly well established now, particularly due to Covid-19. People will
need to be flexible and adapt to self-managed and entrepreneurial careers,
possibly working virtually and in technological-driven work (McKinsey
Global Institute, 2016; Andersen, 2020).
These changes will also influence the theory and practices in career
development and job choice. The role of traditional ways of managing
career development is less clear. Research will have to establish whether
the traditional meanings, values and functions of work still apply in the
increasing technological world of work where human labour is increasingly
dehumanised and replaced by intelligent machine labour to achieve the
required production levels (Jonck, van der Walt & Sobayeni, 2017). Work
will still represent a meaningful activity, but in many cases, in changed
circumstances, and people must be sufficiently resilient to manage
adapting to new ideas.
Some of the ideas in traditional human and career development
theories will, however, still apply; others will be less applicable or will have
to be adapted for employees in modern work environments. The issues in
human development, for example, work values, the meaning of work and
careers, career success, career tenure and sustainability and employability
may be less certain or applicable (Hirschi, 2018).
The impact of the 4IR will influence the way education is delivered,
work is managed and how organisations are structured, operated and
managed. How jobs and careers are perceived and executed will change.
Technologies that can quickly connect millions of people, institutions and
information sources in the digital, physical, financial, social and other
contexts will give new and changed meaning to work, careers, jobs, tasks
and communication.
Training in many institutions will have to follow new models in
courses that are required in industry, attending to specific job, task and
technological training to provide employees with specific and multiskilling
capacities. A lot of training will be based on self-training through the
Internet and other electronic or digital means that will enable ‘just-in-time
and place’ readiness for new challenges in industry and society (Oosthuizen
& Maier, 2019; Peeters, Akkermans & De Cuyper, 2020; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). I-O psychologists and career-related experts need to
adapt their knowledge and skills to provide intentional assistance.
4.3
The nature and characteristics of
human development
It is beyond the scope of this chapter to discuss theories related to human
and career development. Chapter 2 covered certain paradigms and theories
related to human behaviour and personality, including development
theories on personality. In the literature, you will find many sources that
deal extensively with these theories (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Coetzee
& Schreuder, 2021; Louw & Louw, 2014; Louw & Louw, 2019). This
chapter follows an integrated approach with an emphasis on human
development as a progressive process across the lifespan during which
certain phases occur and are different from person to person (Riffin &
Lockenhoff, 2015). Lifespan development psychology has evolved into an
integrated study field. Contemporary development psychology involves
patterns of stability and change across the human lifespan. It includes
research on most areas of human functioning and theories on lifespan
approaches, as well as stage and domain-specific theories in the fields of
cognition, motivation, emotion, personality development and
psychological health.
Human development is about age-related growth, maturation and
decline in various stages with regard to the physical, cognitive, emotional,
social, moral and occupational domains of behaviour. Human development
involves transitions through different stages over the total lifespan. The
individual must ideally progress through each life stage, complete certain
development tasks and reach maturity in every stage in order to fulfil
various life roles, such as in childhood, education, love and marriage,
friendship, work, parenting, religion, recreation and society. A
development task is one that arises at a certain period in the life of the
individual, the successful completion of which leads to happiness and
success with later tasks, whereas failure may lead to unhappiness in the
individual, disapproval by society and difficulty with later tasks (Herr &
Cramer, 1972). Development tasks refer to any physical, cognitive, social
or emotional behaviours and competencies that we are expected to have at
certain ages and stages, for example, walking, friendships, and choosing a
career and life partner (Newman & Newman, 2015; Watts et al., 2017;
Louw & Louw, 2014).
Although there are general patterns in human development, each
person’s development is unique and takes place within the limits of genetic
potential and the opportunities and constraints of a person’s historical
context, environment and culture (Biersteker et al., 2016; Ward, et al.,
2016; Slater & Bremner, 2017). Everyone is unique and although some
people may be more dependent, most people are resilient and contribute to
their own development. Even at a very young age, children differ in their
behaviour and adults will respond differently to them, which may relate to
differences in how potential and learning are stimulated (Louw & Louw,
2014; Louw & Louw, 2019). People are not only passive receivers of
environmental influences and they will respond and learn differently in
similar situations. Young people do show initiative and will, for example,
choose to follow their own route to achieve success, for example,
performing well despite poor circumstances with few opportunities
(Warner, Fay & Spörer, 2017; Louw & Louw, 2020).
Growth refers to an increase in the physical size of biological
structures, as well as improvement in mental and psychosocial
competencies. Maturation refers to changes as a result of genetic and
related biological attributes. These attributes occur at certain stages and
ages, but can be hindered by poor nutrition, illness and other forms of
deprivation. For example, babies inevitably do learn to crawl, then walk
and run, and adults inevitably develop more complex thinking patterns.
Ageing refers to a chronological increase in years with biological, physical
and related behavioural changes. Ageing may result in a decline of a
person’s functions, although improvement in some functions is possible,
for example, improved mental executive functions such as cognitive control
and planning in older people.
Maturity refers to the integration of physical, cognitive, moral, social
and psychological (emotional) tasks at a level where a person is fully
functional at every stage. People are defined as mature if they manifest
independence with regard to physical and social aspects, autonomy,
independent decision-making and some measures of wisdom, reliability,
stability, integrity and compassion. A clear demarcation of maturity is not
easy, but maturity is often associated with being an adult (about 18–21
years or older) although such developmental milestones may differ between
people. Readiness refers to a point in development at which the individual
has matured sufficiently to benefit from learning or experience, for
example, is ready to enter school, a profession or be promoted into a more
senior position. However, maturity may apply to various stages of life or to
specific aspects of human functioning. For example, school readiness
occurs at a stage when children of about six or seven are sufficiently
developed to attend school. Sexual maturity occurs during puberty or early
adolescence at around 11 to 18 years, and career maturity occurs when a
person is ready to make responsible occupational choices based on acquired
developmental tasks.
In the work context, maturity in various types of behaviours and
competencies is at the heart of a person being fit for the current and
changing work environment. In contemporary societies and workplaces,
human development includes acquiring the attitudes, values and
behaviours that individuals need in order to cope effectively with, and
adjust to, fast and continuous changes in their social and work lives. For
example, people should aim to develop intellectually, improve employment
relations, strengthen self-efficacy and be entrepreneurial in their career
choices.
Human development across the lifespan has certain characteristics, as
indicated in the following information box. These principles are important
in order to know what to expect from people at different stages of both
their personal and their career development. These characteristics are the
hierarchical evolution of phases; the fact that development progresses from
the general to the particular, and the increasing complexity and
predictability of human development. Characteristics of general human
development and the stages during lifespan and career development will
apply in some way, whatever the changes in the world of work. Longevity
in a career still applies as long as people adapt to change and remain
relevant and employable.
INFORMATION BOX Characteristics of human development
1. THE HIERARCHICAL EVOLUTION OF PHASES
Although the classification phases of human development differ, scientists generally agree
that human development consists of several overlapping stages and substages:
• Prenatal (before birth stages)
• Infancy (up to 2 years)
• Early childhood (from 2 to 6 years)
• Childhood/middle childhood (from 5/6 to 11/12 years (puberty))
• Adolescence (from 12/13 to 19/20). In some contemporary societies adolescence, as part
of emerging adulthood, may extend up to 25/27 years of age. (Arnett, 2000; Mehta et
al., 2020)
• Young adulthood (from 20 to 35/40 years)
• Midlife adulthood (from 35/40 to 60/65 years)
• Mature adulthood (from 65/75 years)
• Late adulthood/old age (beyond 75 years) (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2006; Louw &
Louw, 2019; Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016, Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
Each phase emerges from the preceding one and is linked to the next. In later phases,
certain elements of early behaviour are either eliminated as ineffectual or transformed into
higher patterns of adaptation. Hence psychologists speak of evolution from elementary to
higher behaviour.
The progression of phases is predetermined by the maturation of biological systems as
well as cognitive, emotional and moral development (Louw & Louw, 2014; Louw & Louw,
2019). Under normal conditions, behaviours evolve in orderly and predictable sequences,
that is, certain physical, cognitive and psychological behaviours emerge at certain ages and
stages and are necessary before certain other behaviours can be expected from people.
Certain development processes and related behaviours may be continuous across the
lifespan, for example emotional and language development. Others, though, especially
biologically based processes, may be discontinuous, such as sexual maturation around
puberty. The same principle applies to the evolution of career-decision tasks; people may
experience career indecision or find a management job challenging because certain tasks
have not developed in earlier phases.
2. DIFFERENTIATION FROM THE GENERAL TO THE PARTICULAR
Maturation of the brain during the various stages results in individuals selecting more
effective behavioural responses in situations where choices are relevant. Problem-solving
skills develop, enabling the person to progress from dealing with very concrete problems to
being able to manage abstract problems (see Section 4.4.2). Problem-solving skills also
become evaluative, allowing diverse thinking and the recognition of relationships between
things.
3. INCREASED COMPLEXITY
With age, the development of some neurons causes faster and more continuous transmission
of impulses and hence more complex behaviour. The complexity and quality of motor
development is reflected in more intelligent behaviour. For example, the capacity for
association, complex thought, reasoning and language enables people to learn and
internalise knowledge from their culture.
Infants’ first emotional bonds with their mothers and their cooing behaviour changes in
adulthood to mature emotional ties and relationships (attachment behaviours) and
intelligible communication with others. The young child’s largely physiological and impulsive
needs change with maturity, when needs are expressed in balanced ways.
4. PREDICTABILITY
Most stage theories of development enable us to determine norms and, therefore, what to
expect from people at different ages and transitions. Behaviour is, to some extent,
predictable because its development is partly automatic, irrespective of the limitations of
learning. Automatic physiological functions are important for the survival of the individual
and the species and for understanding when a person is ready for certain tasks and
behaviours. Motor and cognitive development can be promoted or limited by both physical
and psychological factors. The correlation between physical, mental and intellectual traits is
also predictable.
In Section 4.4, we consider factors that influence or determine human
development. Although at times the focus may be on one specific cause or
determinant of behaviour, it should be kept in mind that these
determinants are interrelated and therefore have a combined influence on
behaviour.
4.4
Determinants
development
of
human
In the previous section, we established that development occurs in various
phases, in certain living contexts with many influential factors that can
have enduring effects. It is generally accepted that although genetic and
environmental learning may each have a dominant influence in certain
areas, human development is the product of the interaction between
genetic potential and social learning (Bueno, 2019). The quality of social
learning and environmental circumstances may determine how the genetic
potential and characteristics of a person will manifest (Cervone & Pervin,
2017; Louw & Louw, 2014; Weiten, 2016; Watts et al., 2017).
The need to reconsider human developmental research in South
Africa, in which mainstream psychology methods are used and often
reflect social environments outside the South African reality, has been
emphasised (Callaghan et al., 2015). Researchers in South Africa must
include an analysis of all local socio-cultural factors, particularly in child
development, to understand the impact of various environments on child
and adult development.
4.4.1
Hereditary and biological influences
Many human similarities and unique behaviours are influenced by natural
genetic inheritance (nature), also discussed in Chapter 3. Genetically,
maturation is a series of predetermined biological and related processes
that occur as the individual grows, although environmental, illness and
nutrition-related factors may influence the natural course of events.
Genetic determination has a more dominant influence on the physical
domains of behaviour, such as physical growth and ageing, muscles, the
brain and brain activity, the nervous system and the development of motor
skills and even the manifestation of physical diseases and development of
psychological disorders (Austin et al., 2012; Nevid, Rathus & Greene,
2008).
Intelligence and specific talents, such as musical ability, are believed to
be related to genetics. Certain psychological and social behaviours, for
example, instinctive attachment behaviours, aggression and territoriality,
aspects of perception, language acquisition, nurturing and helping
behaviours, have biological elements coupled to learning or cultural
influences. Healthy childhood physical development is important and a
basis for adult physical competencies in life and work roles.
4.4.2
Socio-cultural
Environmental learning
influences:
Behaviours are acquired in many ways and through various types of
physical and psychosocial environments (nurture) in which people grow
and live, such as cognitive impressions, modelling and imitation. Powerful
socio-environmental influences come from family, culture and ethnicity,
and these are applied in world views, specific parenting styles, cultural and
spiritual beliefs, at school, with peer groups, media and occupational
experiences and in the broader social environment (Callaghan et al., 2015;
Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Watts et al., 2017).
Cultural influences, that is, the preferred ways of behaving by different
groups and ethnicities, are prominent influences because they provide
personal identity, social settings, status and personal experiences for people
over their lifespan and contribute to life and work values. For example,
inequalities in terms of gender and general roles, which can be aspects of
culture, may be related to the extent to which gender and sexual
relationships are characterised, for example, violence, power and/or
inequality. It is clear that social learning creates the cognitive and
behavioural patterns for violence and inequalities that occur in sexual
relationships.
Culture will, however, influence even genetic potential if particular
physical behaviours are emphasised in cultures. Young peoples’
participation in household practices, or having a caring role for siblings in
the absence of parents, are also formative with regard to future, more adult
behaviours. However, with the absence of parental or other caring figures
in a young life, social and emotional challenges may follow in later life. All
cultures emphasise certain norms, values, and relationships that may be
transferred across generations. In many cultures, mothers have an
influential caring and disciplinary role, while fathers may be absent or have
a work-related and disciplinary influence (Louw & Louw, 2014; Louw &
Louw, 2020). In African and Asian child-rearing and developmental
practices, for example, common history, religion and group relationships
are emphasised.
Understanding development with regard to people’s culture and
ethnicity therefore necessitates insight into the context or developmental
environments, rather than simply describing the traits or attributes of
people in various developmental stages (Callaghan et al., 2015; Weiten,
2016). Environmental and cultural learning also influences the way
individuals develop self-concepts and work values, career maturity and a
productive or unproductive work orientation. Faulty learning of the
productive role may result in various types and degrees of work
dysfunctions (Bergh & Geldenhuys, 2013; Spector, 2012).
Parenting styles and related child-rearing practices are a major socialcultural influence. They differ between cultures and families, and even
between fathers and mothers and therefore influence the development of
children differently. Examples of parenting styles include authoritarian,
authoritative, permissive and uninvolved or neglectful (Louw & Louw,
2014; Louw & Louw, 2019; Habecker, 2016; Roman, Makwakwa &
Lacante, 2016). Across many cultures, the authoritative style is widely used
as it involves high expectations, structure, behavioural consequences, ample
support, open communication and constructive relationships. The
conditions of warmth and nurturance, positive expectations, good
communication and consistent discipline, are important in effective
parenting. However, parents may use more than one parenting style, and
there are many factors that influence parenting styles and human
development. The expected outcomes of parenting styles are not always
realised in manifested child behaviour (Louw & Louw, 2014; Louw &
Louw, 2020; Roman et al., 2016).
Styles of parenting and child-rearing practices may be negatively
influenced by poor socio-economic conditions (Habecker, 2016; Callaghan
et al., 2015; Louw & Louw, 2014; Moore et al., 2017). Parenting styles
and related behaviours in children influence an individual’s social,
emotional and cognitive behaviours, and subsequently their career
development, work behaviours and health outcomes (Habecker, 2016;
Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Weiten, 2016: Scheider & Schroder, 2019;
Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
4.4.3
The interaction between person and
environment
The interaction between genetic maturation and learning is an accepted
fact in psychological theory and research (Cervone & Pervin, 2008;
Weiten, 2016). The interaction between person and environment is
perhaps best explained by Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems
model of human development (Craig, 2001; Ashiabi & O’Neal, 2015;
Paquette & Ryan, 2015). Figure 4.2 shows an adapted presentation of
Bronfenbrenner’s model and indicates the multiple environmental and
external influences, as well as the systemic or circular influence between
person and environment.
Figure 4.2
Systemic environmental influences in human development
SOURCE Craig (1996)
According to this model, there are four levels of systemic environmental
influences in human development:
• Microsystem: Is the person’s living environment and consists of those
persons and organisations with whom the most intimate and frequent
contact occurs. The individual, their genetic structure and personality
and frame of reference, influences and restructures this immediate
environment to an important degree and creates new sources of
influence for themselves and others.
• Mesosystem: Is created by the interactions between elements of the
microsystem. For example, if schools, churches, employers and
neighbourhoods exclude certain people because of their language,
culture or ethnicity, such interactions will have consequences on more
than one domain of development.
Exosystem: Involves aspects outside the individual’s immediate
• contacts that may influence them. These may be family members’
workplaces, institutions in the community (such as health facilities),
extended family members, friends, social clubs and professional
organisations. For example, working from home during Covid-19
could influence not only that person’s career development, but also the
family and organisation’s management process. Simultaneously their
presence at home may influence the children’s development as well as
the way their partner approaches work and parenting. Work-family
interactions are important in balancing work-home life (Basuil &
Casper, 2012).
• Macrosystem: Represents a fluid type of influence, in that it focuses
on specific cultural and societal values, habits, laws, socio-economic
conditions, political systems and other aspects in history and the
greater cosmos. These influences can be powerful because they often
regulate how the individual or groups can, must or may live. There are
many examples worldwide of the dire consequences for individuals and
groups who have been excluded by policies and other actions from
sharing equally in society’s resources, such as education, finance,
housing and careers.
Related to the macrosystem is the powerful influence of historical events
and certain cultural aspects on personality and development and ways of
coping with problems. The period that people live in and the type of
opportunities that different groups enjoy, will influence their lives and
ability to cope (King, 2011). Many studies illustrate the serious and cyclical
effects of poor socio-economic factors, like poverty, on people’s
psychosocial and career development (Watts et al., 2017; Newman &
Newman, 2015). A number of South African studies and analyses, such as
those by Kelly and Duckitt (1995), Lea, Bokhorst and Colenso (1995),
Gilbert, Van Vlaenderen and Nkwinti (1995), Hook et al. (2002),
Nicholas (2003) and Callaghan et al. (2015), emphasise the role of
historical, socio-political and other factors on aspects such as self-esteem,
racism and local knowledge.
Studies on racism and cultural alienation indicate that people living
under these conditions, aside from the effects they may experience as a
result of poverty, might find it more challenging to develop the necessary
life skills and complete the developmental tasks associated with each
developmental stage. The fact that families and the communal nature of
living for many African people has been disrupted by socio-political events,
as well as many children heading households (for example, as a result of
parents dying from Aids and Covid-19), has and may affect the expected
development processes and stages (Callaghan et al., 2015; Habecker,
2016). Children from child-headed households are often disadvantaged,
marginalised and discriminated against (Pillay, 2016). Calls are made for
early childhood interventions from government, communities and religious
groups to promote the physical, social and cognitive development of these
children, while upholding the social agency of such children in terms of
negotiating and facilitating positive change in their environments.
Adding to the discussion on Bronfen-brenner’s model, Baltes (1987,
1997) states that lifespan development is influenced by more factors than
just the interaction between development and history and identified three
broad contextual factors that interact to influence development:
• Normative age-graded influences: Concern the usual biological and
social changes that take place at certain ages. These include experiences
such as going to school, puberty, marriage, menopause and certain
physical changes that are due to ageing.
• Normative history-graded influences: Concern historical events and
traumas such as war, natural disasters and other events that influence
many people/groups at the same time, and to more or less the same
degree. Events like the Covid-19 pandemic and accompanying poor
socio-economic conditions will have serious short- and long-term
consequences for people with regard to life in general, education, wellbeing and work opportunities. The 4IR and new technologies will
impact on social and family life, learning, training, health and working.
Technology will increasingly connect all domains of human life, and
the question is, what effect will this have on human development?
• Non-normative influences: Refer to events that happen to certain
people only, or to people in different ways, such as first love, a first job,
job loss, divorce, illness, promotion, moving to a new house and death
in the family, as well as certain invisible metaphysical cultural, spiritual
and historical beliefs. Personal circumstances and demographic
variables such as age, gender, race and social class determine how these
factors affect each individual.
Both Bronfenbrenner’s and Baltes’ approaches to environmental influences
can be applied to factors that influence the development of personality or a
sense of self in a cultural context (see Sections 2.2.11 and 2.2.12). These
factors include world views, communal socialisation, connections to
everything in the cosmos, God, spirituality, the past or ancestors,
influences from nature, the present and even future events and generations
(Meyer et al., 2014). African perspectives, for example, view development
as a lifelong continuous and collective process. In some cultures, the
human entity (child) is progressively incorporated into a culture and
communal life through various traditions and rituals, folktales, storytelling
and the influence of extended families. In some Eastern cultures, growing
into the contextualised self has a strong emphasis, and part of that is a
familial self (we-centred self) and a spiritual self (expressed in transcendent
relationships outside the person) (Moore et al., 2017).
In conclusion, together with genetics and environmental learning,
human development is also a cultural process in which there are many
similarities across different cultures (Taras, Steel & Kirkman, 2016; Louw
& Louw, 2020). The largest volume of research and knowledge is based on
data from Western countries. This emphasises the need for cultural and
cross-cultural research on human development in South Africa (Louw &
Louw, 2020; Geeraert, 2018).
4.5
Domains of human development
Human development across the lifespan and in various life and
occupational roles involves growth and changes in the physical (or
biological), cognitive and psychosocial domains of human functioning.
These may include behaviours with regard to morality, gender roles, as
well as sexual and spiritual aspects. Career development is an additional
and important domain of human development and functioning and builds
on growth and changes in the physical, emotional, cognitive and
psychosocial domains (Morris & Maisto, 2010; Weiten, 2016).
4.5.1
Physical or biological development
The physical or biological domain entails biological processes such as brain
processes, sensory capacities, motor responses, and the functioning of
respiratory, endocrine and circulatory systems that progressively develop
for certain physiological behaviours and functions to be effective (King,
2011; Weiten, 2016; Louw & Louw, 2014; Louw & Louw, 2020).
Maturation, growth and ageing in biological processes primarily refers to
changes in an individual’s body and related functions as a result of
genetically guided processes, the influence of environmental resources (for
example, nutrition), exposure to environmental toxins, the occurrence of
accidents and diseases, and the impact of lifestyle (for example, drugs,
exercise and eating). Genetically, motor and physical attributes such as
walking, talking, reproductive capacities, ageing, contracting certain
diseases, aspects of perception and even certain intellectual and
psychological processes, may develop quite similarly or universally in all
people.
4.5.2
Cognitive development
Cognitive development refers to the progressive development of thought
and related higher mental processes and abilities and the capacities to
obtain, process, interpret, retrieve and use information (King, 2011;
Morris & Maisto, 2016; Louw & Louw, 2019; Louw & Louw, 2020).
Cognitive development is based on the growth and maturation of
genetically determined processes (brain and other neurological structures)
and the development of cognitive competencies at certain ages. Cognitive
development is also integrated with the emotional, social and moral
development of people because of the relationship between intellectual and
non-intellectual characteristics of social-cognitive processes (Newman &
Newman, 2015).
The development of intelligence arguably reaches its peak in a person’s
20s or 30s, and may decline after the age of 45, but cognitive development
is also important in motivation, emotion, perception, learning, memory,
judgement, reasoning, problem solving, language skills, symbolic
representation, creativity and reality testing. Cognitive attributes change
over time, from being simplistic, concrete and self-centred to being more
complex, organised, integrated and holistic. As a person grows and
matures, it is expected that certain intellectual and other cognitive abilities
will develop and become available to the individual when required. A
manager, for example, is expected to be able to show more initiative and
think in a more creative and integrated manner than subordinates.
Recognised theories on cognitive development include Piaget and
Schaie’s theories on child and adult thinking, Robert Sternberg’s theory on
information-processing, Lawrence Kohlberg’s notions on moral
development, as well as Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory of cognitive
learning in children (King, 2011; Weiten, 2011, Weiten, 2016).
Piaget and Vygotsky illustrated how cognition in all children develops
in predictable, progressive phases through maturation and learning
experiences (see Table 4.1). During these phases, the cognitive processes,
together with the emotional experiences form categories of information
(cognitive structures) or schemata, which can change in quantity and
quality and have implications for adult thinking. As thought processes
become more complex, an individual’s ability to adapt to the environment
and to organise information progresses through the mechanisms of
assimilation and accommodation. Vygotsky emphasised socio-cultural
learning. He asserted that the child’s cognitive development and
development of problem-solving skills is a process of discovery by using
psychological signs or tools, like social interaction, language development
and dialogue with experienced people in society, including parents,
teachers and other children. For Piaget, cognitive development includes
many intellectual or cognitive processes, including language development.
Children and adults are like scientists, progressively experiencing and
finding ways of thinking and doing things and progressively forming
constructs or schemas to understand their world.
According to Piaget, quantitative development takes place through
assimilation. New information and experiences are interpreted and
integrated with existing mental processes, without the mental structures
changing. For example, you succeed in driving a car after having ‘driven’ a
car in a simulation video game. Accommodation promotes qualitative
development, in that cognitive processes (schema) are adapted or changed
to handle new experiences or information, such as the learning of new
concepts or the ability to solve more complex problems from separate
sources of information. For example, someone who creates their own work
by starting a small business after a job loss (King, 2011).
Cognitive adaptation is influenced by the integration of various
thought processes and by balancing assimilation and accommodation. An
important contribution of Piaget’s theory is the implications for adult
thinking, specifically the finding that thinking patterns progressively
develop from very concrete patterns to complex and abstract patterns. The
phases through which cognitive development progresses, according to
Piaget, are given in Table 4.1. Each cognitive stage represents different
thought processes with related thinking skills, which must develop to
enable the child to cope with intellectual tasks or problems in each stage
(Weiten, 2016).
Table 4.1
Stages of cognitive development according to Piaget
Stages and ages
Cognitive development and milestones
Sensorimotor
(0–2 years)
• Cognition begins with imitation, thought and
memory
• Reflex actions progress towards purposeful
behaviours
• Learning happens through sucking, biting and
touching
• Still undeveloped grasp of cause and effect
• Starts to experience object permanence
(objects do not disappear when out of sight)
at about 9 months.
Pre-operational
(2–7 years)
• Learns through actions
• Is increasingly able to remember and
anticipate
• Internalises the concrete world through
language and visual images
• Has concepts of mass and the constancy of
objects
• Still has many problems with relationships, as
things still seem irreversible and not all
elements are considered
• Is still egocentric in thinking.
Concreteoperational
(7–11 years)
• Makes more progress in concrete thinking
• Can handle problems more logically and in
various ways, considering more aspects
• Achieves insight into the views of others
• Develops the concepts of number,
relationships and reversibility
• Makes steady progress towards adult ways of
thinking.
Formaloperational
(from 11 years
onwards and
throughout
adulthood)
• Makes use of abstract thought in addition to
concrete thought; imagines things; uses
metaphors; formulates and tests hypotheses
• Uses logical thinking (inductive and
deductive); uses systematic and diverse
approaches to problem solving.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Adult thinking develops in different progressive stages (Shaie & Willis,
2012):
• In the acquisition stage (under 18 years), during childhood and
adolescence, the individual acquires progressively more complex ways
of thinking, of which the formal-operational stage represents the
highest level.
• The achieving stage (20-30s), during young adulthood, involves
problem solving and decision-making, through which, for example, the
individual uses intellectual competencies to prepare for a career (that is,
studying and choosing a career).
• The stage of responsibility (30-40s), which develops from the
achieving stage, means that an individual is an independent thinker,
able to use their own solutions not only for personal and career
problems, but also to help family, employers and the broader
community.
• The executive stage (40-50s), during middle adulthood, also involves
responsibility. It enables people to serve in responsible positions
through an increase of knowledge (such as knowledge of how
organisations function).
• In the reintegration stage (50-60s), the individual at an older age must
use their accumulated repertoire of intellectual skills (wisdom) to assess
life and give meaning to what has passed.
• The reorganisation stage (60-65) entails attending to tasks of personal
meaning and importance.
• The stage of legacy creation (beyond 65) is about slowing down,
thinking and executing cognitive tasks. In contemporary life, many
people are still employed and remain productive and creative.
In terms of integrating cognitive competencies, cognitive development in
every stage creates meaning systems, which determine how people think
and feel about themselves, others, things and how they behave (Kegan in
Judge & Hurst, 2007). As the adult matures, these meaning systems
become progressively more complex, sophisticated and unique.
An important aspect of cognitive development is moral maturity,
which involves reasoning and acting in a way that demonstrates the
perception of right and wrong, having a conscience and feeling a sense of
guilt when appropriate (Weiten, 2008; Weiten, 2016). People with moral
maturity can judge their own and others’ behaviour according to principles
and rules that they understand and have internalised. They demonstrate
appropriate moral behaviours with regard to cultural and societal demands,
and they have attitudes that show concern for other people.
These aspects are strongly emphasised in African and Eastern world
views as aspects of the development of self, for example, in concepts like
ubuntu and family self (Meyer et al., 2014). The culmination of morality
can be envisaged as wisdom, which denotes a cognitive integration of
understanding and action with regard to social-moral and other issues.
However, across the world, moral and ethical issues, such as ethical
leadership, artificial life creation, assisted suicide and euthanasia, are still
being debated.
Morality usually develops in stages, which is postulated in Kohlberg’s
theory (Weiten, 2008; Louw & Louw, 2020). First, the young child thinks
about right and wrong in terms of rewards and punishment from external
sources such as parents. Then the older child uses rules to create their own
perception of morality. Last, the adult has an internalised or personal set of
rules and ethics that are used to judge their own and others’ behaviours and
events. Morality often reveals cultural differences and is influenced by
individual cognitive learning, internal reflection, feelings, experiences,
people’s efforts to adapt to situations and the meanings coupled to social
processes in and among groups and societies.
Figure 4.3
Multiple influences on human development
SOURCE Shutterstock M_Agency
4.5.3
Psychosocial development
Psychosocial development involves the progressive development of
psychological, emotional and social behaviours (socialisation) during an
individual’s lifespan as a result of diverse social interactions. Social
influences in personality and self-concept development are emphasised in
many psychology disciplines, specifically in personality and developmental
theories and in socio-cultural approaches (Cervone & Pervin, 2008;
Charles & Carstenen, 2010; Meyer et al., 2014; Louw & Louw, 2020).
Personality development is an ongoing and evolving processes across
the lifespan and refers to a person’s enduring pattern of behaviour and
characteristics. Personality involves all domains of behaviour, including the
physical/biological, emotional, social, cognitive and moral, and integrates
concepts like character, self, identity, spirituality, and other aspects (Moore
et al, 2017). Part of environmental learning and parenting influence are the
implicit, internal self-beliefs that children, adolescents and adults hold of
who they think they are and how they respond to moral or ethical issues.
Research indicates there is a determining impact of implicit attitudes and
opinions on peoples’ responses to social adversity issues, like wealth
distribution and social inequities (Job, 2018).
The first five or six years are considered to be the most critical for all
aspects of development, especially the early establishment of psychosocial
behaviours. In the early childhood years, the relatively immature physical,
neurological, physiological, social and emotional systems are not yet able to
respond effectively to the complexities of the social environment,
particularly if during these years faulty learning, neglect or abuse takes
place (King, 2011; Weiten, 2016; Watts et al., 2017).
Forming healthy attachment or bonding behaviours, involving both
social and psychological development, is a critical development task of
infants who are dependent on the care of parents, especially the mother’s
care, because it relates to feelings of interdependence, mutual feelings of
devotion, being loved and having emotional ties. The quality of
attachment behaviours influences adult relationships; for example, with
peers, as parents and work relationships (Fearon et al., 2010; Weiten,
2016). Research with infants (Ainsworth et al., 1978; Bowlbey, 1988) and
adults (Hazan & Shaver, 1994; Sperling & Berman, 1994) identified
various types of attachment styles that vary between secure and insecure.
Insecure attachment is characterised by the following types:
• The ambivalent attachment type shows mixed feelings of acceptance
and rejection and may demand extra attention in relationships.
• The avoidant attachment type is characterised by fear and rejection of
close relationships and may avoid commitment in relationships.
• In the disorganised or disoriented attachment type, the person is
confused and contradictory and may feel secure with one person, but
show insecurity with another.
Insecure attachment experiences in infancy are related to overdependence,
emotional sensitivity, fewer social skills and less competence in older
people (Wade & Tavris, 2009).
People fitting the secure attachment type have positive, unthreatened
relationships with others (King, 2011). Secure attachment experiences
during childhood will most probably lead to well-adjusted adults in terms
of, for instance, mental health, work relationships and intimate adult
relationships (Ainsworth et al., 1978). This would be the case when the
young adult enters a career, or commits to an intimate relationship.
The basis for healthy sexual relationships is also formed during the first
five or six years through the type of identification with parents. These
identifications and acquired roles are critical in adult life as they relate to
gender and power attitudes and behaviour in various life roles. In Chapter
2, we referred to Freud’s five psychosexual stages of personality
development (please refer back to Section 2.2.5 and Table 2.2).
Problematic behaviours of employees might be explained by a lack of
fulfilment in these psycho-sexual stages. Examples include jealousy,
passiveness, impatience, narcissism, verbal aggressiveness and manipulative
behaviours which may convert from the oral stage’s early behaviours of
sucking and biting; rebelliousness and untidiness from the anal stage’s
expulsion of faeces; and men who are competitive, ambitious exhibitionists
and behave in a superior way, trying to prove their masculinity, might be
thought of as having phallic fixations.
Socialisation involves how people progressively learn to adapt and
behave as expected both in society and in the workplace. It entails the
acquisition of the rules, beliefs, attitudes and values that enable a person to
function effectively in society or in a work context (Coetzee & Schreuder,
2016, 2021; Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016). Socialisation influences social
behaviours with regard to many roles and behaviours, for example, selfconcept and self-identity, gender relationships, language development, the
development of social knowledge and social-conflict resolution. To a large
degree, psychological characteristics, adjustment and maladjustment and
individual differences with regard to these issues, develop as a result of the
various types of self-representations (self-perceptions) that children and
adolescents accumulate about themselves, their careers and the world. The
importance of socialisation is emphasised in many psychologies, for
example, adjustment at work and in the social emphasis that African and
Eastern psychologies place on the role of the community in the formation
and development of personality (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016; Schreuder &
Coetzee, 2016; Meyer et al., 2014).
Prejudice is a special point in case to illustrate the power of
socialisation, as indicated in the Ethical reader, Prejudice: A social perceptual
issue.
Ethical reader
Prejudice: A social perceptual issue
Prejudices are people’s tendencies to classify individuals and groups according to negative
stereotypes, often characterised by dislike and even hatred (Wade & Tavris, 2009; Weiten,
2016; Pettigrew, 2016). Prejudices often have their roots in the social constructions of
childhood because of social learning, especially from parents, and other social experiences.
This may be especially relevant in diverse societies where ethnicity, race and inequity are
highlighted in politics and society. Prejudice may be considered a personality problem,
because prejudice expresses deep-seated social attitudes, possibly because of repression of
social instincts and harsh parental discipline during childhood development (Adorno et al.,
cited in Brown, 2001). In later life, these repressed social attitudes and aggression towards
the parents may find expression in aggressive and prejudiced behaviours towards other
people, through a personality type referred to as the authoritarian personality (Nicholas,
2003; Altemeyer, 2004; Morris & Maisto, 2016).
However, because of many other influences, and the social cognitive development and
distinct perception of young children, their attitudes and beliefs need not be the same as
their parents. The maintenance or escalation of a child’s prejudiced views as they reach adult
life may also be a function of many social influences, such as group affiliations, social
media, societal norms and values, education, economic competition, social stratification and
political-ideological structures and influences.
Social development is strongly influenced by either continuous or
discontinuous important relationships over a person’s lifespan. Sources of
these types of relationships can be found in the quality of parent-child
relationships, group affiliations, friendships throughout life, types of
attachment or bonding behaviours and social support of family, friends and
work colleagues. The classic studies of the attachment behaviours of
children in certain situations led to the postulation of avoiding, secure and
anxious/ambivalent attachment styles, which may characterise adult
relationships (Weiten, 2016; Monteiro, De França & Rodrigues, 2009).
Similarly, if changes in important group affiliations (such as school,
university, work, family or marriage) occur, social development and
consequently healthy career development may be disrupted. The tragic
consequences of Aids, conflict and war, household violence, poverty and
many types of disease in Africa and other parts of the world, has left
thousands of children without the forming influences of parents and other
caregivers.
Part of socialisation is the development of values, both personal and
collective, that influence people in all their life roles. Work-related
attitudes and values are an important determinant in the meaning people
attach to work, work motivation and work performance and in career
development and career choice (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). It is expected of people at particular stages to apply a
work ethic, for example, making career-related decisions such as a choice
of school subjects, a study direction, a first job, maintaining relationships
at work, staying in or changing jobs and retiring.
4.5.4
The domain of career or occupational
development
Career development is intertwined with all domains of general human
development, particularly from late childhood to adulthood. Many
formative influences on these domains of behaviour and progressive stages
contribute to career development and its related developmental tasks.
Work personality develops as the individual acquires positive work
behaviours, ethics and competencies, leading to enhanced productivity
(Neff, 1977, 1985). Impairment of work behaviour may occur if there are
deficiencies in the work personality. The development of work motivation
and a work ethic is especially important if one considers that work activity,
together with family life and religion or spirituality, is one of the most
important central life interests (Coetzee & Bergh, 2009; van der Walt &
Steyn, 2019; van der Walt, 2018). Work spirituality refers to a person’s
inner life that is enhanced by meaningful experiences and contributions
beyond the self (Ashmos & Duchon, 2000). The meaning of work does
not only relate to work activities, but to the meaning and values people get
from working. In the modern world of work, finding a job and starting
work can be daunting, especially given the contemporary changing nature
of work, more challenging requirements, fewer job opportunities in the
formal sector and adaptation to diverse workplaces.
Across cultures, aspirations for obtaining a job and career to fulfil
financial and other needs are arguably similar. In cultures with a collective
orientation, family and the community have traditionally had a strong
influence on decision-making with regard to the individual and their
decisions on what and how they do things (Meyer et al., 2014). However,
the applicability of career development theory and practices in diverse
populations or across cultures is not often researched, and research that is
conducted is often criticised (Cook, Heppner & O’Brien, 2002; Maree,
2010; Ebersohn, 2012; Flores, Spanierman & Obasi, 2003; Jackson &
Nutini, 2002).
This is because career development research was mostly aimed at
middle-class and especially male subjects and is based on theoretical career
development assumptions specific to this group. Research findings can
therefore not be generalised to other cultural groups or to women. A gap
in research therefore exists in terms of the career maturity, as well as in
terms of the attributes necessary for effective career development, career
choices and career functioning of African and other indigenous cultural
groups and of females. In addition, many cultural groups have not received
the same level of support, counselling and career development (Ebersohn,
2012). It is to be expected that the lack of positive contextual factors, such
as counselling and other internal and external support, can hinder the
development of a personal and occupational self-concept, self-efficacy and
identity of individuals in any culture or group (Jackson & Nutini, 2002).
Research findings do indicate that contextual factors, such as world
views, group identity, culture and specifically values (Alfred, 2001;
Juntunen et.al., 2001; Nsamenang, 2007), influence how people think and
act with regard to career development issues and their satisfaction thereof.
For example, the values of individualism and competition (associated with
Western orientations), when compared to a collective and communal
orientation (more applicable to African and Eastern cultures), may reveal
differences with regard to career development issues. An individual with a
more collective orientation may prefer career activities in which social
issues are emphasised rather than competition and performance. A person
with an individualistic orientation will value personal growth and
development and individualised recognition. Research suggests that these
orientations do not have a large influence on the world views of
individuals. This is a result of global and cross-cultural influences that may
have minimised original cultural values. On the other hand, in modern
workplaces with diverse labour forces, the fundamental values of, say,
collectivism, family, ubuntu and communality may come into conflict with
the requirements of modern technological work and career requirements,
for example, a business decision to replace human labour with
automatisation may threaten group or collectivist interests. The cultural
and contextual nature of career development indicates that more inclusive
theory and practices are necessary in diverse societies to ensure that all
cultural groups have access to optimal career counselling support services
(Ebersohn, 2012; Pretorius, 2012).
With reference to some of the concepts in Section 4.2, certain critical
and optimal periods may have important influences, especially with regard
to later development and adult behaviour. A critical period, for example,
during the first five years of development, refers to a certain stage when the
presence or absence of particular factors, especially environmental factors,
may have positive or negative effects (Weiten, 2016). Examples are poor
socio-economic conditions or a lack of parental love in childhood, which
can affect a person’s development. In contemporary psychology, some
authors prefer the concept of sensitive periods (instead of fixed critical
periods), which refers to periods of greater susceptibility to possible
influences (Cervone & Pervin, 2018). Examples are changing schools,
parental divorce, separation from parents at a young age and job loss soon
after starting a job.
Problems during critical or sensitive periods in childhood do not
necessarily mean that early experience is irrevocably embedded in the
personality. Later experiences may be equally influential, or even more so,
and an early harmful experience may be neutralised by a subsequent
positive one.
In contrast to critical or sensitive events, optimal periods refer to
experiences when maturation and learning are optimal for successful
development, or the points at which people are sufficiently mature to
benefit from certain experiences. This may include how certain
developmental crises or conflicts from earlier periods are resolved, such as
experiences at school or during a first job encounter. A high level of career
maturity is achieved if an individual’s career decisions are characterised by
decisiveness, involvement, independence, task orientation and the
willingness to balance personal needs and the realities and requirements of
the work situation (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). Career maturity is
influenced by every life stage, and differences are related to people’s
different attributes and circumstances. A related concept is career selfefficacy (Lippke, 2017; Maddux, 2012; Cherry, 2020), which refers to
people’s belief in their abilities, sense of self-control, and the expectations
of being successful in specific career-related tasks (see Section 4.7.2). Selfefficacy is reported to relate positively to various aspects in life and workrelated variables (Lopez et al., 2015; Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Coetzee
& Schreuder, 2021).
During lifespan development and integration in the domains of
physical, cognitive, moral and psychosocial development, people need to
complete certain development tasks or competencies related to learning,
work and career choice.
4.5.4.1
Career development theories or approaches
There are a number of psychological theories that relate to career
development, career choice and career counselling many of which are still
utilised in research and counselling practices (Louw & Louw, 2020;
Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). Occupational development and choice
theories provide frameworks for organisations, career development
practitioners (CDPs) and career counsellors with regard to career
development, career choices and decisions and career counselling. In South
Africa, psychological counselling, including career counselling, is a
regulated profession and the Professional Board for Psychology (PBP)
requires specific training, competencies and professional requirements for
registration (DHET, 2015a,b). Career development and career choice
theories can be classified in a number of ways (Coetzee & Schreuder,
2021; Sharf, 2010). Coetzee & Schreuder (2021) provide detailed
explanations and applications of many career developmental theories:
• Trait and type theories are about the individual differences in attributes
(personality, abilities, interests and values) in people that must be
assessed and compared to attributes in different jobs, careers and work
environments in order to make congruent choices.
• Person-environment fit theories emphasise the fit between the person
and their chosen job or career, as in Holland’s personality and
occupational type theory, Dawis and Lofquist’s (1993) person and
environment congruence theory, as well as Spranger and Brown’s value
theory. The needs theories of Roe and Maslow also explain differences
in motivation or needs between people with regard to needs
satisfaction and their workplace and career choices.
• Contextual theories refer to a person’s environmental conditions, living
circumstances and related opportunities that influence their general
and career development. Contextual approaches include socio-cultural
theory and the systems theory (see Section 4.3.3). The latter is similar
to Cook, Heppner and O’Brien’s race/gender ecological theory, which
relates to the ongoing interaction between people and their
environments or the various systems that impact on their career
development and choices. Brown’s value theory emphasises the role of
values acquired in society that determine various domains of behaviour,
including life and work roles. The African and Eastern psychologies
also emphasise the interactional nature and roles of culture, the broader
cosmos, community, religion, people and nature in the progressive
learning of life, work and career roles.
• Psychodynamic approaches emphasise unconscious influences, as well
as childhood and past experiences, in the progressive development of
the individual towards an integrated and healthy self-identity.
Examples are the psychodynamic theories of Freud, Jung, Adler,
Erikson and Bordin.
• Learning or behaviouristic perspectives emphasise acquired behaviours
and career-related concepts through various learning influences like
modelling and imitation. Career development is viewed as a decisionmaking process and the development of self-efficacy and other career
related cognitive constructs. Applications of the learning approach
relate to the traditional learning theories, social-cognitive approaches,
the decision-making theory of Krumboltz and the self-efficacy concept
advanced by Hackett, Betz and Bandura.
• Cognitive-oriented approaches include cognitive and learning theory,
information-processing and decision-making theory, for example those
of Krumboltz, Lent and Brown, Bandura and Hackett and Betz’s selfefficacy theory (Ballout, 2009). Part of human development relates to
cognitive and intellectual development and learning across the lifespan
in certain stages.
• Relational approaches, for example Roe’s theory, acknowledge the roles
and contributions of parents and other family in the career
development and career choices of people across the lifespan.
• Life stage and lifespan theories, such as those of Freud, Erikson and
Super, emphasise human development, but focus particularly on early
life stages. These approaches emphasise career development in ongoing
life stages from birth to old age. Super, for example, associated his
theory of lifespan development to progressive ego or self-development,
and Erikson emphasised development across eight stages towards egointegrity. The life career decision-making theory of Tiedeman, O’Hara
and Miller and Tiedeman, which is related to Erikson’s theory,
explains career development as a decision-making process during the
progressive development of ego-identity across the lifespan.
• Postmodern or contemporary approaches relate to peoples’ own
perception and subjective constructions of what life, work and careers
mean. This is associated with the validity or the market and social
relevance of psychological theory and practices like career development,
choice theories and counselling (Ebersohn, 2012; Maree, 2010;
Pretorius, 2012). In addition to the calls for the indigenisation and
adaptation of psychologies and practices for specific cultures, career
development theory must also provide for the ongoing changes in the
nature of work and workplaces. This consideration applies to the
technology and information age of work in the 2020s and beyond,
where change and discontinuity will increasingly require people to find
meaning in work. Career development theory also requires ongoing
redefinition of what work is, what a career is, how careers develop in
modern work-life, what future competencies will be necessary and so
on. New or postmodern perspectives imply deconstruction,
construction and social construction of new meanings. The
technological focus of the 4IR is not necessarily negative because in
many industries, traditional types of manual and semi-automated jobs
will still exist. Many of the traditional paradigms and theories and
related concepts still have applicable meaning and value and can be
used or adapted in technology-driven work contexts. From an African
perspective, construction of meaning and practice will have to include
cross-cultural assumptions like individualistic and collective
orientations, as well as established and new intervention counselling,
and empirical and more subjective methods for assessment and
research in career counselling. Mark Savickas’s approach of career
construction for life designing theory and intervention refers to an
individual’s career construction in which subjective meaning is given
to career behaviour and experiences (Savickas, 2012; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). The subjective construction of a person’s career is a
central aspect based on personal narrative as well as future expectations
within a certain social context. In terms of the social and communal
emphasis in African and Eastern cultures in South Africa, the social
construction approach is arguably necessary. Career counselling must
use concepts and methods that have meaning and value for the
individual in terms of their culture. More qualitative, intuitive and
subjective assessment, research and counselling methods should be
used, for example, lifeline analysis, storytelling or narrative analysis,
experiences, memories and expectations. The idea is that a person’s
career concepts or meaning constructions are the ongoing
consequences of all present, past and future recollections. These serve
as a meaningful career life theme or story and will inform career
development and choice issues (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016;
Ebersohn, 2012; Maree, 2010; Louw & Louw, 2020). The modern,
experienced career counsellor will use all relevant career information
and methodologies, inter alia, the career construction life designing
approach, to assess and facilitate career-related issues. A cross-cultural
approach in career theory and interventions will obviously have to be
translated and used in the analysis of work and organisational
attributes, as well as the career-related tasks and competencies
necessary in new work, organisational, management and career
counselling designs.
• The kaleidoscope career model (KCM) is a test and learn model of
career planning and implementation (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). It
is a recent approach to understand contemporary and more subjective
career orientations, for example, in the uncertainties of work
environments in the 4IR and beyond, the individual will have to
experience a number of jobs or projects to establish their career choice.
Contemporary and future work organisations have less structure,
provide fewer career opportunities and expect the individual to
selfmanage their career and opportunities. People will base their career
choices and assessment of career success on subjective reasons, their
values and need for authenticity, challenge and balance (Koekemoer &
Crafford, 2019; Visagie & Koekemoer, 2019; Mainiero & Gibson,
2017):
» Authenticity is the individual’s need to be true to themselves and
their values.
» Balance is the need for a balanced work/family life.
» Challenge is the need to be engaged in meaningful and selfmotivating work activities.
The KCM is a useful approach to navigate career fit in the workplace
of information technology, digitisation, automatisation and AI
(Mainier & Gibson, 2017).
• Career and employee well-being concepts, which are emphasised in
positive psychology, relate to the facilitation of health resources or
strengths in people to create purpose and meaning and positive
attitudes and emotions to render people competent and resilient
(Robertson, 2017; Littman-Ovadia et al., 2014; Maree, 2010). This
may vary from enhancing personal initiative in children to improving
engagement and flourishing in adult employees (Rothmann, 2021 in
Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021; Redelinhuys, Rothmann & Botha, 2019;
Sanderson, 2017). Although not a theory on occupational development
and choice, concepts and assumptions from positive psychology and
well-being can be utilised to facilitate vocational development tasks
and career choice issues in career counselling and to enhance career
adaptation and self-management.
4.5.4.2
Career patterns, formats, growth and success
It is necessary to indicate that definitions of career types vary in pattern
and format. (Arnold & Randall, 2010; Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016;
Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). Career types indicate the stability and kinds
of jobs people may have. In future, work and careers will be characterised
by:
1 Entrepreneurial attitudes.
2 Subjectivity and self-management by self-directed individuals.
3 Multiple work experiences in various work settings.
4 Mobility and, therefore, shorter job durations.
5 Multiple skills for flexibility and employability.
Peoples’ job and career experiences and roles will become more
boundaryless (Hoekstra, 2011; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). Employees
will have to increasingly self-manage their careers and organisations will
have a lesser role in enhancing employee careers. Employability and career
success will be determined by a person’s subjective feelings. In the diverse
South African context, however, many current jobs, career patterns and
formats will remain, even if technology changes.
Career patterns are described as linear, spiral, transitory and expert,
depending on the employee’s profile with regard to reasons for working,
career motives, values and anchors (Biermann, Zacher & Feldman, 2012;
Greenhaus & Kossek, 2014; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021):
• Linear: Characterised by individuals who prefer leadership positions
and like to be promoted in the organisational hierarchy.
• Spiral: An employee who is inconsistent and often changes jobs or
fields of work.
• Transitory: A job and career profile characterised by inconsistency and
many changes.
• Expert: Someone who prefers to stay in a lifelong job, becoming an
expert in a specific field.
We will now look at career formats, which are present in the diverse South
African work environment where a mix of manual, semi-manual and
technology-driven jobs will co-exist for the immediate future (Schreuder &
Coetzee, 2016; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021):
• A single job in one organisation, or career in a medical, legal,
psychology or other profession across the lifespan.
• A career or a job, or a number of job transitions in one or more
organisations.
• A boundaryless career, for example, a professional consultant who
manages their own career with high employability in which the
individual is not necessarily bound by any particular organisation or set
of skills. This is related to entrepreneurship, and these individuals may
use networking as a tool, may work simultaneously in a number of
organisations and create their own work-life balance (Arthur,
Khapova & Wilderom, 2005).
• A protean career (can change form), which is related to the
boundaryless career, and is entrepreneurial. This refers to an individual
who enjoys freedom and autonomy, and shapes and self-manages their
career within an organisation in a proactive way. They achieve growth
in their career through self-direction, self-driven transitions and
flexibility in changing circumstances, which enhances employability
(Hall et al., 2018; Breevaart, Bakker & Demerouti, 2014). The
emphasis is on flexibility, adaptability and employability and not
particularly on career security (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). Protean
careers are relevant in the digital and AI technology applications of the
4IR.
• The gig economy is characterised by flexible, freelance, demandspecific work or projects carried out by independent consultants and
freelance or temporary workers. These projects are generally very
specific in purpose (Businesstech, 2017). Individuals who participate in
the gig economy fit the description of protean career workers who can
quickly adapt to specific new situations and technologies.
Organisational development of employee careers will arguably
diminish, with the emphasis on an individual’s contract with
themselves to be successful. This may facilitate a more serious
consideration and evaluation of work values and its meaning and
advantages (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). Ongoing and lifelong
learning remains a necessary requirement in most future jobs, and
especially for the protean type of careers.
Growth in careers usually fits one of the above formats. The paths that
people and organisations follow will vary and are influenced by many
factors, including opportunities in labour markets, the structures of
workplaces, whether people are self-employed or not, and the subjective
preferences and career anchors of employees. Linear growth in the form of
promotions or business ownership is based on climbing the hierarchy of an
organisation and on work skills and managerial, leadership and
entrepreneurial competencies. Horizontal growth refers to the subjective
need to be proficient and have skilled functional or technical competence
to achieve improved and advanced levels of subject knowledge and
multiple skills. Career pathing is the consideration of potential routes and
activities to follow in order to advance a career. This may include
organisational and personal career counselling, succession planning in job
and organisational structures and plateauing (Baruch, 2006; Schreuder &
Coetzee, 2016; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
Career success means many things for many people (Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). It is mostly related to personal objectives and
achievements, which may bring status, income and awards. In some
collective cultures, linear success is only acceptable if it is according to
collective values and for the greater good of families and communities
(Meyer et al., 2014). Career success for others may be based on subjective
feelings and recognition for being proficient in one or more fields, or
working for the greater good of people in general (Gunz & Heslin, 2005;
Koekemoer, Fourie & Jorgenson, 2018; Koekemoer, Visagie & Crafford,
2019). In positive psychology terms, the latter orientation relates to
eudemonic well-being or happiness. Eudemonic happiness goes beyond
the pleasure of hedonistic enjoyment, and relates to transcending your own
needs in order to pursue meaningful life activities in the service of others
(Day et al., 2014). For some people, a successful work-life balance may
relate to career success, or their subjective sense of career success may be
associated with feelings and experiences of well-being (Rothmann in
Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021; Coetzee & Bergh, 2009). Considering the
many traditional gender roles, career success for many women may be
found in feelings of being successful in family, marriage and work roles or
having achieved successful work-life balance and flexibility (Galinsky &
Matos, 2011). Many parents consider providing children with the life skills
and other resources required to live healthy and successful lives in their
various life and career roles as part of their life and work tasks (Hook et al.,
2004; Tajlili, 2014).
In the current rapidly changing work environment, career security and
longevity is uncertain. Career self-management is aimed at ensuring
employability in this environment through the processes of career
adaptation and lifelong learning to ensure updated competencies are
applicable in available job opportunities. In the process of securing
employability, people can utilise various forms of accumulated resources or
capital, for example, human, career, social and cultural (Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). These forms of capital or resources include education,
valuable professional and personal experiences, relationships and social
networks, knowledge from previous jobs, and cultural advantages like
values, customs and social behaviours (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
An objective, sensible choice for any person would be to remain job
and career fit – ready to be employed. Work competencies must be kept up
to date and employees should be adaptable and employable for different
tasks and jobs. Career and job adaptation includes a person’s interest in a
career and control of it, as well as adaptive behaviours like the ability to
learn, adapt career development and self-management behaviours in order
to meet required job standards in new and changed situations (Hirschi et
al., 2015). Adaptation requires initiative, self-motivation and control,
agility or readiness to learn and resilience to continue. Employability
includes adaptability and refers to a person’s job and career readiness for
available current and future positions. Employability is achieved by a
positive attitude towards change as well as lifelong learning to obtain and
adapt knowledge, skills and other attributes that in changing work
environments will match work requirements and standards (Bezuidenhout,
2011; Cai, 2013; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
4.6
Lifespan development and career
stages and tasks
Human and career development takes place across the lifespan during
certain age-and non-age normed life and career stages. These stages relate
to the development and affirmation of applicable life and work-related
development tasks (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Coetzee & Schreuder,
2021). Career development tasks evolve to progressively develop a work
personality or career identity with applicable work behaviours and
decision-making skills to select and enter job positions. This implies a
preoccupation with and acquisition of life and work-related tasks or
competencies (abilities, behaviour, emotions, knowledge, values and
attitudes). Age-related changes and developments in people occur in the
context of many factors, especially psycho-biological determination, that is,
genetics and environmental learning.
Different stages are not necessarily totally independent, and earlier
phases may influence later phases, more so if certain development tasks
were frustrated or poorly completed. The precise age duration of each
stage is not an exact science, because life and career stages may become
fused across the lifespan. The continuous nature of development and
change is emphasised. Differences between people occur for many reasons,
for instance, genetically, different environmental opportunities, culturally
or as a result of unexpected events (see Section 4.3). Examples include the
consequences of an increasingly technology-driven world, the impact of
Covid-19, weak economies and increasing unemployment.
Life and work or career development stages across the lifespan, are
influenced by changes in the physical, cognitive, emotional and social
domains of human behaviour. Development across life stages contributes
to establishing, exploring and maintaining a career, managing and
adapting to change and decelerating career activities, as well as finally
exiting from work roles.
The brief emphasis on the early development years in this chapter
relates to the influence of these years on the adolescent, young adult and
adult stages of development, when work and career involvement is
demonstrated as one of the central aspects in human life. In this chapter,
we have referred to a few psychologists, like Piaget and Freud, who
emphasised development in the early childhood years and stages. Others,
like Super and Erikson, emphasised development in phases, but along a
lifelong process (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
Figure 4.4
Career competencies apply to life tasks at certain stages
SOURCE Shutterstock Gorodenkoff
4.6.1
Erikson’s stages
development
of
psychosocial
Erikson regarded human development as a lifelong process of psychosocial
development spanning eight stages. These stages occur according to a
genetic plan, the epigenetic principle, over a lifespan towards the
acquisition of ego-identity and are part of socio-emotional development
(Erikson, 1963; Morris & Maisto, 2016; King, 2011; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). As in Freud’s psychosexual stages, the ideal is to fulfil
certain development tasks and to develop ego-identity by resolving
conflicts or crises in the eight consecutive stages from birth to adulthood.
Each phase is a critical period for developing certain ego attributes or
psychosocial tasks that determine the individual’s self-concept and may
influence behaviour for the rest of the person’s life. Each stage incorporates
a psychosocial crisis, such as trust versus mistrust. The satisfactory
resolution of each psychosocial crisis depends on a balanced integration of
the opposing forces, which depends on a person’s social-learning
experiences. Although early phases do influence later stages,
developmental problems can be rectified if an individual in a later stage
receives what they were deprived of in an earlier stage. The last five stages
are especially relevant for adult occupational behaviours.
Erikson’s eight stages of lifelong development are discussed in the
following sections. For comparison, Freud’s psychosexual stages are also
provided in the first five sub-headings in separate brackets (King, 2011;
Morris & Maisto, 2016).
4.6.1.1
Trust versus mistrust (first year of life – sensory) (oral)
During infancy, trust, a sense of inner security and feelings of mutuality
develop as a result of satisfactory care (for example, maternal care). Trust is
the infant’s first social achievement, in that the mother is trusted, even if
she is occasionally absent.
Mistrust is manifested in a sense of rejection, with concomitant
scepticism towards people. These attitudes, either mistrust (with
pessimism) or trust (with optimism), remain with the individual
throughout life. A core psychological problem that may develop is
withdrawal.
4.6.1.2
Autonomy versus shame and doubt (two to three years –
muscular) (anal)
The maturation of physical functions (for example, control over excretory
functions) teaches the child self-control and adequacy. This which fosters a
sense of self-esteem, pride and autonomy. The imitation of parents’
behaviours is an important mechanism to resolve psychosocial crises.
Frustrations in these areas may, in the adult, foster feelings of
inadequacy, self-doubt, a lack of assertiveness and a lack of self-control. A
core pathology may develop as a compulsion or manifest in repetitive
behaviours.
4.6.1.3
Initiative versus guilt (four to five years – locomotor)
(phallic)
The young child learns initiative by sharing responsibilities, such as the
care of younger children and exploring the environment. They identify and
internalise the qualities of the provider (for example, the parent), who the
child will become in due course. Identification is an important mechanism
to resolve developmental crises.
If the child fails to develop initiative and is criticised too frequently,
they may grow into an adult whose core pathology consists of inhibition of
potential, or they may develop psychosomatic ailments to evade
responsibility or overcompensate for a lack of initiative (for instance, by
boasting).
4.6.1.4
Industry versus inferiority (6–11 years through to puberty
– latency)
At school-going age, a child is ready to acquire qualities of productivity,
such as perseverance and task completion, and to develop a sense of
learning, accomplishment and competency. They are introduced to the
concepts of division of labour and specialisation and learn the significance
of status and roles through the opinions of peers. Even in non-literate
societies, children may learn industry by getting to know the basics of their
society’s technology and economy (for example, how to use tools for
hunting and fishing). In societies characterised by industry, education is a
central process in resolving psychosocial crises.
A core pathology may develop if the child is unable to do what is
expected of them (inertia) or if a negative assessment by others gives rise to
feelings of inferiority (as in the case of people who are not even willing to
try because they think they are not worthy). This may manifest in fear of
success and learned helplessness; it is found in people who, out of fear,
cannot be self-sufficient.
4.6.1.5
Identity versus role diffusion (12–18 years – puberty or
early adolescence)
During adolescence, all the qualities and roles developed during the
previous phases find expression in a broader social context. Teenagers test
their ego-identity by belonging to groups and by falling in love.
If individuals feel that they do not have the same identity in other
people’s eyes as they have in their own, they become confused about their
roles in life and about who and what they really are. A core pathology that
may develop is an inability to connect meaningfully with others.
4.6.1.6
Intimacy versus
adulthood)
isolation
(late
adolescence/early
Young adults share their identity with others through affiliation and
friendship. This is accompanied by a strong ethical awareness, the ability
to commit themselves to intimate relationships and experiment with
various life roles. Role experimentation is an important mechanism in
solving psychosocial crises. The ideal form of intimacy is a relationship
based on mutual trust, the sharing of the work and recreation spheres and
mutual, simultaneous sexual satisfaction.
A lack of intimacy creates a sense of isolation and produces people who
are self-absorbed. A core pathology that may develop is an inability to
assume other roles. Successful resolution of intimacy conflicts is based on
the development tasks during the previous phases.
4.6.1.7
Generativity versus stagnation (adulthood)
As individuals proceed into adult life, they need to feel needed, especially
in relationships with peers and family, and need meaningful interaction in
the social environment, like in study and work. They may also satisfy this
need by, for example, caring for children or by societal involvement. This
desire to give is not the same as the mere desire to have children.
Generativity and creativity may also find expression in spiritual work, in
the sense of caring for other living creatures, charitable work and even in
career efforts. However, in Erikson’s view, this can never compensate for
genuine involvement with offspring.
A lack of self-fulfilment leads to a preoccupation with the self, as, for
example, in someone who sees themself as a child, as a helpless invalid, or
who becomes so wrapped up in a marriage partner that he or she regards
the other person as their only child. A core pathology may be expressed as
an inability to include others in generative activities.
4.6.1.8
Ego-integrity versus despair (ageing/maturity)
If all the conflicts of the previous phases have been resolved and healthy
ego characteristics have developed, the aged individual accepts their life
cycle with a spiritual sense of order and meaning, which provides
emotional integration and softens the fear of death. Important
mechanisms to resolve psychosocial crises at this stage are introspection
and nostalgic remembering.
Despair in people is possibly manifested by a feeling that life is too
short. Such people are inclined to regard others with disapproval, which is
merely a form of self-reproach. This may be the case in many older people
when they experience their lives, relationships and activities as
meaningless. Core pathologies are recognised as bitterness, self-doubt and
disdain at one’s own and others’ weaknesses.
4.7
Specific career transitions and
tasks
During lifespan development and integration in the domains of physical,
cognitive, moral and psychosocial development, people need to complete
certain development tasks or competencies related to learning, work and
career choice. The completion of development tasks for various life roles,
including for work and a career, is determined by all age-norm influences
(what can be expected at particular ages) (see Section 4.3.3). However, as
indicated, continuous change (a non-age norm influence) is a characteristic
of the modern world of work, as is the ever-narrowing relationship
between home/private and work life. This means that employees (potential
and existing), must develop attributes of adaptation and resilience to be
able to stay employable, adapt quickly and make sense of new situations in
contemporary careers.
Long career tenure is an uncertainty, but mobility in and between
many jobs at an early age could become a norm. The lifespan development
of many individuals can therefore be shortened or lengthened, depending
on the changes that they encounter. There may be a number of shorter
work or job-related experiences, which can contribute to adaptability and
employability if individuals maintain their competencies (Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). Making study, job and career changes in order to follow
another direction may rearrange the various career stages and related tasks.
Coetzee & Schreuder (2016) developed the term psychosocial career
preoccupation with regard to career establishment, career adaptation and
work-life adjustments. This explains a mental state of readiness, or
becoming involved or engaged in career issues at certain times, which may
be unrelated to specific adult ages. These career preoccupations relate to
the changing nature of modern work and organisational circumstances
which emphasise adaptability, employability and career self-management
skills (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
In contemporary life, many changes and requirements make it difficult
to find exact age indicators for certain career development stages as
milestones may have shifted. Emerging adults between the ages of 18 and
30 are often still studying, finding jobs, travelling, involved in sport, living
with relatives, unmarried, unemployed and have not started their own
families. Therefore, even though many people may consider themselves
adult at 21 and have developed an array of attributes by the age of 30, their
observations on their life and career competencies may not always be
aligned with what is expected from them in life and work roles. For these
reasons, indications of stages often overlap and may vary.
Work or career-related competencies across the various life and age
stages (including physical, motor, cognitive, emotional, social and moral
domains) are relevant in jobs and careers. Examples include:
• The ability to make early career and organisational choices.
• Cope with the physical tasks of work.
• Execute simple to advanced motor movements.
• Have healthy and realistic perceptual processes.
• Understand and execute simple and complex cognitive tasks.
• Demonstrate moral and ethical behaviour and decision-making.
• Be culturally competent and establish and maintain positive
relationships in and outside work.
As mentioned, there are many career development and choice theories, for
example, those of Ginsberg, Super, Levinson, Roe, Holland and
Havighurst (Arnold & Randall, 2010; Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Sharf,
2010; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
For Super, career development, career adjustment and career maturity
are related to expressions of self-concept, whereas Havighurst emphasises
the development of skills and attitudes. Table 4.2 integrates the views of
Super and Havighurst and others, for example, Coetzee and Schreuder, on
career stages and necessary development tasks.
Table 4.2
Career stages and tasks
Ages and phases
Tasks and transitions
Growth phase (0–14):
• General physical and mental growth
0–3 Pre-vocational
4–10 Fantasy
11–12 Interest
13–14 Capacity
building
• No or little career interest
• Fantasy or games about work based on
identification with parents, other models
• Likes and dislikes form the basis for job
and career interest
• Abilities as the basis for thinking about
jobs and careers through schoolwork,
learning priorities, organising time and
doing and completing tasks at home and
school
• Sexual maturation at about 10 to 12
years, interest in relationships.
Exploration phase (15–
24):
15–17 Tentative
18–21 Transition
22–24 Trial and error
• Broad exploration of work
• Various attributes (such as abilities,
interests and values) become the basis
for occupational choices
• Finding more job knowledge, specific
and realistic about career choices, parttime jobs, study and job entry
• Exploring job fit, study and entry into
first job, identity as person and worker,
trial-and-error, possibly first job
changes, life partner choice.
Establishment phase
(25–44):
25–30 Trial
31–44 Stabilisation
• More permanent job or career – creative
years
• Becoming established in a job/s,
possible changes of jobs and career,
marriage, promotions, new challenges
• Consolidating, productive, stable work in
a given job and career, updating
knowledge, skills
• Moving ahead, improving, advancing,
maintaining income, lifestyle and
societal roles.
Maintenance phase
(45–65):
45-65 Managing
maintenance of career
• Progress and continuation in a given
career line
• Holding job, wisdom, updating and
innovating, possible mid-career crises,
women’s menopause, sexual activity
decreases
• Maintaining societal roles and possibly
planning for retirement, some decline in
abilities, general intellect and problem
solving still good, more involved in
family.
Decline/disengagement
phase 65+:
65–70 Deceleration71+
Retirement
• Preparation to retire
• Wisdom and experience, deceleration
and decline in capabilities, but
dependent on health, mentoring
functions, planning to retire
• Ceasing work, contemplating life
• If disengagement happens at an earlier
age, or after self-doubt, career renewal
or transition to another job/career may
take place.
SOURCEs Super & Havighurst (adapted from Craig, 1996; Sharf, 1997; Weiten & Lloyd, 2003)
Note: Each career stage involves the self-management of career
development tasks. Fulfilling the tasks prepares a person for the next stage
and ensures career adaptation and success in each stage, which enables
employability in adult life. All the possible changes in a person, work and
work environments may cause repetitions in career stages (Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). For example, a person may enter a job during the
maintenance phase, but decides to start their own business, which may
direct them back to the exploration or establishment stage.
4.7.1
Influence of the early childhood years
It is beyond this chapter’s scope to explain child development in detail,
however, development during these early years may have a telling influence
on adult functioning in many life and work roles (Louw & Louw. 2019;
Louw & Louw, 2020). The type of learning, perceptions and experiences
during childhood translate into the quality of an individual’s social,
emotional and cognitive development, which manifests in related skills and
knowledge in the various stages. In South Africa’s multicultural society,
many differences exist, particularly with regard to past exclusions and
discriminatory practices. These factors and poor socio-economic
circumstances contributed to the exclusion of many young children from
basic educational opportunities, which may result in poorly developed life
and work competencies. The South African government has prioritised
early child development (ECD) and, together with other agencies, has
initiated a number of ECD programmes in an attempt to alleviate the
negative impact of poverty and other disruptive influences (National
Development Agency (NDA), 2016; Van Niekerk & Ashley, 2017;
Mabugu & Rakabe, 2015).
From birth to puberty, vocational development is strongly influenced
by the nuclear family (parents and siblings) as well as extended family,
community members and the media (King, 2011; Morris & Maisto, 2016;
Louw & Louw, 2019, 2020). The young child’s vocational learning
happens especially through play, fantasy and observation that is based on
examples, modelling and imitation of parents, family and other figures,
events and technology. The middle childhood years from about 6 to 11–12
years build on the development tasks of the early years. Together with
advances in physical, cognitive and psychosocial development, there is an
increasing awareness of gender identity and gender roles, and sexual
behaviour is expressed in games. Sexual maturity commences at puberty
(around 11 years of age).
The child, under the influences of genetic potential and environmental
learning, expands and establishes their occupational self-concepts and
identity in the various phases of childhood development (from infancy to
adolescence). It progresses from a concrete understanding of, and playful
orientation towards, occupational concepts to more introspective thinking
and realistic appreciation of the self, life and their aspirations. This
includes a consideration of personal attributes including qualifications,
abilities and interests. For Gottfredson, a child’s occupational development
is a process of continuous navigation, or circumspection and elimination
and narrowing options, which is continued in the adult occupational life.
The following sections provide an integrated discussion of
development tasks in adolescent and adult career transitions, as broadly
reflected in Table 4.2.
4.7.2
Adolescence: Occupational choice and
preparation
Adolescence is considered as spanning the years after middle childhood or
puberty to between 12 to 18 years of age. In some contemporary societies,
adolescence may relate to an extended or diffused state of adolescence or is
part of an emerging adulthood that is extended between the age of 18 and
25/27 (Arnett, 2000). In general, adolescence is a stage in which the
individual explores their self-identity with regard to world views, gender
relations, own attributes and opportunities for study in order to establish
their occupational identity (Louw & Louw, 2014; Louw & Louw, 2020).
Early study and work experiences may be an exploration of work values,
which may influence future work life. Part-time work and first jobs may be
considered a source of income to finance study and leisure interests.
The critical issue of early life development in terms of adult career
adjustment is whether the adolescent has achieved integration of selfidentity and is prepared to fulfil various roles. At puberty (11 to 12 years)
sexual maturity commences, and the adolescent should have reached some
maturity with regard to most domains of functioning and good reality
perceptions of themselves, life and work. They may be mature in some
respects, but not yet ready for other roles; for example, the adolescent may
have matured sexually, but remains immature for marriage and
parenthood. Cognitive and moral development is still progressing in order
to understand and assess the greater complexities of life. These early
phases and the nature of the modern world of work, emphasise the role of
career counsellors to facilitate these skills and encourage career selfmanagement, career adaptation, employability and entrepreneurial
possibilities (especially important in this age of technology).
The development of career maturity involves tasks towards becoming
independent and autonomous from parents, while keeping supportive
relationships. In the midst of the current global unemployment and job
scarcity, many young people may depend on parental support for an
extended period of time. Unemployment in SA is currently above 30 per
cent, while unemployment among South African youth (14 to 35 years of
age) is above 55 per cent. Both figures are among the highest in the world
(Statistics South Africa, 2020; Trading Economics, 2020). Important
career-development tasks for career maturity at this stage (just before
career entry or tertiary studies) are provided by Super and Crites (in Craig,
2001, 2006; Sharf, 2010). These tasks include the competencies to make
choices and the development of certain work-related attitudes:
• Career orientation: Is the person’s active involvement and
commitment in the process of career choice (that is, knowing what is
expected, obtaining job knowledge and using information, interests,
values and abilities to solve career-choice problems).
• Career information and planning: Requires the ability to explore
career options and gather the necessary information to plan for and
decide on a certain career.
• Consistency of career preferences: Relates to consistency of choice
over time, but also to choices within career directions. In current times,
however, young people should be aware of change, mobility and
discontinuity in the work scene, and the need for continuous or
lifelong learning.
• Certainty or crystallisation of concepts: Relates to attitudes about
work and careers, for example, values and self-identity.
• Wisdom of vocational choices: Relates to a realistic choice based on
an assessment of abilities, interests and other attributes compared to
the availability and requirements of possible jobs or careers. This is
especially important during the transition stage (18–21 years), when
the young adult must decide on a study and career direction and even
start to work.
Marcia (1966; Batool & Ghayas, 2020) expanded on Erikson’s identityversus-identity-diffusion stage, in that adolescents may experience four
types of ego-identity statuses in career-choice issues, as explained in the
following information box. Other researchers have, however, suggested
two stages instead of Marcia’s four stages (Luyckx, Goossens & Soenens,
2005). The development of these career-related tasks must be considered
in terms of the physical, cognitive and emotional changes during this
youthful stage. Career choice uncertainty may exist for many reasons,
including personal attributes, environmental factors and poor completion
of the development tasks in early and later childhood. Career choice is a
main task and challenge in the practice of career counselling (Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021).
Other important concerns of adolescents are physical and body-image
awareness, sexual maturity and experimentation, a search for self-identity
and adult levels of thinking. However, owing to long periods of study and
financial and emotional dependence on parents, as well as the pressures of
career choices, adolescents often experience emotional turmoil and identity
confusion. Unresolved conflicts from previous stages and other events, for
example, unwanted pregnancies, a lack of support from family and
communities, substance abuse, HIV and Aids, unemployment and lawenforcement problems, render many youths vulnerable and may intensify
the difficulties in personal and career adjustment (Weiten, 2016).
Adolescents’ rebellious behaviour and criticism of self, parents and
norms can also be interpreted as attempts to behave, feel and think more
independently. However, emotional insecurity may result in overreaction,
impulsiveness or poor choices. By the time they enter a career, youths must
have learnt to accept legitimate authority, be able to work in groups and
value relationships and co-operation. At this stage, greater analytical
powers should enable the adolescent to make early career decisions and
assess the overload of information on careers that they encounter at this
stage.
Example box
Four types of ego-identity statuses
If adolescents are able to explore many possibilities and seek information about themselves
before making choices on study and career issues, they have obtained occupational identity
with no identity confusion.
If an adolescent cannot make a choice as yet, they are said to be in a moratorium; an
ongoing state of uncertainty.
An adolescent who cannot make, or avoids making any career decision, such as which
subjects to major in, may be experiencing vocational identity diffusion. This can, in turn,
lead to trying a number of jobs without success. Such individuals may become failures in
society, with all the accompanying problems.
Identity diffusion exists in an adolescent who thinks they have made the right career
choice, for example, to be a pilot, just because they always wanted to be a pilot or because
others wanted them to be a pilot. Such an individual’s vocational identity is foreclosed, or
rigid, because they cannot consider other options and may make an incorrect choice,
although such decisions may not necessarily cause a crisis or anxiety.
SOURCE Marcia (1966)
Adolescents’ sense of self-identity is not only increased by experimenting
sexually and emotionally in new attachments and critically using adult
cognitive powers, but also in the process of separating from their families.
The adolescent who is separating from their family must acquire four types
of independence (Hoffman, 1984):
• Emotional independence (being less dependent on acceptance and
affection from others).
• Attitudinal independence (developing own attitudes and values).
• Functional independence (solving own problems and being financially
more independent).
• Conflictual independence (separating without feelings of guilt or
remorse).
Part of adolescents’ adjustment lies in the type of agreement and mutual
support that exists between them, their parents and the community as they
search for their own identity and greater freedom (Craig, 1996). Some
cultural differences may exist in regard to separating from parents and
family. Generally, in Western cultures there is a tendency for young people
to be independent (Turan, Celik & Turan, 2014). In some traditional
African cultures, young adults often remain with their parents and in
communal life until marriage, a custom that may be quite different in
urban societies, where communality may be diminished through, inter alia,
relocations, cross-cultural influences and poor socio-economic conditions.
Adolescents subjected to these poor socio-economic circumstances,
including high unemployment, unwanted pregnancies, crime and HIV and
Aids, will, in all likelihood, not receive the necessary stimulation and
opportunities to develop and achieve the necessary self-identity and agerelated life and career competencies (Steyn, Badenhorst, & Kamper, 2010;
Ferguson, Bovaird & Mueller, 2007). This is especially true as adolescence,
even under normal circumstances, is a time of turmoil during which the
young person tries to find stability among many influences (Schreuder &
Coetzee, 2016).
4.7.3
Adult career development
Traditionally, adult career development can be subdivided into the early
adult career (28-45), mid-adult career (45-60) and late-adult career and
retirement (60 and beyond) stages. The primary career development tasks
and competencies in adulthood relate to self-knowledge, educational and
occupational exploration and career planning (Louw & Louw, 2019;
Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
In contemporary times, adult male and female careers and work are
deemed equally important and many aspects in career development are
similar (Galinsky & Matos, 2011). However, life is very different for
women in many respects and important differences in career development
and work experiences remain, for example, gender stereotyping (Forret,
Sullivan & Mainiero, 2010; Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). Certain roles in families, society and work are still
associated with either men or women. In some cultures, gender
stereotyping is no longer as prevalent as in others; for example, where there
is increased workplace equality between men and women with regards to
jobs and positions. For many women, however, there is conflict between
life-work balance (balancing work and other life interests, for example,
child rearing). Women may experience role and choice conflicts, for
example, in having children early or later, interrupting a career and or
starting a career at a later age (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021; August, 2011;
Louw & Louw, 2019).
Women in contemporary societies should have equal career growth
opportunities, but for various reasons, they may experience more career
transitions, miss opportunities and may not have the same linear status in
jobs and careers. They may also adapt or give up earlier career aspirations
in favour of family considerations (Galansky & Matos, 2011; Tajlily,
2014). Where there is an expectation of a specific domestic role for
women, the stress of balancing work and family life may require career
adjustment, bringing with it further challenges. This is applicable, for
instance, in the case of many dual-career and dual-earning couples where
time, income, work and family responsibilities and roles are often in
conflict (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016 Magnini, 2009). In modern work
life, where the interaction between work and private lives has merged even
further, specifically with the impact of Covid-19 and new technologies
(virtual working, telecommuting), work-family conflict may intensify.
Career development for women is arguably another area where career
developmental theory and practices should be adapted as much of the
earlier research focused on male career issues.
There are many factors affecting people in work and life that will
influence their work-life definition. Perhaps a balanced outcome is
personal well-being and the achievement of realistic goals, leading to the
enjoyment of both worlds (Delecta, 2011; Galinsky & Matos, 2011;
Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
4.7.3.1
Early adulthood: Job entry,
achievement in the workplace
establishment
and
Early adulthood is considered as spanning the years from 28 to 45 and
may, for some individuals, include the late adolescence and emerging
adulthood years (Arnett, 2016). Early adulthood includes the
establishment and achievement stages (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016;
Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). Various theories describe similar phases.
Levinson (1978) described three phases for early adulthood: novice,
transition and settling down. The tasks for the emerging adult (roughly
between 18 to 25 years of age) are defining a dream or goals; finding a
mentor to facilitate independence; finding a stable job or career, and
establishing intimacy or finding a supportive intimate relationship, like a
spouse or life partner, thus finding a place in the adult world. Five features
that may create conflicts for the emerging adult exist in these tasks:
identity explorations, self-focus, instability, conflicting feelings and broad
life and career possibilities (Arnett & Mitra, 2018; Nelson, 2020).
Figure 4.5
Mentor, executive and novice
SOURCE Shutterstock Rawpixel.com
Levinson (1978) refers to the novice stage as the age 30 transition, which
lasts for a few years, whereas Shallcross (2016) asserts that in times of
continuous change, this period can be referred to as the quarter life
quandary. This is a very difficult time for young adults between 20-35
years of age because of the many changes in work and life they must adapt
to in order to define themselves and realise their dreams. In times of a poor
economy, high unemployment and the impact of Covid-19, concepts like
midlife crisis and quarter life quandary may have renewed emphasis and
meaning. These include earning a living, staying employable, finding the
right job and career, improving qualifications and work experience and
being able to cope with change and disappointments. In the current work
environment, young adults have to be multi-skilled in order to be
employable and able to adapt to a variety of people and situations
(Shallcross, 2016; Agrawal et al., 2020; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
At this age, people are generally at their peak with regard to physical,
cognitive, emotional and social development and should have acquired an
acceptable moral value system. Many of early adulthood’s development
tasks involve adjusting to the realities of adult roles. Consolidation, or
stability, implies ongoing identity formation as a person and involves tasks
such as getting married, finding a stable occupation, establishing a family,
home, friendships and relationships, participating in recreation activities
and assuming societal roles. Being a partner in marriage or intimacy and
the responsibilities of parenthood seem to be crucial elements of adulthood
in all stages and require many changes and adjustments in roles.
The adult’s attachment styles and quality of relationships is important
in many spheres, such as nurturing one’s children, managing a romantic
relationship and influencing other people in the work context (either as a
manager or mentor, or working in a team with colleagues). Unresolved
attachment crises in childhood may be powerful determinants of
unsuccessful relationships in adulthood. Erikson (1963) also considers this
stage as one in which the healthy development of intimacy will encourage
healthy relationships that are built on trust. The opposite will bring selfdoubt, anxiety and isolation, which will influence further career
development and work performance.
Many unprecedented or unplanned changes and influences may mark
this stage, such as starting very late or early in a career, having a family,
divorce and the problems of being a single parent, unemployment, changes
in the workplace and the family moving for work purposes, which in itself
can influence family stability in many respects. A redefinition of many
issues will often be necessary – as in marriage, the arrival of children,
divorce and career changes.
Cognitively, an adult’s study, work and general life experience results in
a more mature, committed, responsible and integrated approach to
problem solving than that of an adolescent. In the assessment of
managerial cognitive skills, the aspect of strategic thinking, namely the
ability to do forward planning while considering many factors and having a
total view of things, is considered to be of crucial importance. In addition
to the formal operations quoted by Piaget, the adult also develops a mode
of dialectical thinking, which is the ability to consider and integrate
opposing ideas and be more realistic about issues than the adolescent or
young adult (Riegel in Craig, 2006). Adult intelligence evolves across
stages, so that the adult is able to use all acquired skills in a flexible and
responsible manner in order to solve problems over the lifespan (Schaie in
Craig, 2006).
Work roles in early adulthood are recognised by growth in loyalty and
commitment, but may require a mentor to give direction (Craig, 2006;
Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Weiten, 2011). Changes in society and the
workplace, including the impact of Covid-19 and the 4IR, will impel
young adults to manage their career planning and development. Effective
interventions in organisations to support ongoing learning, purposeful
work performance appraisal with feedback, and career development
counselling and mentoring can assist employees in this development stage
to achieve their aspirations for occupational identity, growth, competence,
autonomy, independence and effective relationships. Successful completion
or progress in these young adult development tasks should help the novice
grow into adulthood.
4.7.3.2
Middle adulthood: Consolidation, maintenance and change
Middle adulthood spans the years from 45 to 60 and includes the stages of
stability (45–50) and mellowing years (50 and older). This period may
include considerations of ageing, mortality and illness (Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). Employees during middle adulthood are busy
maintaining career standards and standards of living, marriage and family
relationships, assisting children into adulthood, upholding societal roles
and pursuing leisure activities. In job activities specifically, the person is
engaged in holding a job or position, updating knowledge and skills and
innovating work methods to be more efficient. Having consolidated their
position, people can now direct a creative energy to the service of others,
such as their children, grandchildren, families and society and as mentors
to junior employees. A person in middle adulthood still wishes to be
generative and make contributions, but also starts to look for other forms
of recognition. Therefore, the emphasis shifts:
• From physical powers to mental powers or wisdom and autonomy.
• From sexuality in human relationships to socialising (which is an
important aspect in relationships, but may generate a source of conflict,
especially for unevenly aged couples).
• From a very strong focus on work to the person themself and their
involvement in family life (Craig, 2001; Morris & Maisto, 2016;
Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
During middle adulthood, physical changes and age-related problems and
illness become more evident. Decreases in visual acuity, hearing, motor
skills and reaction time, as well as internal physiological and hormonal
changes, start to show in the mid-40s and early 50s. However, these
changes need not influence life roles and work performance in a critical
sense, but may have some implications. For example, women may be
challenged by the physical and emotional symptoms of menopause, which,
aside from health-related implications, may also create a need for social
and emotional adjustments (King, 2011; Weiten, 2016). For many
psychosocial reasons (inter alia, fear, doubt and self-doubt about many
things), adults in their 40s and even 50s may experience what is referred to
as the midlife crisis. This is often accompanied by a change in lifestyle,
and may represent an identity crisis with fear, anxiety and other problems
(Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Weiten, 2016; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
Examples include: adopting a new lifestyle, doing new and unusual things,
remarrying or starting a new career. In a way, a midlife crisis represents an
un-norm age event, which means that some middle-aged people
psychologically regress or transfer back to earlier development stages and
may demonstrate related physical, emotional and social behaviours.
In general, cognitive abilities show a steady decline with an increase in
age, however, updating necessary job knowledge and skills, using cognitive
skills more wisely and in executive capacity (problem solving) may also be a
characteristic of this time. A possible slow-down in cognitive capacities
may be noticeable in the genetic or fluid aspects of intelligence, such as
memory, inductive reasoning, the quick and accurate performance of tasks
and the speed of learning. However, the ability to learn new information
and grasp new and complex relationships between things, should still be
intact. Older people’s cognitive styles are often associated with wisdom and
expertise based on their extensive work and life experiences; a greater
variety and more integrated and practical knowledge of things; insight;
judgement; reasoning and practical problem-solving skills. Descriptions of
wisdom across cultures have both differences and commonalities. These
are determined by cultural values with regard to various areas of human
experience (Walsh, 2015).
Older people are often considered to be more suited to adapting to
quick changes in the work environment, because of their integrated ways
of thinking, diverse knowledge and flexibility in problem solving and
reasoning. For example, Schaie (in Craig, 1996), indicated that people
who in general have many opportunities, ongoing environmental and
cultural stimulation and a satisfying social and emotional life, may well
experience a high level of maintenance and growth in cognitive skills.
An important aspect of adults’ greater involvement in family and other
social relationships is helping and mentoring their adolescent children and
family to find a place in the adult world. When the last child has left home
(empty-nest syndrome), the well-being of some older people may be
negatively affected (Morin & Snyder, 2019). Parents must find new ways
to relate to each other and find other interests to give meaning to their
lives and fill their time. Feelings of self-doubt and reassessment of life and
careers is an important aspect of the midlife development stage, especially
if there are unresolved conflicts or changed values and circumstances. This
may also be a period when older employees experience obsolescence, when
they feel that their competencies are not up to date in new workplace
requirements, as well as plateauing, when further advancement in
workplaces is blocked or not possible in the structure of society and
organisations.
The mid-career stage, however, represents a valuable group of
employees in any organisation. Organisational functions must provide for
the ongoing career development of these employees to ensure they remain
employable and challenged in their tasks, provide advanced training for
growth in their knowledge and skills field and for promotion, and design
applicable reward systems. Career counsellors and mentors have a task to
facilitate self-knowledge and meaning in mid-career groups and encourage
continuous learning to give them a better understanding of their
achievements, experiences and emotions. This may facilitate less fear and
doubt and avoid possible midlife crises (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
4.7.3.3
Late adulthood: Disengagement and retirement
This older group is considered to be people beyond 60, though in the
modern world of work, 60 can be a misnomer since many people beyond
their 60s and 70s are still economically active, often remaining in senior
positions, working as consultants or practising professions (Fasbender et
al., 2014). People also have longer life expectancies as a result of healthier
lifestyles and medical advancements. The retirement age of 60 and 65,
which is set by most workplaces, is not necessarily a good practice. Older
people have been, and may continue to be, the victims of ageism, a
negative stereotype that older people become worthless and should retire
(Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
For the aged, the main development tasks are to uphold some form of
identity, dignity, emotional integration, recognition and authority, to still
find meaning in life and evaluate their lives. Maintaining a sense of
identity must coexist with changing attitudes, yielding control to others
and being more dependent on family and other people. Negative scenarios
that may affect older adults include the experience of stagnation and
despair when they are unable to develop further. However, many aged
people do not experience physical and cognitive losses as being serious
because they manage to adapt to changes by working clever (that is, they
achieve more by applying practices gained from experience) or applying
selective optimisation with compensation (SOC) (Baltes & Baltes, 1997),
which means to do less better in more time.
For many older people, retirement from work presents serious
adjustment problems, especially if retirement is not planned and prepared
for (for example, in terms of income, social relationships and leisure
activities). Modern technology, like smart phones, computers, social media
and the Internet, have contributed immensely to informing the elderly,
keeping their interest, and stimulating their cognitive faculties. When
people have stability, they may apply their wisdom by mentoring others
and spending more quality time with their families, friends and societal
activities, a state that Erikson refers to as ego-integrity. Many young
elderly (between 60 and 69 years old) and middle-aged elderly (between 70
and 79 years old) stay active in some way and continue to exercise their
physical, cognitive and social abilities.
Retirement programmes or counselling prior to retirement plays an
important role in preparing older people for the physical, cognitive, social,
psychological and moral requirements and challenges of retirement
(Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
In summary, the sections on adult career stages entails the aspects of
establishment, achievement and maintenance in the early adult career
phases, while remaining productive, not becoming unemployed and
unemployable also relates to the middle and later adult career stages. The
last years of careers are characterised by disengaging from work and finally
retiring.
4.8
Career
development
management issues
and
In the previous sections, aspects of human and career development were
briefly discussed. There are many aspects that are of concern to individuals,
management, employment and talent management specialists, career
counsellors, I-O psychologists and HR practitioners. A number of issues
will always be of concern as an intrinsic part of human and career
development, for example, nature versus nurture, changes and challenges
in society and the workplace, for example, the impact of Covid-19 and of
rapidly changing technology and the 4IR. The full impact of these factors
is as yet unknown.
4.8.1
Diverse generations in work forces
Amidst increasing globalisation, labour forces in many countries, including
South Africa, are becoming more diverse in nature, both in terms of age,
gender, ethnicity and generations. Advanced technology and social media
increases business and work contact through the Internet, telecommuting
and virtual working. This makes employment flexible and mobile, away
from traditional office and other work settings. Work opportunities
through formal employment in traditional jobs will decrease while
unemployment is increasing.
With increased diversity (in generations) in both potential and
incumbent employee groups, career counsellors may find existing career
development concepts and practices insufficient in explaining career
aspirations and facilitating career development, adaptation and
employability. The range of diversity provides new challenges to managers,
educators and career counsellors in providing relevant life skill
development and career counselling services across the lifespan; services
that can eventually assist I-O psychologists and HR practitioners to attract
talent and develop and retain the best competencies needed in future
workplaces (Conger, 2002). The information box, Generational diversity in
the workplace, provides some insight into the many generations that are
working in the same workplaces and that require effective diversity
management (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021; Epstein & Hershatter, 2014;
Twenge, 2010; Dries et al., 2008; Hankin, 2005).
INFORMATION BOX Generational diversity in the workplace
•
Baby boomers (born between 1946 and 1964): After WWII, emphasis on education,
loyalty, they are hard workers, competitive, prefer discipline and structure, may resist
•
•
•
•
change, use technology when necessary, have an emphasis on job security, mentoring
roles, concentrate on roles with regard to their parents and their children.
Generation X (born between 1965 and 1980): Born in a period of prosperity, sense of
entitlement, some may have little interest in public affairs, they are good, independent
thinkers, entrepreneurial and good income generators, they enjoy technology, emphasise
gender roles and expect work-life balance, they are generally quick workers.
Generation Y/Millennials (born between 1981 and 1995): Millennials are associated
with high tech, social media and IT, they don’t always enjoy team work, may change jobs
easily if growth isn’t possible, they emphasise qualifications and are idealistic, goaldirected, independent and hard workers, like multitasking and structure in jobs, are
entrepreneurial, and are often found in small and medium business enterprises.
Generation Z (born after 1996): Will enter job market after 2015 and beyond, they
appreciate more advanced and rapidly changing technology and work environments and
are highly dependent on technology for both work and studying, they like multitasking,
and enjoy flexibility in employment.
Other employees across generations: In developing economies, or as a result of specific
circumstances, for example, less education, manual labour, disability, family
circumstances, unemployment, changed work requirements and technology in work
environments, many people have been excluded from the mainstream workforce. These
individuals are not necessarily part of the work generations above. I-O psychology, and
specifically educators, life and career counsellors, have a special task to assist and
facilitate such individuals to achieve their optimal potential.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
The 21st century of work is progressing in a direction where life in general
and work environments specifically will be based even more on digital and
automated technology, information technology (IT) and social media. The
execution of business and many jobs will move even more in the direction
of remote or virtual IT-based working, away from formal workplaces and
formal organisational management and prescribed job descriptions.
The question is whether management and career-development agents
(such as parents, education systems, career counsellors and employers) will
make provision for the changing circumstances and the related
requirements of people and workplaces.
People often have little choice in accepting changes in the nature of
work and requirements in workplaces. These changes include mobility in
employment (as opposed to a guaranteed, long-lasting career with one
employer). However, employees want growth opportunities to
continuously improve their knowledge and skills to make them employable
and ready for any changes. As such, managers and human resource
strategies need to accommodate the more informed, technologically
advanced, ambitious and critical employee who also requires greater lifework balance, as well as continuous learning and development in order to
be flexible and employable. However, can the less skilled and less
ambitious necessarily be ignored? Career psychologists must develop and
use relevant theory, assessment and other intervention methods to facilitate
all people deriving the maximum benefit from career counselling
(Ebersohn, 2012; Long, 2015; Maree, 2013).
4.8.2
Career anchors
Psychological counsellors may utilise many methods of enquiry and
assessment, such as interviews, psychological tests, world view analysis and
narratives, to assess personal attributes (for example, abilities, interests,
values and attitudes) to determine the fit between a person and the
attributes of work environments. Career anchors are based on the
subjective career perceptions of a person, are associated with personal and
work attributes and can be assessed (Schein, 1996, 2013). They are a
profile of competencies, abilities, talents, values, needs and preferences as
perceived and experienced by a person and they influence career decisions
(Arnold & Randall, 2010; Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Schein, 2013).
Career anchors are part of a person’s career self-concept with regard to
jobs, type of tasks and work environments. They indicate which job
activities a person prefers to do, the types of responsibilities and roles a
person is most willing to assume, are related to their competencies and
preferences, the type of preferred work environment and how a person
would like to be evaluated and remunerated as an employee. Findings of a
South African study by Coetzee, Bergh and Schreuder (2010) indicated
that people’s career anchors have important associations with regard to
their life satisfaction, job/career satisfaction, sense of happiness and their
perception of work and their career as valuable.
Career anchors are generally consistent, but not necessarily according
to age or a life stage. They may change from those that were relevant in
the early years of a person’s employment. This specifically occurs when
people transition jobs more frequently and there is increased mobility in
and between jobs as a consequence of rising unemployment and use of
technology in work environments. People will have to be multi-skilled and
adaptable.
In contrast, though, a person’s career self-evaluations in the form of
career anchors can become integrated in the person’s self-concept and may
be a strong determinant when career choices must be made, or
withstanding external changes in the work environment. One or two career
anchors may dominate, but they will be influenced by circumstances, or are
influenced or supplemented by other anchors. Career anchors can be
broadly classified as talent-based, need-based and value-based, and specific
career anchors are briefly as follows (Schein, 2013; Coetzee & Schreuder,
2021):
• Technical/functional competence: Orientation is towards
professional and expert knowledge and skills in recognised professions,
but may relate to any type of job. Requires challenge and opportunities
for self-development in jobs and knowledge fields; prefers recognition
for their depth of knowledge and skills; horizontal promotion in job
levels; can function in managing others, but not general management.
In-depth knowledge and skills will always be in demand, but change
may be difficult.
• General management competence: May be based on
technical/functional competence as a progression to general
management. Preference to demonstrate own value and power in
organising the work of others and in an organisation; good analytical
skills, emotional control and leadership skills; prefers challenge,
variation in tasks and responsibility; prefers good financial
remuneration and linear promotion (move up the ladder). Good
managers will always be required, like outsourcing, project teams and
so on, but change in organisational structures may decrease managerial
positions.
• Autonomy/independence: Strong preference for autonomy, more
freedom, independence, self-reliance and variation in any part- or
fulltime positions that are time bound. Likes promotion, but not if it
binds autonomy. Prefers choice of benefits, immediate remuneration,
bonuses, prizes and other concrete recognitions. Will adapt easily to
change in jobs and careers.
• Security/stability: Prefers structure in work, stability and security in
jobs and remuneration, which ensures a predictable life. Usually good
competencies and preference for jobs to settle in and that provide
longevity of employment. Prefers consistent remuneration, benefits
and promotion systems and recognition for loyalty and good
•
•
•
•
performance across time. Change in labour circumstances will be
difficult for this anchored employee.
Entrepreneurial/creativity: Prefers formal or other type of work that
recognises and uses their need for original thought and creativity and
the position, power and freedom to exercise creative talents. May be
involved in their own business with a primary emphasis on ownership,
public recognition, visibility and creating personal wealth. Usually
prosper in times of change.
Service/dedication: These employees are motivated by a service and
altruistic value to improve the lives and circumstances of others. They
may be entrepreneurial, which gives them the position and means to
invest in changing the circumstances of others. Alternatively, they may
prefer positions and promotions that recognise and utilise the cause or
calling value. They may also join other efforts in addressing change and
improvements in environments and societies. They like fair
remuneration and benefits, recognition of contributions and sharing
values with other people. In contemporary life and work, more people
may be drawn to this anchor, particularly with the emphasis on social
responsibility and welfare and paid positions in this field.
Pure challenge: See life and work as challenging and they must be in
the lead to solve the most difficult problems. They refer positions that
will allow them to exercise their problem-solving skills, but position,
promotion, recognition and remuneration are all subjected to the idea
of challenge in tasks. The current work life with all its change and
challenges may suit their value system.
Lifestyle: This work value system considers life-work balance as
integral and people will accept conditions, like flexible work-life and
benefits, which will improve the quality of both personal and work life,
especially as they are often integrated. They want to grow personally
and in their work competencies. May like modern tendencies in work,
like virtual work teams and telecommuting, if it considers personal
arrangements at home and family life.
Career anchors can be measured by Schein’s Career Anchor Survey, and
results can be utilised in career planning and counselling and in selection,
promotion and training decisions. Research has also shown relationships
between career anchors and various career development and employment
variables, like self-knowledge, types of jobs and job and task involvement
(Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021).
In research in South Africa, it appears that little difference exists
between the career anchors of black and white South African people, with
both groups showing a preference for the lifestyle career anchor. A strong
emphasis on the challenge anchor may be an indication of the current
challenges in society and labour conditions in South Africa, as well as an
emphasis on learning, training and development. This refers to a focus on
self-reliance rather than dependence on formal organisational career
opportunities (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2009; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016;
Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016). In another inquiry, there were indications
that female and male respondents have a strong preference for both the
service/cause and challenge orientations, however, females were stronger
on the service/dedication anchor. Females were also stronger on the
lifestyle anchor, while males prefer the autonomy anchor. Black South
African male and female respondents scored higher on the
service/dedication anchor, while white South African males and females
prefer the lifestyle and technical/functional competence anchors. The
general managing competence anchor overall attracted the least preference
across gender and race (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2009; Schreuder &
Coetzee, 2016). The career anchor concept has stimulated global research
interest and application (Barclay, Chapman & Brown, 2013; Leong,
Rosenberg & Chong, 2014; Rodrigues, Guest & Budjanovcanin, 2013).
4.8.3
Unemployment,
obsolescence
career plateauing
and
Career development entails preparation, entry into work, maintaining and
progressing in work, various transitions and eventually decelerating and
retiring in older age. Each of these phases has influences, events,
transitions and change that create positive or quality work experiences, or
the opposite. Job losses and unemployment are an increasing global work
phenomenon, and the impact of Covid-19, increased digitisation and
automation of work is not fully realised. Career counselling has a task in
preparing people to cope or adapt with the less positive employment
experiences in career development and work life, of which unemployment,
obsolescence and plateauing are some examples. An important task for
facilitators is to ensure availability of information on upskilling through
various ways of learning and training, especially online sources, so that
employees remain employable.
There are many reasons in the economy and work life that cause job
loss and unemployment. It can happen at any stage of career development,
it represents a forced career transition, and will have both short- and longterm effects on employees, their families and society (Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2016; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). Examples of the most
prominent causal factors are economic downturns; labour legislation; high
unemployment and job loss rates; changes in organisations, like mergers,
downsizing, restructuring and terminations; the effect of globalisation and
automation and increasing diversity in labour forces. Involuntary work loss
and unemployment for long periods means being workless in a society
where many others are working, are productive and involved in meaningful
activities. Unemployment, especially if re-employment efforts are
unsuccessful, may create feelings of worthlessness, hopelessness and
fatalism, in addition to feelings of failure to provide for the needs of
dependents.
Further compounding factors for some individuals seeking
employment are deficiencies in basic and occupational education and other
services as a result of poor socio-economic circumstances. Aspects of
economic and financial management, affirmative action, labour legislation
and other initiatives may also cause problems; for example, the National
Skills Development Strategy and the Employment Equity Act (55 of
1998) that regulate gender and racial inequalities in the workplace. These
factors will hopefully challenge people to choose study directions and jobs
with the best career opportunities and employability in mind. For many
others though, this may mean the frustration of accepting any available
work out of need. It requires patience, resilience and creativity to find a job
of choice that ensures ongoing learning and training to enable futurefitness and employability.
INFORMATION BOX Unemployment in South Africa
The unemployment rate in SA in 2020 was above 30 per cent (Statistics South Africa, 2020).
Youth (15 to 24 years) unemployment was more than 60 per cent in 2020 and unemployment
among people between the ages of 24 to 34 years was up to nearly 42 per cent. The
economical inactive people (EAP) rate in 2020 was 40 per cent (Statistics South Africa,
2020). However, SA’s ability to absorb more labour was low in 2020 with the impact of
Covid-19 and the accompanying challenges of a downslide in the economy and related
business processes (Statistics South Africa 2020).
Obsolescence occurs for many reasons, for example, when an employee
stagnates or loses the necessary levels of up-to-date job knowledge and
skills to perform effectively in their position, in which case
underperformance and presenteeism may become problematic. Reasons for
obsolescence can be found in employee attributes. It is, however, often
related to older age and changes in workplaces with regard to technology,
job content and organisational change and requirements, which often
require more flexible and multi-skilling ways of working. In general,
obsolescence can be avoided by continuous and lifelong learning, or can be
corrected by specific training interventions. Obsolescence without
corrective actions to update job competencies can lead to job loss and
unemployability. Obsolescence can be avoided or corrected by ongoing
performance appraisal to ensure feedback on possible gaps in knowledge,
frequent mentoring and career counselling and standard retraining
programmes in organisations.
Career plateauing, which may be experienced by many employees,
occurs mostly in later career stages, when employees, despite their good
work performance, reach the proverbial ceiling in their jobs or careers
(Yang, Niven & Johnson, 2019). This means that they are not promoted
or cannot progress because of personal factors (qualifications, experience,
obsolescence) or because work or organisational structures do not allow
further opportunities for advancement. Career plateauing can also apply to
people who, because of the lack of available jobs, cannot find a job suited
to their qualifications and preferences, and after a period become frustrated
and bored and are forced to remain in an organisation that does not meet
their needs. Any unwanted or forced change, like retrenchment, can result
in an unwanted career transition. The possibility of the individual not
finding a preferred position in another work context because of a lack of
experience, outdated knowledge or their age exists.
Plateauing in careers can be related to productivity impediments (go
slow actions), plateauing out of choice, for example, in routine jobs where
the employee only does what is necessary, and passive plateauing in which
an employee has accepted the status quo and does nothing to correct the
plateauing effect. Reaching the ceiling can occur as a result of
organisational politics, unfair labour practices, or certain groups of
employees, such as women, not being appointed or promoted.
Unfortunately, in South Africa, plateauing is arguably an increasing
phenomenon where many employees remain in the same linear positions
and horizontal work levels for longer periods. The reasons include work
scarcity, approaching retirement, changes in work and organisations and
changed socio-political and labour circumstances. Individual employees,
organisations and career counsellors can all contribute to finding solutions
to counter the psychological consequences of ceiling effects (Schreuder &
Coetzee 2016; SA Labour Court, 2019). The individual can reflect and
start to self-manage their plateauing by attending relevant training and
motivational interventions. Career counsellors may assist employees who
have plateaued to improve gaps in knowledge and skills, as well as to
mentor organisational management with regard to unnecessary hindrances.
Organisations should reflect on all aspects of their structure, culture,
policies, strategies and functions, which may facilitate or force plateauing.
These and other career development and employment challenges can
happen to any employee throughout their career or work life. Career
counsellors and HR professionals have a task to facilitate flexibility,
adaptability and resiliency in young people and in employees. This will
ensure resilience in meeting the stress of sudden change and the
requirements to be multi-skilled, as well as manage the tasks required by
consumer markets. Many employees will have to apply career selfmanagement and shape their own careers, become entrepreneurs or accept
whatever jobs are available in a changing work context. Employees will
also have to find personal meaning in career and job activities amidst
changing work values and diverse workforces.
4.8.4
Lifelong learning,
employability
adaptation
and
The contemporary and future world of work requires competencies
applicable to new requirements in workplaces, job tasks and equipment,
which assist in yielding the expected results demanded by consumers of
products and services. Employees will have to execute more career selfmanagement, as the fast pace of change in organisations and the work
context require the contemporary and future employee to stay abreast of
developments. Career self-management will also facilitate autonomy in
working, a work attribute that is necessary for employee well-being. People
have to continuously obtain and update competencies (knowledge, skills
and abilities) and organisations have to update organisational structures
and resources in order to be prepared for future requirements. This also
relates to career resilience, which is behaviour aimed at coping with
difficult situations in a career and the ability to adapt to changes and new
requirements. Lifelong learning across the career span, managed by
employees who take responsibility and self-manage their career
development, will ensure career adaptability and employability (Guan et
al., 2017). Employability means that a person has the knowledge, selfknowledge, multiple skills, a reputation, and networking or social contacts
that have value and a competitive edge and which future employers may
want (Coetzee et al., 2012; Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). Employability in the modern world of work will provide
job security and longevity in working, and, in many contexts, will replace
the idea of career tenure or lifetime employment in one or a few
workplaces. The rationale is that when job competencies are relevant and
applicable, such knowledge, skills and attributes will provide security for
employees in that if there are changes within the work environment,
alternative job opportunities will be available.
Career agility refers to a self-managed career in which the employee
continuously reflects on and considers change in work and job roles in
order to adapt and be creative, re-energise and optimise growth and
happiness in present and future work (Andersen, 2020; Konstant, 2020;
Coetzee, Bester et al., 2020). Rethinking and applying these concepts are
necessary during and after traumatic experiences in careers, like during the
Covid-19 pandemic in 2020, which led to massive job losses,
unemployment and poor economic profiles in many countries. Preparing
people, or facilitating for employability, means that training content and
skills training in education, training and counselling will have to relate to
the requirements for employability.
Modern organisations will also have to create opportunities for
continuous learning and employability for their employees to prepare them
for future job demands. In South Africa, labour laws and initiatives such as
The National Skills Development Strategy, The Skills Development Act
(97 of 1998), The Skills Development Levies Act (9 of 1999) and
government’s interest in participating and applying new technologies,
regulate and encourage employers to promote skills, training and
employability, as well as ensure opportunities for the unemployed.
The new world of work also requires the revision of what work and a
career mean and what career progress and career or work success is. Career
success may not necessarily be related to vertical or expert progression and
promotion in organisations and jobs (Gunz & Heslin, 2005; Koekemoer et
al., 2018). In terms of self-managed careers and jobs, employees are
responsible for subjectively, through their performance, defining their own
success. Success may include flourishing at work, which refers to an
important aspect of a complete state of health (Redelinghuys, Rothmann
& Botha, 2019; Redelinghuys & Rothmann, 2020). A complete state of
health or wellness at work and in a career entails the physical, emotional,
social, intellectual, spiritual, environmental and occupational levels of
human functioning.
Such employees may find meaning and success in their careers and jobs
if their personal development creates security in terms of their adaptability
and employability. This also reflects the continuous learning that the
employee has invested in and the contributions made in the organisation
for job and organisational requirements. A further indication of
meaningful and successful careers and jobs may be related to the
motivation and satisfaction a person derives during the processes of job
and task completion (job engagement and flow), which may lead to
achieving certain outcomes (Baruch, 2004). Unfortunately, formal
management generally rewards linear promotion, success and
qualifications, and seldom acknowledges career and job success in terms of
an employee’s level of personal expert development. This may include
updating and broadening their knowledge (horizontal development)
without necessarily obtaining additional qualifications, making
contributions in groups and organisations and being passionate about and
engaged in a career or job.
In conclusion, the new world of work requires a redefinition of work,
careers, career planning, career development and career sustainability.
Coetzee and Schreuder (2021) summarised the opinions of various authors
and describe a sustainable career of the new decade as the “the sequence of
individuals’ diverse set of career experiences reflected through a variance in
continuity over time, across several social spaces and characterized by
individual agency and sense of meaningfulness” (Hirschi, 2018; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2016, 2021; Van der Heijden & De Vos, 2015). This definition
involves the employee’s readiness, or agility, in ongoing learning, many
changes or transitions, agency or career self-management, career
adaptation and employability, in order to work meaningfully and achieve a
balanced work-family life (Coetzee & Schreuder, 2021). Responsibility for
achieving organisational and personal objectives are now the responsibility
of the employee, who must self-manage and shape their own career, by
being aware of changes and new requirements, be willing to be job-mobile
(changing jobs and employers, either by choice or not), be multi-skilled in
order to execute the necessary tasks quickly and be entrepreneurial. There
is a better chance of employment security, autonomy and longevity for
employees who are career adaptive and employable in any applicable job
and social context.
In the new workplace, employers and counsellors will have to put
initiative and creative thought into the aspects of career development of
diverse incumbent employees. They need to consider how to acquire,
develop and retain talented human capital with multiple skills and flexible
and adaptable personal attributes (Schreuder & Coetzee, 2016; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2021). I-O psychologists, HR practitioners and career
counsellors are an important support for organisational management in
their use of all available global and local organisational and HR
information to help them take decisions regarding career development and
personnel planning for the future of both the employee and organisation.
4.8.5
Employee well-being and the impact of
technology
The impact of Covid-19, the poor economy and unemployment in South
Africa on the well-being of people is a major concern in society, social
media, government and medical circles. The increasing use of virtual and
remote work, in which technology is an important resource, is a modern
working tendency that has advantages, but also raises health, mental health
and management concerns (Borcherds, 2018). Concern for employee and
work health is rising amidst the impact of modern digital, automated and
artificial or industrialised intelligence systems that dehumanise work or at
least determine and direct human employment, production and work
processes. Is human labour becoming increasingly dehumanised?
A concern is fewer job opportunities, obsolescence, job loss and
increased unemployment. What is the future of human labour and
production with all its related meanings and advantages if human
capacities to provide in meaningful ways are outstripped by powerful, quick
and clever machines? What will become of the necessary need and skill of
people for social and emotional interaction at work? Achieving work-life
balance in remote working will be challenging for both employees and
their families (Babic, Gillis & Hansez, 2020; Wayne et al., 2017; Casper et
al., 2018). Management and organisational functions will need to adapt to
both physical and virtual working.
4.9
Future of work in the 2020s and
beyond?
As stated previously, the only constant is change, with new technologies
bringing about changes in life, the nature of work and in organisations
(Lent, 2018). The full impact of how technology is applied and the
consequences for human work are speculative at this stage. Highly
specialised digital and automated functions will be implemented, and in
many labour situations, hybrid formats of manual and machine working
are possible.
There are expectations that the structure of many work organisations
will change with many becoming smaller with more virtual work, fewer
management levels and increased working on specific projects, products
and services by using specific technology executed by suitably qualified
full- or part-time employees. Employees will have to be entrepreneurial,
autonomous, self-motivated and creative and self-manage their jobs and
careers. Through continuous learning and upskilling of required
competencies, they will become adaptable and employable in a changing
environment. The nature of the work or social ‘contract’ between employee
and employer will either be an employee self-contract to find and fulfil
meaningful work in a boundaryless career and/or employers will have to
give more autonomy to employees with regard to work contracts (Caldwell
& Peters, 2018; Deloitte, 2020).
4.10 Summary and reflection
This chapter provided an introduction to the concepts, theories, principles
and issues regarding general human and career development. Human
development is seen as a continuous, mostly age-related process across the
lifespan, in which people progressively, and during identifiable stages,
develop certain physical, cognitive, moral and psychosocial competencies
to be able to function in their evolving life roles and in work. Progressive
human development is characterised by the hierarchical evolution of
phases, differentiation from the general to the particular and increased
complexity and predictability. All domains of human functioning; physical,
cognitive, moral and psychosocial elements are integrated in career
development.
There are many career choice and development theories, and, in
general, agreement exists on career development as a lifelong process with
various progressive but overlapping development stages. The early
childhood and adolescent development stages are especially important for
the adult life and career development phases because progressive selfidentity development prepares the young person for the transition into
adulthood and work. However, all stages across the lifespan are important
and characterised by certain development tasks and, at times, inherent
psychosocial crises, which must be solved constructively for the execution
of healthy life and work roles.
Human development continually evolves with regard to the
development of work orientations, career tasks and transitions, of which
the ultimate goal is to achieve career maturity, successful career decisions,
job satisfaction, career wisdom, adaptability and employability.
Throughout the chapter, career development and employment issues
are highlighted. An important issue is that career psychologists and
counsellors must continuously reflect on the market and social relevance of
its knowledge, that is, its theory and practices. In an uncertain future of
work, this becomes a critical consideration. The aim must be intentional
counselling so that people of all cultures understand the counselling
assumptions and obtain value from the processes and techniques of
facilitation and influence in order to be job and career adaptable and
employable (Maree, 2013; Perera & McIlveen, 2017; Gati & Lewin,
2014).
In the midst of changes in work and organisations and the scarcity of
structured employment, the greatest challenge for career counsellors and
other HR specialists is to not only understand and recognise natural
differences and similarities between people and groups, but to facilitate
conditions in which people have a fair chance to realise their potential. In
this regard, in multi-cultured workplaces, diversity management should
be an important focus of HR management in order to attend to the needs
of all employees and create opportunities for the optimal development of
each employee (Roberson, 2019). Part of these attributes in people are
psychological well-being, adaptability, flexibility in attitudes and skills and
a productive attitude to continue learning to remain relevant, employable
and not become obsolete.
Similarly, it is a huge challenge to redefine work and career concepts in
order to promote career self-management and entrepreneurship and to
render employees future-fit and employable in diverse and changing
situations. There is also the need in the science and practice of psychology
to develop culture friendly and relevant theory and practices, as well as
adapt or indigenise existing knowledge when and where applicable. These
challenges create many opportunities for psychologists, career counsellors,
I-O psychologists and other HR practitioners.
Assessment tasks
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Define human and career development and explain its
importance in life and for study.
Using an example of each, explain the general characteristics of
human development.
Explain how and why culture is an important aspect in human
and career development.
Describe examples to illustrate the idea of critical periods in
human and career development.
Explain stage and lifespan approaches in human development.
Explain how the various domains of development are important
for adult career development.
Describe career-development transitions or phases and the
important development tasks involved in these phases.
8 Briefly explain theories or concepts of career development and
indicate why you think they are market and socially relevant.
9 Critically reflect on the future of work beyond the 2020s and its
implications for career development.
10 Explain the concepts of career adaptation, employability and
success.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Having knowledge of human development will assist in:
a understanding the collective human ethos and history
b grasping the ongoing nature and nurture issue
c knowing what to expect from human behaviour across time
d understanding cultural influences in development
e facilitating adaptation to changes in society and the world.
2 In a career counselling session, a young 24-year-old man tells
you that he is certain about what he wants to do and indicates
five possibilities, although he has already tried three other types
of jobs. Which of the following statements reflect the stage that
this young person is in?
a According to Marcia, a diffused career state
b According to Freud, in a fixated state of mind
c According to Ainsworth, in an uncertain attachment period
d According to Erikson, in the industry vs inferiority stage
e According to Piaget, a formal-operational stage.
3 The points in development at which people across the lifespan
have matured sufficiently to benefit from learning or experience
in life and work are referred to as ….
a growth
b readiness
c transition
d career maturity
e adaptability.
4 To which statement does maturation refer?
a The integration of all domains of development in behaviour
1
The progressive development of autonomy and independence
The development of exemplary morality and wisdom in
adults
d Changes that are due to a critical period in life
e Changes related to genetic and related biological processes.
5 An engineer who is considered for a managerial position and
declines the offer explains his decision. He states that after 20
years of work experience, he now knows himself. He has updated
his knowledge and still likes to do engineering tasks and would
like to continue to do so in the future. This applicant is
expressing his values for …
a security, stability and safety in his work
b functional and technical competence in his work
c status and growing vertically in his career
d self-efficacy because he believes in himself
e service and dedication to a cause.
6 A person’s experience of living across generations, in varying
circumstances and different times can have enduring effects. This
statement refers to which of the following?
a Environmental influences
b Work and career transitions
c Contextual factors
d Non-normative influences
e Ethnic and cultural ethos.
7 Human career development primarily refers to …
a progressive age-related changes and stages across the lifespan
b work-related moral codes of behaviour related to career
decisions
c acquiring work-related development competencies across the
lifespan
d normative and historical age-graded influences that
determine chosen careers
e collective values to follow certain career directions.
8 A qualified 50-year-old chemical engineer in a senior
management position lost her job during Covid-19. She decided
to start a business in the design and application of solar and wind
b
c
power systems and is busy obtaining information and reflecting
on the viability of her idea and a new work environment.
According to career development theory, this person is adapting
to her new situation and reverting to a prior career phase?
a Job entry
b Consolidation
c Obsolescence
d Establishment
e Quarter-life quandary.
9 Which statement do you think is most applicable to the aim of
career psychology research to ensure that career counselling in
South Africa relates to all people?
a Emphasise collectivism and communality
b Use empirical research and narrative analysis to develop
career counselling theories
c Determine the validity of assessment techniques used in
career counselling decision-making
d Contextualise or indigenise knowledge, which will satisfy
peoples’ needs
e Study the values of individualism and collectivism and adapt
career counselling accordingly.
10 The sequence of career experiences across time and social
situations is characterised by the value and meanings associated
to it by the person. This assumption at best entails one of the
following?
a Sustainable career
b Career adaptation
c Employability
d Lifelong learning
e Career success.
CASE STUDY Career development
Naledi is a 42-year-old woman who has recently lost her permanent job
of 15 years as a futuristic design engineer in a government SOE. She was
an only child, whose parents completed Grade 12 in high school under
difficult financial and family circumstances and received no further
education. They continue to work well past their retirement age and are
still supporting Naledi’s elderly grandfather. They work in the same
traditional jobs – her father as a lift operator in an iron and steel
manufacturing company, and her mother as a personnel clerk.
Naledi enjoyed a strict but happy upbringing. Her parents gave her
limited freedom to do other things outside school; they expected her to
stay out of trouble. At school Naledi was a top achiever in her class, but
did not take part in many sport or cultural activities. However, her good
grades won her bursaries for a four-year degree in mechanical
engineering and a two-year specialist design and operational training
course in a private company in Germany. Her study period away from
home was lonely and stressful at times.
Although not an artist, as a child, Naledi spent a lot time making 2D
and 3D drawings of objects. This occupied much of her time, and her
parents wondered if she shouldn’t become an architect. They were very
concerned about her studying, and wanted her to have a good job and
earn well. However, Naledi had planned her future well, and she was
determined to work in design – she remained focused on achieving her
goals.
From an early age, she read technical publications on global power
generation issues and was particularly encouraged by one of her
teachers. She also obtained information from the Internet. Initially,
engineering design positions were not easy to find, but once large fossil
fuel and nuclear power-generated units were operational and interest in
renewal energy systems started, there was planning, designing and
operational work available.
Naledi first worked in a couple of routine mechanical engineering
jobs, but she was not happy. She felt like a mechanical operator, and,
covered in dust from supervising the construction of bridges and
buildings, she often wondered about the value and meaning of her study,
work and her future. Unfortunately, she was often overlooked for
promotion as a designer in her positions. The organisations she worked
for valued her as a manager, wanting her to work overseas, something
that Naledi didn’t want to do. All she ever wanted was to be an expert,
well-known designer of power industrial systems. She admired Elon Musk
and the design work in his Space-X company and other initiatives.
Naledi had to focus on supporting her family, but throughout this
period, she stayed well informed on the latest global developments in her
field. She often felt like resigning and applying for a design position
overseas where her passion would be appreciated, or starting her own
engineering design consulting practice at home, but her dreams did not
come to fruition.
Eventually, the organisation she worked for had to downsize, and she
was offered a severance package. The reason they gave her was that they
felt she had not progressed, she was not engaged in her work and they
felt they could not offer her a satisfying work experience. Naledi was
surprised and angry as she had often requested and applied for
promotion to a design position.
Naledi currently feels that she is in trouble – she is 42, it is the
2020s and these are difficult economic times with limited employment
oppor-tunities. However, the technology industry is booming, and there
are many advertisements for virtual/remote working positions in various
technology fields across the globe. Most of these positions are aligned to
4IR technology, all of which she is unfamiliar. Naledi is interested in jobs
for designing and creating robots, digital and other automated resources
for industrial and public use. She knows she needs to act immediately
and find employment. She also worries about working at home and
finding a balance in her work and family life.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Questions
1. What is your view of Naledi’s adolescence and young adult life with
regard to career development? Explain your answer.
2. What factors do you think most influenced Naledi’s career
development across her lifespan?
3. Identify the various career phases that Naledi experienced and
indicate applicable career development tasks.
4. How would you assess Naledi’s experience of career success and why?
5. Describe the factors in Naledi’s career adaptation and employability
up to where she currently finds herself, and how should she go about
finding another job.
Sensory and perceptual
processes in work behaviour
Ziel Bergh
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Define sensation and perception in the perceptual process
Explain how principles in sensation apply in work behaviour
Identify the five human senses and their function in sensory adaptation
Explain the importance of perceptual laws in human behaviour
Explain various perceptual laws to demonstrate organisation in perception
Discuss the role of schemata in personal or interpersonal perception
Define attribution and the types of attributions in explaining human behaviour
Indicate possible cognitive distortions and attribution errors in person perception
Evaluate the value of impression formation and management
Briefly indicate ways to manage perceptual errors and enhance impression management.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Apparent movement
Attribution error
Attributions
Depth perception
Differential thresholds
Feature analysis
Illusions
Impression formation
Just-noticeable difference
Monocular
Perception
Perceptual constancy
Perceptual laws
Perceptual organisation
Perceptual set
Person perception
Prejudice
Primacy effect
Psychophysics
Response bias
Schemata
Selective attention
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Sensation
Signal detection
Stereotypes
Threshold
Transduction
5.1
Introduction
Sensation and perception involve the awareness, identification,
organisation and interpretation of stimuli received by the senses (sensory
information) that enables people to make sense of and give meaning to
their experiences in different environments. Sensory deprivation can isolate
people in a world without sound, colour or smell, for example. This
excludes people and denies them the experience of feeling many
sensations, including pain, comfort and temperature. In addition, there are
possible dangers in being unaware of or misinterpreting sensations or
stimuli. Science has developed many ways to alleviate possible perceptual
inaccuracies, (for example from visual and audio sensors) as all human
behaviour is related to, or dependent on becoming aware of and
interpreting stimuli from inside and outside our bodies.
Much of our perception is psychological in nature because of the way
in which our cognitions, emotions, attitudes, expectations and previous
experiences influence our interpretation and meaning of life, the world,
other people and things. How you perceive advertising of products and
services, for example, and your buying behaviour often relates to all your
senses and your cognitive and emotional awareness. This may contribute to
your final decision to advertise in a certain way, buy a certain product or
use a service again. In a wider context, an organisation’s ability to adapt
and survive in the business environment is based on receiving information
or becoming aware of certain factors, and processing and interpreting this
information in order to act accordingly.
Generally, people are unaware of their perceptual processes and their
importance because they happen automatically and quickly as a result of
reflexes, involuntary mechanical, chemical and cognitive processes. If you
were to record all the sensations you experienced in a single day and what
they mean to you, there would not be enough time in the day to complete
your record. The information overflow makes it impossible to absorb all
stimuli. This is the reason why the brain and related physiological
processes allows for selective attention or organisation. The human
perceptual processes often allow us to interpret even incomplete
information or sensations in order to make meaningful perceptions
possible. In contrast, some of your sensations may make less sense to you,
or your interpretations may be different from the sensations or stimuli that
you received. This is because our perceptions may be influenced and
shaped, at times inaccurately, by many factors, such as culture, memory,
learning, expectations, attention and attributes from the stimuli, the
perceiver and the environment.
Sensation and perception are relevant in all human information
processing, in many applications and form the basis of behaviour in
learning, thinking, attitudes and in influencing people and behaviour.
Commercial applications include designing advertisements, and design in
technology. Personal applications include when you are driving a car or
playing sport. In the work context, effective sensory awareness and
perception are essential for observing, interpreting and giving meaning to
many aspects of workplaces including machinery and tools, observing and
understanding work instructions, working conditions, safety measures and
personal perceptions regarding relationships with co-workers.
In the workplace, employees must be able to distinguish between
different stimuli, such as written messages, sounds, colours, lights,
movement, people talking, skin sensations and even smells in order to react
appropriately. This enables us to work healthily and safely. New
technologies at work will be more advanced in the future. This will present
a challenge to all senses and related perceptions and will require
adaptations of perceptual processes, as well as related work design
processes (Anderson & Rainie, 2018; Hirose, 2020).
Example box
New technologies and perception
Digital smell technology can transmit smells online as part of a more complete virtual reality
experience (Parry, 2018). Many new technologies have the capacity to enhance stimuli. This
will assist people, for example, whose smell sensation is compromised. Future technologies
may be able to connect to the brain in a manner that will enable people to have enhanced
sense capabilities of, for example, vision and hearing.
The question then arises – if human vision, hearing, sound and smell can be enhanced,
what about other senses, like touch, or perhaps the facilitation of existing and ‘new’ senses,
for example, behaviours of curiosity in virtual reality.
Digitisation and related technologies raise questions about their impact on culture – how
new technology is experienced and accessed and being part of a knowledge and artificial
intelligence (AI) driven virtual reality society. Similarly, what will the impact be on human
senses, sensation and perception given the existing perceptual laws and possible changes in
those as a result of new technologies?
Research will have to include these aspects, and policies with regard to human factors in
a digital world will have to be established.
SOURCE Martinez (2016); Vasilescu et al. (2020); Petit, Velasco & Spence (2019)
We must remember that many perceptual processes and principles are
relevant to how we perceive people and events in our workplaces, family,
society and the country at large. Perceptions in other contexts or
meanings are also important, for example, how do people experience and
perceive traumatic events, the high levels of unemployment in South
Africa and the related economic consequences and possible social, political
and labour conflicts? How do people perceive the impact of Covid-19 or
view the country’s business and political governance or how people think
and behave in South Africa?
Perceptual processes and the differences between employees in this
regard are important reasons why I-O psychologists and management
should be aware of how perception can impact on employee attitudes,
behaviour and work processes. I-O psychologists should be involved in the
ergonomic design of work environments, work tasks, work machines and
tools as well as in the facilitation of work attitudes and the social aspects of
organisations. These factors influence work attitudes and organisational
climate, that is, how employees perceive and understand their working
conditions and tasks, and enable them to do their work comfortably and
with optimal effectiveness. Perceptions and their related meanings form
the basis of communication and interactions between individuals, in
groups and among employees about the culture and climate in workplaces.
The aim of this chapter is to introduce important themes in the
processes of sensation and perception and indicate how perceptual
processes influence human behaviour in general and specifically in the
work context.
5.2
Nature and function of sensation
and perceptual processes
Sensation, or the experience of sensory stimulation through the senses,
involves a number of principles that are important in sensation and in the
related perceptual processes.
5.2.1
The sensation process
Sensation, a physiological process, happens when people become aware of
what is happening inside and outside the body through incoming stimuli.
Stimuli are the physical input or energy we receive and become aware of
through the five senses; mouth, nose, eyes, ears and skin (Weiten, 2016).
Perception, which is more of a psychological process, happens when the
brain and related physiological and cognitive processes enable us to select,
analyse, organise, interpret and understand or give meaning to sensations
(Morris & Maisto, 2016; Weiten, 2016). The processes of sensation and
perception take place within one unified information-processing system,
not within two separate systems. Stimulation of the senses, or sensation, is
the first and immediate stimulatory process. This is simultaneously
accompanied by the perceptual process of selection, organisation and
interpretation of sensory stimulation. This makes sensation and perception
a unitary process. Although sensation may be similar for all people (who
generally have all five senses), biological and psychological differences in
perceptual processes explain why perceptual processes are selective and
unique for each individual. Perception is influenced by each individual’s
physical, social and emotional experiences as well as the attributes of the
stimuli, the senses and the related sensations. In ideal circumstances,
people have accurate perceptions, but there are also many examples of
perceptual errors and illusions, which may have consequences like
accidents at home, work, on the road, faulty work execution or cause
differences of opinion between people.
Sensation happens when the senses receive some form of raw physical
energy or stimuli from inside the person or from the external environment,
for example pain, sound and light waves. The physical energy is converted
through a process of transduction and coded as electro-magnetic impulses
to the brain where the impulses are interpreted in the cere-bral cortex
(Morris & Maisto, 2016). Table 5.1 indicates the five senses and their
locations in the brain as well as the type of stimuli to which these senses
are sensitive and their physical and cortical location in the human body
(see also Section 5.2.5). Taste and smell can be considered separate senses,
while the sense of space (proprioception or finer movements of the body in
space), balance and head movements are also considered special senses
which people are not always conscious of (Bradford, 2017). Discussion of
sensation and perception in this chapter does not include an in-depth
biological study of the five senses, which can be found in the literature on
human biology or on sensation and perception. The emphasis is rather on
the characteristics of sensation and perceptual processes and their influence
on human behaviour (Mather, 2016; Morris & Maisto, 2016; Weiten,
2011; Weiten, 2016).
Table 5.1
The five human senses and their locations
Sense
Stimulus
Receptor
Sensory
structure
Cortex (part
of brain)
Vision
(sight)
Electromagnetic
energy
Photo
receptors
Eye
Primary
visual
cortex
Hearing
Air-pressure
waves
Mechano
receptors
Ear
Auditory
cortex
Touch
Tissue
distortion
Mechano
sensory
receptors
Vestibular
organs in
inner ear
Temporal
cortex
Balance
Gravity
acceleration
Mechano
sensory
receptors
Vestibular
organs in
inner ear
Temporal
cortex
Taste/smell.
Chemical
composition.
Chemo
receptors.
Mouth,
nose.
Primary
taste
cortex,
olfactory
cortex.
SOURCE Adapted from Mather (2006: 4)
The organisation and integration of stimuli (perception) to give meaning
to sensations involves highly complex neural (brain and nervous system)
processes that consume a substantial proportion of the brain’s cerebral
cortex (Mather, 2006; Weiten, 2016). The photograph in Figure 5.1
illustrates how many sensations come together in the integrated perceptual
experience of giving meaning to this or any similar scene.
Figure 5.1
All perceptual processes make for an organised visual experience
SOURCE Shutterstock Photo Sky
Sensation and perception relate to the study field of psychophysics, which
is the quantitative study of perception and examines the relationships
between the attributes of the actual physical stimuli and the attributes of
the perceived responses or experiences (sensations) and the reasons for
these relationships (Mather, 2006, 2016). In other words, psychophysics is
the scientific study of the relationship between stimuli (specified in
physical terms) and the sensations and perceptions evoked by these stimuli.
It examines how physical stimuli are transformed or translated into
meaningful psychological experiences. It is an important aspect of auditory
(hearing) testing and assessing the functioning of the auditory nerve
system (Musiek & Chermak, 2015).
Studies in psychophysics are necessary because the human senses, with
their capacities and limitations, can only observe physical stimuli of a
certain strength or magnitude. If, for example, sounds are too loud or too
quiet it is difficult to make sense of such sounds, which could lead to
inaccurate perceptions. Psychophysics research determines whether what
people become aware of is similar to incoming stimuli. Accurate
perceptions are very important in the work context, and work design must
allow employees to sense incoming stimuli correctly in order to perceive
accurately and execute work correctly and safely.
Specific issues on sensation that have been studied in psychophysics
over the years are the nature of stimuli, thresholds, the just-noticeable
difference (JND), signal-detection theory, subliminal perception and
sensory adaptation and attention. Some of these aspects are discussed in
the sections that follow.
5.2.2
Thresholds
A threshold (or limen) is the point at which a stimulus, or change in a
stimulus, is detected through the senses. The point of detection will only
happen at a proportion of the time or point of intensity or sensitivity at
which people are able to detect the presence of a stimuli, or differences in
stimuli. An example is the minimum amount of light needed to be able to
see or read. If there is too little light (stimulus) a person cannot see, but
once the necessary minimum amount of light exists (threshold) a person
can see. A comparison is a day-night light that switches on when it is dark
enough and switches off when daylight is sufficient. Psychophysicists
usually use two approaches when analysing human sensitivity to stimuli,
the absolute threshold and the JND.
5.2.2.1
Absolute thresholds
Stimulus intensity refers to the strength or intensity of a stimulus or
sensory input that is needed in order to be detected by the human senses.
The minimum amount of stimulation or sensory input needed for
detection of a stimulus is referred to as the absolute threshold. The
method of constant stimuli, where stimuli of varying intensities are
provided in random order, establishes the absolute threshold for a person.
The specific point at which an employee is able to hear a sound or see a
light coming on is the absolute threshold at which the employee will
interpret the stimuli accurately and have an accurate perceptual experience.
Reliable detection of stimuli or sensory input happens when a person can
detect a signal of minimum intensity in about 50 per cent of the time that
the stimulus is presented (Wade & Tavris, 2009). This explains why
sensory input at work, both in instructions and tasks, must be sufficiently
strong or intense for an employee to detect stimuli and execute tasks
accurately. People are sometimes able to detect borderline signals (less than
the minimum), but generally, stimuli below this minimum threshold will
not be detected. Absolute thresholds, however, differ from person to
person, among senses and even for the same person under different
situations. Disturbances from and in the environment (such as noise or
poor light) influence stimuli and people’s perceptual thresholds, as will
health issues related to the senses. It is for this reason that I-O
psychologists can counsel management on effective work design and
employees on health and safety to help promote accurate perception in the
workplace.
5.2.2.2
Just-noticeable difference
Sensory sensitivity can also be studied by asking people to judge two or
more stimuli and indicate if such stimuli differ or are similar. The smallest
change in stimulation or between stimuli, which people can detect with 50
per cent reliability, is referred to as the difference threshold or justnoticeable difference (JND). An everyday example is the testing of
people’s eyesight and hearing. Specialists judge people’s responses to light
stimuli and different sounds to determine the status of their vision and
hearing and whether to prescribe vision correction or hearing aids.
Just-noticeable difference can also be defined as the minimum quantity
by which stimulus intensity must be modified in order to achieve a
distinguishable variation. Ernst Weber, a 19th century experimental
psychologist, coined a principle known as Weber’s Law that states that the
size of a JND is in constant proportion to the size or magnitude of the
initial stimulus. The stronger the stimulus, the greater the change must be
before people sense a difference. To give an example, adding a one kg
weight to a 200 kg weight will not be easily detected by a weightlifter,
whereas adding one kg to a five kg weight will be easily noticed (Morris &
Maisto, 2016; Weiten, 2016). Weber detected that JND has different
values for different objects and senses. For instance, the JND is higher for
heavy objects than it is for light ones. The smallest detectable difference,
however, is a fairly stable proportion of the mass of the original object.
Just-noticeable difference is important in the advertising and
marketing of products. Marketing professionals determine the relevant
JND for their products so that reductions in product size or quality are not
readily discernible to buyers. Similarly, they aim to achieve product
improvements that are readily discernible to customers without incurring
wasteful costs. Marketers use JND to determine the degree of change or
updating they should make to their products to avoid losing the product’s
known recognisable aspects. They aim to meet consumers’ differential
thresholds so that consumers easily perceive the improvements made to
the original product. For example, when a well-known pizza group
changed its name, it emphasised in advertising that although the name had
changed, customers would still get the same quality and more. Table 5.2
explains the concepts in the study of stimulus or sensation intensity.
Table 5.2
Concepts in the study of stimulus or sensation intensity
Threshold
or limen
The point at which a stimulus, or change in a stimulus, is
detected through the senses.
Absolute
thresholds
The minimum amount of stimulation or sensory input
needed for detection of a stimulus, which is reliable if
detected in 50 per cent of the times it is received.
Justnoticeable
difference
(JND)
The smallest difference or change in stimulation or
between stimuli that people can detect with 50 per cent
reliability.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
5.2.3
Signal detection and feature analysis
Measuring the sensitivity of the senses by thresholds appears to be
unreliable if the signal strength allows us to receive the stimulus or
information in only 50 per cent of the time stimuli are offered. People’s
response sets or response bias (a tendency to respond in a certain way,
which is often not accurate) and their motivation, needs and expectations
can influence responses to stimuli. Perception has no value if we receive
stimuli of forms, patterns or issues, but cannot recognise or use them.
This is why we have the ability to do feature analysis of received
sensations, that is, analyse and recognise certain attributes in stimuli, for
example, a pattern and peoples’ faces. According to signal-detection
theory, a person’s response in detecting the features of stimuli also
depends on the value of the stimulus and not only on a single threshold or
the physical intensity of a stimulus. Signal detection can be considered as a
decision process of recognising stimuli, thereby creating certainty in
perception. Signal detection is influenced by the senses and attributes in
the stimulus, but also by the value of the information in the stimulus,
personal factors, knowledge, previous experience and the response bias.
Some perceptual psychologists believe that the ability to sense and perceive
issues, objects and forms represents a form of decision-making or problem
solving based on two categories of simultaneous cognitive processes;
bottom-up and top-down (Weiten, 2011, 2016; Riener, 2019) (See Table
5.3).
Table 5.3
Bottom-up versus top-down processing
Bottom-up processing
Top-down processing
A stimulus influences our perception.
Knowledge/experience
influences our
perception.
It is data driven.
It is theory driven.
Starts with individual parts and works
towards a whole.
Starts with the whole and
fills in the
missing pieces.
Usually when it is something unfamiliar
to your brain.
Usually when it is
something that
your brain recognises.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Bottom-up processes register and integrate sensory information from the
basic or raw features in stimuli to create a total or whole perception. This
means that you are only using the incoming raw stimulus, of which you
have no knowledge, to create a perception. The stimulus alone will
determine your response. For example, you listen to an unfamiliar song
and decide whether you like it or not, or you apply for a job with ABC
company, of which you know nothing. Using only the sound of the song or
the name ABC means you are using a single piece of information to arrive
at your decision. You are working with individual pieces of information
towards a whole. This may lead to an incorrect perception and
consequently a faulty decision. Bottom-up processing depends on
information from the senses at the most basic level of perception. In the
lowest level of information processing, the sensory system takes in stimuli
and passes them through successively higher stages of processing until the
brain finally arrives at the total picture (I like the song or I want to work
for ABC company). However, bottom-up processing, which can be a long
and complex process, is mostly not sufficient to recognise ideas and objects
or to make decisions.
In contrast, top-down processing uses existing knowledge, emotions,
expectations and impressions to interpret information from the incoming
stimulus in order to come to an integrated or total meaning. This means
you are starting with a whole picture and using new information to form a
specific perception or take a decision. Top-down processing emphasises
the importance of the observer’s existing and familiar concepts,
expectations and prior knowledge; the kind of information stored at the
highest level of perception. It means that existing information is
immediately available to help you reach a decision.
New information from the stimulus may assist you to fill in missing
pieces, for example, if you know something about the song or company
ABC, or someone says something positive about them, it could be
sufficient information for you to decide. In contrast to first-time sensory
inputs, perception or giving meaning to sensation is a top-down process
because the brain uses, organises and interprets stimuli to give meaning by
using existing cognitions or knowledge. Top-down processing is used
more in perceptual processes, as in decision-making processing of
information, though other processes also have influence (Mather, 2016;
Riener, 2019).
5.2.4
Subliminal perception
Subliminal perception occurs whenever stimuli are presented below the
threshold (limen) for awareness (King, 2011; Morris & Maisto, 2010,
2016). Research indicates that subliminal perception used in advertising
can influence buying behaviour in customers. Examples of this include
flash advertisements on TV and on the Internet. Other research has
contrary findings and indicates that people are not usually influenced by
subliminal perception. The ethical issue of informed consent has also been
raised. This means that people are not aware of or informed (informed
consent) about the objectives of advertising, which may lead to people
buying unnecessary items (Janson-Boyd, 2019; News 24, 2015; Hattingh,
Magnus & Ramlakan, 2016).
So-called extrasensory perception (ESP) and a related phenomenon
psi, studied within parapsychology (studying phenomena not usually
explained by mainstream psychology), relates to so-called ‘mind over
matter’ issues or phenomena, such as clairvoyance, telepathy, precognition
and psychokinesis, and others that are currently scientifically unexplained
in terms of known physical and biological mechanisms (Baron, 2001,
2016; Coon, 2002; Morris & Maisto, 2010, 2016).
5.2.5
Sensory adaptation and attention
In most circumstances, all of the sense organs and their related neurology
adapt to enduring stimuli or possible changes in stimuli and sensory
awareness. This flexibility in sensory ability provides not only consistency,
but also variation in perceptual experiences (Wade & Tavris, 2009).
Sensory adaptation is the gradual decline in sensitivity to a stimulus as a
consequence of prolonged or constant stimulation (King, 2011; Weiten,
2016). In a laboratory where employees are used to certain smells, even
small changes will be noticed. However, if these changes remain, the smell
organs will get used to the changes except if the smell sense is
dysfunctional. In the mornings and evenings, we gradually adapt to things
becoming more or less visible as the daylight increases or decreases.
Sensory adaptation is an automatic process that keeps people aware of the
changes, rather than the constants, in their sensory input. This is because,
like most organisms, humans are interested in changes in their
environment that may signal threats or unpleasantness.
Attention is a primary and important function of perceptual processes
in general and in the work context. Sensory adaptation also helps people
avoid responding unnecessarily to certain common stimuli, as in getting
used to wearing glasses every day, or acting on all received information. In
this regard, selective attention (also referred to as the cocktail party
syndrome) helps people to focus on certain important stimuli, while
enabling them to block out or not be distracted by other less important
stimuli (Wade & Tavris, 2009; King, 2011). Selective attention can
include many phenomena like marginal and shifting attention focus.
Selective attention is mostly related to visual perception, but it also applies
to other senses, especially hearing and person perception. An example is
listening to one person only, or some aspects of a conversation or
presentation and thereby missing other information.
Selective attention can be influenced by the personal or internal
attributes of respondents, such as their personality, particular needs and
motives, preferences, attitudes, previous experiences and the intensity of
their emotions when receiving information. External factors also influence
attention focus, for example, the familiarity or novelty of stimuli, the
intensity and whether it stands out, its size, contrast and movement. You
may observe a colleague’s attention focus when conversing with the CEO
as compared to talking to a colleague with whom they are more
comfortable. In the work context, selectivity in perception, or selective
attention, may contribute to rumours. A typical example is employees who,
when hearing of possible job losses in the workplace, will pay attention to
any particular detail that may confirm the rumours. Selective attention can
be a very helpful perceptual function, but can also represent a perceptual
shortcut, which can cause perceptual distortions and errors.
Inattentional blindness (similar behaviour may also apply to the other
senses) also illustrates selective attention. This may occur when attention is
focused on one sensory stimulus and other obvious stimuli are missed. For
example, a driver may be so busy talking on a cell phone that they do not
register an approaching car, even if they see or hear the car. Attention
fluctuation is an adaptive mechanism whereby people can divide attention
between various stimuli, such as different tasks or looking at two videos.
Attributes of stimuli, such as sudden changes in the intensity of movement
and colour, may also cause sensory awareness and attention to shift.
Marketers in advertising often exploit the attention-focusing principles
and attributes of stimuli in order to draw consumer attention to products
and packaging (King, 2011; Janson-Boyd, 2019).
Fortunately, the sensory system is mostly alert to certain intense
stimuli, such as pain and high temperatures, and hazardous stimuli that
require evasive or other actions. Unfortunately, there are also many
examples of horrific events (accidents) in which human errors of
perception were found to be a direct causal factor; the high incidence of
road accidents in South Africa being a case in point.
As indicated in Table 5.1 all senses are related to perception and
similarly to sensory adaptation and attention focus.
The sense of vision works by adaptation to light. Assume a student is
working on a study assignment when there is a power cut for two hours
due to load shedding. If the student uses a candle or another source of
light with a much lower light intensity, their eyes undergo dark adaptation,
a process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low
illumination. When the power supply is eventually restored, the student
will then experience light adaptation; the process whereby the eyes become
less sensitive to light in high illumination (Goldstein, 2007; Weiten,
2016).
Measuring the sensitivity of the hearing sense is done in decibel (db)
units. Whispering has approximately 30db, normal conversation has
approximately 60db and sounds exceeding 120db are experienced as
painful. Pain provides a signal to avoid certain sounds. Enduring and
cumulative noises can have negative effects on people, for example, in
traffic and in work processes (Morris & Maisto, 2016).
The sense of touch in the skin adapts to, for example, fit of clothes,
temperature and pain. This happens, for example, when people get used to
the sensation of a cold-water shower. This occurs because the brain
contains different regions for perceiving feeling like pain and for alleviating
pain. The thalamus is involved in the perception of pain while the limbic
system is involved in storing emotions relating to perceiving (experiencing)
pain. The relief of being alive after a serious explosion may alleviate the
intense pain of the wounds sustained (Wade & Tavris, 2009).
The sense of balance automatically makes people aware of and adapts
their bodies to movements, positions and orientations in space through the
proprioceptive system. This system is responsible for providing the body
with the necessary messages to execute appropriate movements when
required, such as sitting, standing, stepping down and bending (Morris &
Maisto, 2016).
The senses of taste and smell are interconnected and located in
receptors in the tongue and nose. The receptors possess the natural or
inherited ability to make people aware of and sensitive to various tastes and
odours. Taste and smell receptors adapt as particular food and odour
preferences change, for example, a person becomes used to a certain
perfume and then changes to another (Weiten, 2016).
All the attributes of the senses, sensation and perception are essential
in job and task execution. Workplaces and their stimuli must be designed
and modified in ways to accommodate the minimum requirements and
capabilities of the human senses, for example, lighting, noise, taste and
skin sensitivity.
In the following sections, certain principles will indicate how the
senses are involved in human perception; to organise, interpret and give
meaning to work, tasks and work environments. Though we concentrate
more on visual perception, human perceptions consist mostly of integrated
experiences involving several senses and psychological and experiential
aspects. An example is when you see a fire in a building at work and hear
its crackling; you will also smell smoke, possibly taste burning substances
and feel the heat. The combination of these experiences will lead to
perceptions of danger and may give rise to fight or flight actions.
5.3
Visual perception
Visual perception is a complex process and related to the sense of sight in
the eyes and all its functions and neurological structures (Weiten, 2011;
Wade, 2013; Weiten, 2016; Hinton, 2016). The main stimulus for vision
is light, which influences three psychological factors in people’s visual
perceptions. These factors are the following:
• Hue: Visual perception specified by colour names and related to wave
lengths.
• Saturation: The intensity of light and the purity of complexity of light
waves.
• Brightness: The amount of light reflected from an object.
Research indicates the presence of feature-detector cells in the visual cortex
of the brain in animals and people. These cells are sensitive to specific
features in objects and the environment. Humans also have so-called face
modules, which are specialised cells to help people recognise faces. Even in
cases of brain damage, some people are often still able to recognise faces
(Wade & Tavris, 2009).
Most of the sensory principles apply in visual perception. Together
with the special attributes of the human sight system, this make visual
perception a unique experience for each person and one that is influenced
by each person’s experience, knowledge, cognition and acquired meaning
systems. To illustrate, a person sees a big wave and, on the basis of their
knowledge and experience, interprets the attributes of the sea and water
(stimuli) as a normal, safe high tide, whereas in fact it may be a tsunami or
tidal wave. An added special attribute of visual perception (and partly true
for hearing) is the so-called mind’s eye, which enables people to make
visual images or pictorial representations of what is seen (Weiten, 2011).
Many golf players, architects, photographers and artists first visualise what
they want to achieve, the shot they want to play, the building they want to
design or the scenery they want to photograph or paint.
Visual imagery plays an important mental role in many everyday
activities and relates to information processing, memory, learning, abstract
thinking and linguistic comprehension. Visual representations, like
cognitive maps of learning material, are often used in learning resources.
Principles of visual perception and imagery are especially relevant in
advertising, marketing, artistic design and in job and sport execution.
Some psychologists also use imagery in counselling and therapy, for
example, to imagine a relaxing situation as opposed to a more stressful
situation, or to imagine and role play another person’s tasks.
The following sections are not about the eye or sight itself, but about
perceptual laws and factors that determine perceptual organisation and
how stimuli, especially visual stimuli, are organised and interpreted to give
the most complete perception and meaning possible.
5.3.1
Form perception
Form perception applies to all our sensations and allows people to organise
visual sensations to obtain sense and order. For example, a soccer team
consists of 11 players who operate in specific positions, with specific tasks
and are clothed in team colours. Without form perception, the visual world
would appear as a chaotic, disorganised picture of random objects,
distances and functions; a mass of confusing colours. However, most
people perceive a visual world that contains objects with definite forms and
shapes, which is related to the mind’s ability to organise visual impressions
into the best gestalt or whole (see Figure 5.1).
Form perception is strongly related to well-known gestalt principles,
which emphasise the perceptual organisation of stimuli according to
various principles. The main gestalt principle of wholeness asserts that the
‘the whole is more than the sum of the parts’ (Wade & Tavris, 2009: 197).
Another important principle is that people organise visual stimuli into
figure and ground dimensions, which implies contrast to make the
differentiation of stimuli easier. Figure refers to the object – usually the
lower part of a scene, and the ground is the background – usually the upper
part of a picture. This makes it possible to recognise images depending on
stimuli attributes, such as the intensity of light and colour, distance and
uniqueness of stimuli. The figure and ground principle is illustrated in
Figure 5.2, which is a well-known example.
Example box
What do you see?
Figure 5.2
Things are not always as they first seem
SOURCE Adapted from Weiten (2011)
Figure 5.2 in the box shows an image called Rubin’s vase. In this example, figure and ground
cues have been carefully balanced, but the black and white regions are generally not
perceived as adjacent. Instead, perception switches back and forth and the borders belong to
either the vase or to the faces.
Figure and ground recognition is mostly a spontaneous and stable
feature of people’s visual perception. In everyday life, people have little
difficulty placing their environments and activities in perspective; driving
at safe distances, recognising their arrival at work, stepping through open
doors, reading instructions, recognising distances between objects,
switching on machinery and working at the correct workstation.
Of specific importance in the gestalt principle of wholeness is the
principle of perceptual organisation. This principle explains how people
organise visual elements into meaningful wholes or integrated perceptions
(Goldstein, 2007; Mather, 2016; Weiten, 2011; Wade, 2013). Figure 5.3
illustrates the various laws of perceptual organisation. Imagine what your
understanding of the world would be if you could not recognise and
organise the features of a graffiti art work, the sounds of your favourite
music, the features of someone you loved or the various items in your
house or office?
Figure 5.3
Illustrations of various laws of perceptual organisation
The gestalt laws of visual perception, including figure and ground, are
mostly used to explain and understand perceptual organisation (Cherry,
2020). The following laws are relevant in many areas of human
functioning, such as social and person perception, summarising ideas,
work, organisation, environmental and architectural design, ergonomics,
traffic design and many more:
• Law of Prägnanz (simplicity): This law asserts that people want to
perceive the simplest and best whole or good form. This law states the
obvious: The gestalt main principle. There is also the question with
regard to differences in perception – what are the criteria for a good
form. Compare an impressionistic artist’s ideas with those of an artist
who simulates reality. In current psychology, many would rather use
the concept of simplicity in interpreting concepts to avoid any
confusing aspects (Weiten, 2011). In general, though, most people can
use less than all the elements in stimuli (closure) to form a gestalt
pattern.
• Law of proximity: Proximity indicates that objects close to each other
are more inclined to be perceived as a unit or pattern. This does not
only apply to visual stimuli, but to other types of information as well.
For example, one might perceive two people walking together as a
couple or a person talking to policemen in the street as someone who is
in trouble with the law.
• Law of similarity: Objects that are similar to each other are perceived
as belonging together as a unit. For example, two people dressed
similarly may be judged to be identical twins, or knowing a wealthy
person who drives a BMW car may influence you to think that all
people who drive BMWs are wealthy.
• Law of continuity: Continuity indicates that people tend to perceive
smooth, continuous lines rather than separate elements or separate
fragments. For example, in busy traffic, a person sees a line of cars and
not separate cars, and all employees in a factory are regarded as a
collective labour force.
• Law of closure: According to closure, people have the visual ability to
see things as completed if sufficient clues are provided, although some
gaps in the stimuli or information may exist. For example, a soccer
coach sees a certain young player performing for the first time and
admires his speed and defensive abilities. He selects him into the
national team without considering all the other necessary qualities,
which if the player fails, may be criticised by supporters. Similarly, in a
visit to a game reserve you only need to see the lion’s head and ears
through the grass to recognise the lion and keep your distance.
• Law of symmetry: Symmetry indicates that a stimulus situation is
perceived as a balanced whole. For example, a flower arrangement may
only contain roses of a similar size and colour or a car has seats with
the same colour and design features in order to look like a harmonious
whole.
• Law of common fate: Also referred to as the law of simultaneous
movements, this law suggests that aspects of a perceptual field that
move or function in a similar manner will be perceived as a unit. For
example, a number of cattle or sheep moving together will be seen as
belonging to the same herd (Cherry, 2020).
Gestalt laws can have separate applications. However, when people
perceive a stimulus field, all or some laws combine together to create an
integrated whole that has meaning. For example, if you fly in an air
balloon above the earth you will see the whole picture, from which you
derive meaning. However, if you start to look for specific details, you will
find applications for all the gestalt laws. Examples are the total scene (law
of Prägnanz), trees that look similar and are grouped close together (laws
of similarity and proximity), various shades and colours that create contrast
(recognising figure and ground) and vehicles going separately in the same
direction (law of continuity). Walking in any setting, like your home or
workplace, will also provide many similar perceptual organisational
applications.
5.3.2
Depth or spatial perception
Much of our visual perception in daily activities also reflects the fact that
items have dimensions of depth, distance, height and width. The way
people perceive and interpret these dimensions can reflect cultural
differences. People may use many cues to organise distance and depth
perception, of which monocular cues (cues that need one eye perception
only) and binocular cues (cues using both eyes) are the most important.
Having two eyes allows the most accurate judgement of depth and
distance, although the use of one eye will yield fairly accurate judgements
as well (Wade, 2013; Morris & Maisto, 2016).
Monocular cues for depth or distance perception include the following
specific cues:
• Size cues: The larger the image of an object on the retina, the larger
and closer the object is judged to be.
• Linear perspective: Parallel lines – for example, railway lines – appear
to converge in the distance. The greater this effect, the further away an
object appears to be.
• Texture gradient: The texture of a surface appears to become
smoother as distance increases.
• Atmospheric perspective: The further away objects are, the less
distinct and, often, smaller they appear to be.
• Height cues (aerial perspective): Objects that are below the horizon,
or lower down in one’s field of vision, are perceived as closer, while
objects that are higher up, above the horizon, are seen as further away.
• Motion parallax: When a person travels in a vehicle, objects far away
appear to move in the same direction as the observer, whereas objects
that are close seem to move in the opposite direction. Objects at
different distances appear to move at different speeds.
• Interposition/overlap: An object between the viewer and a second
object partly obscures the view to the second object and the first object
is perceived as closer.
Binocular cues for depth perception stem from two primary sources, as
follows:
• Convergence: In order to see close objects, a person’s eyes turn
inwards across the nose towards one another; the greater this
movement, the closer such objects appear to be and they may even
overlap.
• Retinal disparity (binocular parallax): Both eyes observe objects from
slightly different positions in space. The brain provides indications of
depth and distance by interpreting the difference between the two
images. This can be tested by holding up a finger some distance in
front of your nose and then by holding two fingers up, one closer to
your nose. When you switch your vision from one eye to the next, the
single finger seems to change positions and the space between the two
fingers changes (Wade & Tavris, 2009; Wade, 2013).
5.3.3
Perceptual constancy
Perceptual constancy is mostly related to visual perception; however, the
principles also relate to other senses. Imagine unstable sensations and
perceptions and the confusion and discomfort they would cause when
known objects, odours, tastes or forms are not perceived in a familiar way.
Experience this for yourself by standing on your head for some time and
notice what you see and how you feel. The human visual phenomenon of
perceptual constancy allows people to change and move around from
known to unknown situations and still perceive many things as stable and
the same. For example, arriving home late at night in the dark does not
make it unfamiliar to you. A number of visual constancies are used to
explain stable visual perception, namely, size, shape, brightness, colour,
and location constancy (Wade & Tavris, 2009; King, 2011). You may find
examples for the other senses.
• Size constancy: Means that an object seems to stay the same size
despite changes in the distance between the viewer and the object and
the image on the eye’s retina. The reason for this is that the viewer is
familiar with the usual sizes of objects and takes distance into account
when perceiving them. For instance, irrespective of whether an
elephant is standing nearby or at a great distance, the viewer always
perceives it as a large object.
• Shape constancy: Means that an object seems to stay the same shape,
despite changes in its orientation towards the viewer. A round plate
viewed from an angle across a table may appear elliptic, but it is still
perceived as a round form.
• Brightness constancy: Maintains the same brightness for objects even
if illumination levels due to clouds, for example, may seemingly change
the brightness; we still perceive a green cornfield as green.
• Colour constancy: In perception colour constancy is reliable because
sensory light and dark adaptation of the eyes enables a viewer to
perceive the colour of a red rose or a white car to be the same despite
changing illumination levels.
• Location constancy: Happens in perception when the physical
location of objects remains the same even if the viewer changes
location. When a person bungee jumps, objects appear to move past
quickly. However, the person knows that these apparent moving
objects in reality remain in their positions.
5.3.4
Perception of movement
The perception of movement is an area where visual perception is
sometimes inconsistent. This is because information from the retina and
eye muscles may play tricks on people. Real movement happens when you
actually observe an object moving from one position to another. In
apparent movement, objects are in reality motionless but seem to move.
Apparent movement may happen when the perceiver stands still and turns
his head around. During the movement of the head the retina may register
passive objects as moving, but the eye muscles will counteract this faulty
perception and the objects will be correctly perceived as being motionless
(Morris & Maisto, 2016; King, 2011). Apparent movement may also
happen, for example, when your senses are misled and overwhelmed by
many seemingly realistic stimuli of movement, for example, in virtual
reality videos.
Forms of apparent movement are stroboscopic movement or the phi
phenomenon, auto-kinetic illusion and induced movement.
• Stroboscopic movement or the phi phenomenon: Is perceived when a
series of still images or lights are rapidly projected, for example in
motion pictures or flickering neon lights.
• Auto-kinetic illusion: Is perceived when the viewer has no visual cues
and framework to observe whether the object is stationary or moving.
When one stands in total darkness and looks at one spot of light, the
light may seem to move around.
• Induced movement: Happens when people imagine they have seen
movement when in fact objects were motionless, which is an illusion
(Wade, 2013).
5.3.5
Visual or perceptual illusions
The perceptual errors of form and movement are examples of how visual
perception can be misleading, inaccurate or inconsistent. Inconsistency of
perceptions is based on inappropriate assumptions about incoming stimuli
caused by in- and outward movements of the eye as well as certain
attributes and cues in stimuli and the environment. Visual or optical
illusions are caused by a discrepancy between the appearance of a visual
stimulus and how it is perceived or seen by the viewer. Illusions are
classified as either physical or perceptual (Morris & Maisto, 2016; Wade
& Tavris, 2009).
Physical illusions are caused by real stimulus attributes. An example is
a stick that appears to bend at the point it enters water because the water
acts like a mirror or prism that bends the light waves before they reach the
eyes. Another type of real-world illusion is that of area, illustrated by the
well-known moon illusion, or the phenomenon that the moon looks about
30 per cent larger when it is at the horizon than at its highest point in the
sky (Baron, 2001). A possible explanation for the moon illusion is that
when the moon is near the horizon, one can see that it is further away than
trees, houses and other objects. When it is overhead at its zenith, such cues
are lacking. Thus, the moon appears larger near the horizon because there
are cues available that allow one to perceive that it is very far away.
Other illusions that are due to the distortion of physical processes
include water mirages, in which one perceives images that are not really
there, such as the shimmering water one often experiences on a dry road,
especially when it is hot. Induced illusions occur when people experience
something that in fact does not happen. A well-known example is when
sitting in a stationary car and a car next to you moves forward, you may
have the false sensation of moving backwards. This happens if you do not
have a specific reference point to detect movement, but the moment you
look across the street or down to the ground you have specific reference
points, which stop the induced or apparent illusion of movement.
Perceptual optical illusions happen because the stimuli have misleading
cues that play tricks on the mind and lead to inaccurate perceptions. All
the examples in Figure 5.4 illustrate such illusions.
Figure 5.4
Perceptual or optical illusions
• In the first image, called the Müller-Lyer illusion, the vertical lines are
actually the same size, but the right-hand line seems to be significantly
longer.
• In the second image, although the lines are of equal length, the vertical
line seems longer. This horizontal-vertical illusion may be because the
vertical line seems to recede in depth.
• The third image is called the two-pronged trident. Look at it for a few
moments and then try to draw it without looking at it. How many
prongs are there?
• The fourth image was first described by Johan Poggendorff. It relates
to how the brain perceives the interaction between diagonal lines,
horizontal and vertical edges. In the left picture, the straight black line
is obstructed by a darker shadow rectangle, which makes the line
appear disjointed even though it is straight. The continuity of the line
is made much clearer in the picture on the right in which the shadow is
much lighter.
• In the fifth image, the parts of the figure seem to be physically
connected at the intersections. However, upon careful analysis, it is
clear that the parts could not be joined together physically.
• Most people who utilise the Western style of reading (from left to
right) would describe the sixth image as a set of stairs going upwards.
People who utilise another reading style, for example, Arabic (which
goes from right to left), would read this as a set of stairs going
downwards. This is a good example of an illusion that is based on a
strong cultural influence.
Whereas perception and perceptual laws give meaning to people’s
sensations, distorted perceptions often cause perceptual errors in physical,
social or person perception. Many social and psychological factors may
influence these perceptions. With regard to person perception, cultural
differences between people, for example, may create perceptual
inconsistencies (Wade & Tavris, 2010; Weiten, 2016). Globally, people of
different cultures may perceive each other as different because of
differences in what food people eat, how they dress, how they celebrate
certain holidays and other behaviours. This could lead to stereotyping.
Different personality traits can also have an influence on how we
perceive each other. For example, if you walk into the office of a person
who has strong introvert characteristics without making an appointment,
you might perceive that person as cold and distant. This might not be true;
when an introvert is focused on a task, they hardly notice other people.
When you enter the office, they might look up and then continue with the
task as they want to finish it before giving attention to the person who
entered the office. Differences in perception are not only caused by
attributes in people’s physical senses and the nature of stimuli, but also by
people’s psychological attributes and their circumstances.
In I-O psychology and human resource (HR) practices it is recognised
that perceptual errors may contribute to faulty task execution, accidents
and influence organisational decisions and psychological assessment. In the
latter case, for example, when it comes to promoting employees, a manager
may favour one employee over another because the manager likes the
person’s friendliness and does not consider other relevant factors.
5.3.6
Colour vision
Workplaces, work tools, machinery, computers and instructions for safety
and work procedures often contain colour cues. People with normal colour
vision can detect colour indications accurately. The colours red, blue and
green are mostly used to form different shades or colours. However, some
people are colour deficient because of colour blindness and other visual
problems (King, 2011; Wade & Tavris, 2009; Bailey & Heiting, 2019) and
cannot distinguish between colours effectively (see Chapter 3, Section
3.2.1). Colour detection can be an important work criterion if job
descriptions require it. Driving competency, for example, requires more
than good eyesight. It requires accurate colour vision and depth perception
in order to judge distances and hearing alerts the driver to sound. Not all
of these attributes are assessed in acquiring a driver’s licence.
There are various theories on colour vision. According to the
trichromatic theory, three types of cones (red, blue and green) in the retina
that respond to certain colours enable colour recognition. In combination,
these cones allow humans to recognise all possible shades of colour. Most
colour-blind people are dichromats and the type of colour blindness they
have will be determined by which one of the three colour cones is
defective, most often green. Dichromats only have two colour channels
and each type of dichromat is sensitive to specific colours (King, 2011;
Weiten, 2016; Lee & Mather, 2019). The opponent-process theory asserts
that certain pairs of cells respond to certain colours and react to other cells
in an opposing manner (Morris & Maisto, 2016). Three sets of colour
receptors are responsible for colour vision. The yellow-blue and red-green
sets determine the hue (type of colour) and the black-white set is
responsible for the brightness of a colour stimulus. The opponent-process
theory also explains after-colour images, for example, if you look at a red
colour and then look at a white surface, you may have an after-image of
the initial red colour.
5.4
Factors influencing sensation and
perception
In previous sections, we referred to aspects in the stimuli, the perceiver,
situation, environment and in the senses that may influence perception.
Some of the most important factors are discussed in the following sections.
5.4.1
Attributes of the perceiver
People have certain inborn or instinctive perceptual abilities. Even infants
have some perception of depth and shallow in order to avoid danger
(Hinton, 2016), while acquired behaviour in later life stages may have a
more dominant influence. When an individual receives various types of
stimuli, the perception or interpretation can be strongly and subjectively
influenced by multiple personal characteristics. In social psychology, for
example, the criteria for attractiveness among people may be quite
different and very subjective (Morris & Maisto, 2016; Wade & Tavris,
2009). Subjective factors include cognitive style, motivation and emotion,
needs, beliefs, preferences, innate and acquired attachment behaviour,
expectations, values and attitudes, prejudices, unique experiences and
background in cultural and ethnic contexts and personality attributes.
With regard to personal factors, especially culture, people develop a
perceptual set in how they will respond to certain stimuli in particular
situations. These factors enhance subjectivity and selectivity in perception,
which can be positive, but can also lead to perceptual errors and prejudice.
An example of perceptual set is a view in which preferred things are judged
to be more accurate than those that are less favoured. In personnel
selection, applicants may be judged based on personal or preferred reasons
of the interviewer and consequently other highly qualified candidates may
be ignored. Culture will often influence how stimuli are interpreted and
how related behaviours are expressed (Kastanakis & Voyer, 2014; Hinton,
2016),
5.4.2
Attributes of stimuli
In previous sections, we have shown how attributes of perceived objects, or
stimuli and influences from situations and the environment can have an
impact on what is perceived. These factors include motion, novelty, sound,
proximity, background and size. In social perception, the physical
characteristics of people, their attractiveness, how they behave, dress and
their social and economic status influence how they are perceived and
judged. This is reflected in product advertising and marketing, and may
have a role on employee selection and other social interactions. Sports fans,
dressed in the same colours, for example, may stand out in a crowd and
this may be enhanced if they are also noisy supporters. In business, large
organisations are often perceived to be successful and wealthy and much is
expected from them in economic and social support by society.
5.4.3
The role of situations in perception
Like other themes in psychology, the person-situation issue remains an
enduring question, that is, the role of situations in how people behave
(Morris & Maisto, 2016). Sensations and the interpretation of sensations
cannot take place outside a particular context or setting, like time,
temperature, illumination, proximity or distance, location (for example,
work, home or holiday) and social settings. Viewing nature early and late
in the day during a relaxed holiday might be a very different experience
from that of travelling to and from work at those times. In a social context,
an employee will talk to his partner about his manager in a very different
way to how he responds to his manager at work or at a work party. If
people are in a stressful relationship, they may view scenes of happy
couples differently. Sport supporters or participants in labour unrest
marches who are swept up in the excitement and aggression of these events
may express perceptions of issues differently compared to times of calm or
when alone.
5.5
Person
perception
or
interpersonal
Person perception (social or interpersonal perception) refers to the
perceptual processes that take place during interaction and communication
between people in many situations, for example, personal relationships,
groups, business and public speaking, mostly with a view to impression
formation (Morris & Maisto, 2016; Sutton, 2015; Hinton, 2016). Person
perception also involves obtaining and processing information and giving
meaning to perceptions. This section discusses person perception in
various social interactions with an emphasis on the processes of impression
management and impression formation. This entails communicating the
impressions you want to communicate, in other words, the conscious ways
by people to influence what and how others think of them. First or early
impressions are important and formed in more or less 1/10th of a second
(Willis & Todorov, 2006; Williams, 2019). As interactions continue, new
information about people will be added to existing cognitions, however,
first impressions remain durable and influential in further interactions and
decisions.
The process of forming impressions of others is universal across
cultures, but will also include very particular habits and behaviour as
determined by cultural learning. Having relationships and feeling loved
and accepted is a natural social need in people. The manner in which
relationships are formed and maintained may be strongly influenced by
acquired secure or insecure bonding or attachment behaviours that may
have originated in childhood and progressively developed across the
lifespan.
There are many personal and more formal reasons for impression
management (DuBrin, 2011). People may want to form an impression to
make friends, in intimate relationships, obtain social support, attract
business or political support, persuade people, explain failures, hide things
or make excuses. Whatever the reasons, people will, in some way, assess
the advantages and disadvantages of relationships before they establish and
maintain them. In the author’s view, honesty and congruency are
important characteristics that arguably most people require in any
relationship, as emphasised in research literature (DuBrin, 2011; Egan,
2013).
As indicated, many factors in people, situations and organisations can
influence perception during the process of impression management and
formation (DuBrin, 2011). People utilise a number of methods, some of
which comprise shortcuts, when forming impressions about others. These
shortcuts are useful for making quick, accurate perceptions and for making
predictions about people’s behaviour. However, when shortcuts comprise
perceptual distortions or errors, they may also reflect systematic perceptual
biases and distort the way people think about and perform in interactions.
Note that in any interaction, both in pairs and groups, there are
simultaneously interchangeable roles between the perceiver and the person
being perceived or judged. Impression formation thus happens from both
sides involved in an interaction.
Figure 5.5
Impression formation is a perceptual process with many possible errors and biases
SOURCE Shutterstock Speedkingz
5.5.1
Forming
impressions
cognitive schemata
through
The impressions that people form and communicate to each other entail
social cognitions (knowledge), which includes information, hypotheses and
assumptions (Morris & Maisto, 2016; Du Brin, 2011; Hinton, 2016).
These are used to make personal, interpersonal and other representations
about people. Sources for cognitions can be based on appearance, actions,
verbal and non-verbal behaviour as well as how people behave in a
particular situation. Cognitions usually lead to people mentally
categorising people, for example, being rich or an entrepreneur, obnoxious
or kind. Cognitions consist of schemata or meanings related to certain
beliefs and expectations about people.
Schemata are mental images people form about how they think other
people will or should act in their roles. This may include attributes of a
personal, business and professional image and include the ways in which
people evaluate others. Schemata will include first or early impressions,
referred to as the primacy effect, though, as interactions continue, people
may add new information to the existing schemata. People tend to view
certain attributes in people as central characteristics and will not easily
change their opinions about such attributes, while other aspects in people
are considered as peripheral attributes and not as important. Beliefs about
less important attributes may be more easily changed. Formed schemata
are powerful tools that mostly remain consistent, but can influence further
information and impressions, which are added to existing or new
cognitions about people.
Schemata represent people’s implicit or internal personal personality
theories about the what and the how of other people’s personalities and
behaviour. These assumptions are mostly speculative, untested and biased
and when it is assumed that certain attributes are present in all people, will
lead to labelling and logical errors in judging people (Sutton, 2015). In this
way, people may be categorised in various types of schemas: social
climbers, materialists, individualists or feminists, ambitious, aggressive,
power-hungry or influential (Weiten, 2011). Schemas may also relate to
roles people have at work or in the community as well as competencies and
requirements to be successful in life or business. For example, people may
expect a CEO at work to be well dressed, wise, well informed and an
exemplary model for other employees. If, in reality, a CEO or managerial
professional does not emulate these behaviours and match this image, then
people’s schemas are challenged.
The consequence of incorrect impressions will force people to change
their criteria, or they may choose to take action such as resigning from
work or leaving a relationship (Schultz, 2003). This is often illustrated in
public life when leaders in governance are criticised and are expected or
forced to resign. People remember schemas and related behaviours that
they prefer or value in relationships and ignore others. Event schemas may
prescribe how people should behave and react in certain situations, for
example, behaviour at church or during a formal executive meeting. People
have been described as cognitive misers, which indicates an unwillingness
to attain more information about people and to change schemata of people
even if they know it to be false or inaccurate. This can be especially true of
first impressions (Morris & Maisto, 2016). People may also apply a form
of exchange or equity, that is, will make less positive judgements if they
decide a person or group will have no rewards or advantages for them. This
is in comparison to more systematic and mindful judgements of people
who they think will be beneficial to them, or at least be equal partners in a
relationship.
Like perception through the senses of form and patterns, cognitive
impressions and related judgements about people may often be inaccurate
because of the many factors, biases and fallacies that occur in person
perception, discussed in the following sections. Some of these may relate
to the perceptual laws as discussed in previous sections of this chapter.
5.5.2
Perceptual
perception
distortions
in
person
The following sections will deal more specifically with perceptual
distortions related to perceiver expectations and cognitive or mental
distortions as well as rating errors. Note that some of these factors can also
contribute to accurate person perceptions, but they may easily be distorted
(Bergh & Geldenhuys, 2013; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016).
5.5.2.1
The primacy effect
The primacy effect is the tendency for first impressions or early
information to be considered more important than information that is
received later in forming schemata about other people. During
interpersonal perception, for example, in a selection interview, people will
tend to focus on attributes that are immediately apparent. These could
include someone who is talkative, well-groomed or a certain gender. Even
a beautiful voice on a telephone may create snap judgements, for example,
thinking that the person is friendly, young or beautiful. First impressions
may hinder one from paying close attention to information acquired later
about a person. A by-product of the primacy effect is what is known as the
self-fulfilling prophecy.
This means people may act the way they are expected to act. This is
related to the idea of confirmation bias, which is the tendency of people to
behave towards each other in a way that will confirm their mutual
expectations of each other. This is why, for example, a supervisor’s initial
treatment of employees, based on high expectations, may influence the
employees to live up to these expectations (Weiten, Dunn & Hammer,
2014). Research has indicated that people are influenced by and behave
differently towards another person if they have heard certain attributes
associated with that person. For example, if you have been informed that a
person is aggressive or friendly, you may then express either friendly or
aggressive behaviour.
5.5.2.2
Physical appearance and other attraction determinants
Studies have shown that people’s judgements of other people’s
personalities are often influenced by their appearance, especially their
physical attractiveness. People tend to quickly ascribe desirable personality
characteristics to people who are good-looking, and to perceive them as
more sociable, friendly, confident, and well-adjusted than those who are
less attractive. This fits with a belief or stereotype of what is beautiful is
good (King, 2011; Morris & Maisto, 2016; Weiten, 2016).
Similarity and proximity can also encourage attraction between people.
People may become aware of their similarities in appearance, values or
interests in a meeting, interview or other interactions which can influence
cognitions and decisions about each other. In personal relations, living in
close proximity to each other will influence the establishment and
maintenance of relationships, as well as in other social interactions like
business and other similar interests. Similarity and proximity breed
familiarity and this can facilitate cognitive and interpersonal impressions as
people have more opportunities for interaction and may form cognitive
schema more comfortably (Morris & Maisto, 2016).
5.5.2.3
Stereotypes
Stereotypes are also forms of schemas, or established beliefs that people
belonging to the same groups or social affiliation have certain
characteristics. Stereotyping can be a normal cognitive process, but it can
also be a deliberate shortcut to save people the time and effort required to
understand people individually (Morris & Maisto, 2016; Weiten, Dunn &
Hammer, 2014). Stereotypes are difficult to change even if valid
information and facts are available. Stereotypes are often broad, speculative
generalisations that ignore diversity in social groups and often lead to
inaccurate perceptions of, and inappropriate actions towards people.
Stereotypes may involve any personal attribute. The most common
stereotypes, however, are those based on gender, ethnicity, race and
occupational groups (King, 2011; Hinton, 2016). Traditional gender
stereotypes may assume that women are emotional, submissive, illogical
and passive, whereas men are believed to be unemotional, dominant,
logical and aggressive. Occupational stereotyping may encourage the
perception that lawyers are manipulative, accountants are conforming, IT
specialists are nerdy, artists are moody and unionists are aggressive and
defiant.
Related to stereotyping are the types of relationships that are perceived
between so-called in-groups and out-groups. These relationships are based
on the stereotypes and biased schemata that may exist. Bias between
groups (or intergroup bias) occurs when an in-group person observes the
actions of one or more members of another social group, the out-group,
and then attributes such actions to the characteristics of that out-group.
Members of an in-group mostly favour their group over others. A related
aspect is the out-group homogeneity effect which states that out-group
members are not only seen as being different from the in-group, but also as
similar to and interchangeable with each other. To illustrate this, some
people may think that they and other members of their race all look
different, but that members of another race all look the same.
Example box
Ultimate biases: Prejudice and discrimination
Prejudice and discrimination are mostly formed into negative attitudes, stereotypes and acts
towards groups of people. Prejudiced stereotypes are unfair, unfavourable and intolerant
perceptions, mostly characterised by strong emotions. Prejudiced stereotypes illustrate the
ultimate attribution error or bias which happens when internal and external attributes are
associated with groups and their members (Morris & Maisto, 2016; Wade & Tavris, 2009). For
example, when a group is associated with internal or personal shortcomings (for example,
being greedy, lazy and incompetent) and their success is related to external factors
(favoured in business deals or supported financially). In South Africa, incidents of racism
across and between ethnic and other groups is perhaps one of the strongest indicators of
prejudice and discrimination.
Racism is a belief that members of certain ethnic or racial groups and their attributes are
intrinsically inferior and cannot be changed. Prejudiced and racist beliefs may demonstrate,
inter alia, in beliefs and actions towards other persons and groups: in relationships, culture,
education, employment, wealth creation and legal issues.
Discrimination refers to unfair acts towards groups or members of groups. Prejudice and
discrimination are related phenomena but need not occur together (Morris & Maisto, 2016).
Determining height specifications for flight attendants may be discriminatory against groups
of people who are by nature short, but the specification is not based on sexism or racism.
Prejudice develops from educational, developmental and environmental influences and is
mostly based on ethnic, cultural and family norms (Monteiro, De França & Rodrigues, 2009).
The attitude of prejudice contains beliefs, feelings and behaviour that may manifest as
strong emotions, hostility and discriminatory actions due to frustration and conflict.
Prejudice and discrimination have many sources or origins and are often associated with
personality types. For example, authoritarian personality types have very rigid and
conventional attributes regarding their own group associations (Altemeyer, 2004).
Other sources of prejudice and discrimination are psychological needs, racism, ethnic
differences and groups competing for the same resources (Wade & Tavris, 2009). Efforts to
reduce and regulate prejudice and discrimination are mostly made through education, crosscultural and intergroup contact and legislation, which may include recategor-isation and
integration of groups (Morris & Maisto, 2016).
5.5.2.4
Halo effect
A halo effect applies when people form a central or general impression
about others, mostly based on a single feature. For example, in a selection
interview, the interviewers may form an impression about applicants based
on a single attribute, such as attractiveness or education level (King, 2011;
Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016). Applicants for a managerial position, for
example, may be considered competent simply because they speak well or
are very friendly, but their actual management experience and skills are not
considered. Usually people are favoured or overestimated if halo errors are
based on positive attributes. By contrast, a person may be underrated if a
judgement is based on negative attributes.
5.5.2.5
Contrast effect
Contrast effects occur when perceptions are based on social comparisons
with other people, especially when such interactions took place recently.
This explains to a degree why old relationships are sometimes terminated
after new acquaintances are made, especially if the new acquaintance is
perceived to have better qualities in certain respects. The contrast effect
may also apply in promotion situations where the final candidate obtains
very favourable ratings when preceded by mediocre applicants (rather than
by strong applicants) (Robbins, 2006; Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016).
5.5.2.6
Projection
Projection, or the tendency of people to attribute their own thoughts,
feelings and motives to other people may alleviate anxiety for some time,
but can also distort perceptions about others because people are not
perceived as they are (Wade & Tavris, 2009; Weiten, 2011; Coetzee &
Schreuder, 2016). When projection happens in perception, the perceptual
experiences are inaccurate because the interpretations actually involve the
perceiver and not the perceived person. However, this can also be valuable
because such projected perceptions reveal something about the perceiver’s
inner feelings towards the perceived person. For example, stimuli in
psychological projective tests are unstructured or ambiguous and give no
clues for answers. They require responses to pictures and other stimuli.
These techniques actually assess the perceiver’s own perceptions, inner
thoughts and feelings that are mostly unconsciously motivated and
stimulated by the cues in such techniques. A person may project such
thoughts and feelings through the stimuli onto something or someone else,
without the perceiver being aware of it (Austin et al., 2012; Meyer et al.,
2014). In therapy, for example, a person can be made more aware and
conscious of the origins and meanings of their projective responses, which
may then be seen as irrational or unrealistic and possibly as defence
mechanisms against anxiety and fear.
In contrast, and supplementary to the projection of perceptions, is
defensive attribution, which is the tendency in people to attribute successes
they may have to themselves, but failures to external factors and other
people (Weiten, Dunn & Hammer, 2014: Coetzee & Schreuder, 2016).
The information box, Overcoming perceptual errors, provides guidelines
to overcome some of the perceptual errors that have been discussed.
INFORMATION BOX Overcoming perceptual errors
•
•
•
•
•
•
Evaluate people on the basis of objective factors.
The more objective the information a person uses to judge others, the less judgement
will be subject to perceptual distortion. People should be judged on their work
performance rather than on subjective, personal factors that are not related to the work
context.
Avoid making snap judgements.
Avoid jumping to conclusions; instead, take time to get to know people better before
judging them.
Identify and confront your stereotypes.
Avoid stereotyping, especially when dealing with new people. Although this is a natural
tendency, the result is often an erroneous perception at someone else’s expense. It is
therefore necessary to identify the stereotypes people harbour and to be aware of their
impact on perceptions.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
5.5.3
Internal
personal
and
external
situational factors in attributions
People may attribute behaviour and events to either external or situational
causes and circumstances or to internal (personal) factors (Morris &
Maisto, 2016; Wade & Travis, 2009; Baron, 2016; Hinton, 2016). An
example of an internal attribution is when a student acknowledges they
failed an examination owing to their lack of motivation and effort.
External attribution is when the student who failed the exam attributes the
failure to a lack of support from their parents and lecturers. People use
three sources of information to decide on the nature of behaviour in order
to determine an attribution or causing factor; distinctiveness, consistency
and consensus (Kelley, 1973; Alpatanni, 2015). By analysing a request
from your manager to speak to you in her office after work at 16h00, the
following concepts become clear:
• Distinctiveness: Is the extent to which the manager behaves in the
same manner in other situations or towards other employees. If
distinctiveness is low, then you may think that your manager has her
own personal reasons to see you. If she seldom does this, you may
conclude that it is about you and you may wonder what will happen
next.
• Consistency: Is the extent to which a person acts the same way at
different times and in different situations. If the manager often asks
you or other employees to see her, you may believe that the discourse
will be of a standard nature. However, if the manager’s request is
inconsistent, you may think the discourse will focus on you.
• Consensus: Is the extent to which the manager behaves like other
managers. If the manager is the only one with this request, then you
may think that the discourse will focus on you and not external matters
and you may question the manager’s motives.
Research indicates there can be differences in cultural perceptions in
situational influences in interaction (Weiten, Dunn & Hammer, 2014).
People with an Eastern collective world view and values were found to
consider conforming and obedience more positively and to have more
external attributions, compared to people with a Western individualistic
world view and values, who emphasise internal attributions more.
A further example of the role of distinctiveness, consistency and consensus
in attribution is found in Table 5.4 where an employee complains about
the canteen food.
INFORMATION BOX Sources of information in attribution
Table 5.4
Examples of three sources of information in attribution
No one
else
complains
(consensus
The employee
always
complains
about canteen
The employee
also complains
in other
settings
The employee
complains
because they are
difficult to please
is low).
food
(consistency
is high).
(distinctiveness is low).
(internal
attribution).
Several
other
employees
also
complain
(consensus
is high).
The employee
always
complains
about canteen
food
(consistency
is high).
The employee
does not
complain in
other settings
(distinctiveness is high).
The employee
complains
because the
canteen food is
poor quality
(external
attribution).
SOURCE Adapted from Baron & Greenberg (2008)
If you consider the example of the complaining employee, the following conclusions are
possible:
• If distinctiveness, consistency and consensus are high, a person’s attributions will be
related to external factors.
• If distinctiveness and consensus are both low and consistency high, attributions will be
related to internal causes.
5.5.4
Attribution
in
perceptual errors
perception
and
Earlier in the chapter, we discussed a number of influencing factors on the
perceptual process and, in the previous section, some cognitive distortions
and expectations in the mind of the perceiver, for example, projection and
other judgement errors. Attributions can be accurate, but are also
perceptual distortions. Attributions refer to explanations and inferences
that people make about the causes of events, their own and others’
behaviour. Judging an inanimate object is a mechanical action and more
objective because physical phenomena have specific characteristics. When
it comes to human behaviour, however, it is more subjective and people
usually want explanations. They may guess and speculate, or theorise and
make inferences, but they want to allocate a cause to why people behave in
certain ways. Events that have personal consequences for people, especially
unexpected or unusual events, give them the opportunity to judge and
consider the causes of these events or behaviours. In other words, which
attributes of an event or person cause the behaviour in people and the
related impressions (Goldstein, 2007; Baron, 2016; Hinton, 2016)?
According to attribution theory, the various types of attributions utilise
certain information and can have errors and biases that are influenced by
socio-cultural factors (Weiten, Dunn & Hammer, 2014; Dean & Koenig,
2019). The errors and biases in attributions relate to faulty or incorrect
judgements the causes of which may be internal to the person, or external
to other factors in the environment or situation. Most attribution errors
ignore internal (personal) factors if the behaviour is applicable to the
situation. However, internal factors are highlighted when behaviour is the
opposite of what is anticipated in a given situation. The main attribution
errors and biases are the fundamental attribution error, the defensive
attribution bias and the just-world hypothesis. Each of these includes
other attribution errors or biases, for example, the self-serving bias, the
actor-observer effect and blaming the victim. People often have an
attributional style in that they will use the same causal explanations in a
variety of events (Weiten, Dunn & Hammer, 2014; Alpatanni, 2015). All
attribution errors may include attributions related to either personal or
external situational factors or both of these contributing factors.
5.5.4.1
Fundamental attribution error
The fundamental attribution error is the tendency in people to
overestimate internal or personality factors, such as a person’s traits or
attitudes, and to underestimate the situational factors in explaining
behaviour, even if people were required to behave in certain ways (Wade &
Tavris, 2009). When organisations need to downsize in order to stay in
business, the management of these organisations is often accused of being
selfish, insensitive and short-sighted, although the economic situation
necessitated the job losses. Over- or underestimation of attribution factors
can be minimised if people consider the whole context of behaviour before
making judgements.
The actor-observer effect is related to the fundamental attribution
error and refers to the tendency of people to relate the behaviour of other
people (observer) to personal or internal factors, but their own behaviour
(actor) to situational or external causes; the latter a form of projection
(Goldstein, 2007; Morris & Tavris, 2009). To illustrate, consider people’s
behaviour when caught for traffic trespasses, such as speeding. People may
assert that the road allows them to speed, the speed signs are not clear, or
the traffic officials are judged to be unfair or were not visible. If others
were caught speeding, it was because they were driving too fast and being
reckless.
5.5.4.2
Defensive attribution bias
Defensive attribution bias happens when people try to present themselves
in a positive or good way to impress other people or to feel good about
themselves (Aronson, Wilson & Akert, 2005). The self-serving bias is an
example of a self-defensive attribution and happens when people attribute
all their personal successes to their own good, personal characteristics and
blame any mistakes and failures to external situational factors outside their
personal control (Morris & Maisto, 2016; Baron, 2016). For example, an
entrepreneur may put the success that he achieved in a short time down to
his good leadership and entrepreneurial skills, but the personal suffering
and problems he encountered down to government laws and the receiver of
revenue.
5.5.4.3
Just-world hypothesis
The just-world hypothesis refers to attribution errors that include blaming
the victim and is related to defensive attribution (Aronson, Wilson &
Akert, 2005; Hagiwara, Alderson & McCauley, 2015). It refers to the
tendency of people in difficult or threatening situations to apportion the
blame for an unfortunate incident to others – mostly the person who
experienced the problem – without considering possible contributing
situational factors. A person who lost their job in a difficult employment
situation may hear they were to blame or ‘had it coming’. The rationale
that people uphold is that bad events will not happen to them because it is
a just world; good things happen to good people and bad things to bad
people.
There may be many explanations for all these attribution errors, but
they mostly relate to people’s need to have a good personal image, to be
successful and defend themselves against negative perceptions, a fear of
losing and being in threatening situations.
5.5.5
The value of impression management
Impression formation through the medium of perceptions forms part of
interpersonal and social human behaviour. The aim is to create the best
possible personal, professional or business image. Impression management
is used in many everyday situations and practices as well as in the
workplace – specifically to start, maintain, expand and sustain businesses
and invite investments (Todorov, 2017; DuBrin, 2011). Creating and
maintaining a positive image – to look good – is a natural tendency in all
(or most) people. Similarly, influencing employee and customer
perceptions to create favourable attitudes is especially applied in business
with regard to managing organisational climate and culture and to
establish and enhance business. Impression management is used in
marketing and advertising strategies, education, learning approaches,
politics, motivation and in forming, maintaining and changing attitudes
and values.
Although impression management is applicable in self-management, it
is important for management and organisational image building because it
is aimed at reflecting the most positive perceptions and attitudes and
avoiding attribution errors and biases, both in- and outside the workplace
(Baron, 2016; Gardner, 2002). Honesty and transparency are the most
important criteria in impression formation and management because, as in
personal relationships, consumers of organisational products and services
will eventually become aware of incongruent and false representations of
an image. Key themes in person perception are (Weiten, Dunn &
hammer, 2014):
• Efficiency: Obtain sufficient information not to make snap
judgements.
• Selectivity: Note what behaviour you demonstrate, because people see
what they want to see.
• Consistency: Initial and subsequent information must be congruent.
Impressions can be managed and promoted by organisations in a number
of ways, as listed in the information box, Methods to enhance impression
formation (Gardner, 2002).
INFORMATION BOX Methods to enhance impression
formation
SELF-ENHANCING BEHAVIOURS:
• Improve physical appearance – how employees appear and behave and the appearance of
workplaces.
• Emphasise positive aspects for self-promotion– avoid bragging and negative emphases in
speaking, publications and other forms of communication.
• Avoid indicating own faults – refer to past problems as challenges.
• Name-dropping and networking – indicate market associations with highly regarded
people and organisations.
ENHANCING OTHER PEOPLE AND ORGANISATIONS:
• Become involved with other people and organisations by doing them favours, providing
sponsorships and being likeable.
• Make others feel good – use compliments honestly and demonstrate exemplary behaviour.
• Be open and honest with relevant information in organisational communication,
including in annual reports.
• Compete, but do not discredit other people and organisations.
• Network and become acquainted with people – show genuine attention, interest and
understand their needs.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
How organisations manage impressions with regard to their corporate
image and business is implied in some of the tactics indicated in the box.
Corporate image is the impression or image that management wants
people to have of an organisation and often includes mission and vision
statements (Bolino, Long & Turnley, 2016). Many people use
organisational images or impressions to evaluate organisations as possible
employers of choice. In South Africa, organisations that participate in
socio-economic upliftment programmes demonstrate their social
responsibility, which, in turn, presents a positive business image. A similar
good impression will be created if an organisation is rated and known as
both a successful business and an employer of choice. A problem for
organisations in terms of their business objectives exists if employee and
societal perceptions are different from what management wants people’s
perceptions to be.
5.6
Summary and reflection
This chapter introduced the reader to the theory and applications of
perceptual processes in human behaviour. This involves sensation and the
related perceptual processes when sensations are analysed, organised and
interpreted to give meaning to experiences and events. Without discussing
the five senses in physiological detail, their role in human perception was
emphasised. The nature, principles and influencing factors of sensation
and perception were dealt with. Perceptual laws and principles were
highlighted and possible perceptual errors indicated. Specific applications
of perceptual processes were emphasised in the context of attribution.
Attribution errors and biases and the use of perception in personal and
organisational impression management were discussed.
The human senses and related processes are more or less similar for all
people. However, perception is coloured by unique personal and cultural
attributes and requirements of situations. In most circumstances,
perception is an integrated process that allows people to perceive stimuli
and experiences in a holistic, real and unique way. Perception also has
inaccuracies, errors and biases caused by the abilities and limitations of the
human senses and a combination of personal factors, attributes of stimuli
and influences in situations. I-O psychologists, organisational
management and specialists in workplace and business design should apply
perceptual principles to create attractive and safe work environments where
employees can understand what is expected from them. Using perceptions
to create positive work attitudes and values is necessary for a positive
organisational climate and culture and to improve employee relationships
in diverse workforces. In a competitive business environment, management
has to take care to project honest, realistic and ethical corporate
impressions that are evident in their own behaviour, business practices and
attitudes towards customers and communities.
Assessment tasks
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 Briefly explain the processes of sensation and perception.
2 With examples, explain how perceptual process applies in work
behaviour.
3 Define psychophysical principles of sensation and indicate their
importance in general and in work behaviour.
4 Differentiate between various laws or principles of perceptual
organisation and give examples or applications of four principles.
5 Evaluate the value of sensory adaptation in sensation with
reference to the five senses.
6 Explain person perception with reference to cognitive schemata
in impression formation.
7 Describe perceptual errors with regard to the perceiver’s
cognitive and expectancy distortions.
8 Define attribution and explain the various attribution errors in
person perception with reference to personal and situational
factors.
9 Explain the importance of various perceptual processes in the
different aspects of attention.
10 Indicate how perceptual errors and impression management can
be improved on.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
… refers to the relationships between the physical attributes of
the stimuli and the characteristics of what we receive or
experience.
a The just-noticeable difference
b Subliminal perception
c Psychophysics
d Sensory adaptation
e Sensation
2 After a work meeting, you could not remember what Thabo,
who was sitting next to you, told you while the chairperson of
1
the meeting was explaining the new digitisation policy in the
organisation. Your memory is good, so you ascribe not
remembering what Thabo said as one of the following:
a Stimulus transduction
b Absolute threshold
c Stimulus response bias
d Bottom-up process
e Cocktail-party syndrome.
3 A response to a stimulus relates to the raw or original
information in the stimulus. This statement best defines one of
the following concepts.
a Signal-detection theory
b Feature detector cells
c Bottom-up decision-making
d Top-down processing
e Perceptual organisation.
4 Your colleague is a photographer and is very proud of her work.
She once told you that the finest composition for a good
photograph is to obtain the best representation of what you see
in any scene. You think that your friend applied a certain
principle of perception. Which one best describes this?
a Perceptual constancy
b Closure of stimuli
c Light adaptation
d The law of Prägnanz
e Weber’s law.
5 On reading the concepts continuity, proximity, similarity and
closure, you assume that these concepts relate to …
a figure and ground
b sensory adaptation
c perceptual organisation
d perceptual constancy
e method of constant stimuli.
6 You notice, both at work and in your personal life, that people
often take quick decisions about other people based on their
preferences and expectations of outcomes without understanding
the full picture. This phenomenon in human behaviour
demonstrates …
a stereotyping
b impression formation
c prejudice
d illusion
e cognitive distortion.
7 At the beginning of a selection interview for a public relations
officer in your marketing company, one candidate, a sport’s
personality, made a very good impression in his responses to the
interviewers’ enthusiastic questions about his sporting
achievements. When the panel had considered all the application
information, and decisions needed to be taken about a suitable
candidate, you confirmed that, in your view, this candidate is
unqualified for the job (based on the job requirements). Two of
the five interviewers opposed your view, based on their
judgements of the candidate’s competencies in sport, which
South Africans appreciate. If this candidate is employed above
more deserving ones, such a decision would be based on one of
the following judgement errors.
a Stereotype effect
b Primacy effect
c Confirmation bias
d Contrast effect
e Peripheral effect.
8 People tend to associate the causes for their successful behaviour
to their internal attributes and failures to other people or external
factors. This attribution error is referred to as …
a the primacy and efficiency effect
b a defensive attribution or bias
c the just-world attribution
d the fundamental attribution error
e the halo and self-service bias.
9 Which one of the following is a source of information that
people may use to explain the nature of behaviour when they
interact?
a Event schemas
b Distinctiveness
c Self-serving bias
d Impression management
e Perceptual set.
10 You and your management team are in a meeting with the
management of a rival business. You are aware that they might
be in financial difficulties and are considering selling the
business. However, nothing has been decided yet and you have
requested your team members to be cautious in what they say.
They are, however, unaware of what you know and the real
reason for the meeting. What kind of perceptual distortion or
attribution error occurred when a member of your team said the
following: ‘I am sorry about your problems. Rumours suggest
management issues, and perhaps you could tell us why you are
considering selling the business? I can assure you your business
would be in good hands with us.’
a Projection
b Fundamental attribution error
c Self-serving bias
d Just-world hypothesis
e Defensive attribution.
CASE STUDY Process and sensation
Joe, a 30-year old AI design technician, arrives at work early. He is
admiring the colourful sunrise, and, as he walks, he becomes aware of
the cold air on his skin. He is careful not to fall in the half-dark, as his
eyes are tearing, and his vision has not fully adapted to the low light. As
he enters the front door of the design laboratory, a mixture of coloured
and flickering electric lights switch on. At the same time he receives the
reception robot AI-Robot.1’s soft welcome greeting that includes a
reminder for Joe to clock in.
Joe cannot, however, hear or see clearly in the reception area. He
knows from memory where his work station is and walks straight there,
and although he never quite hears what AI-Robot.1 is saying, he knows
from experience what the messages are.
In the laboratory, he has a few unfinished electronic projects. He can
vaguely hear some of their humming sounds, but he cannot differentiate
between the sounds, or associate any with a specific project. He thinks
that he will never really get used to or be happy in this automated world,
designing machine intelligence as a job.
He wonders that perhaps his employers were too premature in
starting this 4IR-related application design business, especially during
the Covid-19 pandemic. He worries that South Africa is unprepared in
terms of the necessary design and manufacturing skills, as well as an
economy that may not be able to support these products.
Joe knows, however, that he must maintain his profile at work, as he
is considered a loyal and valued employee. As Joe enters his work area,
he feels warmer thanks to the heating system, and in the improving light
and closer proximity to his work projects, he wonders how he could not
place the various sounds he heard earlier.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Questions
1. Using examples from this scenario, define and explain the processes
of sensation and perception.
2. Indicate what examples of thresholds Joe experienced during his
arrival and presence at work.
3. Identify factors in the work situation, and in Joe, that influence Joe’s
perception of events and things and his decision-making.
4. Indicate and describe attributions in Joe’s behaviours.
5. Explain the relevance of perceptual adaptation for Joe’s behaviour in
this scenario.
Cognitive processes
Amanda Werner
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Explain productive thinking and concept formation
Describe the memory process, including strategies for enhancing memory and memory loss
through forgetting
Discuss aspects that influence the development of language such as home environment
and social media
Provide an overview of different approaches to understanding and measuring intelligence
Outline strategies for effective problem solving and decision-making with due attention to
ethical decision-making
Explain creativity and how to develop it.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Artificial intelligence
Brainstorming
Cognition
Concept formation
Contextual intelligence
Creative process
Divergent thinking
Drudge theory
Emotional intelligence
Ethics
Heuristic
Knowledge management
Language development
Motivated forgetting
Potential to learn
Problem solving
Prototype
Schema
Semantic memory
Working memory
Zone of proximal development
6.1
Introduction
The Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) and Industry 4.0 were introduced
in Chapter 1 and are further expanded upon in Chapter 4, providing more
specific details with regards to its impact on work and careers. However,
Industry 4.0 is also relevant to the discussion of cognitive processes. Due to
greater connectivity created by the Internet, the lines between the physical
and digital have become blurred and things, people, machines, computers
and organisations can now collaborate in ways that were previously
unknown (Schwab, 2016). This new world of work is created by people
such as engineers and information technology specialists who use
intelligence, analytical thinking, decision-making and creativity to solve
problems (see Figure 6.1).
Connectivity, collaboration and automation, including the use of
artificial intelligence (AI), create greater effectiveness and efficiency not
only for production processes in manufacturing organisations or service
delivery, but in everyday life. Ordinary people also benefit, as they can now
order a taxi, study, purchase products, monitor health, meet people, play
games, and listen to music online. It is, therefore, clear that the future
workplace will require leaders, managers and employees to become more
thoughtful, analytical, creative and innovative to capitalise on the benefits
that technology offers, and to become smarter and more effective. As such,
productive thinking, concept formation, memory, intelligence, problem
solving and creativity, which are the focus of this chapter, are important
cognitive processes to enable individuals to adapt to the modern world of
work.
This chapter will, therefore, also challenge the reader to engage in
metacognition, which is defined as the ability to monitor or control one’s
own thoughts and thought processes. When solving a problem, a person
may metacognitively be aware that he or she thinks in circles and does not
reach a firm solution. When making a speech, a person may
simultaneously monitor what is said and how the message may be
perceived by other people. By thinking about how we think, we are able to
develop our thinking skills.
The aim of studying cognition is to understand that the mind has
various capacities to think productively, to communicate effectively and to
use intelligence. I-O psychologists and human resource (HR) practitioners
aim at enhancing the collective cognitive capabilities of individuals in the
organisation and therefore need to understand how people think, make
decisions and solve problems. This type of information includes important
criteria for consideration in selection, placement, promotion and selfdevelopment.
6.2
Productive thinking and concept
formation
Thinking starts with an undirected flow of ideas, concepts or plans that are
not necessarily productive, but can symbolically fulfil a person’s dreams or,
conversely, lead to impractical solutions to problems. Daydreaming,
fantasising, and ruminating (brooding), for example, can be fulfilling and
result in creativity. However, they may have negative consequences,
perhaps reinforcing the feeling of being unfulfilled and unproductive
(Cohen & Ferarri, 2010).
If thinking produces new relations and connections with existing
knowledge, it can be termed productive thinking. Productive thinking lays
the foundation for concept formation, a solid memory, language
development, and the development of intelligence, problem solving,
decision-making and creative thinking.
Figure 6.1
Industry 4.0 accentuates the importance of higher-order cognitive processes such as
analytics and problem solving
SOURCE: Shutterstock elenabsl
6.2.1
Concept formation
Concept formation is the basic building block of cognition. People
develop their own unique concepts or ideas about objects in the world. A
person forms concepts through observing and then by abstracting
perceived similar or general features of objects, people or events and
categorising them. A concept is a mental representation of a category.
Categories appear in a hierarchical structure. For example, in one’s mind a
person belongs to a higher category (family) that belongs to an even higher
category (for example, extended family, clan or culture).
Such concepts are not formed from a set of common features, but are
constructed by the individual around a representative sample, or prototype
(Abel, 2021). A prototype exhibits the typical or best features of a
particular category. For example, the prototype for family may be parents
with immediate biological or adopted children. The prototype for
extended family may include cousins, aunts, a step-parent, half-sisters and
in-laws. The prototype is usually the concept member that has the most
features in common with other concept members and shares the fewest
features with other concepts. It is the most representative example of the
particular concept.
The prototype indicates what is typical about a specific category,
whereas the schema, another mental structure, implies extracting what is
common to all elements in a specific category. A schema is more general
than a prototype. It is a mental structure that can be used to organise
information. Schemas are plans or procedures for classifying people, events
or objects. For example, a specific person’s schema for categorising people
as extended family may include, among others, that these members are not
necessarily related by genetics, may have joined the family after a wedding,
divorce or through a close relationship, but that they are part of the family.
The formation of categories can be complicated by cultural differences.
Concepts of what is traditionally considered correct, for example, may vary
among different cultural groups. For example, rudeness in one culture may
be considered courtesy in another. Similarly, individuals from different
cultures may have different opinions about what intelligent behaviour
means; thus, they may answer items in an intelligence test quite differently
from what the test items were intended to measure. It is also important to
note that both prototypes and schemas are active, interactive, flexible and
sensitive to context even though they are primarily based on previously
learned and stored information.
Concept formation is obviously a very personal process, as each person
develops their own prototypes and schemas. The way in which information
is categorised or organised influences how well the person will remember
the information and what the person will forget. The next section
introduces the memory process, ways to improve memory and reasons for
forgetting.
Example box
Storytelling and memory in Africa
Traditionally, many cultures in Africa engaged in the art or ritual of storytelling (Utey, n.d).
Story tellers in the community or the home were traditionally the keepers of history as print
media was not available. These stories were used to impart wisdom, ideas, values, traditions
and beliefs. They were also used to teach morals, explain the universe, share indigenous
knowledge and praise their God. A good storyteller used rich language, music symbols,
images, repetition, rhythm, imagery, proverbs and similes.
The stories of groups can, however, be printed today. In South Africa, Christopher J
Colvin (2019), an academic at the University of Cape Town, authored a book entitled
Traumatic storytelling and memory in post-apartheid South Africa – performing signs of injury.
In this book, the author examines how traumatic storytelling functioned as “a kind of
psychological healing and national political theatre, but also as a potent form of social
relation, economic exchange, political activism, and expressive practice” for members of the
Khulumani Support Group and victims of apartheid-era political violence. The study revealed
ways in which storytelling could enable “new senses of self and new understandings of what
was possible in the years after the end of apartheid”.
This illustrates the use of cognitive processes such as memory and language to enable
people to reflect, create meaning, reconstruct, share and develop identity.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
6.3
Memory
The person reading this textbook will realise the importance of memory in
the learning process. Without an intact memory, employees cannot
perform their jobs, follow safety regulations or learn new skills. In
consumer psychology, marketing and advertising, the focus falls on the
memory customers have and develop of products, services, shopping
excursions and consumption experiences (Hoyer & MacInnis, 2010: 171).
In addition, to help us solve problems effectively, memory enables us to
integrate information from many previous problem situations, the
solutions applied in those situations and the outcomes thereof. The feature
Storytelling and memory in Africa shows the importance and role of
memory, different stages in the memory process as well as different types
of memory. Memory thus refers to the vast storeroom of information
related to experiences, learning, evaluation and prior knowledge.
6.3.1
Stages of memory
The memory consists of three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory
and long-term memory. Research on individuals with brain injuries has
substantiated this phenomenon of different memory stages. It has been
shown, for example, that brain injury may damage short-term memory
without damaging long-term memory, in the sense that a person may not
remember what happened a few minutes ago, but may remember what
happened some time before (Goldstein, 2005). Figure 6.2 illustrates the
stages in the memory process and the different types of memory, which are
discussed in the following sections.
Figure 6.2
The memory process and different types of memory
SOURCE Compiled by the author
6.3.1.1
Sensory memory
Sensory memory holds information entering from the senses for just a few
seconds or a fraction of a second. Sensory memory registers what a person
attends to at a given moment such as a sound, a face, a touch, a taste or a
smell. Sensory memory can be demonstrated in terms of the trail of light
one seems to see when a torch is swept through the air. There is not a real
trail of light, but the mind creates the movement as the eyes follow the
light. The senses receive stimuli from the environment all the time.
However, people register only those that they deem important. The
sensory memory has an important function because it allows us to scan the
environment and decide what is worth focusing on.
6.3.1.2
Short-term memory
The short-term memory encodes or interprets information from the
sensory memory and can hold this information for only 15 to 30 seconds.
This brief span is necessary to permit fresh information to be registered
and newly received information to be stored simultaneously. The shortterm memory can be described as the working memory and refers to
information that is currently being considered or processed by a person in
their mind.
A practical illustration of short-term memory is an interpreter at a
conference who speaks and listens simultaneously, translating (speaking)
one sentence while listening to the next. When pronouncing the first
sentence, he or she verbally repeats the information. This probably allows
some of the information to be stored for long enough for it to reach the
long-term memory as well.
The short-term memory has some interesting characteristics:
• The capacity of the short-term memory is limited. If a person thinks
back to an outstanding event, such as a graduation ceremony, the
short-term memory gets occupied by elements from this event. By the
process of chunking, the short-term memory can hold separate pieces
of information that somehow seem to be related. Through chunking,
the individual pieces become a meaningful (semantic) whole. For
example, a person’s memory of graduation may consist of pieces of
information such as putting on a graduation gown, walking over the
stage, posing for photos, being congratulated and having a special
celebratory meal. All these pieces of information are stored in the
memory as ‘my graduation’.
• Chunking is an essential function of short-term memory because it
enables a person to deal with relatively large pieces of information
(Goldstein, 2005). If the person shifts their attention away from
graduation to, for example, memories of job interviews, information
about graduation is totally replaced with information about the job
interviews.
• The short-term memory is short-lived. Short-term memory lasts just
long enough for most people to be able to repeat a seven-digit number
immediately after they have heard it. If this information is not
transferred in some way to long-term memory, it will be forgotten
unless it is actively rehearsed (constantly repeated).
The retention of information in both short- and long-term memory
depends on certain control processes that the individual can use, such as
rehearsal, making associations and selective attention.
Encoding refers to the different forms in which information is held.
Encoding can occur by means of visual images, such as the facial
expression of an interviewer; it can be phonological (that is, auditory), such
as the sound of the interviewer’s voice; or it can be semantic, which refers
to the meaning of what the interviewer says, for example, the interviewer
utters words that make you feel welcome and comfortable straight away.
Example box
Forgetting could safeguard mental health
Forgetting may be good for a person’s mental health and, on the other hand, the inability to
forget may be bad for mental health and result in malfunctions such as anxiety (Nørby,
2018). Forgetting can be used as a tool by healthy people to get rid of information that is
unpleasant and unwanted. By selectively forgetting information, healthy people can regulate
their own emotions, deciding for themselves when to feel sad, disappointed or fearful, and
when not to entertain such emotions.
By focusing on the positive aspects of an experience, while ignoring the negative, the
person creates a mnemonic basis for optimism, and a basis for engaging in explorative
approach behaviour. To illustrate, Health24 (2020) reports that only three out of ten South
Africans who participated in a global health survey (during Covid-19) did not report anxiety.
Selective forgetting can reduce anxiety if people are able to focus more on the positive (for
example, being locked down with loved ones, saving on transport costs and learning new
skills) than on the negative (not having access to certain commodities and the pressure of
remote working). Those with positive memories are more likely to engage in positive
behaviours and adjustment. This explains why people sometimes develop hyper-accessible
negative memories that give them “a maladaptive preoccupation with the negative aspects
of the world” (Nørby, 2018).
Not all negative experiences must be forgotten, however, as that will signal
maladjustment. The executive function of the memory (working memory) should be applied
to forget information that is less important (a dirty look from someone), impossible to react
upon (a comment on a stable characteristic) and information that will hamper progress
(random criticism). Forgetting relevant information (for example, owing money to the bank),
however, can only result in negative consequences.
6.3.1.3
Long-term memory
Long-term memory has a seemingly limitless capacity for retaining
information. Two processes are important for effective long-term memory:
encoding and retrieval.
Semantic coding is the most important form of encoding in long-term
memory. Semantic memory is not related to a specific experience a person
had, but to general knowledge the person has of the world (Hoyer &
MacInnis, 2010: 176). Examples of semantic coding include knowing the
colour of objects (for example, grass is green), how to use a stapler or the
names of capital cities. To develop semantic coding, learning must have
taken place at some stage, but the person is not able to point out the
context in which the learning took place.
There are various types of long-term memory, as the information box,
Types of long-term memory, explains.
INFORMATION BOX Types of long-term memory
Long-term memory is divided into declarative and implicit (non-declarative) memory.
Declarative memory refers to the conscious recollections of experiences or facts
encountered in the past. Declarative memory is subdivided into episodic memory and
semantic memory (Goldstein, 2005). Episodic memory relates to dynamic events coded in the
memory system (Michelmann, Bowman & Hanslmayr, 2016). These events are personal in
nature, multi-sensory, and time and location focused. For example, a person may recall
details of an important event (for example, a wedding), including who attended, the food
served, decoration, laughter and music. Semantic memory, as explained previously, entails
general knowledge about the world that is not related to personal experience.
Implicit memory refers to past experiences that influence a person’s behaviour, without
the person consciously remembering these experiences. A person may be able to perform a
complicated procedure on a machine without knowing how or where the behaviour was
learned.
6.3.2
Enhancing memory
The memory system itself promotes memory by using the ways in which
information is encoded, which, in turn, determines what people remember.
In 1948, Donald Hebb provided a physiological explanation for memory
(Goldstein, 2005). Hebb maintained that information travelling down the
axon of a neuron, causing changes at the synapses and releasing
neurotransmitters into the receptors of post-synaptic neurons is the basic
mechanism of memory (see Chapter 3, Section 3.3 for more information
on the structure of a neuron). With short-term memory, a few postsynaptic neurons are activated and, as the information is repeated, the
firing of impulses in those neurons becomes stronger, forming a
reverberating connected circuit. This process is unique to each person,
depending on what the person focuses on and the depth with which a
person engages with the information. Memory is therefore stored in the
long-term memory if the person has paid adequate attention to the variety
of sensory stimulations and encoded these in an elaborate manner.
People can enhance their memory by the organisation of information
through the following techniques:
• Elaborative rehearsal: Involves processing information at a deep level
by connecting the object or information to be remembered with
something a person already remembers well. For example, a student
studying labour law will remember better if they link the information
to strike action, dismissals or disciplinary hearings reported in the
news.
• Mnemonics: Is a technique used to remember unrelated facts or
figures by organising them in a manner that make them easily
retrievable, for example, by linking them to a song, place, acronym,
name or rhyme. For example, 4W+H (who, when, where, why and
how) can help an investigator or journalist remember how to compile a
report on an event.
INFORMATION BOX Practicing mnemonics
You have a bad habit of forgetting peoples’ names. You are introduced to Yan, Peter,
Siphiwe, Thabisa, Shané, Janine, Yumna, Andile and Christopher. Mentally connect each
name to an object, and then the objects with each other. After a reasonable lapse of time in
which you engage in an unrelated activity, test whether you can recall all of the names.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
• Organising: Involves breaking up large amounts of information into
smaller sections. For example, the section on memory in this textbook
is subdivided into the memory process, stages of memory, enhancing
memory and forgetting.
• Chunking: Is used when a group of items are remembered as a unit.
Advertisers use this method when they use abbreviations, such as KFC,
or when they present a telephone number in digits and words, such as
800-454-LEAN (Hoyer & MacInnis, 2010: 178).
• Mood state: Refers to the emotional state of the individual and the
extent to which there is congruence between the mood of the
individual and type of information to remember. A manager who gives
evidence at a disciplinary hearing may remember information less well
if he or she is in a calmer, happier mood than when the offence was
discovered. Hence, the memory can be enhanced by either changing
one’s mood to match the information, or focusing on information that
matches one’s mood.
• Humour and exaggeration: Can foster memory. Visualising funny
situations and drawing funny and exaggerated pictures while studying
will certainly improve the recall of information.
The information box, Examples of study techniques to improve memory,
provides specific advice for students who want to improve the recall of
information for tests and examinations.
INFORMATION BOX Examples of study techniques to improve
memory
1. Elaborate by making up questions about the study material and then answering them.
2. Organise material by relating it to other related material, or organise it into something
meaningful, such as a mind map (see Figure 6.3). This constitutes a drawing of the
principal theme in the middle of a blank piece of paper, with branches radiating from the
centre containing connected themes and other branches containing words and images
related to the theme. Use both left-hemisphere and right-hemisphere brain functions to
process the information by incorporating both written concepts and pictures into the
mind map, as illustrated in Figure 6.3.
3. Associate the material with prior knowledge of something else and link it by means of
visual images or words that suggest a meaning.
4. Take short breaks. After each break, return to the information studied and evaluate how
much was learnt before the break.
5. Study in different locations rather than in the same room all the time. Research has
shown that memory is better when a person has studied in different settings. This also
makes remembering less dependent on the conditions during the examination.
SOURCE Adapted from Goldstein (2005)
Irrespective of how much people try not to forget information, they still
do. In the next section, reasons why we forget information are explored.
6.3.3
Forgetting
Forgetting is the degrading of stored information and the inability to
retrieve information stored in long-term memory (Nørby, 2018). Familiar
cues in the environment may facilitate partial memory of an event when
the full memory is on the tip of the tongue and requires more cues from
the environment or retrieval from a deeper level of storage. Besides being
affected by the way information is encoded, forgetting can be related to
interference effects, motivated forgetting, distortion, false memories and
mood, which are discussed in the next sections.
6.3.3.1
Interference effects
When prior learning interferes with the remembering of information
learned later, it is called proactive interference. Retroactive interference
occurs when information learned later interferes with the remembering of
prior learning. For example, an employee might forget the changes that
were made to the system and still follow old procedures (proactive
interference). After a few reminders and much practice, the employee gets
used to the new system, and cannot accurately recall how things were done
previously (retroactive interference).
6.3.3.2
Motivated forgetting
From a psychoanalytical perspective, motivated forgetting occurs when a
person consciously represses memories, ideas or feelings that are
unpleasant or that the person does not agree with. These memories may
relate to serious issues, such as repressing childhood abuse, or to less
problematic issues, such as forgetting to make an appointment with the
dentist. Hence, the person is motivated not to remember. If an employee
continuously forgets to phone a specific client, it is possible that the person
is afraid of the customer’s reaction and, therefore, does not want to
approach the client. Motivated forgetting can be good for mental health,
but shutting out important memories can have disastrous consequences
(Nørby, 2018). Forgetting should be applied to less important information;
information that one cannot act upon and information that hinders one’s
progress.
6.3.3.3
Distortion
Distortion occurs when a person is not exposed to information for a long
time and, therefore, forgets essential details. If a disciplinary hearing
involves events that happened over a long period of time, witnesses may
forget earlier information and have a clearer memory of events that
happened more recently. This also affects managers and supervisors who
have to evaluate the performance of employees over a long period of time.
Unless there were critical incidents, the manager or supervisor may forget
the exact involvement of employees on different projects.
6.3.3.4
False memories
False memories are related to distortion, but also involve errors in
remembering schemas in which a person has grouped experiences. For
example, a person may have a five-year-old schema of a workday as
consisting of early-morning coffee, a meeting, teatime, consultations with
clients, lunch and an interview in the afternoon. If flexitime and new work
schedules are introduced, such memories related to old schedules for
meetings and interviews may upset the coordinated functioning of the
department.
6.3.3.5
Mood
Mood or feelings can interfere with memory if encoding did not involve
congruence between the person’s mood and the content of the
information, or if the person is in a different mood when recall must take
place. Either way, both depressive and happy moods may or may not
impair retrieval. This depends on factors, such as lack of attention or lack
of cognitive initiative to facilitate recall (Heath, Nairn & Bottomley,
2009).
The ability to learn and use language is a cognitive skill that is
intrinsically intertwined with memory. People need to give meaning to
words by mulling over them in the short-term memory and then storing
the words and their connotations in the long-term memory so that they
can recall them again when required.
6.4
Language
Language is considered both an inborn and learned cognitive competency.
In this section, we consider the theory of language development with
specific reference to language development in children and language
development in an academic environment. In South Africa, a country
where eleven official languages are acknowledged, most people learn in a
language other than their home language, and most people can speak more
than one language. As such, we consider the effect of bilingualism on the
executive functioning of the brain.
The interactionist/transactional theory of language development
proposes that language development is a product of interaction between
nature and nurture (Basit et al., 2015). According to this theory, language
development is influenced by inborn characteristics (nature) and the
environment (exposure to parents, significant others, school, in other
words, nurture). Infants learn language through cyclical and reciprocal
interaction with caregivers. The infant uses non-verbal communication,
such as crying and facial expressions, to which the caregiver responds with
verbal language. As the child grasps the meaning of language, both the
child and caregiver move to more sophisticated forms of language;
language development, therefore, becomes a cyclical, as well as a social
process.
While most children learn language without major problems, some
children may experience both language and speech delay. This may
influence long-term socialisation as well as literacy and academic
achievement. Problems with language development are often associated
with socio-economic status, which again, is often linked to ethnicity. This
may be especially relevant in a country such as South Africa, where many
children are exposed to poverty, malnutrition, poor levels of education and,
in addition, having to learn in a language other than their home language.
A study conducted in Scotland among 138 children, who were between
the ages of five and 12 and came from one of the most socially
disadvantaged neighbourhoods, showed that about 40 per cent of these
children had delayed language development and 10 per cent had serious
language problems (Basit et al., 2015).
The quality of the home learning environment is therefore considered
a strong predictor of school readiness. Exposure to books, toys, more
activities and less television, as well as being read to, going to the library,
playing with numbers, painting, drawing and being taught poems and
rhyme, foster language development in small children (Basit et al., 2015).
In the context of academic learning, academic language puts higher
demands on learner cognition, because it is often more abstract,
decontextualised, complex, dense and discipline oriented (Lindahl &
Watkins, 2014). Learners often have to relate to subject content, as well as
to peers and teachers from diverse backgrounds. These authors suggest
integrating language development with academic learning, so that learners
improve aspects such as vocabulary, functional language (following
instructions), grammar, writing and reading comprehension. Studying
Introduction to work psychology is therefore a good opportunity to further
develop one’s language proficiency.
Example box
The influence of social media on language development
I recall a discussion with a friend in which she remarked: ‘So, when are you going to become
my friend?’ My response was: ‘I see you every day, I am your friend!’ It was a teasing
response as I knew the words ‘friend’ or ‘befriend’ referred to creating a digital connection to
give access to content posted by another person rather than becoming friends with the
person. Social media and digitalisation bring a new dimension to the development of
language. People are now able to connect at speed and via multiple channels with many
others around the world and, as such, are exposed to and, at the same time, contribute new
symbols and meanings through the continuous alteration and regeneration of language.
Using Pinterest as an example; the word pin has taken on the meaning of attaching digital
content to a digital board. The acronyms LOL and TTYL are now well established as meaning
‘laugh out loud’ and ‘talk to you later’. ‘Troll’ refers to a person making provocative or
offensive comments and ‘sock puppet’ to a self-serving fake profile while ‘facetime’ implies
visual contact. Social media thus alters vocabulary, introduces new vocabulary, increases the
volume and speed of communication as well as the responsibility and expectation to stay
connected (Wilson, 2014).
Social media links people to greater audiences and shapes communication in a more
personal and informal manner. It also provides an opportunity for people across cultures and
languages to learn English, a language used across the world, in a more informal setting with
self-monitoring opportunity rather than with formal feedback. However, social media does
not teach rules of language and, as a result, may not improve the academic or formal
language skills of the user. The benefit of learning English via social media is that the user
can switch between using English and their home language, and that automated translation
opportunities exist, even if these technologies are still in infancy.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Bialystok (2007) conducted research on the effect of bilingualism on the
executive functioning of the brain. The executive function controls
attention, planning, categorising and prevents inappropriate responding.
The function is situated in the frontal lobes of the brain and is the last to
develop in childhood and the first to deteriorate with ageing. Bilinguals
use these executive processes to simultaneously give attention to the
representational system of the two different languages and stay fluent in
the one being used at that point in time. As a result, bilinguals develop
executive control earlier in life than monolinguals and are able to maintain
control of these functions for longer. The author points out that one
cannot assume that bilinguals are more intelligent than monolinguals, but
rather that they benefit in some areas of cognitive functioning as a result of
their bilingualism. They may struggle more than monolinguals in other
areas, such as when they are required to rapidly generate words.
Language is important to I-O psychologists and managers. Members
of an organisation need to develop a common understanding of, for
example, the vision and values of the organisation. It is, therefore,
important to explore how people interpret words differently, especially in a
diverse country like South Africa. Although it is important to learn a
primary language properly, as it assists in future learning, linguistic ability
is but one component of intelligence.
In the next section, different approaches to understanding intelligence
and different forms of intelligence are discussed.
6.5
Intelligence
There is no single, overarching view of what intelligence is. Understanding
intelligence varies according to the approaches, models and methods used
to investigate it. Intelligence is defined as being a functional concept, for
example, the ability to learn, to think logically or abstractly, to solve
problems and to adapt to the requirements in a person’s environments.
There are also differences within the same, and among different cultures as
to what is significant in intelligent behaviour. In Western societies,
cognitive aspects such as memory, verbal ability, reasoning, problem
solving and the speed at which mental tasks are completed are generally
valued, whereas some Eastern societies might question the quality and
depth of a task if it is done very quickly. Whereas Western researchers
include social skills in intelligence, in some Eastern and African societies
they form the central core of intelligence. Chinese societies, for example,
value benevolence (kindness and compassion) and humility as part of
intelligence. In African societies, maintaining harmony, social
responsibility, cooperativeness, and even the ability to listen carefully
rather than talk, are considered intelligent behaviours. In defining
intelligence, Buddhist and Hindu thinking includes noticing and
understanding things, determination, feelings and intellectual opinions. In
Australia, research with students shows that academic skills and the ability
to adapt to new events are seen as part of intelligence (Sternberg, 2006).
At present, there is general agreement across cultures about the
importance of lifelong learning and the fact that intelligence goes beyond
conventional intelligence, or what can be established though IQ testing
(Sternberg, 2006). In South Africa, there is strong emphasis on testing the
potential to learn rather than relying only on IQ test scores. This is due to
the fact that access to and the quality of basic education does not provide
equal learning opportunities to all South Africans. This important concept
of learning potential is further explored under the dynamic approach to
intelligence (see Section 6.5.2.2).
The most influential historical views on current thinking are those of
Francis Galton, from the late 19th century, and Alfred Binet, from the
early 20th century.
Galton studied success in successive generations of eminent families
and concluded that their success was due to genetic inheritance. He did
not, however, consider their advantaged environments, which today is seen
as crucial in the development of intelligence. He used psychophysical
methods, measuring the energy that characterised different individuals and
the sensitivity of the senses. Galton’s contribution lies mainly in providing
a basis for investigating the existence of more than one type of intelligence,
in that some people have more intellectual endowment than others and
that intelligence can be measured (Sternberg, 2006).
Binet was commissioned by the French government in 1904 to devise a
test to identify mentally defective children so that they would receive
adequate education and would not be subjected merely to teachers’
subjective evaluations. Together with Theodore Simon, he devised the first
test of general ability for children, testing judgement by incorporating
abstract reasoning ability rather than sensory skills. An important
contribution of Binet was his belief that intelligence is malleable, that is, it
can be improved. This view is upheld in current thinking, although there
are a minority of investigators, such as Jensen, who question the
malleability of intelligence (Sternberg, 2006). Binet’s test has been revised
for use in many countries.
6.5.1
The intelligence quotient
The intelligence quotient (IQ) is a scoring formula devised by William
Stern in 1914. It was incorporated in the first intelligence test for children,
the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale, published in 1916. It gives an
indication of a child’s development in comparison to other children of the
same age and is obtained by the ratio of mental age to chronological age
multiplied by 100. The formula is:
When mental age is equal to chronological age, a person’s IQ is average,
for example:
When mental age is higher than chronological age, a person’s IQ is above
average, for example:
This formula is applicable to the natural progressive development of
children’s mental capacities, but is not adequate for measuring adult
intelligence. The reason is that children’s intelligence develops relatively
rapidly in relation to their age, however, their intelligence tapers down at
the end of adolescence. It is, therefore, only possible to compare
chronological age and mental age in children and not in adults, as adults’
intelligence is not age related. Adult intelligence also varies greatly
between individuals and groups, developing on exposure and learning.
David Wechsler therefore developed different tasks for measuring
adults and children’s intelligence. He discarded absolute IQ and
implemented a scoring theme based on the normal distribution, which has
been adopted in most intelligence tests. Table 6.1 indicates this normal
distribution. Most people (49,72 per cent of the population) have an
average IQ – this means an IQ that falls somewhere between 90–109. A
proportion of 15,46 per cent of the population has a low average
intelligence (80–98) and another 15,46 per cent has a high average
intelligence (110–119). The term IQ, though still used, is not based on an
actual quotient. Most intelligence tests are based on deviation IQ. Scores
are classified according to their dispersal in the population, that is, how
much they differ from a mean (average). The mean indicates average
intelligence, which in most intelligence tasks is 100.
Though categories from extreme retardation to extreme giftedness are
indicated, using IQ to designate children as gifted or retarded has become
controversial. The emphasis nowadays is on developing the potential of
people and not on categorising them.
Table 6.1
The classification of IQ scores
IQ score
Descriptive category
% of population
140+
Extremely gifted
0,38
130–139
Highly gifted
1,90
120–129
Gifted (superior)
7,40
110–119
High average
15,46
90–109
Average
49,72
80–89
Low average
15,46
70–79
Borderline mental retardation
7,40
55–69
Slight mental retardation
2,03
40–54
Moderate mental retardation
0,14
25–39
Serious mental retardation
0,08
0–24
Extreme mental retardation
0,03
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Research has also shown that being a child genius is not necessarily
predictive of academic or job success. Extraordinary achievement has been
found to be related to determination, intensive training and hard work.
Researchers have found that eminent scientists, musicians, writers and
artists push themselves and practise much more than their less successful
counterparts. These aspects of exceptional achievement are explained in
terms of drudge theory, which credits exceptional achievement with
serious determination, hard work and tedious practice and training
(Simonton in Weiten, 2007: 351).
6.5.2
Approaches to intelligence
Ways of studying intelligence can be grouped under the structural
approach and the dynamic approach.
In the structural approach, the focus is on the quantity of intelligence
(what constitutes intelligence) and on developing tests and statistical
techniques to establish how much intelligence (or what factor of
intelligence) a person has.
In the dynamic approach, the focus is on the quality of intelligence
(that is, how intelligence is used). The main concern is the malleability, or
flexibility, of intelligence.
6.5.2.1
The structural approach
The psychologists who have been most influential in the structural
approach are Charles Spearman, Louis Thurstone, Philip Vernon,
Raymond Cattell and J.P. Guilford.
Charles Spearman (1863–1945), by developing and using a statistical
technique called factor analysis, proposed a two-factor model of
intelligence. The first factor, general intelligence (g), represents overall
performance on several tasks that require intelligence. This suggested that
the tasks are interrelated and form one overarching type of intelligence.
The second factor, specialised intelligence (s), indicates specific
performance on specific tasks. The s-factor is the primary source of
individual differences in intelligence, whereas the g-factor indicates
whether a person can be called intelligent or not. Spearman maintained
that ‘g’ could be used to improve skills in specialised areas, for example, if a
person has a high ‘g’ but an average ‘s’ in mathematics, then his or her
general intelligence can be utilised to improve performance in mathematics
(Davey, 2004).
Louis Thurstone (1887–1955) identified seven groups of factors, also
by factor analysis, that he called primary mental abilities. Although they
were interrelated, Thurstone did not think they formed a single entity that
could be called general intelligence. Thurstone saw intelligence as a linked
system encompassing the following primary abilities:
• Spatial visualisation: Refers to the ability to identify proportions in
shapes, and to form and handle visual-spatial images.
• Numerical ability: Refers to the operation of numerical functions.
• Perceptual speed: Refers to the ability to identify and perceive visual
detail rapidly and accurately.
• Verbal comprehension: Involves the ability to understand spoken and
written language (words and sentences) in context.
• Word fluency: Is the ability to use language and words rapidly and
flexibly (in speech and writing).
• Memory: Is the ability to store and productively retrieve information,
for example, words, figures and symbols.
• Reasoning: Refers to the ability to think logically, solve problems
through planning and use principles.
In job analysis, task requirements are predominantly linked to constructs
that correspond to Thurstone’s primary abilities.
In 1950, Philip Vernon proposed a synthesis of Spearman’s and
Thurstone’s models in the form of a hierarchy. He placed the general
ability factor on top and the two factors next to each other below it. The
two factors, verbal-educational abilities and spatial abilities, are less general
and together contribute to the general factor at the top.
In 1971, Raymond Cattell proposed a model that is somewhat similar
to Vernon’s model. He also placed general ability at the top of a hierarchy
and beneath it two abilities called fluid intelligence and crystallised
intelligence. Fluid intelligence is the ability to combine concepts by
abstract reasoning and flexible thinking. Crystallised intelligence refers to
knowledge sets that have accumulated as a result of fluid intelligence. It is
measured by items in intelligence tests that measure, among other things,
vocabulary, general knowledge and the ability to multiply (Davey, 2004;
Sternberg, 2006).
J.P. Guilford developed a theory on the structure of intellect (SI) in
1967. His SI model comprises 120 distinct abilities that are organised in
three dimensions, namely:
• Operations: including memory, evaluation, convergent thinking and
divergent thinking.
• Contents: including visual, auditory, symbolic and semantic contents.
• Products: which are the outcomes of operations and contents (for
example, abstract intelligence based on divergent thinking and using
symbolic contents).
Guilford’s SI model is an attempt to systematically integrate all intellectual
functions (Silvia, 2015).
Whereas the structural approach focuses on the building blocks that
constitute intelligence, the dynamic approach presents intelligence as
active and changeable.
Ethical reader
Sternberg and King on intelligence and wisdom
Sternberg highlights current challenges in the world – global warming, nuclear proliferation,
territorial disputes, religious disputes and terrorism – that require solving by smart people.
However, he states that smart people may be foolish. They may use their intelligence for
clever, but short-term solutions rather than finding solutions that will benefit society in the
long term. Modern problems at home, in communities and the world require much more than
intelligence. They require, according to Sternberg, a balance of creativity, intelligence and
wisdom: creativity to generate new ideas, intelligence to vet the quality of the ideas and
wisdom to ensure that the ideas serve a common good. Sternberg’s views are similar to that
of Professor Mervin King who is known for his role in the King Commission on Corporate
Governance. During Leadercast South Africa, 2017, King expressed very similar views to that
of Sternberg. King was reflecting specifically on ethics and the role of board members and
senior leaders in ensuring sustainability. He encouraged business and political leaders to
cross the self-river and self-concern and step into the area of intellectual honesty to make
strategic decisions that create value for both the organisation and the country in a
sustainable manner.
Sources King (2017); Sternberg (2017)
6.5.2.2
The dynamic approach
Lev Vygotsky (1978), the most influential psychologist in the development
of the dynamic approach, maintained that intelligence develops through
social and cultural mediation. A child learns by observing the actions of
others in their socio-cultural environment. The child internalises these
actions as part of him- or herself, thus learning how to act in certain ways
in particular situations (Pelaprat & Cole, 2011). However, people do not
merely imitate what they observe, and they still have to use their
imagination to think about and react to situations. In this way, learning
occurs.
Vygotsky emphasised the importance of learning in intelligence by
introducing the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD).
The ZPD refers to undeveloped capacities that have the potential to
develop through learning opportunities. This approach not only concerns
what the person is, but what the person can become. The ZPD is not
obvious; it only manifests after learning opportunities have been provided.
It does not refer to actual, developed abilities that the individual can
already use. It refers, instead, to cognitive processes that can develop as the
individual benefits from and learns to cope with new learning situations
(De Beer, 2006).
Learning potential
Based on Vygotsky’s concept of the ZPD, learning potential is currently
the focus in the dynamic approach to intelligence testing (De Beer, 2006).
The assumption in learning-potential testing is that cognitive ability can
change over time as environmental conditions improve. Therefore, tests
should measure the capacity to learn, or the ability to adapt to change.
Intelligence is not seen as an immutable, static quality; it is seen as an
innate learning potential, related to fluid intelligence. This differs from the
view associated with IQ measurement, which focuses on crystallised
intelligence that has developed from prior learning.
A widely used learning-potential test is the Learning Potential
Computerised Adaptive Test developed in South Africa by Marie de Beer
(2006). It constitutes a test-train-retest procedure that is administered by
computer.
In learning-potential tests, some form of training or assistance in
learning is provided as part of the assessment process. The goal is to
establish whether and how the individual’s ability will change if a learning
opportunity is provided. The ZPD is interpreted as the difference between
the initial test and retest scores. The larger the difference, the more likely
the individual is to improve their performance. Since the ZPD is
interpreted in terms of a combination of the initial (actual) performance
level and improvement from that level, it does not necessarily mean that an
individual with a small ZPD is not suitable for a particular job. For
example, a professor in mathematics may show a small learning potential
because she already has a high actual performance level. A teenager in
grade 12, in comparison, is likely to show a higher learning potential
because his actual performance level is lower. In situations that focus on
learning potential, credit must also be given to the learning level that has
already been accomplished and forms part of the learner’s repertoire. The
professor may show a low ZPD, but since she already functions at a high
level, she should by all accounts be able to cope better than most people
with virtually any new learning situation (De Beer, 2006). The ethical
reader, Intelligence versus learning potential, explains why a learning
potential test is a valuable tool in a diverse society.
Ethical reader
Intelligence versus learning potential
In South Africa, many children are not exposed to high-quality educational experiences or to
information and communicational technologies. As a result, many children and adults, even
if they do have a high level of intelligence, may, therefore, not perform well in traditional
intelligence tests.
The dynamic approach to intelligence testing makes for a fairer assessment in terms of
educational experience, culture and language, and is, therefore, more appropriate for
individuals who have been deprived of adequate educational experiences. Learning-potential
testing does not rely on language proficiency or educational background (De Beer, 2006). It
is, therefore, considered more suitable for predicting academic performance than static
measures of cognitive ability and school-leaving results.
In organisations, testing the learning potential of job applicants assists organisations in
making informed decisions when selecting job candidates, especially for the benefit of
employment equity and transformation (Van der Merwe & De Beer, 2006). As such,
candidates with high potential are not erroneously overlooked or excluded from
opportunities in the workplace.
Emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence (EI) is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8, but
requires mention in the context of intelligence because the term EI is used
in ability testing and because EI requires the use of cognitive activities,
such as reasoning, decision-making, problem solving and communication
(Jafri, Dem & Choden, 2016). Emotional intelligence refers to the ability
to monitor and manage emotions, apply self-motivation, empathise with
others and manage constructive interpersonal relationships. Success in
some aspects of life is due not only to IQ, but also to EI. Managers who
are attuned to their own emotions and the emotions of employees, are able
to better read situations and respond to them. The necessity of nonprofessional counsellors in South Africa requiring a high level of EI to
cope in a diverse South African environment, characterised by crime and
health-challenges, has been highlighted (Pires-Putter & Jonker, 2013).
Without EI, they will experience burnout and a lack of resilience. Table
6.2 contains some statements aimed at measuring EI.
Although people are not born with the capabilities and competencies
manifested in emotional intelligence, these traits can be learnt throughout
life. In the work context, coaching and training can especially facilitate
emotional intelligence. A widely-used test of EI is the Bar-On EQI
developed in South Africa by Jopie van Rooyen and Partners (now part of
JVR Psychometrics).
Feedback on emotions can be used to facilitate cognitive activities,
such as reasoning, decision-making, problem solving and interpersonal
communication.
Table 6.2
What is your level of emotional intelligence?
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Contextual intelligence
A person may be impressed with someone who installs complicated solar
panels or water systems, and who needs to make decisions about shape,
spacing, process and application, and then be surprised when it emerges
that the person has a poor academic background. On the other hand, a
teacher may be able to write very well, but not be able to change a plug.
Sternberg focuses on the role of experience in developing intelligence and
emphasises that different manifestations of intelligence are valued in
different contexts. He introduced the concept of successful intelligence as
the manifestation of three types of intelligence, each applying in a
particular context:
• Analytical intelligence: Involves abstract reasoning, evaluation and
judgement and is important in the contexts of most schoolwork.
• Creative intelligence: Operates in contexts where new ideas must be
found and novel problems dealt with.
• Practical intelligence: Is required in everyday contexts at home or in a
job (Ekinci, 2014).
Successful intelligence may be an explanation for the relationship between
creativity and intelligence (Sternberg & O’Hara, 1999). Creativity includes
all three constituents of successful intelligence: finding new ideas,
evaluating them and making them useful (by communicating them
effectively).
Multiple intelligences
The concept of multiple intelligences highlights the diversity that is found
among people. While one person may be good at sport, others may be
good at language, music, building relationships or natural things (for
example, habitat needs of animals).
Howard Gardner (in Ekinci, 2014) maintains that there are at least
eight types of intelligence that function independently and do not
comprise a single intelligence. These eight intelligences are:
• Interpersonal intelligence: The ability to understand the feelings and
intentions of others.
• Intrapersonal intelligence: The ability to understand the self.
• Spatial intelligence: The ability to perceive visual information and
manipulate shapes and objects.
• Logical mathematical intelligence: The ability to reason abstractly
and manipulate numbers.
• Linguistic intelligence: The ability to learn and use languages.
• Bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence: The ability to control eye-hand coordination, muscle movements and body position.
• Musical intelligence: The ability to identify and manipulate sounds,
rhythms, tempo and pitch.
• Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to understand the usefulness, as
well as dangers of the animal and plant worlds.
Existential intelligence was added at a later stage and is concerned with
“ultimate or eternal issues or purposes” in life. It is linked to non-material
issues such as meaning, vision and values and includes spiritual intelligence
(Koražija, Žižek & Mumel, 2016).
Gardner’s theory has evolved from his investigations of the cognitive
capacities of individuals suffering from brain injury, normal people and
special groups. Special groups included individuals who may have an
intellectual deficit, but who may have exceptional skills in a particular
ability, normally music, art or mathematics, or have exceptional memory.
Since Gardner’s theory is based on a very wide array of people, he
maintains his theory reflects what universally determines intelligence.
Although his theory is widely influential, his critics maintain it is not yet a
scientific theory because there isn’t a test to measure all eight intelligence
types.
Concept formation, memory, language and intelligence contribute to a
person’s ability to adapt to the environment. Problem solving, decisionmaking and creative thinking are practical ways in which a person can
utilise and demonstrate accumulative and integrated cognitive functioning.
In the next section, the focus is on the problem-solving process and
strategies used to solve problems and make decisions.
Artificial intelligence
Artificial intelligence (AI) is mostly associated with the Fourth Industrial
Revolution (4IR)/Industry 4.0 and implies machines (devices, robots)
using information, making decisions and carrying out actions in a similar
way to people. AI represents both a changing world and workplace to
which organisations, employees and customers have to adapt. The
development of the 4IR and AI have implications for career development,
and human resources management processes such as recruitment and
training.
From a practical perspective, AI involves using various technologies to
program machines in such a way that they can respond appropriately and
with foresight to a given environment. The development of AI is inspired
by the way people (and other biological organisms) use their nervous
systems and bodies to sense, learn, reason and take action. It includes
(machine) vision, natural language processing, virtual assistance and bots
(software application simulating human behaviour, for example, chatbots),
robot process automation, machine learning and data analytics
(Przegalinska, 2019).
AI is relevant to the field of industrial psychology and human resources
management in terms of talent sourcing, talent development and talent
retention. Through AI, personal information about a job applicant can be
sourced and validated from a broad range of online platforms, while data
and analytics can be used to quantify the contribution each employee
makes to the organisation. Employee development can be individualised
based on the employee’s current profile and role as well as matching the
employee profile with the requirements of future projects. In addition, AI
chatbots (computerised conversations) enable employees to engage in
personal conversations about their work experiences and needs which are
then analysed to gain insight into employee experiences and organisational
climate (Nicastro, 2020). As such, AI will relieve practitioners and
operators of mundane and repetitive tasks and enable them to apply
analytics to solve business and operational problems.
Ethical issues relating to AI include accessibility and integrity, privacy,
algorithm bias, explainability and transparency. Ethical breaches occur, for
example, when fake data is created, when information from a broad range
of sources is combined and subsequently exposes the personal detail of
employees, when machines are knowingly or unknowingly set up to
exclude people based on their profile or when machine learning has
become so deep and complicated that even the developers are unable to
explain the basis on which decisions are made (Przegalinska, 2019).
Figure 6.4
6.6
Engaging with AI
Problem solving and decisionmaking
Managers and employees spend a large part of the day solving problems
and making decisions.
Problem solving entails finding effective solutions to problems. It
should, however, be noted that in the complex world we live in, there are
multiple opportunities for problem solving and multiple potential
solutions. Following a systematic and analytical process will assist in
identifying the best potential solution/s to problems:
• Step 1: Acknowledge that a situation requires problem solving rather
than denying that a problem exists and persisting with ineffective
actions.
• Step 2: Define and clarify the problem. This implies understanding the
extent and nature of the problem, where and when the problem occurs
and how it affects those involved. Research has shown that the first
and most difficult problem in problem solving is stating the problem.
Sometimes it is difficult to know where to begin to solve a problem
because the problem is not clearly stated, which hinders finding a
suitable solution. Once the problem has been clarified, the solution
may follow more easily (Goldstein, 2005).
• Step 3: Generate or find alternative solutions by utilising problemsolving strategies. These include trial-and-error strategies, algorithms,
heuristics, analogies and alternative presentations of the problem.
These strategies, of which some are more rational than others, are
explained in the next section.
• Step 4: Consider the implications, advantages, disadvantages and risks
involved in each alternative solution.
• Step 5: Take a decision by choosing the alternatives with the best
projected outcomes. Decide how the negative risks of these alternatives
can be contained or managed.
• Step 6: Implement the decision.
• Step 7: Reflect on the outcome of the solution as well as the decisionmaking process followed. Is the problem solved? Was the problem well
understood? Could a more creative decision have been made? Should
more people have been involved in the process?
Ethics need to be considered during each step of the problem-solving
process. The information box, Ethics in decision-making, provides some
guidelines for evaluating and taking ethical decisions in organisations.
INFORMATION BOX Ethics in decision-making
Former Steinhoff CEO, Markus Jooste, and three other people have been fined around R241m
for insider trading by the Financial Sector Conduct Authority (FSCA) (Shange, 2020). At the
same time, ANC Secretary-General Ace Magashule handed himself over to the Hawks to face
charges related to fraud, money laundering and corruption allegedly related to an asbestos
contract awarded during his tenure as Free State Premier (Patel, 2020).
It is evident that an organisation and a person’s reputation is greatly influenced by the
extent to which ethical decisions are made by managers and employees. Ethical decisions are
legal, fair and observant of human rights (Hunsaker, 2005: 219). Examples of unethical
decisions include taking bribes, nepotism, corruption, price-fixing, submitting false
qualifications, withholding information about products that could endanger customers and
compromising individuals’ privacy. It is, therefore, very important to always consider the
ethical implications of a decision and do that in a forum that includes relevant stakeholders.
The following questions should be asked when one is faced with a potentially unethical
situation or decision:
• Does this decision meet the highest social standards in terms of how people should
interact?
• Is the decision in agreement with generally accepted teachings and beliefs?
• How will it look if the decision is published in a newspaper?
• How will a court judge the decision and the decision maker?
• Can this decision be adequately explained to others, including the decision maker’s
family?
• What does this decision say about the personal values and principles of the decision
maker?
6.6.1
Problem-solving strategies
There are various strategies that can be used to solve problems:
• Trial-and-error strategies are random, haphazard and relatively timeconsuming searches for solutions. This involves experimenting with
different solutions until one is found that works. Problem solvers use
trial-and-error methods when the solutions are not readily apparent.
• Algorithms are more systematic than trial-and-error strategies. An
algorithm refers to using a process or procedure that will produce a
solution to a problem sooner or later, and is generally associated with
computer programming. Following a fixed agenda at a meeting is an
example of an algorithm; following the agenda items precisely produces
a solution in the form of a completed meeting.
• In the case of an analogy, a person uses a solution to an earlier problem
to help solve a new one. In analogies, there are parallels between two
different situations that might give meaning to processes that are
invisible to the person (Goldstein, 2005). An example of an analogy is
when a dispatch manager, struggling to find a solution to the
company’s distribution problems, draws a parallel between the human
heart, aorta, arteries and veins and a potentially improved distribution
network.
• By changing the representation of a problem, a person can clarify its
essential aspects. Visual images in drawings or graphs may be more
effective than a verbal presentation. Reframing a problem into an
interesting challenge will more likely generate creative solutions than
excuses or blame.
• Heuristics are short-cut, best-guess solutions to problems in which
only the options most likely to produce a solution are considered. They
are based on knowledge and past experience of solving problems. For
example, if a torch does not work, a best-guess solution is to change
the battery. Due to time pressures and limited information, managers
often use heuristics rather than going through an analytical problemsolving process, especially when the nature of problems are similar to
previous problems experienced. However, using heuristics may result in
less-than-best solutions because more creative or original solutions are
not sought. The information box, Types of heuristics, contains some
examples.
INFORMATION BOX Types of heuristics
•
•
•
The heuristic known as anchoring and adjustment involves using an estimate and an
anchor and then, based on additional information, adjusting it. For example, a small
business owner wants to employ a graphic designer and decides on a salary (anchor).
However, when the person finds out that there is a high demand for graphic designers,
they adjust the amount up by 15 per cent. However, over-reliance on an anchor, even
with an adjustment, may still not provide the best result.
Availability heuristics are used when a person estimates the frequency or probability that
an event will occur, based on their ability to recall such an event. For example, if a
manager remembers that in the previous month a specific supplier delivered wrong parts,
the manager might not want to use the same supplier again. The decision is, therefore,
based on the availability of information and not necessarily on correct or complete
information. A potential problem is the overestimation of the improbable.
The representativeness heuristic is used when a person perceives a new situation as
similar to, or representative of a previous situation and, therefore, makes the same kind
of decision. For example, a HR manager may use the same recruitment tactic (for
example, headhunting) to find a physicist if this strategy delivered positive results in
other situations in which people with scarce skills were sought.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
People sometimes struggle to solve problems effectively. This is due to
barriers to problem solving that involve rigid, inflexible ways of thinking.
The two main types of barriers are:
• Mental set: This means a person has learnt to do things in certain
ways and applies the same method, even if it is inappropriate. People
with mental sets try to use the same approach to solve different types of
problems. Compare a marketing manager who uses only traditional
marketing methods (print media, television, flyers) versus a marketing
manager who uses social media and interactive blogs to promote a
service. The first manager’s mental set prevents her from considering
more contemporary solutions to marketing problems.
• Functional fixedness: Involves focusing on the main meaning of an
object instead of seeing that it can be used effectively in other ways. A
person may think their personal vehicle can only be used for the family
(functional fixedness), but Uber has changed this way of thinking by
showing that personal vehicles can double up as cabs.
This section has shown that when people solve problems and make
decisions, they are not always creative, especially when they rely on
heuristics or when they think rigidly as a result of functional fixedness and
mental set. The next section explores creativity, with specific reference to
the creative process, the characteristics of creative people and establishing a
work environment in which employees develop and utilise their creative
potential.
6.7
Creativity
Creativity is an aspect of intelligence and generally defined as the ability to
produce work that is novel (original and unexpected) and appropriate
(useful and adaptive to task constraints). For the individual, creativity
facilitates the solving of problems; for the organisation, creativity facilitates
the adaption to change, the provision of new goods or services and the
creation of new jobs. Creativity will feature prominently on the list of
characteristics required of, for instance, a marketing manager, interior
designer or event’s organiser.
Some researchers maintain that all humans are capable of creativity,
which can be learnt and is studied in terms of solving problems that
require creativity. Others maintain that creativity involves special
characteristics, for example, proactivity (Jafri, Dem & Choden, 2016).
There are also different views of the relationship between creativity and
intelligence. Creativity is associated with higher intelligence, but
intelligence is not sufficient for creativity. Silvia (2015), on the other hand,
shows that intelligence and creativity are similar concepts and that both
involve solving problems with the right answers and thinking flexibly,
critically and playfully.
One measure of creativity, developed by Guilford, is based on the
distinction between divergent and convergent thinking (Silvia, 2015):
• Divergent thinking: Takes place when a person develops new ideas by
moving outward from conventional knowledge into unexplored paths
and unconventional solutions. A creative person using divergent
thinking will process information in diverse ways, finding a new
solution or a variety of solutions. In Guilford’s divergence production
test, people are asked to list the number of uses they can generate for
common objects, such as bricks or plastic bottles. The more uses a
person can list and the more unusual they are, the higher the score.
Therefore, responses such as build a wall or make a chimney, are rated
as being lower in creativity than ones such as grind them up to make
emergency face powder.
• Convergent thinking: Takes place when a person combines old ideas
by using existing knowledge and rules of logic to narrow down the
range of potential solutions and focuses on a single correct answer.
Although such thinking is productive in many situations, it does not
appear to foster true creativity. It is, however, suggested that both
divergent and convergent thinking are essential – divergent thinking to
generate ideas and convergent thinking to select the most promising
ideas. A person must be able to switch between these two modes of
thinking (Ritter & Mosterd, 2018).
Example box
Mood and creativity: Is your good mood influencing your creativity and
performance?
Research shows that a positive mood, with feelings of being inspired, proud, happy, grateful,
active and cheerful is positively related to creativity when a task is challenging. This
creativity subsequently influences performance on the challenging and meaningful task. The
results suggest that a positive work environment is necessary for creative problem solving.
SOURCE Liu (2016)
The stages in the creative process explain how creative people develop
ideas.
6.7.1
The creative process
Creativity was one of the interests of the gestalt psychologists (refer to
Chapter 2), and their interest can be seen as a starting point in creativity
studies. They studied insight and suggested that creativity is the emergence
of sudden insight. This occurs in the third stage of the creative process, in
which there are four successive stages:
• Preparation: Involves thinking or learning about the mental elements
thought to be relevant to the problem; it thus entails initial conscious
work on the problem or task.
• Incubation: Involves setting the problem aside, getting involved with
seemingly unrelated things, simply forgetting the unimportant details
and unconsciously making associations.
• Illumination or inspiration: Is the solution that occurs to the
individual after some time involving insight, with ideas breaking into
consciousness because they have become coherent or of aesthetic value.
This is also called the ‘aha’ moment.
• Verification or elaboration: Is when the new idea is scrutinised and
refined to its final form.
Figure 6.5
The creative process
SOURCE Compiled by the author
If one considers the stages of the creative process, it is evident that
creative thinking is not always automatic and effortless. Creative people
spend time preparing to solve the problem; they might incubate the
problem for a period, return to the problem, find a solution and then
spend considerable time refining or making the solution work.
Nevertheless, the four-stage model, which is the most often cited
explanation in Western culture, seems to have parallels in Eastern models.
For example, a group of Indian artists described a four-stage model
(Lubart, 1999), as follows:
• The first stage is also preparatory, but the artist removes herself
symbolically from the real world by burning incense and praying to the
patron of creativity.
• In the second stage, the subject matter becomes an inner part of the
artist, who feels that the deity is part of herself.
The third stage is similar to illumination, but the insight is more
• related to personal self-fulfilment than to producing a useful object or
subject.
• The last stage is similar to verification. It involves social
communications to others of a person’s personal fulfilments.
According to this description, the Eastern artistic endeavour is a spiritual
experience. A connectedness between the artwork, the artist and the
cosmos is evident. Illumination has elements of an ‘aha’ moment, but this
insight brings personal insight and fulfilment as well.
Lastly, the artist is connected to others and shares their personal
fulfilment.
In other Eastern models, the creative person starts with meditation,
which results in the flow of impressions and images of the object or a flash
of insight. This all amounts to the experience of intimate oneness with the
spirit or the heart of the object (Lubart, 1999).
In the next section, the general characteristics of creative people and
managers are explored.
Example box
A strategy for optimising idea creating during a brainstorming intervention
Brainstorming is often used in teams to generate and identify creative ideas. However,
research conducted by Ritter and Mosterd (2018), utilising an experimental design,
demonstrated that combining individual and group brainstorming, and using the techniques
listed below, delivered good results in terms of quantity and quality:
• Silence: Allowing participants to use their own approach and time to generate ideas
without interference.
• Line of evolution: Triggering thoughts on how an idea can change form, for example,
from being solid, to soggy, to liquid.
• Random connectiveness: Taking a random object and generating associations from it,
and then linking the associations with the problem experienced. For example,
associations with a ball-point pen could be colour, shape (roller) and writing. Drawing
the associations through to the development of sunscreen could result in sunscreen of
different colours, or one that changes colour and that can be applied with a roller.
• Scamper: Forcing participants to think of changes to the idea through substitution,
combining, forcing elements together, adapting, modifying, repurposing, eliminating,
reversing and rearranging elements of ideas.
It was found that using the four different techniques for stimulating ideas resulted in a
consistent creation of ideas, suggesting the usefulness of all these techniques in stimulating
creativity. In addition, while idea creation in groups (after individual idea creation) did not
result in more ideas, it did result in increased idea quality. This was because working in a
group stimulated more associations for the participants and furthered their creativity.
Having the participants first work individually and then in a group eliminated cognitive
interference. As such, this approach drew the best from individual creativity as well as from
group creativity.
6.7.2
Characteristics of creative people and
managers
Creativity is an inborn skill, but most people do not use it to the best of
their ability (Ritter & Mosterd, 2018). Creative potential can be unleashed
through creative development. A good starting point is to consider the
characteristics of creative people, and then to find ways to develop these
characteristics in oneself and in others. Openness to experience,
intelligence, independence, self-confidence, risk-taking, an internal locus
of control, tolerance for ambiguity, a low need for structure and the ability
to persevere during frustration are characteristics associated with creative
people (Robbins & Judge, 2009: 192). Considering these characteristics, it
is evident that creative people like to explore and experiment, are not
bound by norms, expectations and cultural traditions and more easily deal
with complex situations for which there are not available solutions.
Creative people are right-brain dominant, which means that although they
are able to think hierarchically and systematically, they are more inclined
to think laterally and creatively. Figure 6.6 illustrates the differences
between left- and right-brain thinking.
Figure 6.6
Left and right brain activities
SOURCE Compiled by the author
A person with left-brain dominance is more analytical and prefers
systematic problem solving, whereas a creative person, with right-brain
dominance, can handle ambiguous information and link many different
images laterally.
In the workplace, managers can foster creativity through displaying
various characteristics and competencies (Epstein et al., 2013; Hunsaker,
2005: 229), for example:
• They challenge employees by providing challenging tasks, being open
to new ideas and being good listeners.
• They allow employees to experiment with new ideas, even if those
ideas are still in development and without expecting all ideas to work
out well. They do not dwell on mistakes, but use failures as
•
•
•
•
•
opportunities to learn.
They engage in creative behaviours themselves, serving as role models
to employees.
They stimulate diversity and change the physical and social work
environment to encourage a flow of ideas.
They are willing to stretch normal policies and standard operating
procedures for the long-term good of the organisation.
They are decisive and courageous by trusting their intuition and
commit resources to implementing promising innovations.
Last, they are enthusiastic and passionate. They also provide positive
feedback and recognition to creative employees.
In the next section, strategies to develop individual creativity and creativity
in organisations are discussed.
6.7.3
Developing the creative potential of
employees
For organisations to become more creative, they have to develop the
creative potential of individual members of the organisation (Mauzy,
2006). Developing creativity is associated with four aspects. First, a person
must understand the creative process. The creative-thinking process occurs
on a cognitive continuum from secondary to primary processing.
Secondary processing refers to logical, systematic and traditional thinking;
primary processing refers to dreaming, musing, meditating and fanciful
thinking. Although creative people do engage in rational thinking, most
creative ideas develop during primary processing in which people walk
away from the problem, sleep on it, turn it upside down and think in
metaphors (Mauzy, 2006: 4). To stimulate this kind of creative thinking,
organisations should allow employees time for reflection, not overload
them and teach individuals and teams methods for creative thought.
Second, obstacles to creativity and skills required for creativity must be
identified. Obstacles to creative thinking include over-reliance on rational
thinking, self-censoring and self-punishment and a hostile environment.
People apply self-censorship by reminding themselves to observe existing
social norms and habits and rebuking themselves when they make
mistakes. Managers can create a climate in which people can comfortably
experiment and are rewarded, recognised and sponsored for creative ideas.
Employees can also be encouraged, through metacognition, to monitor
their cognitive responses to creative ideas and proposals, and those
presenting them, so that they do not reject ideas before they have really
listened well and weighed up the benefits of the ideas. In the right climate,
and with the right frame of mind, new ideas or concepts are formed. These
ideas, which are not yet expressed, are normally fuzzy, vague, unfinished
and even surprising. However, employees must be allowed the opportunity
to express these ideas or concepts.
Third, methods must be implemented to increase the frequency with
which new ideas and solutions are generated. These include:
• Imagery: Utilising excursion, improvisation, analogy and metaphor to
bring a personal or business problem to life, as if it is played out in a
movie.
• Wish list: Compiling a wish list for a specific situation without
censoring the wishes for their level of appropriateness.
• Excursion: Putting the idea or problem aside and concentrating on any
other interesting object (incubation). Consider the object and the facts
about the object for a few minutes, and then start drawing comparisons
between the object and the problem (analogy). Use these comparisons
to generate new ideas to solve the problem.
• Reframe evaluations: Reconsidering old ideas and instead of
criticising them, viewing them from a new perspective and an open
mind. View solutions as a work-in-process and constantly find ways to
renew and add on.
Finally, individuals and managers must be encouraged to create a personal
creative drive and lifelong creative vision that will help them achieve their
personal and professional goals. This involves setting goals for a person’s
personal life and career, identifying barriers that keep them from achieving
those goals and then applying creative thinking to overcome these barriers.
This way, the individual develops internal thinking processes that increase
the potential for new thinking.
6.8
Implications for managers
Today’s work environment is dominated by information and technology
and how they are innovatively used to satisfy customer needs. This kind of
work environment requires a high level of cognitive functioning rather
than physical ability. Knowledge of cognition is important to the I-O
psychologist and manager for a number of reasons. First, one must ensure
that the organisation employs and promotes people who have the desired
cognitive skills to attain organisational goals. Various psychometric tests
can be administered to prospective job applicants to test their cognitive
potential (refer to Chapter 12). In South Africa, where many people have
been subjected to inadequate schooling, the assessment of learning
potential becomes imperative. People have multiple intelligences, and it is
necessary to ensure a fit between the person’s cognitive abilities and the job
requirements.
Problem solving and decision-making are inherent requirements of
most jobs and especially of jobs that are challenging and complex.
Managers, as well as employees, must solve problems effectively and
efficiently. All people have the potential to be creative, and it is up to
managers to provide an environment that will foster creative thinking.
Today’s competitive work environment is characterised by knowledge
workers and knowledge management. Knowledge management refers to
the creation, distribution and utilisation of information to make the
organisation more responsive to the environment. Creativity, problem
solving, language and communication are, therefore, crucial aspects of
knowledge management.
6.9
Summary and reflection
Studying cognition entails understanding how an individual processes
information and utilises knowledge by productive thinking. Concept
formation produces categories for classifying people or objects. Memory
stores everything that a person knows, although this cannot always be
retrieved. Language facilitates social communication and self-expression.
Intelligence involves various developed abilities that can be measured, as
well as potential abilities that can be developed. Problem solving produces
solutions, decision-making produces choices, and creativity produces
novelty that is functional.
In a world of work dominated by knowledge, information and
technology, cognitive processes are very important. This world of work is
rapidly changing with the evolution of the 4IR and AI, and poses new
challenges to the psychological contract between the employer and the
employee. This contract implies that the employee will rapidly learn, take
initiative, identify and solve problems and apply creativity to foster the
attainment of organisational goals. In this respect, the cognitive potential
of organisational members contributes to the competitiveness of an
organisation. Therefore, it makes sense for managers to take cognisance of
employees’ cognitive potential and provide an environment in which
employees are engaged in their roles.
Assessment tasks
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1
2
3
4
5
6
Explain the importance of cognitive processes in the world of
work, and specifically in terms of the evolution into the Fourth
Industrial Revolution (4IR).
Explain how metacognition can be applied to assist people in
developing productive thinking.
An employee is referred to you due to apparent memory
problems picked up by the supervisor. Considering what you
have learned about memory in this chapter, what questions could
you ask the employee to gain a full understanding of the
situation?
An organisation requests the testing of applicants’ intelligence
(IQ) as part of the recruitment and selection process. Explain to
the senior manager why this may represent a narrow approach
and suggest and explain alternatives so that an informed decision
can be made.
Discuss the role of social media in the development of language.
Explain why emotional intelligence (EI) is considered a cognitive
and not emotional function.
It is said that creativity is an essential employee skill in the 4IR
and that all people are born with the potential to be creative.
Explain what factors in the workplace could hinder employees
unleashing their creative potential.
8 Present the steps in the problem-solving process and indicate
where ethics fit in during each step.
9 Is using heuristics in problem solving good or not? Explain your
answer clearly.
10 Explain how brainstorming can be facilitated to draw the best
from both individuals and groups.
7
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
Each person develops a unique mental construct of events,
objects and people. This is done through:
a metacognition
b implicit memory
c categorisation
d creativity
e thinking.
2 A person easily recalls the worst and best experience of the year.
This type of memory is known as:
a declarative
b implicit
c semantic
d episodic
e sensory.
3 Which method for improving memory involves linking
information to known objects or images?
a Mnemonics
b Mood state
c Creativity
d Organising
e Exaggeration.
4 During the incubation stage of creative thinking, a person:
a fine-tunes their ideas into its final form
1
experiences an ‘aha’ moment and gains insight into how to
solve the problem
c systematically solves the problem
d uses heuristics to find solutions to the problem
e does nothing specific to solve a problem.
5 Language development is influenced by:
a social media
b inborn characteristics
c the environment
d interactive childhood experiences
e all of the above.
6 Which of the following statements is false?
a Intelligence is understood as a measure of functioning
b The meaning of intelligence differs across cultures
c Intelligence is a stable characteristic that can be accurately
measured
d Intelligence is important for performance
e Average intelligence is measured at 90 to 110.
7 Which of the following focuses on the quantity rather than
quality of intelligence?
a Structural approach
b Contextual intelligence approach
c Learning potential approach
d Emotional intelligence approach
e Multiple intelligence approach.
8 Which of the following works against creativity?
a Excursion
b Censoring
c Divergence
d Incubation
e Right-brain thinking.
9 You have recently completed a project at your place of work.
When you started the new project, you constantly got your facts
wrong because you kept on referring to the first project instead of
the second project. This type of error is due to:
a small zone of proximal development
b
b prospective interference
c mood state
d mental set
e representative heuristics.
10 Refilwe is an excellent financial administrator. She is organised,
pays attention to detail and can write a very good analytical
report. In contrast, her colleague Osman, the marketing and
advertising officer, is agile, a performer and good at creative
writing. The differences between Refilwe and Osman are best
described by differences in terms of:
a drudge theory
b interactionist/transactional theory
c structural approach to intelligence
d emotional intelligence
e dynamic approach to intelligence.
CASE STUDY Metacognition, problem solving,
memory, intelligence and language.
Sam grew up in a rural farming area where he was able to catch a bus to
school. In the late afternoons, and during holidays, Sam continued with
his normal chores on the farm resulting in him having to do his
schoolwork in-between chores. Due to a lack of connectivity, it did not
make sense to the family to acquire a device that could assist Sam or his
siblings in their studies. Despite the limitations, the family encouraged
the children to learn and included them in all discussions on farming,
finance, economics, politics and cultural issues. Sam obtained a senior
certificate, doing well in business studies and mathematics literary, and
was subsequently successful in obtaining a learnership at a construction
company.
This was a very difficult time of adjustment. Sam felt that he did not
fit in perfectly as he was less fluent in English, did not know what it
meant to ‘like’ or ‘tweet’ and did less well in technical assessments.
Despite this, Sam was very good on-site where the interns had to perform
physical work and resolve pre-set challenges. The supervisor realised that
Sam was a fast learner, that he could easily delegate functions to Sam
and that Sam was very good at figuring out how to solve practical
problems. In addition, Sam connected very well with the permanent and
contract employees on-site and was able to teach them some practical
things without making them feel embarrassed about being taught by an
intern. His supervisor also realised that Sam’s performance in technical
assessments did not match the excellent knowledge and competencies
that Sam exhibited on site.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Questions
1. Why would subjecting Sam to a traditional IQ test not be in the best
interests of Sam or the organisation?
2. What alternative measure of intelligence would you suggest in this
case? Explain your reasoning for using this alternative test.
3. Apply the concept of contextual intelligence to Sam.
4. Comment on Sam’s levels of emotional intelligence (EI).
5. Sam was able to apply lessons learned on the farm to problems
encountered on the building site. Explain how Sam would have drawn
from the different stages of memory to be able to solve a problem onsite.
Workplace learning
Jerome Kiley
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Identify and distinguish the differences between key concepts associated with learning
and development
Discuss the key training and skills-development challenges and priorities in the South
African employment context
Describe the impact of training, learning and development on the performance of
organisations
Explain the role of analysis in determining training and development needs
Differentiate between on-the-job, off-the-job and management training methods
Discuss the appropriateness of the different training methods that are available to
organisations
Elaborate on the role of training evaluation in ensuring the quality of workplace learning
programmes
Describe how the workplace can be used as an active learning environment
Explain the impact of key legislation on workplace learning in the South African context.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Adult learning
Assessment
Learning delivery
Learning design
Development
Distance learning
Education
Evaluation
Facilitation
Human resource development
Training
Training needs analysis
Workplace learning
7.1
Introduction
Effective training programmes are critical for the success of any
organisation as they enable the organisation to upskill their staff and stay
competitive. The training and development function of an organisation
exists in order to enable the organisation to meet its strategic goals and
remain competitive in the global marketplace. Although organisations
attempt to recruit the most skilled and competent employees, these
employees are seldom able to perform to their full potential without
continued training, learning and development throughout their careers
(Kiley & Coetzee, 2016).
Learning is any relatively durable change in knowledge or behaviour
that occurs as a result of experience. The term workplace learning refers
to “formal, non-formal, self-directed collective and even tacit (learning
that cannot be formulated explicitly) informal learning activities” (Bratton,
Mills & Pyrch, 2008: 2). Three important characteristics of learning are
identified (Lucas & Ramsey, 2008): first, it is an ongoing process that
continues throughout the lifetime of the individual; second, most learning
occurs through experience; and third, learning is the development of skills
and new ways in which things are done. This is especially relevant in a
changing world of work with increased online or virtual work, new
technologies, fewer traditional job opportunities in many areas, and the
requirement of new skills in new types of jobs.
The aim of this chapter is to provide a basic understanding of the
theories, concepts and processes of workplace learning, as well as the
specific issues that the manager needs to take into account when delivering
training programmes in the South African context.
7.2
Core concepts
learning
in
workplace
There are a number of important concepts in workplace learning that form
the language of learning. They are encountered in different aspects of
workplace learning and even though they are fairly distinct concepts, they
are often used interchangeably and overlap in some regards. Some of these
concepts are discussed below.
Education “… is broader in scope than training and aims to develop
individuals’ knowledge, social understanding and skill and intellectual
capacity” (Truman & Coetzee 2013: 434). The aim of education is to
equip people to function effectively in society by providing them with the
necessary broad-based skills. Think how lost you would be if you could not
read or write properly. What would life be like if you could not do basic
mathematics? Education is generally provided by public institutions, such
as schools, colleges and universities, which are predominantly sponsored by
the South African (SA) Government although there are a number of
privately run and owned institutions in SA (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016).
Training is more specific as it refers to planned short-term change
efforts intended to modify competencies, attitudes and beliefs, knowledge,
skill or behaviour through structured learning experiences to improve
performance in the work environment (Truman & Coetzee, 2013).
Training differs from education in that training involves instances when
the end product of learning can be specified in terms of specific outcomes
or results. In training, specific instructional procedures are designed to
train or build a particular skill-set or behaviour/s. There is a high demand
in SA for employees with specific skills, such as management, engineering,
science and technology skills.
Training in South African workplaces is predominantly directed at
helping employees to master skills-based outcomes and applied
competencies that relate specifically to occupations and work, team or
organisational performance. The new skills-development legislation (the
National Qualifications Framework Act (67 of 2008) and Skills
Development Amendment Act (37 of 2008)) emphasises the concept of
workplace learning, rather than training, in order to refocus all training
and development efforts on the importance of lifelong learning and
continuous upskilling of employees (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016). Training, on
the other hand, facilitates learning directed towards job performance and
can modify knowledge, skills and attitudes. Training provides learning
opportunities for employees and focuses on equipping them with the
competencies, or knowledge, skills and attributes they need to perform to a
new job-performance standard, to be flexible and adaptable to change in
the workplace and to do new things or be innovative in their approaches to
their job tasks (National Academies of Science, Engineering and
Medicine, 2018). When we think of training it is often for specific skills,
such as computer skills, machine operator skills, customer service skills and
so on.
The basic foundation for training or learning programmes is
workplace learning, which refers to the acquisition of competence,
including knowledge, understanding, values, skills and experience.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour and human
capabilities that is achieved by experience and practice (Landy & Conte,
2004). Workplace learning may occur through education, teaching,
studying, discussing, observing, experiencing, practising and committing to
memory, however a key focus is on-the-job learning where the employee
learns new skills while on the shop-floor, for example, and is guided by a
coach or mentor who is often their supervisor.
The SA Board for People Practices (SABPP)(2014: 60) describes
learning and development in the workplace as “the practice of providing
occupationally directed and other learning activities that enable and
enhance the knowledge, practical skills and workplace experience and
behaviour of individuals and teams based on current and future
occupational requirements for optimal organisational performance and
sustainability”.
An essential skill is learning to learn, which can be defined as “the
capacity adults possess of becoming self-consciously aware of their learning
styles and being able to adjust these according to the situation in which
they find themselves” (Tuijnman & van der Kamp in Brookfield, 2010:
226). This is also particularly important in the context of lifelong learning,
which is the “knowledge, process and procedures by which people come to
and are assisted to make appropriate educational decisions and carry out
instrumental tasks associated with successful lifelong learning” (Smith in
Ecclestone, 2000: 94). Think of yourself as a university student and the
challenges that you have faced in mastering the content of your courses.
Anderson (2016) identified four attributes of lifelong learners, namely:
• Aspiration: People who want to learn new skills, possess ambition and
are motivated.
• Self-awareness: The need to assess oneself in terms of what is known
and not known and what skills are possessed and which are needed.
• Curiosity: Curiosity is the desire to know or learn; it is what makes us
repeat something until we have mastered it or think about something
until we understand it. Lifelong learners hold onto, or rediscover, the
sense of curiosity they possessed in their childhood drive.
• Vulnerability: A lifelong learner is prepared to make mistakes and
learn from these.
A great deal of your success depends on how you view your ability to learn.
Great learners share attributes, namely: (i) aspiration in thinking about the
benefits of learning; (ii) self-awareness in being aware of your own
strengths and areas of development; (iii) curiosity about the world and that
which is unknown; and (iv) vulnerability in being prepared to fail and not
being successful at the first attempt (Giacomassi, 2017). Two other
concepts that are of particular importance in this context are development,
which is a “long-term change effort intended to broaden individuals
through experience and to give them new insights about themselves and
their organisation in a way that supports them in fulfilling their potential”
(Coetzee, 2013: 602) and human resource development (HRD) which is
“… a process of developing and unleashing expertise for the purpose of
improving individual, team, work process, and organisational system
performance” (Swanson & Holton III, 2009: 4). Development and HRD
encompass education, training and learning interventions. However, they
may also include aspects such as work and life experience. The goal of
HRD is “… making things better and creating an improved future state”
that can “… include everything from helping individuals learn and master
new content to helping organizations determine their strategic direction”
(Swanson & Holton III, 2009: 15).
Within the context of development, the concept of organisational
development (OD) is also important. OD is “[t]he system-wide
application and transfer of behavioural science knowledge to the planned
development, improvement and refinement of the strategies, structures and
processes that lead to organizational effectiveness” (Cummings & Worley,
2015: 2). Similarly, Desautels (2006: 573) sees OD as “… an overarching
approach to identifying and removing obstacles in the environment that
are having a negative impact on an organisation’s ability to reach its
deliverables”. OD includes everything from redesigning the structure and
processes used in the organisation to changing the culture of the
organisation.
Training, like learning, is a lifelong process. Organisations need to
provide for the wide variety of training, learning and development needs of
workers in order to stay competitive. Training, learning and develop-ment
equips workers with the capabilities and attitudes they need to carry out
tasks according to set performance standards, monitor quality and manage
complex products and services.
Industrial and organisational (I-O) psychologists and human resource
(HR) practitioners often fulfil the role of training and development
practitioners in the workplace. Table 7.1 provides an overview of the tasks
of the training and staff development professional as outlined on the
Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO) version 2015 (DHET,
2015b).
Table 7.1
Tasks of the training and staff development professional
Descriptor
OFO code
242401
Plans, develops, implements and evaluates training and
development programmes to ensure management and
staff acquire the skills and develop the competencies
required by an organisation to meet organisational
objectives.
Tasks
• Designing, co-ordinating, scheduling and conducting
training and development programmes that can be
delivered in the form of individual and group
instruction and facilitating workshops, meetings,
demonstrations and conferences.
• Gathering, investigating and researching background
materials to gain an understanding of various subject
matters and systems.
• Identifying training needs and requirements of
individuals and organisations.
• Liaising with external training providers to arrange
delivery of specific training and development
programmes.
• Monitoring and performing ongoing evaluation and
assessment of internal and external training quality
and effectiveness, and reviewing and modifying
training objectives, methods and course deliverables.
• Preparing and developing instructional training
material and aids such as handbooks, visual aids,
online tutorials, demonstration models and
supporting training reference documentation.
• Promoting internal and external training and
development and evaluating these promotional
activities.
• Setting human resource development activities and
evaluating learning outcomes.
SOURCE DHET (2015b)
As within any other field in industrial psychology, there are a number of
theories that attempt to explain both the nature and processes through
which learning takes place.
7.3
Approaches to adult learning
Learning can be defined as a “relatively permanent change in behaviour or
potential behaviour that results from the acquisition of knowledge and
facts through study, being taught and experience” (Werner & DeSimone,
2009 in Botha & Coetzee, 2013: 204).
Learning is a lifelong process for people because it forms a
fundamental aspect of their psychological make-up and a vital part of their
physical, social and psychological development. People learn not only
through formal, systematic and structured activities at school, college,
university and in the workplace, but also through interaction with other
people (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016).
It is helpful to distinguish between learning at different levels.
Individual learning means “regularly changing behaviour based on a
deepening and broadening of one’s skills, knowledge and worldview”
(Sessa & London, 2006: 18). Team learning is more than the combined
learning of individuals in the team in that teams that learn together
function at a higher level (Sessa & London, 2006: 115). Team learning can
be seen from three perspectives (Sessa & London, 2006):
• First, it is a combination of individual learning whereby team members
gain, create and share new knowledge and information.
• Second, it is a process in which the team takes action, obtains feedback
on this and then reflects on its performance.
• Third, teams are regarded as systems that learn through dynamic
processes.
Organisational learning is the “changing patterns of interactions, policies,
and procedures that emerge from the collectivity of individual learning,
continuous improvement, the development of culture, innovation, and
systems operations” (Sessa & London, 2006: 163). Teams and
organisations that learn continuously reflect on what they do, how they do,
and ask the question, how could we be better?
7.3.1
Understanding the process of learning
through different theories of learning
Although learning theories can be traced back to the 17th century French
philosopher René Descartes, significant experimental studies only began at
the end of the 19th century. Most theories of learning share a common
theme, in that “learning is a relatively permanent change in the probability
of exhibiting certain behaviour resulting from some prior experience”
(Mower & Klein, 2001: 2). Nevertheless, there are considerable differences
among theorists as to how learning takes place:
• Behaviourist approach: Focuses on how behaviour can be shaped
through reinforcement. According to this perspective, we learn because
our behaviour is rewarded or strengthened, for example, someone
praises or reprimands us. Associations are thus formed between stimuli
and responses that are remembered. The two main processes associated
with the behaviourist approach are classical and operant conditioning.
In classical conditioning, learning takes place because people respond
to a new stimulus in the same way they responded to another stimulus.
An example is if a person is frightened by a spider, they may also fear
other insects. In operant conditioning, learning takes place because
•
•
•
•
people’s voluntary behaviour is rewarded or controlled by their
consequences. An example is when employees continue to perform well
because their previous work behaviours were rewarded with
promotions.
Cognitive approach: Focuses on how problems are solved, and
specifically, how individuals process and interpret information. This
approach argues that there are other ways, besides reinforcement, by
which learning takes place. Learning also takes place through the
processes of memory, judgement, problem solving, reasoning and
understanding. Individuals thus make logical connections based on
what they see and how they should perform.
Humanists: Hold that knowledge, and therefore learning, is a
personal, subjective issue. Individuals learn continuously, as they have a
natural aptitude for learning and have control over their personal
learning processes. Personal motivation and self-directed learning are
key processes in the humanist approach to learning.
Social learning: We also learn from our environments by observing
the experiences of others. Social learning argues that we acquire
knowledge, behaviour and beliefs through observing the consequences
that these have for others. People, therefore, model their behaviours on
others whom they perceive to be successful or who attain positive
consequences through their behaviours.
Constructivists: Maintain that there is no absolute reality, but that
reality is an individual subjective construction. Learning is a personal
construction that differs from individual to individual. Although two
individuals may undergo identical learning experiences, it does not
mean that they will learn the same things, but rather that they will
construct an individual personal meaning.
The major learning perspectives, together with their main proponents, are
summarised in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2
Major perspectives on adult learning
Theory
Behaviourist
Cognitive
Humanist
Social
learning
Major theorists
Thorndike,
Pavlov,
Koffka,
Kohler,
Maslow,
Rogers,
Bandura,
Rotter
Watson,
Guthrie,
Hull,
Tolman,
Skinner
Lewin,
Piaget,
Ausubel,
Bruner,
Gagne
Knowles
View of the
learning process
Change in
behaviour
Internal
mental
processes
such as
insight,
information
processing,
memory and
perception
A personal
act to fulfil
potential
Interaction
with and
observation
of others in
social
context
Locus of learning
Stimuli in
the
environment;
reward
certain
behaviour
Internal
cognitive
structuring.
Affective
and
cognitive
needs
Interaction
of person,
behaviour
and
environment
Purpose of training
To produce
behavioural
change in
desired
direction.
To develop
capacity and
skills to
learn better
To become
selfactualised,
autonomous
To model
new roles
and
behaviours
Trainer/facilitator’s
role
Arranges
environment
to elicit
desired
response;
rewards
behaviour
Structures
content of
learning
activity
Facilitates
development
of the whole
person
Models and
guides new
roles and
behaviour
Manifestation in
adult learning
Behavioural
objectives
Competencybased
training
Skill
development
and training.
Cognitive
development
Intelligence,
learning and
memory as a
function of
age
Learning
how to
learn.
Andragogy
Self-directed
learning.
Socialisation
Social roles
Mentoring
Locus of
control.
SOURCE Kiley & Coetzee (2016: 435)
The theories discussed so far are Eurocentric as they emanate from Europe
and the United States. A major theme when examining theories of
learning is the Africanisation of higher education, training and
development in general. The Africanisation of learning can be regarded as
a dual approach in that Africans aim to advocate African aspirations and
ideals, ancestry, cultural heritage, ideas, rights and interests in a manner
that builds and maintains their self-concept and own rationality in an
intercultural context. An important aspect of Africanisation is that other
cultural groups need to respect and accommodate Africans’ efforts to
realise these aims (Vorster, 1995). Msila (2009) argues that African
societies will be strengthened when education represents indigenous
knowledge systems.
Understanding why and how people learn are important considerations
for the design and implementation of learning strategies on an individual,
team and organisational level. Insight into how people learn and acquire
skills and abilities for effective job performance enables managers, I-O
psychologists and HR practitioners to develop strategies to increase
individual competence and ability and consequently increase organisational
flexibility, adaptation and performance (Robinson, 2006).
7.3.2
Adults as learners
Adults learn in a different way to children. The study of adult learning is
known as andragogy, which refers to the “art and science of helping adults
learn” (Knowles, Holton III & Swanson, 2005: 3). In a classic study of
why adults participate in continuing education, Houle (in Knowles,
Holton III & Swanson, 2005: 54–55) identified three categories of
learners, namely goal-orientated learners, who study to achieve a particular
goal in their lives, such as promotion; activity-orientated learners, who find
the learning experience meaningful in itself and whose emphasis is on
social contact and the type of relationships that the learning experience
yields; and learning-orientated learners, who seek knowledge for its own
sake and participate in learning experiences on the basis of the potential for
growth that these experiences offer.
There are a number of key principles that should be acknowledged
when training adults, as they have an impact both on the type of learning
and the processes that are used to deliver the learning (see Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1
Principles of andragogy
SOURCE Kiley & Coetzee (2016: 436)
The six key principles of andragogy are as follows:
• Adult learners are goal-orientated in that a problem-solving approach
is followed whereby the learners learn what they need to know on the
basis of their job requirements or the stage of life that they find
themselves in.
•
•
•
•
•
The effectiveness of the learning process is influenced by the selfconcept of the learner, which can vary from a dependent personality,
who needs support and guidance, to a self-directing human being who
is able to work independently.
The learner brings a wealth of prior experience to the learning process,
which should be incorporated into the current learning experience.
Attitudes to learning are also influenced by previous learning
experiences. This is also then an important point of connection for the
Africanisation of learning. The background, knowledge and experience
of all learners needs to be incorporated into the learning experience.
The facilitation of learning plays an important role whereby a learner’s
experience and background is made part of the learning experience.
The learner’s readiness to learn is dependent on their stage of
development and the social roles that they fulfil.
Learners have different orientations to learn, which are reflected in
individual learning styles.
The motivation to learn differs between learners in that there is a wide
range of motives that induce individual adult learners to participate in
any given learning intervention (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016).
There have been a number of attempts to clarify the different learning
orientations in the form of describing different learning styles of learners.
Adults also have many other responsibilities that have to be considered
when they are being trained. These include:
• Family responsibilities for their own and/or extended family, such as
looking after children or family members, cooking, household duties,
shopping, paying accounts and managing household expenses.
• Taking care of their own health needs.
• Managers who have expectations of them in the workplace.
• Differing work responsibilities, such as working overtime or shifts.
• Transportation of themselves and others. This is often a challenge in
Africa where public transport is unreliable.
• Keeping professional appointments that may interfere with the
training.
INFORMATION BOX Are you an adult learner?
Adult learning is not about age; it is about the learner’s approach to learning. Answer the
following questions to get an idea of how you rate:
Score yourself on the following items: (1) not at all (2) somewhat (3) in-between (4) a
great deal and (5) always.
1 I take responsibility for my studies? _____
2 I regularly self-assess my progress with my studies? ____
3 I am practical and results-oriented in my studies, focusing on information that is
applicable to my professional development? ____
4 I need to understand why I have to study something? ____
5 I use personal experiences to help me understand content covered in my courses?
6 I am highly motivated to complete my studies? _____
7 I have many responsibilities besides my studies? _____
8 I expect to be taught about things that will be useful in my future career? _____
The higher your total score, the greater the degree you can regard yourself as an adult
learner who is self-driven and takes responsibility for your own learning.
7.3.3
Different ways of learning
“Active learning or the construction of knowledge entails information
processing beyond passive responses to stimuli or encoding verbatim …
whatever input has been provided.” This implies that individuals differ in
the way that they attend to and process learning materials “based on prior
knowledge, understanding, values, attitudes, styles, and resultant
motivation” (Renzulli, 2001: 23). Learning styles therefore refer to
differences in the preferences that learners have in the use of their abilities
(Sternberg & Zhang, 2001: viii), or where their particular cognitive
strengths lie (Biggs, 2001: 76).
There are literally dozens of theories that attempt to classify adult
learning styles. One particularly well-known theory is that of Kolb and
Fry, whose learning style inventory is widely used. Kolb (in Swanson &
Holton III, 2009: 167) defines learning as “the process by which
knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” which is
also referred to as reflective learning. In a study of learners, Di Stefano et
al. (2014) found that learners who stop and reflect about their learning felt
a greater sense of self-efficacy, were more motivated and performed better.
Kolb maintains that learning is a goal-directed process that passes
through four distinct phases, which he summarised in his learning-cycle
model.
The four phases in Kolb’s experiential learning cycle involve different
cognitive processes:
• Concrete experience: Means that learners are fully involved in hereand-now experiences such as daily activities in the workplace, family
and community; it may also include deliberately structured activities.
• Reflectiveobservation: Entails the learner deconstructing these
activities and reflecting on, as well as observing, their experiences from
different perspectives through which they are given meaning.
• Abstract conceptualisation: Involves the formulation of abstract
concepts and generalisations that are integrated into a logically sound
personal model of reality, or the learner combines these with theories
and explanations proposed by others.
• Active experimentation: Involves the learner testing the implications
of these new concepts in new situations, that is, making decisions and
solving problems (Maceracher, 2004; Swanson & Holton III, 2009).
Example box
Techniques to stimulate reflective learning in learners
1 Give learners one minute to record their most important insights.
2 Ask learners to sketch their reflections as using a different medium allows them to review
their learning from a different perspective.
3 Create a professional portfolio containing the exercises and other work.
4 Create reflection snowballs – learners write reflections on pieces of paper that are
randomly shared in the class.
5 Make use of dedicated reflection journals where learners connect theory with application.
6 Use blogs – where learners reflect in the cloud.
7 Make use of videos to provide learners with a different view of their presentations,
performance or practical skills.
8 Record reflections on sticky notes or a digital whiteboard.
9 Take reflection breaks to build reflective practice by stopping work periodically and
encouraging learners to record their thoughts about what they’ve learned.
10 Use sprint retrospectives where time is set aside every few weeks to encourage learners
to reflect on their progress.
11 Arrange a session where learners reflect out aloud and share their reflections with the
larger group.
12 Make reflection a part of assessment where learners reflect on their performance and the
reasons for it.
13 The trainer/facilitator should model their reflective skills by talking out aloud about their
thought processes.
SOURCE Nureva (2020) Reprinted with permission from Nureva
https://www.nureva.com/blog/education/15-ways-to-spark-student-reflection-in-your-classroom
Learning involves all four of these processes as they each entail different
cognitive processes. However, learners tend to favour some over others.
Kolb and Fry identified four distinct learning styles that comprise a
combination of two of the phases that a particular group of learners tends
to favour over the other processes and has distinct implications for the way
in which learners prefer to learn. This is illustrated in Table 7.3, which
indicates the links between the different learning styles, the main
characteristics of these styles and the most appropriate learning facilitation
strategies.
Table 7.3
Kolb and Fry’s learning styles
Learning style
Learner
characteristics
Main
characteristics
Possible
learning
facilitation
strategies
Converger
Abstract
conceptualisation
and active
experimentation
• Enjoys
practically
applying
theory
• Performs
better
where there
is a single
correct
answer to a
problem
• Uses
deductive
reasoning
extensively
• Prefers
dealing
with things
On-the-job
training
Laboratory
experiences
Debriefing
sessions
Internships
Practical
sessions.
as opposed
to people
• Narrow
range of
interests
and often
specialises
in a specific
field.
Diverger
Concrete
experience and
reflective
observation
• Imaginative
and easily
generates
ideas
• Is able to
view issues
from
different
perspectives
• Interested
in people
and cultures
• Often
specialises
in the
humanities
and arts.
Simulations
Case studies
Field trips
Demonstrations
Real
experiences
Small-group
discussions.
Assimilator
Abstract
conceptualisation
and reflective
observation
• Excels at
creating
theoretical
models
• Strong in
inductive
reasoning
• More
Sharing
content
Small-group
discussions
Buzz groups
Theoretical
exercises.
concerned
with
abstract
concepts
than
practical
application
• Works well
in research
and
planning.
Accommodator
Concrete
experience and
active
experimentation.
• Strength
lies in
doing
• Tends to
take risks
• Performs
best when
needs to
make quick
decisions
and solve
problems
• Solves
problems
using
intuition
• Relies on
others for
information
• Performs
well in
actionorientated
jobs such as
Simulations
Case studies
Field trips
On-the-job
training
Demonstrations
Laboratory
experiences
Internships
Practice
sessions.
marketing
and sales.
SOURCE Adapted from Tennant (1997: 90); Swanson & Holton III (2001: 168)
The implications of learning styles are that the trainer needs to
acknowledge that groups of learners are diverse in the way they learn and
should include activities that favour each of the styles. The activities
should also be structured in the sequence of the experiential learning cycle
(MacKeracher, 2004: 63).
Online or eLearning, including social media and social networking
sites (SNS), is becoming popular in the learning and development domain
(Donelan, 2015) and trainers therefore need to consider the learning styles
of SNS user groups. A differentiation can be made between three user
groups based on Internet and social networks:
• Introvert users: Send private messages, contact friends, update their
profiles less frequently and typically use the Internet and SNS less than
once a week for less than an hour.
• Versatile users: Update their profiles, share photos, send private
messages and search for friends; they might look for information and
send public messages less frequently; they typically use the Internet and
SNS several times a week for over an hour a week.
• Expert communicators: Do all of the activities that introvert and
versatile users engage in, but more frequently. They may also share
ideas/reflections, make comments on other users’ profiles/photos, send
public messages, examine other users’ profiles and inform others about
products. They typically use the Internet and SNS more than once a
day for over an hour a week (Lorenzo-Romero, Constantinides &
Alarcon-del-Amo, 2012).
During the progression of the course, the facilitator will discover which
group individuals belong to through their use of (or lack thereof) online
resources and social media.
It is, therefore, important that trainers acknowledge that groups of
learners are diverse in the way they learn and should therefore include
activities that favour each of the styles and user group profiles (Kiley &
Coetzee, 2016). The activities should follow the sequence of the
experiential learning cycle, and trainers should avoid putting active
experimentation activities at the end without giving learners the
opportunity for feedback or discussion (MacKeracher, 2004:63).
Collaborative learning and using social networks for interactive discussions
should be considered for the reflective observation and active
experimentation learning components.
Learners belonging to Generation Y or the Millennial generation
(born between 1981–1996) place a great deal of value on experiential and
personal learning as well as using their peers and mentors for development
(Meister & Willyerd, 2010). Formal learning programmes (10 per cent)
and feedback from peers, mentors and coaches (20 per cent) are additional
important activities of the learning cycle (Meister & Willyerd, 2010). The
current generation, Generation Z (born after 1996) are the most educated
generation yet and are more likely to have at least one parent with a
university education (Parker & Igielnik, 2020). Generation Z learners have
extensive access to technology and generally have more technological
know-how than those conducting the training, are constantly connected,
and prefer learner-based learning that includes interactive methodologies
that are creative and diverse (Cilliers, 2017).
Although it is important to understanding how and why adults learn,
the fact that the purpose of workplace learning is essentially to make the
organisation more effective and efficient cannot be ignored.
7.4
The purpose of workplace learning
Both public and private organisations in South African face a number of
challenges that training, learning and development efforts can help to
resolve (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016). Workplace learning, and specifically
training and development, are the ways in which information is
communicated, knowledge is created and employees are provided with
skills in an organisation. Many studies of successful organisations
emphasise the importance of training and development (Goad, 2010: 3).
Some of the key reasons that organisations invest in education, training
and development are summarised in Table 7.4.
Table 7.4
The purpose of education, training and development in organisations
Solving performance problems
The primary reason for any learning intervention in an organisation is
to solve performance problems, including both current and future
performance problems, i.e. dealing with current shortcomings in
performance and avoiding future performance problems by preparing
employees for the implementation of new systems and processes.
Improving performance
Improving performance on all levels of the organisation by providing
the members of the organisation with the necessary knowledge, skills,
experience and attitudes to function effectively.
Orientation and induction of new employees
Training, learning and development are used to inform new employees
about the policies, procedures, processes and culture of the
organisation that they have joined.
Updating employee skills in workplaces that are becoming more complex
It is necessary to update employee skills in order to ensure that they
are up to date with the latest technologies and other changes in the
marketplace.
Development of managers
Preparing managers for promotion within the organisation that entails
their assuming new duties and responsibilities.
Avoiding managerial obsolescence
Keeping managers up to date with the latest processes and methods
that will allow them to function effectively, and ensuring that the
organisation stays up to date with the latest trends in the
marketplace.
Fulfilling the need for personal growth
People have a need for personal growth and development. Learning,
training and development play a significant role both in esteem needs
as well as enabling self-actualisation.
Addressing national skills shortages
Addressing national skills shortages by managing the quality of
occupationally-specific skills-based training, learning and
development, and assessment, in accordance with the national skills
development legislation.
Functional illiteracy
SA has high levels of functionally illiterate adults, requiring
organisations to implement programmes to improve the basic
numeracy and literacy skills of many of their employees.
Creating learning organisations
Creating organisations in which learning is a priority and where all
activities in the organisation are aimed at improvement, and staying
abreast of the latest developments in the workplace.
Enhancing team performance
For teams to function effectively their members need to be crosstrained so that they are able to perform one another’s jobs and
effectively support each other.
Fewer workers due to downsizing
Many organisations are downsizing due to economic reasons, with the
result that the remaining employees need to perform a wider range of
tasks, for which they require training.
Government interventions in the workplace
Governments may at times impact on the workplace by making laws
that require organisations to train their workers. An example is the
Skills Development Act (97 of 1998).
Covid-19’s impact on training and development
Face-to-face training and development has been replaced in many
instances by remote and multi-modal approaches that make extensive
use of online technologies.
SOURCE Based on Goad (2010); Grobler et al. (2006); Kiley & Coetzee (2016); Marinoni, van’t Land
& Jensen (2020); Swanson & Holton III (2009)
In order for the organisation to achieve these goals, workplace learning
needs to be approached in a systematic manner.
7.5
Conducting workplace learning in
a systematic manner
Like any other organisational function, it is essential that workplace
learning be approached in a systematic manner. This involves an approach
that is ordered and follows specific steps. The aim of a systematic approach
is to follow a logical, structured approach in the design and development of
training and learning programmes (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016). This should
not be confused with the systems approach to training, which views workbased learning and training as “a subsystem upon which an organization
depends for its progress and survival” (Atkins in Buckley & Caple, 2007:
28).
A systematic approach to workplace learning involves following the
five-step model illustrated in Figure 7.2. The first step is analysing the
performance problem within the organisation. To do this, it is essential to
answer three questions:
• What is the nature of the problem?
• How can the problem be resolved? Is training an appropriate response?
• If training is an appropriate response, what would be the most
appropriate approach?
Figure 7.2
A systematic approach to workplace learning
SOURCE Kiley & Coetzee (2016: 440)
Once the performance problem has been correctly analysed, the second
step involves designing the work-based learning intervention. At this
stage, it is important to ensure that the intervention is designed in such a
way that it addresses the problems identified in the analysis. Only then
does the actual delivery of the intervention take place. The technical
aspects of the different approaches and the skills of the trainer/facilitator
play a key role in the delivery of the intervention.
It then remains to determine the competence of the learners by means
of assessment, whereby the learner’s performance is measured against the
outcomes that have been set for the programme. Finally, the effectiveness
of the intervention is determined by evaluating the programme, which
entails measuring whether it has met the outcomes that were set, and how
efficiently this was done.
7.5.1
Analysing performance deficits
The reason for conducting an analysis in an organisation is to identify the
nature and causes of a gap in the organisation’s performance. Analysis
answers the questions, ‘what exists?’ and ‘what should exist?’ (Brethower,
1999: 274). The fundamental reason for conducting an analysis is that
systematic and thorough workplace diagnosis and documentation provide
the true basis for improving performance at the organisational, process and
worker levels (Swanson, 2007).
The analysis of performance problems within an organisation implies
the accurate diagnosis of actual and desired performance at the individual,
process, work-team and organisational levels of performance (Swanson,
2007). When conducting an analysis, it is important to view an
organisation as a system, as “an interrelated set of elements functioning as
a whole” (Griffin, 2003: 17). Performance thus occurs on a number of
interrelated levels in the organisation, and it is important that the analysis
includes both the nature of the performance problem as well as the level at
which it occurs within the organisation. The rationale for this is that a
problem that exists, for example, on the organisational level, such as an
unproductive culture, cannot be effectively addressed by an intervention
that takes place on the individual level, such as skills training (Kiley &
Coetzee, 2016).
A distinction can be made between performance on the organisational,
process, team and individual job/performer levels (see Table 7.5). On the
organisational level, questions are asked about the overall performance of
the organisation, which can involve variables such as organisational goals,
structure, culture and performance. The process level examines issues such
as the operation of key processes and the steps and jobs that are crucial to
operate these effectively. On the individual level, the analysis focuses on
whether the employee has the necessary competence, that is, knowledge,
skills and attitude to perform the job effectively (Rummler & Brache,
1995; Rummler, 1999). Swanson and Holton III (2009) add a further
dimension in the analysis of performance, on the team level, as modern
organisations rely heavily on the performance of teams and it is therefore
necessary to analyse both team performance and the dynamics of the
relationships between team members.
Table 7.5
Performance variables in an organisation
Levels of
performance
Goals
Design
Management
Organisational
level
Organisational
goals
Organisational
design
Organisational
management
Team level
Team goals
Team design
Team
management
Process
level
Process
goals
Process
design
Process
management
Individual
level
Job goals
Job
design
Job
management
SOURCE Based on Rummler & Brache (1995); Swanson & Holton III (2009)
7.5.1.1
Analysis techniques
The goal of an analysis process is to diagnose the true nature of a
performance problem together with the sources of the problem. This may
seem straightforward; however, the end results of an analysis often differ
significantly from the initial problem brought to the attention of the
human-resource function within the organisation (Kiley & Coetzee,
2016). As Peterson (1998: 6) points out, “[p]erhaps the number-one rule
in analysing training needs is to keep in mind that training is not
necessarily the answer to performance problems”. In fact, if training is
adopted too quickly to resolve organisational problems it may become part
of the problem.
Training needs analysis comprises three aspects:
• Developing a list of the tasks performed in a job.
• Verifying that these are a valid representation of that job.
• Analysing what a person needs to know and be able to do in order to
meet the performance standards of the job.
Employees in the particular job are then measured against the required
levels of workplace expertise. This form of analysis is normally conducted
for jobs that are fairly simplistic in nature as it ignores facts such as how
these tasks relate to the team or organisation.
A second technique is to analyse the work processes. This involves
using flow charts to create a map of the processes that are followed to
create the products or services that are delivered by the organisation. A
more complex version of this is a systems tasks analysis. The systems in
modern organisations are increasingly complex and abstract, hence the
organisation needs to be analysed as a complex system with multiple
relationships, as opposed to a linear process where one step is followed by
the next.
Most contemporary work comprises knowledge tasks, such as “work of
thinking, analyzing, and deciding, which is not visible” (Swanson, 2007:
218). Use is, therefore, often made of a knowledge task analysis. This
examines people-people and people-idea workplace expertise. Workplace
expertise is “… the level at which a person is able to perform within a
specialised realm of human activity” (Swanson, 2007: 125). One aspect of a
job analysis is determining the expertise that is required by the incumbent
to perform effectively in the specific job. Once the training manager or
practitioner has identified the expertise required to achieve the strategic
plan of the organisation, a skills audit can be conducted to measure the
collective skills and knowledge held by members of an organisation (Kiley
& Coetzee, 2016).
A skills audit contains three key aspects: first, setting up a picture/map
of the skills required by the organisation (which is a breakdown of the
skills currently required by the organisation in order to achieve its strategic
goals); second, identifying the skills that will be required in the future to
master new technologies and other changes in the organisation; and, third,
identifying the skills required by individual employees in order to perform
their jobs effectively, which will, in turn, allow them to achieve the skills
and objectives that are directly related to their jobs.
A list of skills is compiled, based on the organisation’s strategic plan.
This is then linked to the various posts within the organisation, including
the occupational profiles on the Organising Framework for Occupations
(OFO). An audit is then conducted to compare the employee’s current
level of skills to the required performance levels and skills levels specified
for an occupation in the OFO. This is particularly important in the South
African context as it is necessary in order to complete a workplace skills
plan and annual training report, which are required by the Skills
Development Act (97 of 1998); the Employment Equity Act (55 of 1998);
and the Employment Equity Amendment Act (47 of 2013).
7.5.1.2
Collection of the data required for an analysis
The four major methods available for data collection are questionnaires,
interviews, observations and unobtrusive measures. The choice of datacollection technique will depend on the type of data that needs to be
collected, the amount of time and money available and the personal
preferences of the analyst (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016). A key
recommendation in collecting data for an analysis is that it is preferable to
use more than one method to ensure validity. The key data-collection
methods are summarised in Table 7.6.
Table 7.6
Data-collection methods
Questionnaires
Questionnaires can make use of either open-ended questions (i.e.
without a specific answer) or close-ended questions that offer
respondents a number of specific answers. Some guidelines that
should be applied when writing effective questions are:
• Write simple, clear, short questions that are specific and precise.
• Use lists of skills, as opposed to asking questions like ‘What skills
do you have?’
• Language usage should be appropriate to the audience.
• Make sure the respondents will be able to answer the questions by
first testing the questionnaire first on a few respondents.
• Include one topic per question; do not ask double-barrelled
questions.
• Emphasise key words in the questions by highlighting them.
• Take care with sensitive questions that may offend (e.g. issues of
race and religion).
• Avoid biased or loaded questions where the desired answer is
obvious.
The main advantages of questionnaires is that a lot of information can
be collected quickly, it is fairly inexpensive and everyone answers
exactly the same questions. Disadvantages include that it is not
always clear that all the questions have been understood properly and
the level of the information acquired is fairly superficial.
Interviews
Interviews are conducted face to face and allow for the collection of
in-depth information. This is done by asking probing questions or
follow-up questions, such as:
Please explain …
Why do you say this?
When did you undergo the training?
What happened during the training?
The main advantages are that the interviewer can seek clarification on
issues, they provide an opportunity to build rapport and a wider range
of subjects can be addressed, such as unexpected issues that may
have arisen. Disadvantages are that interviewers may influence
interviewees; note taking may distract respondents; interviews are
expensive and time-consuming; and results are often difficult to
analyse if semi-structured or unstructured questions are used.
Focus groups
Focus groups are group interviews, whereby a number of employees
are interviewed together, for example, the members of a department.
Interviews are conducted in a group setting with the members of the
group free to interact and talk to one another. This is the main
advantage of this data-collection method. The main disadvantage is
that more powerful members of the group may dominate the others.
Observation
Observation is the process of observing employees on the job to see if
they have mastered the required skills. A broad distinction can be
made between two categories of observations, namely overt
observations, in which the employee is aware of being observed, and
covert observations, in which the employee is unaware of the
observation.
Advantages include that one can see if employees have the required
skills to perform the job. Disadvantages are that people often behave
differently if they are aware they are being observed and it is both
time-consuming and expensive.
Artefacts
Artefacts are examples of physical evidence that are a product of the
employee’s skills. An example is products that are produced by an
employee (e.g. bicycles), and the quality of a sample of these
products is analysed. A disadvantage is that not all jobs produce
tangible results, so this data-collection technique would not be
appropriate in a service-orientated environment.
Historical documents
Historical documents include company records, which are a useful
indicator of skill levels. In this case, the training manager may review
items such as complaints about service, reject records, accident
reports or any other records that relate directly to skills and their
implementation in the workplace. The main advantage is that
employees are not necessarily aware they are being analysed; the main
disadvantage is that these records were compiled for another purpose
and do not always contain all the data required.
SOURCE Based on Kiley & Coetzee (2016)
7.5.2
Designing learning interventions
Once the analysis has been conducted, it is necessary to design the learning
experience that will be provided by the employer. Various names are given
to this activity. However, the modern trend leans towards human resource
development (HRD), which is defined as “organised learning experiences
provided by employers within a specified period of time to improve
performance and/or promote personal growth” (Nadler & Nadler, 1994:
1). There are three broad development activities related to the field of
HRD: training, which relates to the performance of the current job;
education, which relates to the future job of the learner; and
development, which encompasses broad-based learning to empower the
person both as an employee and a member of society.
Swanson (2007) argues that if the following four performance
questions were asked when planning for performance-improvement
efforts, the role of the development functions in most organisations could
be changed radically:
• Will the individual perform better on the job after the intervention?
• Will the process perform better after the intervention?
• Will the work team perform better after the intervention?
• Will the organisation perform better after the intervention?
7.5.2.1
Specifying outcomes, goals and objectives
The first step in the design of a learning intervention, based on the
analysis, is to specify the end results of the intervention. Various
terminologies are applied in this regard. Objectives specify what the
learner must master through the intervention, or the “specific, short-term
statements of results that should be achieved” (Coetzee, 2013: 607). There
is a hierarchy of objectives, with main, or terminal objectives specifying
what the learners need to master by the end of the course. Supporting, or
enabling objectives are those smaller objectives that contribute to the
achievement of the main objectives (Carliner, 2003: 8).
The concept of outcomes has become particularly important in the
South African skills-development context. Outcomes are statements about
what specific knowledge, skills and attitudes the training or learning
programme aims to provide the learner with. Outcomes are generally
expressed in terms such as: “After this training or learning programme, the
learner will be able to …” (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016).
Learning outcomes can be organised into three broad categories,
namely, cognitive outcomes that focus on knowledge mastery; skills-based
outcomes that concern the development of motor or technical skills; and
affective outcomes, which include attitudes or beliefs that predispose a
person to behave in a certain way (Landy & Conte, 2004).
Adjectives are used in the formulation of outcomes. Bloom’s taxonomy
(see Figure 7.3) is often used to distinguish between outcomes with
different levels of difficulty.
Figure 7.3
Bloom’s taxonomy of performance updated by Anderson and Krathwohl
SOURCE Based on Krathwohl (2002)
The levels are defined as:
• Remembering: Retrieving, recognising and recalling relevant
knowledge and information from memory.
• Understanding: Constructing meaning from information by
interpreting, classifying, summarising, comparing and explaining this.
• Applying: Doing something using a particular procedure.
• Analysing: Breaking material down into its different parts and
explaining how these relate to one another.
• Evaluating: Making judgements about content using particular criteria
and standards.
• Creating: Putting parts/components together in order to devise
something new (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001).
The six cognitive processes listed above are based on knowledge; however,
there is a separate taxonomy of the types of knowledge used in cognition
(see Table 7.7).
Table 7.7
Taxonomy of types of knowledge used in cognition
Description
Types of knowledge
Factual
knowledge
Knowledge of terminology
Knowledge of specific details and elements.
Conceptual
knowledge
Knowledge of classifications and categories
Knowledge of principles and generalisations
Knowledge of theories, models and structures.
Procedural
knowledge
Knowledge of subject-specific skills and algorithms
Knowledge of subject-specific techniques and
methods
Knowledge of criteria for determining when to use
appropriate procedures.
Metacognitive
knowledge
Strategic knowledge
Knowledge about cognitive tasks, including
appropriate contextual and conditional knowledge
Self-knowledge.
SOURCE Armstrong (2016)
Once the outcomes have been determined, a strategy needs to be
developed to achieve them.
7.5.2.2
Developing an instructional plan
The instructional plan, also called a learning facilitation strategy, lesson
plan or a course map, is a detailed plan as to how a learning programme is
to be delivered. Instructional plans are a tool for keeping on track as you
develop materials and can be used as an overview by trainers (Piskurich,
2015).
There are no fixed rules about compiling an instructional plan.
However, the following are the key components that should generally be
included:
• The title of the training or learning programme.
• A course description that emphasises the overall goal of the training
programme, together with a brief description of what will be covered.
• A list of the learning outcomes that describe what the learner should
be able to do after the training programme, including the unit standard
if relevant.
• The length of the programme in terms of the number of sessions and
their duration.
• The training or learning facilitation methodology that will be used
both to deliver the content and to assess learners’ achievements.
• The audience for whom the programme is intended and the
appropriate group size for a presentation.
• Prerequisites and preparation required of the learners, such as
minimum experience or qualifications, and pre-course readings or
assignments.
• The instructional or learning facilitation support materials, such as lists
of the documents, equipment and media that will be used during the
training programme.
• Learner support services that will be provided and the roles and
responsibilities of both the trainer or learning facilitator and the
learner.
• Assessment of learner achievements, including formative and
summative assessment aspects.
• Quality assurance matters, including the moderation of learning
design, delivery and assessment.
• A reference list of the sources of materials, such as books that were
used to compile the programme, both to give credit and as a source of
additional information.
• Techniques or methods for evaluating the effectiveness of the training
or learning programme (Truman & Coetzee, 2013; Lawson, 2006;
Piskurich, 2015).
Part of designing the instructional plan is selecting the relevant methods
that will be used to deliver the learning in the workplace.
7.5.3
Delivering learning: Different training
methods
There are a number of general methods that can be selected to deliver
workplace learning. These include:
• Instructor-led classroom methods: These are essentially based away
from the workplace.
On-the-job methods: Use the workplace as an active learning
• environment, but also require competent trainers or facilitators.
• Self-instruction: Whereby the learner follows a structured programme
independently, usually with support from a trainer or facilitator.
• Technology-based training: Whereby computers and the Internet are
used to deliver learning in various formats.
• Job-performance aids: The specialised materials that are developed to
enable employees to perform their jobs more effectively.
• Training by documentation: Whereby learners are given technical
manuals, procedure documents, policies, operating instructions, and
the like, to read (Piskurich, 2015).
7.5.3.1
Instructor-led classroom methods
Classroom methods are the most widely used form of off-the-job training.
The role of the trainer can vary quite significantly depending on the
training method used (see Table 7.8). On one end of the continuum, the
trainer simply presents information to the learners with little or no
interaction. On the other end, the trainer acts as a facilitator, interacting
with learners in order to draw out their knowledge and ideas, and leads
them to particular outcomes (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016).
Table 7.8
Classroom training methods and their use
Method
Description
Use
Presentation
(by trainer)
One-way flow from
trainer to learners –
typically verbal with
visual aids.
Lectures and presentations
with:
Whiteboard
Overheads
PowerPoint slides
Videos.
Demonstration
One-way flow
‘showing’ as opposed
to ‘telling’ – uses
device or behaviour.
Showing ‘how to do it’ using
trainer, learner or device.
Tutorial
Two-way interchange
between trainer and
learner; learner exerts
some control and
instructor must
respond flexibly.
Learnerships/apprenticeships
Coaching
Structured tutorials
Technology-assisted
training.
Reading
Learner reads text at
own pace.
Textbooks, modules,
handouts
Web pages
Self-study modules.
Reflection
Learner examines
own performance and
experience.
Case studies
Experiential learning
Debriefing exercises and
games.
Presentation
(by learner)
Learner creates a
verbal product or
physical performance.
Learner demonstrates
knowledge of subject or
mastery of technique.
Construction
Learner creates a
tangible product.
Art, painting or sculpture
Model.
Discussion
Two-way interchange
between learners;
trainer initiates and
facilitates.
Seminar
Buzz groups
Small groups
Debate
Panel discussions.
Drill and
practice
Learner practises
skills repeatedly –
usually at own pace.
Memorisation drill
Language laboratory
Physical or cognitive skills.
Laboratory
Learner acts in ‘real’
Science experiments
Simulations
and games
environment with raw
materials.
Directly supervised
performance.
Learner acts in
artificial
environment.
Physical simulator
Computer-based simulator
Training games.
SOURCE Adapted from Molenda & Russell (2006)
The effective delivery of training in the classroom depends on the selection
of both an appropriate delivery method and the learning materials that are
used to support the delivery of learning.
Workplace-centred training methods
7.5.3.2
“Workplace training is informal training provided by experienced peers
and supervisors” (Kiley & Coetzee, 2013a: 175). This method takes place
while the employee is at work and is particularly popular for basic skills
training as well as management development. These methods also fall
along a continuum. One end of the continuum comprises unstructured onthe-job training, which tends to be fairly informal and without clear
objectives. The other end comprises structured on-the-job training, which
refers to “[t]he planned process of developing competence on units of work
by having an experienced employee train a novice employee at the work
setting or a location that closely resembles the work setting” (Jacobs, 2003:
29) (see Table 7.9).
Table 7.9
Workplace-based training approaches
Approach
Description
Orientation
training
Introducing new employees to the organisation by
explaining things such as behaviours, attitudes,
norms, culture and systems. Also referred to as
induction or socialisation.
Learnerships/
apprenticeships
Structured learning programme that leads to a
nationally recognised qualification on the NQF. This
is an integrated occupation-directed programme
that combines learning (a combination of skills
programmes that lead to a nationally recognised
qualification) at a training institution with practical
on-site experience and learning at the workplace.
On-the-job
training
Informal training by experienced peers and
supervisors that occurs on the job and during job
tasks.
Near-the-job
training
Training that duplicates the materials and
equipment used on the job, but takes place away
from the workplace.
Job rotation
A training method whereby employees are given the
opportunity to perform several different jobs in an
organisation.
Understudy
assignments
A training method whereby an employee
(understudy) relieves a senior executive of selected
responsibilities, thereby allowing them to learn
certain aspects of the executive’s job.
Coaching
A new employee is assigned to an experienced
employee, who is told to ‘show the new person the
ropes’. The experienced employee guides the less
skilled employee.
Mentoring
Similar to coaching, but here the mentor acts as an
advisor and role model for an employee. This is
particularly useful in management development.
Performance
appraisal
feedback
The supervisor meets with an employee to discuss
the strengths and weaknesses of their job
performance. Once the weaknesses have been
identified, the supervisor and employee can
determine which training methods would best help
the employee improve their job knowledge or skills.
SOURCE Kiley & Coetzee (2016: 451)
Distance education, training and learning
7.5.3.3
With advances in technology and increasing speeds of data transfer on the
Internet, together with the demands of modern life, distance education is
becoming ever more popular. At the same time, the Covid-19 pandemic
has both accelerated and intensified this process. Distance- and
technology-based programmes generally entail minimal direct involvement
of the trainer as learners are provided with resources, such as written or
electronic materials, that they complete at their own pace (see Table 7.10).
Some of the issues that need to be considered before adopting this
approach include the maturity of the learners, in the sense of whether they
can be expected to work independently; access to the necessary technology;
whether learners have the necessary levels of computer literacy; and an
organisational culture that encourages independent work.
Table 7.10
Distance- and technology-based approaches
Approach
Description
Correspondence
courses
Learners are provided with clearly defined lessons
that are supported by detailed learner guides. The
learner is normally assessed by means of
assignments that are submitted by post or email.
This approach is particularly useful for knowledgebased skills.
CD/DVD-based
training
programmes
The learner is provided with a CD/DVD that contains
a number of lessons that are normally interactive in
nature. The learner works though these at their own
pace.
Simulations
A computer simulates a real-life situation in cases
where it is dangerous or expensive to use real
equipment. An example is a flight simulator for
training pilots.
Internet-based
training
Web-based training is instruction delivered via the
Internet anywhere and anytime. There are two main
types – synchronous (i.e. instructor-facilitated) and
asynchronous (i.e. self-directed, self-paced).
Instruction is delivered by a combination of static
methods (e.g. learning portals, hyperlinked pages,
video tutorials, streaming audio/video and live web
broadcasts) and interactive methods, such as
threaded discussions, chats and desktop video
conferencing.
Computerbased training
Computer-based training services involve a student
learning by executing special training programmes
relating to their occupation on a computer.
Social learning
Learning that uses social networking and social
media to engage employees in work-integrated
learning that is participatory and engaging for
learners.
SOURCE Kiley & Coetzee (2016: 452)
7.5.3.4
Blended methods
Blended learning is a mixed approach to training where the trainer uses a
wide array of training methods including technology-based presentation
techniques, simulations, small-group methods, self-instruction, social
learning and on-the-job training where the strengths of face-to-face and
web-based or online/elearning are combined (Cascio & Aguinis, 2014;
Megele, 2015). The three key assumptions associated with blended
learning design are that it is, first, a thoughtful integration of face-to-face
and online learning; second, there is a fundamental rethinking of how a
course is designed to ensure optimal student engagement; and third,
traditional class contact hours are replaced and restructured using various
technological approaches (Garrison & Vaughan, 2007). Blended learning
combines the strengths of face-to-face and online learning. It allows the
trainer to use an array of training methods, which may include technologybased presentation techniques, simulation methods, small-group methods,
self-instruction and on-the-job training methods (Cascio & Aguinis,
2014).
Advances in technology allow for both synchronous learning, where
the learner and trainer meet face to face either in the classroom or online,
and asynchronous learning, which means non-simultaneous learning
sessions, whereby learners and trainers log in at different times to post
information and engage in discussions. These technologies include:
• Podcasts: Audio and video files that are hosted on the Internet, such
as iTunes and Windows Media Player.
• Web 2.0: The development of the World Wide Web to include
collaborative user-generated content and easier content creation
technologies, such as Google applications and various chat room
applications that run over the Internet as opposed to being
downloaded.
• Vlog: This stands for video blog: a short video or narrative posted on
the Internet for public viewing.
• Wiki: Web page that can be changed easily by anyone, developed to
encourage and ease collaboration between learners (Kiley & Coetzee,
2016).
• Gamification: Using elements of games, especially online electronic
games and different non-game contexts to enhance skills and
knowledge of the learner (Harper, 2020).
• Online meeting technologies: These include Zoom, Microsoft
Teams, and Blackboard Collaborate.
Due to the complex nature of their roles in the organisation, the
development of managers often requires blended learning approaches.
Example box
Developing managers and leaders
Large shares of training resources go into the training and development of managers because
they are considered to play such a central role in the success of an organisation. Managerial
skills are also abstract and difficult to learn (Riggio, 2012). There are three essential aspects
to ensure effective management development, namely defining what effective management
is; an emphasis on the activities that require managers to be effective, as opposed to the
knowledge necessary for action; and the identification of learning processes that are
effective for the individual or group, as opposed to economic or convenience considerations
(Gold, Thorpe & Mumford, 2010).
The following are some of the most common management/leadership training methods:
• Problem-solving case studies: Learners are presented with a written description of an
organisational problem that they are expected to resolve.
• Business games: Attempt to simulate complex organisational situations that are
intended to hone and develop problem-solving and decision-making skills.
• Role playing: Learners are required to act out a management scenario in order to
develop their abilities to handle difficult interpersonal situations.
• Conference or group discussions: Involve a structured type of training in which
participants are brought together to share ideas and information and solve specific
shared management problems.
• Action learning: Is a very complex method which consists of teams of employees who
are assembled to work on an actual company-related problem or issue such as developing
a new product or solving an organisational issue.
• The 360-degree feedback method: A manager’s performance is appraised by their peers,
subordinates and superiors.
• Mentoring: An experienced manager acts as role model for a younger, inexperienced
employee and helps the employee understand the requirements of the job.
• Coaching: Is typically a one-on-one relationship between a consultant and a key
executive or manager and is designed to help develop and improve the executive’s
professional performance.
• Behaviour modelling: Involves trainees imitating the behaviour of exceptional job
performers.
• Job rotation: Learners are exposed to different jobs and departments to help them get
acquainted with all facets of the organisation.
• Assessment centres: A range of procedures, such as role playing, business games, inbaskets and leaderless group discussions, which are used to assess man agement
competency.
SOURCE Riggio (2012); Schultz & Schultz (2010)
7.5.4
Delivering
workplace
interventions
learning
The effective delivery of any workplace learning intervention “does not
just depend on the selection of an appropriate delivery method, but also on
the expertise, techniques and learning materials used to support the
facilitation of learning” (Kiley & Coetzee, 2013a: 349). It is a reality that
however well designed any learning intervention is, if it is not delivered
effectively, it will fail.
7.5.4.1
Training versus facilitation
The person delivering the learning intervention performs the role on a
continuum that ranges from training, which involves presenting knowledge
to learners in a controlled environment, to facilitation, which has a
stronger focus on making learning possible by creating an environment
conducive to learning. In facilitation, the learner plays a much more
decisive role. The characteristics of the two roles are compared in Table
7.11.
Table 7.11
Comparing the roles of trainer and facilitator
Trainer
Facilitator
• Sets training needs to
be achieved by the
trainer.
• The trainer is the
expert who instructs
the learners.
• Concentrates on
knowledge, skills and
behaviours required to
perform well.
• Does not actively
encourage
participation, except
on specific issues.
• Asks fewer questions,
many of which are
leading or closed
questions.
• Is in control of the
learning experience
and often operates in
• Sets learning objectives in
consultation with the learners.
• Has a belief that the learners have a
vast reservoir of knowledge and
skills and it is the facilitators task to
bring these to the surface.
• Spends more time listening than
telling.
• Follows a learner-centred approach
that focuses on supporting the
learners’ achievement of their goals.
• Works hard to build rapport and
develop empathy with the learners.
• Asks many probing, explorative
questions.
• The facilitator sees him/herself in an
equal partnership with the learner.
• Shapes the process to suit the
learning process and the needs of
the learners.
• Actively seeks feedback on all
the controlling parent
mode.
• Uses detailed training
plans to ensure
consistency between
programmes.
• Discourages active
feedback, as the
process is owned by
the trainer, who is the
expert.
aspects of the learning process, as it
is the property of the learners.
SOURCE Based on Bee & Bee (1998); Bens (2017)
7.5.4.2
Materials that support the delivery of learning
Support materials are used to enhance the learning experience by
stimulating a wider range of the learners’ senses and involving them more
actively. These vary widely from technologically advanced aids, such as
computer simulations and PowerPoint presentations, to pieces of paper
used during a training game. Some of the key support materials that may
be used include:
• PowerPoint presentations: An electronic version of traditional
overhead transparencies that is fast becoming the standard in learning
support material used in a classroom context.
• Handouts: Printed sheets used to supplement training, such as preprinted handouts of PowerPoint presentations, outlines of games or
exercises and additional information such as chapters from books and
articles from journals.
• Flip charts: Used by the facilitator for recording the inputs of learners,
to illustrate diagrams or record key points.
• Whiteboards and chalk boards: Similar to flipcharts with the main
difference being that the information is lost when it is erased (although
there are now electronic whiteboards that allow one to print out
information).
• Videos: Can be used at any point in the delivery of a learning
programme. They serve as icebreakers, provide an introduction to a
topic, illustrate a particular outcome or function as a powerful
conclusion to a learning programme.
However, even the most well-designed workplace learning programme can
fail if it is not managed effectively.
INFORMATION BOX The latest learning and development
trends
Technology is playing an increasing role in all aspects of training and development, both in
the workplace as well as other educational and training contexts. Some of the trends that
you can expect include:
• Personalised learning driven by artificial intelligence (AI) that enables assessment of
learner needs and the creation of personalised learning content.
• The technology industry will play a leading role in training delivery. This is evidenced
through the increased use of virtual learning driven by HTML5, conferencing software (for
example, Zoom, Microsoft Teams and BlackBoard Collaborate Ultra) as well as the
increased availability of online training programmes.
• The upskilling of employees in IT and related skills will reduce the likelihood of them
becoming redundant due to the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) technologies.
• Continuous professional development will outpace the delivery of once-off training
programmes.
• There will be a greater focus on behavioural skills, also known as power skills, which will
be a priority for learners to maintain their competitive advantage.
• The learner’s experience will become paramount and training providers will need to
provide experiences that keep then involved and stimulated.
• With the continuing rapid changes in the world of work, organisations and the world in
general, there will be an increased focus on real-time solutions.
• There will be an increased blurring between private and professional lives with
technology-driven training and development taking place in just about any sphere of life.
• Training and development will be delivered through mobile devices.
SOURCE Gurchiek (2020); Harper (2020)
7.5.5
Managing the learning experience
As with any management process, it is critical that there is a sense of
accountability. As Wills (1998: 16) states, “[n]o process will work
efficiently unless somebody ‘owns’ or is accountable for the process”.
Table 7.12
Questions to ask when managing a training or learning programme
Who?
• Who is responsible for the training?
• Are trainers with the necessary skills and experience
available?
• Who are the stakeholders in the training programme?
(i.e., the people who have an interest in the success of
the programme)
• Has the target group been identified and defined?
• How many people need to be trained?
What?
• Is there a properly designed training programme?
• Are the necessary resources such as money, time,
equipment and venues available?
When?
• When will the training take place?
• What is the duration of the training programme?
Where?
• What venue will be used for the training? (And how
many locations will it require?)
• Will training take place in or outside the organisation?
• Will the training take place in the workplace or away
from the workplace?
• Where are the learners located? (Close together or widely
dispersed?)
Why?
• What is the goal of the training programme?
• What are the expected outcomes?
How?
• What training methods will be used?
• Will the training be on- or off-the-job?
SOURCE Kiley (2016: 455)
7.5.6
Assessment of learning
Assessment is “a structured process for obtaining evidence about a
learner’s competence to make a judgement of competence” (Truman &
Coetzee, 2013: 404). Assessment measures whether the learner has
mastered the knowledge, skills and attitudes specified by the outcomes of a
learning programme. An important distinction is made between formative
assessment, which is the ongoing assessment process throughout the
learning process aimed at providing the learner with feedback about their
progress, and summative assessment, which is conducted at the end of the
training programme and used to judge overall competence and success.
There are a number of assessment methods available, which are
summarised in Table 7.13.
Table 7.13
Examples of assessment methods and their purposes
Assessment
method
Description
Used to
measure/assess
Written tests
and exams
Comprise a range of different
types of questions that learners
are required to respond to in a
specified amount of time.
The recall and
application of
information
Cognitive skills,
such as analyses
or problem
solving.
Oral tests
The learner answers questions
orally, allowing for selfexpression and supports the
observation of tasks where
underlying knowledge and
understanding need to be
assessed.
The ability to
listen, interpret,
communicate
ideas and
sustain a
conversation.
Assignments
and projects
A problem-solving or
investigative exercise with clear
guidelines and a specified
Problem-solving
ability
Integrating
length.
information and
presenting it in
a structured
manner.
Case studies
A description of a real-life or
simulated situation accompanied
by a number of questions.
The ability to
analyse
situations
Drawing
conclusions
Deciding on
possible courses
of action.
Logbooks
A record of a learner’s progress
and achievements in the
workplace.
Used for
monitoring and
checking
activities and
recording
processes used
and
achievements.
Practical
demonstrations
The learner demonstrates
practical or behavioural skills
and is assessed either on how
the activity is carried out or the
end product.
Demonstration
of skills.
Portfolio
A collection of various types of
evidence relating to the work
being assessed; comprises a
variety of work samples.
Recognition of
prior learning
Long-term
activities that
are related
Used in cases
where direct
observation is
difficult.
Role play
The learner is presented with a
situation to which they have to
respond by assuming a particular
role.
Behavioural and
interpersonal
skills.
Simulations
A mirror representation of an
actual activity or condition
where it is not suitable or
possible to assess the learner
under actual conditions.
Actions under
safe conditions.
SOURCE Based on SAQA (2001)
Ethical reader
Making assessments fair
A key aspect in assessment is that it be fair. Cultural bias, described as “a given test is
inappropriate for a certain audience as it does not test the student’s actual knowledge of a
taught subject or includes details tied to a culture that the student is unfamiliar with”, is a
particular issue within the South African context (Williams, 1983).
Griffith University (n.d.) provides eight principles for designing good assessments in that
assessment instruments should be:
1 Fair: Provide all learners with an equal opportunity to demonstrate the extent of their
learning.
2 Appropriate: The type of assessment used must be suitable for what is being assessed,
that is, it is fit for purpose.
3 Valid: A valid assessment task will be a measure of a learner’s learning and not
something else.
4 Reliable: Refers to the accuracy and precision of measurement and, therefore, its
reproducibility.
5 Transparent: How clear the assessment expectations are for learners.
6 Authentic: Assessment tasks should be relevant and reflect what occurs in the workplace
beyond the training environment.
7 Manageable: Learners should not be overloaded.
8 Engaging: Learners will spend more time on an assessment task if it is something with
which they can actively engage.
7.5.7
Evaluating
the
effectiveness
workplace learning
of
Evaluation measures the effectiveness and efficiency of a workplace
learning intervention; in other words, how well the programme works and
how well it was designed and implemented. Evaluation can take place at
different times: before the intervention; during a learning intervention,
which is known as formative evaluation; and after the intervention, which
is known as summative evaluation (Kiley & Coetzee, 2013b). Evaluation
is therefore the systematic process of making judgements about the quality
of a training or learning programme or “… the systematic collection of
descriptive and judgmental information necessary to make effective
decisions related to the selection, adoption, value and modification of
various instructional activities” (Goldstein, 1986: 147; Goldstein & Ford,
2002: 138).
There are a number of models that focus on evaluating different
aspects of workplace learning interventions and these are discussed in the
following sections.
7.5.7.1
Evaluating the effectiveness of the learning experience:
Kirkpatrick’s hierarchy
Although Donald Kirkpatrick’s model was published in 1954, it still
remains one of the most influential models of evaluation. This model is
known as a hierarchy, as the different levels from which criterion data can
be collected to evaluate or measure training outcomes build upon one
another, with each level being more sophisticated and adding more value
(Kiley & Coetzee, 2013b).
The model provides a useful taxonomy that categorises training criteria
into four levels: Level 1: Reaction criteria, where the learners’ impressions
of, and satisfaction with, the learning intervention are measured.
Level 2: Learning criteria where learning is measured through various
assessments such as knowledge tests (this is where assessment and
evaluation overlap).
Level 3: Behavioural criteria indicate the degree to which learners have
transferred behaviours that they have been trained in to the workplace.
Level 4: Results criteria that focus on measures to determine the extent to
which a learning intervention has impacted on the overall effectiveness of
the organisation, including measuring productivity gains, increased
revenue, cost savings, error reductions or increased customer satisfaction.
7.5.7.2
Measuring the economic value of training: Phillips’s
return on investment
Phillips (1997) added a fifth level to Kirkpatrick’s model; return on
investment (ROI). ROI attempts to determine the return on invested
capital by dividing the expected benefits by the costs of the intervention.
ROI is expressed as a formula:
Both the direct and indirect costs of an intervention need to be considered.
Direct costs include expenses such as the salary of the trainer, cost of the
venue, printing of training materials, meals and refreshments, travelling,
accommodation and allowances. Indirect costs are more difficult to
determine and include expenses such as loss in production and the salaries
of learners while on training.
7.5.7.3
Evaluating the design and development of training:
Nadler’s model
Nadler’s approach considers evaluation as a continuous process: it should
be integrated into every part of the training and delivery process; each step
in the process should be evaluated before moving to the next step and it
emphasises formative evaluation. Illustrated in the questions below,
Nadler’s model focuses on evaluating the efficiency and effectiveness of the
design and development of each stage of a learning intervention. The
model comprises eight steps, with evaluation being central to each step of
the process.
Nadler’s critical events model considers formative evaluation as a
systematic process integrated into every part of the training and delivery
process. The efficiency and effectiveness of each of the eight stages
through which a learning intervention progresses is evaluated, namely:
1 Have the business needs related to the organisational strategy been
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
correctly identified?
Have the employee performance levels required to meet the business
needs been correctly identified?
Have the employees’ training needs been correctly identified in terms
of whether they meet the organisation’s needs?
Do the objectives and outcomes of the training programme link to the
shortcomings identified in the previous step?
Does the syllabus (summary of the content) cover the identified
outcomes?
Are the instructional strategies selected to deliver the content
appropriately?
Have the necessary instructional resources such as learner guides,
videos, and exercises been obtained?
Has the training been presented in such a way that the learners
successfully acquire the intended competencies?
Although the process involved in workplace learning is fairly universal
from country to country, the particular circumstances of individual
countries can have a strong impact on training, learning and development.
The next section discusses workplace learning in SA.
7.6
Workplace learning in the South
African context
South Africa is faced with a number of challenges that impact directly on
the delivery of training, learning and development. These include high
levels of poverty; high levels of inequality in education in terms of race,
gender and disability; national skills shortages and high levels of
unemployment (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016).
The Department of Labour (DOL) launched the National Skills
Development Strategy (NSDS) and the National Human Resource
Development Strategy and implemented legislation governing the
education and training of employees in South African workplaces
(RainbowSA, 2010). The vision of the NSDS is to contribute “… to
sustainable development of skills growth, development and equity of skills
development institutions by aligning their work and resources to the skills
needs for effective delivery and implementation” (Department of Labour,
2005: 9).
On a national level, the aim of the NSDS is to support growth,
enhance global competitiveness and compel employment equity. “At
enterprise level, it is all about people, productivity and profit: people in that
it supports personal development and career opportunities; productivity in
that people development is linked to enterprise strategy and builds a
smarter human-resource base; and profit in that increased productivity
leads to growth” (Hattingh, 2006: 2).
7.6.1
Training legislation in South Africa
South African organisations have to comply with a number of laws (acts)
aimed at achieving the objectives of the NSDS, including the National
Qualifications Framework Act (67 of 2008) and the Skills Development
Amendment Act (37 of 2008). These acts have major implications on how
workplaces manage their training and development functions.
7.6.1.1
The National Qualifications Framework
All qualifications in SA are required to be registered on the National
Qualifications Framework (NQF), a national system developed to
standardise the South African education and training system right from
Grade 1 to PhD level. The original eight-level NQF 1.0 was introduced in
1995 with the passing of the South African Qualifications Authority
(SAQA) Act (58 of 1995) and underwent a major revision in 2008 with
the implementation of the National Qualifications Framework Act (67 of
2008).
The NQF is based on the following principles:
• Integration: to ensure a unified approach to education and training
across different areas and levels of learning and between different
components of the learning delivery system.
• Relevance: to be responsive to national development needs.
• Credibility: to have international and national value and acceptance.
• Coherence: to work within a consistent framework of principles and
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
certification.
Flexibility: to allow for multiple pathways to the same learning ends.
Progression: to ensure that the framework of qualifications permits
individuals to move through the levels of national qualifications via
different combinations of learning programmes.
Standards: to be expressed in terms of a nationally agreed framework
and internationally acceptable outcomes.
Legitimacy: to provide for the participation of all national stakeholders
in the planning and co-ordination of learning end points.
Access: to provide ease of entry to appropriate levels of education and
training for all prospective learners in a manner that facilitates
progression.
Portability: to enable learners to transfer credits of qualifications from
one learning institution and/or employer to another.
Recognition of prior learning: to give credit to learning that has
already been acquired in different ways through assessment.
Every qualification on the NQF is registered on a specific NQF level from
one to ten to reflect progression in learning.
The NQF is based on outcomes-based education and training (or
learning) and applied competency, which focuses on what learners need to
be able to demonstrate at completion of a qualification. “The word
outcomes refers to everything that is learnt, including social and personal
skills, the activities of learning, how to learn and concepts, knowledge,
methodologies, values and attitudes” (Tshilonga-mulenzhe & Coetzee,
2013: 87). The outcomes for a qualification or part qualification (learning
units) are described in a unit standard. Unit standards are the building
blocks of qualifications. A unit standard is the smallest learning
achievement that can be credited to a learner on the NQF and is a
description of the evidence someone will be able to demonstrate of having
mastered a skill at a particular NQF level (RainbowSA, 2010).
As illustrated in Figure 7.4, the NQF 2.0 is organised into three
distinct sub-frameworks:
• The General and Further Education and Training Qualifications
Framework (GFETQF).
• The Higher Education Qualifications Framework (HEQF).
• The Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF).
• Figure 7.4 The structure of the NQF 2.0
SOURCE SAQA (2009)
The NQF has two broad goals: standard setting and quality assurance.
Standard setting involves designing agreed qualifications and their
components with the input of subject matter and educational experts.
Quality assurance is the ongoing process of monitoring learning (training)
design, delivery and assessment to ensure that training meets the
intentions of the designers and the changing needs of learners. Three
quality councils are responsible for this, one for each sub-framework of the
NQF:
• Umalusi, the quality council for general and further education for
schooling and vocational education (levels 1–4 of the NQF).
• The Higher Education and Training Quality Council, which is part
of the Council for Higher Education, is responsible for academic and
professional learning (levels 5–10 of the NQF).
• The Quality Council for Trades and Occupations (QCTO), which is
responsible for the development and registering of standards and
qualifications for trades and occupations and focuses on workplacebased learning (SAQA, 2009).
7.6.1.2
Developing skills in the workplace
Workplace learning in SA is governed by a number important acts, which
include:
• The Skills Development Act (97 of 1998)
• The Skills Development Levies Act (9 of 1999)
• The Skills Development Amendment Acts (31 of 2003) and (37 of
2008).
These acts aim to develop the skills of the South African workforce by:
• Increasing the levels of investment in education and training.
• Encouraging employers to use the work-place as an active learning
environment.
• Encouraging workers to participate in learnerships.
• Improving the employment prospects of previously disadvantaged
persons.
• Ensuring the quality of learning in and for the workplace.
• Helping work-seekers and retrenched workers find work.
• Helping employers find qualified employees.
• Providing and regulating employment services.
These goals are achieved through the establishment of an institutional and
financial framework that comprises a number of bodies and processes, the
most important being the following:
• The National Skills Authority: responsible for advising the minister
of labour on a national skills-development policy and a national skillsdevelopment strategy.
• The Skills Development Planning Unit: responsible for researching
and analysing the labour market in order to determine skillsdevelopment needs for SA.
• Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs): responsible for
the education, training and skills-development needs of employees in
different areas of the economy.
• Private-sector employers who employ 50 or more employees are
required by the Skills Development Levies Act (9 of 1999) to pay a
skills levy of the equivalent of 1 per cent of their payroll to the South
African Revenue Service. The skills levy is used for skills development.
•
•
•
•
They can claim 65 per cent of this levy by showing that they train their
workers by submitting workplace skills plans and annual training
reports to the relevant SETA.
The Skills Development Amendment Act (37 of 2008) makes
provision for structured learning programmes in order to aid the
development of learners in the workplace including learnerships,
apprenticeships, skills programmes and any other learning programme
that includes a structured work experience component.
The National Skills Fund: Addresses the training and development
needs of the unemployed or those who are difficult to employ. The aim
is to provide members of the community who lack skills that employers
require with such skills and to encourage self-employment by
providing entrepreneurial skills (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016).
Labour centres and Employment Services South Africa (ESSA):
Assists unemployed persons and helps employers find suitably qualified
employees.
Finally, the Skills Development Amendment Act (37 of 2008) has
facilitated the creation of Productivity South Africa that is responsible
for promoting a culture of productivity in workplaces.
7.6.1.3
The national Occupational Learning System
The DOL established the national Occupational Learning System (OLS)
to improve work-related (occupational) learning. The OLS was established
as a national tracking system that is used to report on the supply and
demand of skills for selected occupational groups in order to facilitate skilldevelopment interventions (DOL, 2008). The range of learning forms that
the OLS recognises is illustrated in Figure 7.5.
The OLS includes the Occupational Qualifications Framework (OQF)
(as a sub-framework of the NQF 2.0), the QCTO as a new standardssetting and quality-assurance body, as well as various innovations relating
to the management of learning in business and industry (Kiley & Coetzee,
2016).
The OQF is focused on providing a structure for designing, delivering
and assessing learning that is highly responsive to the demands of the
workplace illustrated in Figure 7.6 (Kiley & Coetzee, 2016).
Figure 7.5
Different forms of learning
SOURCE DOL (2008)
The OQF enhances the acquisition of occupation-specific, relevant skills
in a responsive OLS. Like other qualifications, an occupational
qualification is the achievement of a planned combination of learning
outcomes that meets the SAQA requirements for registration on the
NQF. The key difference is that an occupational qualification is intended
to provide learners with the applied competence to practise an occupation
(Kiley & Coetzee, 2016).
Figure 7.6
The structure of occupational qualifications
SOURCE DOL (2008)
Figure 7.7
The scope of occupational qualifications
SOURCE DOL (2008)
Within the OLS and OQF, illustrated in Figure 7.7, applied competence
is achieved through three components: knowledge and theory (general
knowledge and theory and specialised and occupational knowledge and
theory); practical skills; and work experience. Occupational qualifications
include full occupational qualifications, stage two qualifications, and workexperience qualifications. A combination of public and private skillsdevelopment providers and workplace providers can deliver different
aspects of these three types of occupational qualifications (Kiley &
Coetzee, 2016).
The OQF is independent from other professional and occupational
qualifications including qualifications leading to professional registration
that are subject to specific legislation (for example, qualifications required
by medical practitioners, engineers, industrial psychologists, architects and
town planners) and qualifications that include work-integrated learning.
These qualifications are registered on one of the other two sub-frameworks
(for example, BTech degrees and national diplomas for chiropractors,
radiology operators, nurses and surveyors).
7.7
Summary and reflection
Although a distinction is made between education, training and
development in workplace learning, all these strategies have the same aim:
developing employees to ensure that the organisation functions more
effectively to achieve its strategic goals, deliver better customer service or
produce high quality goods and services.
Learning in an organisation takes place on three distinct levels: namely,
the individual, the team and the organisational levels. While there is fairly
general agreement that learning results in a relatively permanent change in
behaviour, there are a number of different theories that attempt to explain
the process by which learning takes place. The fact that we work with
adults in organisations needs to be considered, as adults differ significantly
from children in the way they learn. At the same time, however, we need
to take cognisance of the fact that not all adults learn in the same way,
which is addressed through Kolb and Fry’s theory of learning styles.
The process of conducting workplace learning should take place in a
systematic manner. A comprehensive analysis first needs to be conducted
on the nature and sources of performance problems in the workplace. At
this stage, it is important to select an appropriate analysis technique that
focuses on the type of performance problem, as well as an appropriate
data-collection method to acquire the relevant data.
The next step in the process is designing an appropriate workplace
learning intervention that is directed by learning outcomes that define the
aim and purpose of the intervention. The increasing role of technology in
the delivery of training and development, as well as the degree to which
technology and change are impacting on the need for the rapid updating
and development of new skills cannot be ignored. Different training
methods are available and are specified in an instructional plan that guides
the delivery of the learning intervention. A choice can be made between
methods which are predominantly classroom-based, workplace-centred
training methods, distance learning and blended methods that combine
these methods.
In the delivery stage, the role of the person delivering the intervention
(depending on the nature of the intervention) may be that of a trainer, who
presents knowledge to learners in a controlled environment, or a facilitator,
who focuses on creating an environment that is conducive to learning and
in which the learner plays a much more active and decisive role. There are
also a wide range of materials and technologies available to support the
delivery of learning. It is critical that the delivery is managed effectively by
a responsible person, who is accountable for all aspects of the learning
intervention.
Learners need to be assessed to determine whether they have mastered
the knowledge, skills or attitudes specified by the outcomes of the learning
programme. Finally, the effectiveness and efficiency of the design, delivery
and impact of the workplace learning intervention needs to be evaluated to
ensure its quality.
Workplace learning faces a number of challenges in the South African
context. These include both the low skills levels and increased need for
competitiveness on a global level. These activities are governed by a
number of acts of legislation that are implemented by SAQA, which
manages the NQF, with which all qualifications in SA are registered. The
NQF is subdivided into three sub-frameworks, the GFETQF, the HEQF
and the OQF, which, in turn, each have their own governing bodies.
Assessment tasks
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Briefly explain the difference between education, training and
development.
Explain the key reasons why organisations embark on training
and development initiatives.
Explain why analysis is so important in the training and
development process.
Discuss the main differences between on-the-job, off-the-job
and management training methods?
Adults learn differently to children, with a number of key
principles that should be acknowledged when training them.
Briefly explain the six key principles of andragogy.
Explain the five key methods that are used to collect data for a
training needs analysis.
Briefly outline how new technologies can impact on training and
development in the workplace. Discuss the specific impact of two
new technologies of your choice.
8 Industrial psychologists play an important role in training and
development in organisations. Explain the key tasks of the
training and development professional in the organisation.
9 Discuss the importance of evaluation in measuring the
effectiveness of workplace learning programmes and how the
approaches of Nadler and Kirkpatrick differ in this regard.
10 Discuss how the workplace can be used as an active learning
environment.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
… is the system-wide application and transfer of behavioural
science knowledge to the planned development, improvement
and refinement of the strategies, structures and processes leading
to organisational effectiveness.
a Training
b Development
c Education
d Human resource development
e Organisational development
2 … is the fourth step in the systematic approach to workplace
training.
a Evaluation
b Analysis
c Delivery
d Design
e Assessment
3 A person with a dominant …… learning style tends to excel at
creating theoretical models.
a assimilator
b converger
c diverger
d accommodator
e facilitator
4 An assessment requires a learner seamstress to sew a skirt. This is
an example of the …… level of Bloom’s taxonomy.
1
a evaluating
b understanding
c creating
d analysis
e applying
5 … is a training method whereby the learner examines their
performance and experience.
a Drill and practice
b Reading
c Construction
d Reflection
e Tutoring
6 … aims to develop individuals’ knowledge, social understanding,
skills and intellectual capacity.
a Training
b Development
c Education
d Human resource development
e Organisational development
7 … is the second step in the systematic approach to workplace
training.
a Evaluation
b Analysis
c Delivery
d Design
e Assessment
8 According to Kirkpatrick’s model, you are evaluating
………….when you measure whether a training programme has
contributed to an organisations profitability.
a learning
b reaction
c results
d behaviour
e understanding
9 An assessment requires a learner to explain how a machine
works. This is an example of the …… level of Bloom’s
taxonomy.
a evaluation
b applying
c creating
d analysis
e understanding
10 … is a training method whereby employees are given the
opportunity to perform several different jobs in an organisation.
a On-the-job training
b Coaching
c Job rotation
d Near-the-job training
e Mentoring
CASE STUDY Workplace learning
Gauteng Stationery Supplies is a large organisation with over 200
employees that specialises in the supply of stationery to schools and
business organisations across SA. They have recently instituted a new
performance management system for their staff as the previous system
was poorly designed and did not achieve its goals. The previous
performance management system was also unpopular with employees as
it was subjective and poorly managed with the result that many of the
employees still harbour negative feelings about the value of performance
management in general. Management has thus realised that the staff will
require a formal training programme in order to implement the new
system effectively.
The outcomes of the training programme after the completion of
training are:
• Managers will be able to conduct performance management meetings
effectively.
• Managers will plan their interviews so that they take place within the
set deadlines.
• Managers and employees will understand how to complete the
•
•
•
•
relevant documentation.
Employees will be able to judge what evidence they need to present
to meet the different criteria.
Employees will understand the purpose of the performance
management process.
Management and employees will have a positive attitude towards the
performance management process.
Managers are able to develop appropriate interventions to address
performance deficits identified in their subordinates.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Questions
1. Briefly discuss the process that the HR development department
needs to follow to develop and deliver the programme.
2. Explain why conducting a training needs analysis is so important in
this instance and the tools that you would use.
3. Select an appropriate delivery method/s for each of these outcomes
motivating why this is the case for each.
4. What methods could you use to assess each of the outcomes
identified in the previous question?
5. How would you evaluate the success of the development of the
training intervention? Explain the approach you would use based on
one of the models.
6. A key outcome of the programme is that managers ‘are able to
develop appropriate interventions to address performance deficits’.
Managers in the organisation will, therefore, need to be developed in
order to empower them. Explain the nature of management
development.
Workplace motivation and
emotion
Jerome Kiley
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Define motivation and emotion and the critical concepts related to these
Distinguish between the different theories of motivation and their relative purposes
Discuss the practical application of various motivational strategies in the workplace
Discuss how employees are motivated in the workplace using multiple theories of
motivation
Explain the impact of emotion on motivation using different theories of emotion
Discuss the impact of culture on emotion
Critically analyse various motivational concepts for improving employee motivation.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Behavioural modification
Cognitive evaluation theory
Culture
Emotions
Equity theory
Extrinsic motivation
Goal setting
Instrinsic motivation
Job design
Mood
Motivation
Needs
Quality of work life
Self-efficacy
Temperament
8.1
Introduction
The study of motivation is closely linked to the study of psychology in that
it attempts to explain why humans behave the way they do; in other words,
what factors inside and outside people energise and direct their behaviour.
Motivation is defined as goal-directed behaviour, or those aspects that
push people towards certain behaviour and make them avoid other forms
of behaviour.
Emotions have an impact on motivation in the sense that they drive
behaviours. Emotions affect both the strength of motivation and the
appraisal process that triggers behaviour (Frijda, 2001; Kanfer, Frese &
Johnson, 2017). Emotions motivate people’s behavioural choices and their
intensity. Emotions cannot be separated from motivation and, in many
regards, these phenomena are one and the same, or at least complement
each other.
For the industrial and organisational (I-O) psychologist, knowledge of
motivational concepts and practical, motivational strategies is essential
because they relate to understanding diversity and individual differences in
and among employees, which impacts directly on the performance
management of employees. The increasingly remote technology-based
work environment poses unique challenges for motivating employees and
the quality of work-life (QWL) management.
The aim of this chapter is to explain the roles of motivation and
emotion in human behaviour, and the application and management of
motivational concepts and strategies in the workplace.
8.2
The nature of motivation
The concept of emotion is not a simple one, as Peter Drucker (in Spillane
& Martin, 2005: 42) stated: “We know nothing about motivation. All we
can do is write books about it.”
The term motivation is derived from the Latin word movere, which
means to move and refers to forces acting either on or within a person that
initiate behaviour. Motivation can be defined as “… a condition, usually an
internal one, that initiates, activates, or maintains an organism’s goaldirected behaviour” (Lefton & Brannon, 2006: 416). This definition
encompasses four key issues:
• Irrespective of whether motivation derives from an internal condition
or some complex drive, motivation is an internal condition that cannot
be directly observed.
• Motivation is inferred to be the link between external behaviour and
this internal drive.
• Motivation initiates, activates or maintains behaviour.
• Motivation leads to goal-directed behaviour (Lefton & Brannon, 2006:
416).
Motivation, therefore, refers to actions or events that activate, direct and
maintain behaviour. In the context of a work organisation, the term refers
to the desire and willingness of employees to achieve the organisation’s
goals.
The term motivation also refers to a group’s work performance, such as
departments and an organisation as a whole. In this regard, motivation
refers to morale or esprit de corps, which means the general feeling of
positivity and well-being, or “the spirit of the group that makes the
members want the group to succeed” (Bowles & Cooper, 2009: 2).
In the organisational context, management aims to motivate
competent individuals to join the organisation and, once employed, to stay
with the organisation, come to work regularly, perform at or above an
expected level of performance and exhibit good corporate citizenship.
Good corporate citizenship refers to employees doing more than just
following the rules; they should embrace the culture and values of the
organisation and go the extra mile in order to achieve business objectives.
At the same time, an employee’s motivation is affected by their
personality, attitudes and beliefs, life experiences, abilities and values, the
behaviour of management, the responses to the employee’s behaviour and
the structure and functioning of the organisation. Regarding differences
among employees, management and human resource experts must apply
diversity management. This entails considering all the possible differences
and factors that may influence work motivation and work performance.
8.2.1
Extrinsic versus intrinsic motivation
A distinction is made between internal and external motivational drivers.
Extrinsic motivation (that is external drivers) includes things such as
circumstances, situations or rewards that are perceived as a benefit and
thus result in behaviour being enacted or perpetuated; alternatively, they
are perceived as punishment resulting in particular behaviours being
avoided or completely extinguished. These benefits may be tangible, such
as money, physical rewards or prizes given to employees. Intangible
benefits, on the other hand, include things like recognition and praise,
which employees experience in how they are treated and managed.
On the other hand, and of greater importance, intrinsic motivation
(that is internal drivers) comprises behaviours that are a reward in
themselves as they result in feelings of satisfaction, achievement and
accomplishment. “People are said to be intrinsically motivated when they
engage in an activity for the sake of their interest, the challenge, or sheer
enjoyment (Kassin, 2006: 503).” In a South African (SA) study, it was
found that the characteristics of the job and non-monetary rewards, such
as supportive leadership, improve the intrinsic motivation and
commitment of employees (Nujjoo & Meyer, 2012). Similarly, work-role
fit and job enrichment (Rothmann & Welsh, 2013); enabling management
practices (Joubert & Roodt, 2011); and transformational leadership
(Bezuidenhout & Schultz, 2013) impact positively on employee
commitment.
Two current concepts in psychology that describe internal motivation
are flow and engagement. Flow (or flow experiences), first studied by
Cikszentmihalyi in 1990, refers to a person’s optimal experience or sheer
enjoyment of, and absorption in, work and the processes involved in
executing activities to complete tasks and achieve certain objectives
(Eisenberger et al., 2005). Engagement is more than just involvement and
refers to employees who feel a passionate involvement with their work and
workplaces, or with working towards achieving goals (Kahn, 1992;
Luthans & Peterson, 2002). A good example is the difference between an
employee performing a job that they are passionate about as opposed to
merely performing a job to get by. In the SA context, it is argued that
employees make the decision to stay in a position within the first six
months of being employed and that employee engagement often does not
occur because they are neglected after the initial hype of the recruitment
and onboarding process (Ardithpersad, 2016). At the same time, perceived
corporate reputation correlates positively with employee engagement
(Shirin & Kleyn, 2017) and students who are more engaged perform better
academically (Schreiber & Yu, 2016).
Figure 8.1
Motivated behaviour can be expressed in involvement and the enjoyment of
activities
SOURCE Pixabay
The next section deals with various motivational theories that are
important for the I-O psychologist to understand why employees behave
in specific ways and to understand which components should be included
in motivational and reward strategies.
Figure 8.2
Models of employee motivation
SOURCE Adapted from Kiley (2015)
8.3
Theories of motivation and their
applications
In psychology and I-O psychology, there are several motivational theories
that comprise different paradigms (or thinking caps) on motivation (see
also Chapter 2). The various theories can be seen as different explanations
of motivation and attempt to explain different aspects of motivation.
Figure 8.2 aims to place the various theories in perspective. However, as
you work through these, you will notice that some theories could easily fit
into two or more of the categories.
In the following sections (and when you read literature on motivation
and work motivation), the concepts shown in Figure 8.2 are discussed to
explain the various approaches to motivation.
8.3.1
Motivators
brought
into
organisation by the employee
the
Each employee brings several particular attributes and experiences into an
organisation that may be quite different from those of other employees.
These individual differences make employees unique and different and
may also influence the levels of employee motivation. The differences that
employees bring into the organisation include their unique physiological
and psychological make-up, individual experiences and distinctive talents
and abilities. In South Africa, it is necessary to consider the influence of
diverse cultural factors among employees and how these can influence
perceptions on work performance and work motivation. Employees from
different cultural backgrounds have very different world views in terms of
what constitutes a family, as well as the processes and ceremonies that
accompany becoming an adult, marriage and death. Failure to
acknowledge different perspectives and practices can be demotivating to
those involved.
8.3.1.1
Physiological needs: Homeostatic drive theory
The biological basis of motivation forms part of the cellular and
neurochemical areas of physiology. A physiological drive is determined by
certain tissue needs and is satisfied by the activation of brain hormones,
which leads to the release of hormones (Gorman, 2004: 14). One of the
best-known theories concerning physiological needs is the homeostatic
drive theory, first proposed by Hull in 1943 and developed by Spence in
1958 (McMorris, 2004). According to this theory, the human body aims
to maintain a balanced state, or homeostasis, through various physiological
mechanisms, for example, glandular and brain functions.
The main features of homeostasis are as follows:
• Each homeostatic mechanism has a set point that identifies the ideal
range for itself. For example, the human core body temperature is 37°.
• There is a corrective mechanism contained in the hypothalamus of the
brain that makes alterations when it detects a significant deviation
from the set point. For example, employees may take off some clothing
when they feel hot, or drink when they are thirsty.
• There is also a prospective element that helps people predict future
changes that may occur. People may, for example, act in the same ways
as they previously have to pre-empt expected future changes (Gorman,
2004: 18–19). For example, employees who sit near an airconditioning vent may bring a jersey to work as they are aware that
they will feel cold during the day. Another simple example is our desire
to sleep when we are tired. Our bodies need sleep to regenerate.
8.3.1.2
Personality differences
motivations
and
values
that
direct
Values are beliefs that have an emotional weight that develops through
experiences and cognitions. They are similar to needs in that they arouse,
direct and sustain behaviour. However, many needs are inborn, whereas
values are learnt through experience and cognitions. Values guide
behaviour, as they are the standards that people use to make the choices
that will satisfy specific needs (Latham, 2007).
The study of personality is becoming increasingly important in
explaining and predicting human performance (Latham, 2007). In a study
of purchasing behaviour, a list of 11 clusters of different personality types,
or trait clusters, which appear to explain human actions or behaviour, was
found (Hallward, 2004):
• Social, outgoing, extroverted
• Emotional, touching, sensitive, feeling
• Reserved, quiet, introverted
• Spontaneous, creative, impulsive
• Involving, consensus-oriented, harmonious
• Assertive, in control, decisive
• Independent, individualistic
• Selfless, giving
• Rational, practical, organised
• Conservative, traditional
• Progressive, innovative.
The majority of managers agree that personality impacts on employee
motivation; however, this is complex as there are thousands of personality
scales that measure personality in different ways (Haslam, 2007). Judge
and Ilies (2002) used a meta-analysis comparing the findings of over 2000
studies to examine how the Big Five personality traits (neuroticism,
extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness, and conscientiousness
- see Chapter 2) impacted on performance motivation. The key findings
were that neurotic individuals are usually poorly emotionally adjusted and
more likely to be anxious and depressed. Extroverted employees tend to be
outgoing, dominant, and have a positive outlook on life. Employees with
high scores for openness to experience tend to be unconventional in
nature, creative and curious. High scores for agreeableness are associated
with being kind, gentle, warm and trustworthy, while conscientious
individuals are thoughtful, reliable and achievement-oriented.
Different personality types would then be better suited to different
kinds of jobs, for example, extroverted persons make better managers,
persons open to experience do well in careers such as advertising. In
contrast, conscientious persons make good employees in general, however,
neurotic individuals often struggle to fit into organisations. Here remote
work can pose unique challenges given that many individuals may
experience increased feelings of isolation and aloneness.
8.3.1.3
Talents, abilities and motivation
The debate around how talents and abilities impact on motivation is quite
controversial. High levels of ability are often associated with high levels of
performance, but this is not always the case. The argument is that, more
often than not, people like to do what they are good at. In other words,
talented individuals tend to seek challenging tasks that make use of their
abilities. In order to make this a reality, there needs to be a nurturing
environment that challenges and supports the individual in place (Lens &
Rand, 2000). As Hayden (2002: 30) notes, “… if two equally motivated
and equally talented individuals start from unequal social positions, it is
likely that they will achieve unequal levels of wealth, income or powers of
office”.
8.3.2
Motivation
theories
focusing
on
organisational factors
As mentioned in Section 8.2, motivation is not only an internal condition.
Still, it may be directed or facilitated by external factors in the work or
other environments that influence employee commitment levels. The
theories in this section focus on the work context and how this should be
structured to enhance employee motivation.
8.3.2.1
Quality of work life
Rather than a specific theory, quality of work life (QWL) refers instead to
an approach to motivation. Through QWL, several researchers and
theorists have attempted to identify the factors that influence feelings of
well-being and satisfaction among employees (Kiley, 2015). These
approaches can be divided into two broad categories: the environmental
sculpting approach predominantly focuses on maintaining a healthy
physical work environment and the job sculpting approach focuses on
individual needs and job design (Steenkamp & Van Schoor, 2002).
Researchers have identified a number of factors that affect QWL in the
workplace, see information box, Factors that affect QWL in the workplace.
INFORMATION BOX Factors that affect QWL in the workplace
A number of factors that affect QWL in the workplace have been identified. These include:
• Adequate and fair compensation that meets the employee’s needs and is perceived to be
fair by the employee.
• Challenging work content that stimulates employees by using and developing their
capacities.
• The organisation provides opportunities for personal growth through training and
development.
• A physical working environment that is pleasant and attractive as well as healthy and
safe.
• An overall emphasis on employee welfare, in that the employees feel nurtured and cared
for.
• A culture that cultivates personal identity, equal treatment, a sense of belonging and
upward mobility.
• A democratic work environment in which employees have a say about the factors that
impact upon them, and in which their inputs are used and valued.
• An absence of unnecessary stress factors in the workplace.
• Opportunities for mobility, both upwards in the form of promotions and laterally between
•
•
•
different jobs and departments.
Healthy social and interpersonal relations that are encouraged and developed.
A fair degree of job security for employees.
A work environment that does not infringe excessively on the personal and family needs
of the employee and provides adequate leisure time (Wyatt & Wah, 2001).
SOURCE Wyatt & Wah (2001)
Kotzé (2004), a SA researcher, notes that there is not a universal definition
of QWL, but suggests a number of values that underlie this approach,
namely:
• Employees are treated with dignity and respect.
• Employees are invested in what they help to create.
• Employees want to learn and grow with the organisation
• It is vital that employees understand the organisational functions and
what the contribution of their efforts are to the whole.
• Employees who are treated as adults act more responsibly.
8.3.2.2
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
In his two-factor theory of motivation, Frederick Herzberg distinguished
between motivational and hygiene factors, as illustrated in Figure 8.3.
Herzberg argues that hygiene factors stem from a person’s “animal nature
– the built-in drive to avoid pain from the environment, plus all the
learned drives which became conditioned to the basic biological needs”.
Motivational factors (or motivators) “relate to the unique human
characteristic, the ability to achieve and, through achievement, to
experience psychological growth” (Herzberg, 1968: 57). Hygiene factors
are those related to work factors like remuneration and working conditions
which may result in job satisfaction if they are present and dissatisfaction if
they are absent. In contrast, motivators like recognition, support,
consideration and opportunities for growth result in increased levels of
performance. In the context of remote working, access to adequate
computer equipment, data and Internet speeds are examples of hygiene
factors, while motivational factors comprise issues such as management
assistance and acknowledgement.
Figure 8.3
Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation
SOURCE Kiley (2015: 126)
In the university environment, an example of hygiene factors include
things like administrative processes that are slow or copier machines and
printers that don’t work. These things frustrate and irritate you when they
do not work, but do not motivate you to study harder when they work
properly. The things that drive you to study hard are interesting and
challenging content, lecturers that are inspirational and recognition for
work well done, such as tests and assignments. These are what Herzberg
refers to as motivators.
8.3.2.3
Job design
The design of a job impacts directly on the degree of satisfaction that an
employee derives from the job (Kiley, 2015). The job characteristics model
of Hackman and Oldman (in Armstrong, 2009: 470) states that employee
motivation, job satisfaction and performance are influenced by
experiencing meaningful work.
Job rotation means allowing employees to work on different jobs in the
organisation. The advantages of job rotation are – especially in the case of
lower-level jobs – that the employee gains experience and skills, does not
become bored by constantly performing the same tasks, and the employee’s
feeling of being valued and invested in by the organisation increases. An
example of this is a policeman who is rotated between jobs such as guard
duty, working in the customer-service centre and patrolling on foot and in
a police car. Because of the wide range of skills and experience that it
develops in employees, job rotation also makes it easier to promote the
employee.
Job enlargement involves adding similar tasks that are at the same level
of difficulty and responsibility to a job. Employees are cross-trained to
perform a number of tasks that have the same level of difficulty. For
example, with job enlargement a bank teller may not only handle deposits
and withdrawals, but also gets the added responsibility of issuing foreign
exchange. The wider range of tasks can counteract boredom. However,
employers sometimes use this technique to increase the workload, which
employees may find unfair as opposed to challenging, interesting or
motivational.
Job enrichment involves giving the employee tasks that are more
complex and carry a greater level of responsibility and authority. This
facilitates the development of an employee as well as improving their
employment prospects. An example would be a clerk who is placed in
charge of a subordinate, or given the responsibility of managing a project
they are interested in. The aim is to maximise both the challenge and
interest of the work by creating jobs that have three characteristics,
namely:
• Creating a complete piece of work, in the sense that the employee is
involved in a complete set of tasks that result in a definable product.
• The employee is afforded as wide a scope in decision-making
responsibility, variety and control as possible.
• The employee receives direct feedback on how well the job is
performed (Armstrong, 2009).
With job enlargement and job enrichment, employees will often expect
increased remuneration. Should this not be the case, then these two
strategies may have the opposite effect and employees may find these
strategies demotivating (Kiley, 2015).
A more recent approach to job design is creating semi-autonomous
workgroups or self-managing teams (Arnold et al., 2005). Groups of
employees are assigned tasks and given the autonomy, resources and
authority to accomplish them on their own, with minimum management
involvement and interference. Management defines the goals, such as, for
example, designing a new training programme. The team is then
responsible for assigning responsibilities, work schedules, development and
recognition. In the university environment, group assignments are a
practical example of semi-autonomous work teams. You work together to
produce a product based on certain guidelines, but the process you follow
is your own.
Job design is generally a top-down process where organisations create
jobs and then select persons with the necessary skills, knowledge and
abilities, while job redesign is driven by management, who change aspects
of the job such as related roles or tasks (Tims & Bakker, 2010).
Job crafting is an alternative approach where employees are actively
involved in structuring both the level of job demands and required
resources in order to align these with their preferences, abilities, and
motivations. This enhances both the meaning of work and work-identity
(Demerouti, 2014; Lazazzara, Tims & de Gennaro, 2020).
8.3.3
Theories focusing on employee factors
In contrast to those discussed in the previous section, the following
theories focus on personal attributes, especially needs that employees may
have that must be satisfied to achieve optimum work motivation. A need is
an internal physical or psychological drive that creates a state of tension
and motivates and directs behaviour to ease the tension (Kiley, 2015).
Although there is some overlap with the previous theories, the focus in the
following sections is on theories concerning employee needs.
8.3.3.1
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Abraham Maslow developed his theory of human motivation during the
Great Depression in the 1930s. He based his theory on conclusions he
arrived at from working with people who came to him for assistance in
dealing with difficulties they were experiencing in their personal lives
(Latham, 2007). The model is known as a need hierarchy. Maslow’s theory
proposes that people are motivated by needs that are hierarchical, in that
needs at the bottom of the hierarchy must be satisfied before those higher
up can be fulfilled. Maslow’s focus was on the factors, beyond the most
basic survival needs, that drive human behaviour (Gorman, 2004: 58).
Maslow’s lower-order needs are essentially the same as the needs of
animals:
• Physiological needs relate to staying alive (the need for food, water and
shelter) and procreating (the need for sex). These needs are
experienced through physical drives such as hunger or thirst.
• Safety/security needs relate to physical safety (for example, jumping out
the way of a car) and psychological security (for example, taking a
steady job).
• Social needs relate to interaction and being with others.
Higher-order needs are unique to humans because of their more highly
developed brains:
• Ego needs relate to people’s desire for recognition of both their
achievements and of the fact that they are unique individuals. These
needs can be met through praise, recognition and actions that enhance
social status.
• Self-actualisation needs are an individual’s desires to achieve one’s full
potential.
Maslow (in Latham, 2007: 31) defines self-actualisation as “the desire for
self-fulfilment, namely, the tendency for him to become actualized in what
he is potentially”. Some of the personality characteristics that Maslow
associated with becoming self-actualised include:
• A greater understanding of new and uncertain life situations.
• The ability to react to changing circumstances.
• The acceptance of yourself and others for what they are.
• The ability to question existing norms, while not being deliberately
unconventional.
•
•
•
•
•
A concern for the welfare of others.
The ability to develop satisfying interpersonal relationships.
Being highly creative.
Having sound moral and ethical standards.
Possibly having a good sense of humour (Gorman, 2004: 59).
Maslow’s theory overlaps with that of Herzberg in that the lack of
fulfilment of lower-order needs leads to unhappiness and frustration. In
contrast, the achievement of ego- and self-actualisation needs drives the
person. Self-actualisation is not an end destination; it is something that the
individual strives for. The construct also differs between cultures with selfactualised persons exhibiting different characteristics. This was evidenced
in a PhD study by Kiley (2020) where it was found that Eurocentric scales
were not valid on a sample of SA students and it was necessary to develop
and validate a new scale for this group. This is because people from
different cultural backgrounds interpret and understand concepts
differently and have had different experiences.
There are four critical assumptions that underlie Maslow’s theory,
namely:
• The needs lower in the hierarchy need to be met before those higher
up can be fulfilled.
• Although these needs are present in all humans at all times, they are
also linked to development. One need may dominate at different stages
of development. For example, babies – and some new job entrants for
that matter – are more concerned with basic needs, whereas older
people are often more concerned with becoming self-actualised.
• The needs lower in the hierarchy are predominantly physiological,
while those higher up are more closely related to life experience.
• Personality differences also help explain why some people are capable
of achieving more than others (Gorman, 2004).
While Maslow’s model is still widely used today, it has been criticised as
being too simplistic. It is also argued that lower-order needs do not always
need to be satisfied before higher-order needs can be fulfilled (Kiley,
2015).
8.3.3.2
Alderfer’s ERG theory
According to Clayton Alderfer’s (1972) ERG theory, people have three
sets of needs, namely:
• Existence: Includes all material and physical desires that are required
to survive (for example, food, water, air, clothing, safety, physical love
and affection).
• Relatedness: Involves the need to have relationships in which feelings
and thoughts are shared, including feeling secure as a member of a
social group or family.
• Growth: The need to be productive and change oneself and thus
progress towards one’s ideal self. An individual satisfies this need by
using and developing their abilities.
An important principal of Alderfer’s theory is the frustration-regression
hypothesis which argues that if needs on the higher level are not satisfied,
the individual will focus on the lower levels, which are easier to satisfy.
ERG theory, as opposed to a hierarchy of needs, proposes that several
needs can operate at the same time. Alderfer argued that modern
individuals are motivated to satisfy both existence and growth needs
simultaneously. In the organisational context, this means that a manager
needs to recognise that their employees have many needs that coincide.
This implies that an organisation needs to simultaneously focus on
satisfying their employees’ existence (for example, adequate remuneration
and a healthy and safe environment), growth (for example, provide
training and promotion opportunities) and relatedness needs (for example,
build social connections).
8.3.3.3
McClelland’s needs theory
McClelland (1967) argued that motivational needs are learnt throughout
people’s lives from those who are influential, such as families and persons
that are respected.
His theory states that humans work to fulfil three basic internal needs
that influence behaviour. The three needs are: the need for affiliation
(NAff), as McClelland (1967: 346) states, “People clearly like interacting
with other people, and some like it more than others”; the need for
achievement (NAch), which is characterised by the desire to achieve goals
as effectively as possible; and the need for power (NPow), which is the
desire to control and influence others. Here, personalised power, which
involves exploiting and manipulating others, is distinguished from the
more positive socialised power which is channelled towards the
improvement of the organisation and society at large.
These needs become arranged in a hierarchy that differs from
individual to individual. In other words, one need is more dominant than
the others in each individual. An example of this is that effective managers
need to have reasonably high NAch and NPow and comparatively lower
Naff (McClelland, 1967).
The NAch is the most widely discussed and researched of these needs.
Societies in which the NAch is dominant tend to have higher levels of
productivity (Koestner & McClelland in Hodson, 2001). People with high
NAch tend to:
• Set achievable goals for themselves
• Seek to master tasks and gain a great deal of satisfaction from their
achievements
• Consistently strive to improve themselves
• Have a strong sense of initiative
• Enjoy assuming personal responsibility for tasks
• Place value on both personal and organisational growth.
Needs theories require I-O psychologists to be aware of differences
between individuals and groups and to adapt motivational strategies
accordingly. Examples are considering employee needs when appointing
employees, training and developing them, setting goals in performance
management, structuring remuneration, deciding on promotions, job
design and management style. However, most employees also tend to
regulate their work behaviour and set goals for themselves, which is the
topic of the next section.
8.3.4
Motivating people by
change in behaviours
facilitating
Whereas the groups of theories discussed in the previous sections focus on
individual and organisational factors that enhance motivation in general,
goal-setting theory and behaviour modification are concerned with
enhancing performance in relation to specific behaviours. These theories
focus on influencing a particular behaviour, as opposed to creating an
environment that enhances motivation.
8.3.4.1
Goal-setting theory
At the core of the goal-setting theory is the idea that “behaviour is
regulated by intentions” (Latham, 2007: 53). One of the most influential
management books based on goal-setting theory is The one minute manager
by Blanchard and Johnson (1983). Goal-setting theory is based on the
principle that employees are motivated by conscious goals that direct and
energise them (Blanchard & Johnson, 1983). Therefore, management
needs to set specific goals for employees; some employees also set personal
goals, the achievement of which is monitored and evaluated.
The three key propositions that underlie the goal-setting theory are:
• Specific goals lead to higher levels of performance than no goals or
abstract goals, such as ‘do the best you can’.
• Depending on the level of commitment, the higher the goal, the
higher the level of performance.
• Issues such as monetary incentives, participative decision-making,
feedback and knowledge of results affect performance only when
employees are committed to goals (Latham, 2007).
Goals should be mutually acceptable to the manager and employee,
implying that goals should be set by means of consultation. This is based
on the concept of ego investment, which holds that if employees are
involved in goal setting, the goals become a person’s goals, as opposed to
management’s goals (Kiley, 2015).
INFORMATION BOX Effective goal setting
The principles involved in setting effective goals are reflected in the concept known as
SMART, namely, that goals should be:
• Specific – goals should be restricted to a single result.
• Measurable – there should be specific criteria against which success can be measured.
• Achievable – goals should not be too difficult because this will make the employee avoid
them, nor too easy because they will be boring.
• Realistic – in terms of the employee’s abilities and the circumstances, such as time and
available resources.
• Time frame – goals should be linked to deadlines.
SOURCE Kiley (2015)
Self-efficacy (Section 8.3.5.3) plays a significant role in goal setting. When
the employee believes that they have the capacity to achieve goals, they are
more likely to do so (Locke & Latham, 2006).
8.3.4.2
Behaviour modification
Behavioural modification is governed by the law of effect, coined by the
behaviourist, Edward Thorndike, who stated that behaviours followed by a
positive outcome are more likely to be repeated, whereas those followed by
negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated (Gray & Bjorklund, 2018).
The emphasis is not on goals or the inner states of employees that drive
their actions, but the factors in the environment that will reinforce,
influence, control and change behaviour, which is important for employee
motivation (Robbins et al., 2009).
Figure 8.4
The consequences of behaviour
SOURCE Kiley (2015: 123)
As illustrated in Figure 8.4, the law of effect theory holds that employees
will repeat behaviours that are reinforced, and behaviours that are not
reinforced are less likely to be repeated. An essential requirement is that
the employee must either value the reward or experience the punishment
as negative. These can be either extrinsic rewards, that is, they are provided
by an external source, such as management or colleagues, for example,
financial reward or recognition, or intrinsic rewards, which is motivation
from within that the employee derives from doing the job itself, such as a
feeling of achievement (Steers, Porter & Bigley, 1996).
The following section deals with approaches that emphasise the idea
that a person’s beliefs influence motivation through comparison with
others and the value of the achieved outcomes.
8.3.5
Theories focusing on people’s beliefs
Beliefs imply that employees are rational, thinking beings and can make
decisions on how much work to do to achieve expected or desired results.
8.3.5.1
Expectancy theory
Expectancy theory was formulated by Victor Vroom, who argued that
people are rational beings who analyse the costs and benefits of possible
behaviours (Kassin, 2006). Expectancy is the belief that the individual
holds as to whether they will attain their desired goals. The employee must
believe that putting in a certain amount of effort will result in the
achievement of a desired goal. The reasoning is that employees are
motivated by the expected results of their actions, which include three
elements:
• Valence: Is the degree of satisfaction an employee anticipates they will
receive from a particular outcome, that is, how much the person values
the outcome.
• Instrumentality: Refers to the belief of the employee that their actions
will lead to the desired outcome, that is, if they are likely to be
successful with a certain amount of effort.
• Expectancy: Is the belief (probability) the individual holds as to
whether they will achieve their desired goal (Mullins, 2005). This is
primarily based on past experience as well as feedback from important
persons in their lives (Renko, Kroeck & Bullough, 2012).
Vroom (2005) expressed his theory through the following equation:
MF (motivational forces) = expectancy x instrumentality x valence.
Figure 8.5
Motivation and expectancy
SOURCE Kiley (2015: 121)
Expectancy theory can be translated into three key questions, illustrated in
Figure 8.5, that employees may ask themselves about their work situations
(Cook & Hunsacker, 2001):
• Does how hard an employee tries affect their performance (that is,
expectancy)? To have a motivational effect, the employee must believe
that their effort will influence the success or failure of a task.
• Are personal consequences linked to employee performance (that is,
instrumentality)? To be motivated, the employee must experience a
direct link between rewards or punishment and their effort.
• Does the employee value the consequences (that is, valence)? The
employee has to value the consequences of their behaviour.
In a study of promising entrepreneurs, Renko et al. (2012) found that
valence, instrumentality and expectancy were good predictors of the effort
put into the start-up process of a business and if an individual would
actually start a business.
8.3.5.2
Equity theory
People have a universal desire to be treated fairly, which is referred to as
the justice motive (Kanfer, Frese & Johnson, 2017). Equity theory states
that employees compare themselves to others and believe that they should
receive the same or similar rewards as those doing the same or a similar
job, under the same or similar circumstances. Employees compare the
rewards that they receive in the form of recognition, status, benefits,
money, promotion and allocation of job tasks with the amount of effort
that they expend.
Employees also make external comparisons, whereby they compare
their effort-performance-reward ratios to others doing comparable work.
Comparisons can be made on three levels, namely:
• Comparisons with other individuals, such as colleagues or friends.
• Comparisons with reference groups, for example, the employee
comparing their department with a similar department in the
organisation.
• Comparisons with general occupational classifications, whereby an
employee may compare themself with people performing the same or
similar jobs in other organisations (Cook & Hunsacker, 2001; Kanfer,
Frese & Johnson, 2017).
Equity theory is particularly important in the SA labour relations context,
as many labour disputes arise due to real or perceived inequalities. A
regular theme in news media reflects strikes and labour disputes arising
from employees believing that they are treated unfairly. This is often
concerning the perception that another group of employees, such as
management, earns huge salaries while ordinary employees struggle to
survive. In the university context, academics who perceived pay inequity
were less committed to their organisations (Buttner & Lowe, 2017).
8.3.5.3
Self-efficacy theory
A person’s beliefs about how competent they are have a major impact on
their levels of internal motivation. Self-efficacy refers to “the individual’s
estimate of their own ability to perform a specific task in a particular
situation” (Hellriegel & Slocum, 2003: 113). Persons with high levels of
self-efficacy believe: (i) that they have the necessary abilities; (ii) that they
are resourceful enough, in that they can summon the necessary effort and
energy required; and (iii) that they can overcome any obstacles in the
environment that may hinder their ability to achieve their goals.
Conversely, individuals who have low self-efficacy believe that it does not
matter how hard they try, as they believe they do not have the necessary
skills or abilities to be successful.
Self-efficacy theory is taken further with cognitive evaluation theory,
which, in a sense, looks at the aspects that impact on these perceptions.
In a recent South African study, Malebana and Swanepoel (2014)
found that students exposed to entrepreneurship education had a
significantly higher perception of entrepreneurial self-efficacy than those
who were not exposed to this. Self-efficacy is also important in an
academic context. Thomas (2011) found positive correlations between
ethnic identity and academic self-efficacy, that is, ethnic groups whose
academic self-efficacy was boosted by their family and school experiences
had higher levels of academic self-efficacy. Similarly, university students
with higher levels of perceived self-efficacy were generally happier and
more satisfied with life (van Zyl & Dhurup, 2017).
8.3.5.4
Cognitive evaluation theory
Cognitive evaluation theory was first proposed by Edward Deci in 1975.
This is a self-determination theory that centres on the idea that when a
behaviour is perceived to be self-determined, this drives intrinsic
motivation (Kanfer, Frese & Johnson, 2017). The theory argues that it is
not the objective characteristics of an event that determine its motivational
value, but instead the psychological meaning that an individual attaches to
this event (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Much like Herzberg’s two-factor theory,
cognitive evaluation theory maintains there are two types of motivational
systems. Intrinsic motivators are based on the actual performance on the
job, while extrinsic motivators are in the environment, such as working
conditions and money, which are controlled by others. People may be
more strongly motivated by one or the other system.
Cognitive evaluation theory is presented as four propositions:
• If an external event is perceived to have been caused by something
beyond an individual’s control, it undermines intrinsic motivation. In
contrast, if the individual believes this event is under their control, it
tends to enhance motivation. For example, if someone believes they’re
studying because of pressure from their parents, they will tend to be
less self-motivated. On the other hand, if they study to improve their
career prospects, they will be more self-motivated.
• External events affect motivation in that those events that enhance
people’s perceived competence strengthen their intrinsic motivation
and vice versa. For example, if employees do well on a work task they
would be more motivated, as they believe they are competent
employees. Events that influence or regulate behaviour have two
aspects that hold different degrees of importance to the same person at
other times, or may be important to different people. Informational
factors impact positively on one’s internal locus of control and
perceived competence, and thus enhance internal motivation. On the
other hand, the controlling aspect, or the degree by which an
individual believes that they are being controlled by external events
leads to either externally driven compliance or defiance, which impacts
negatively on internal levels of motivation.
• The demotivating aspect promotes perceived incompetence, which
undermines perceived competence. The relative, subjective importance
of each of these aspects will determine how much an event influences a
person’s level of motivation. An example is a student who performs
poorly (informational aspect) and believes that the lecturer is hostile
towards them and thus they have no control over their performance
(controlling aspect). This student, therefore, believes that they do not
have the competence to perform in the subject (demotivating aspect).
By contrast, another student who also performed badly discovers that
most students performed poorly in the first test (informational aspect),
discovers copies of previous test papers in the library (control aspect)
and is motivated to perform better in upcoming tests (motivating
aspect).
• Intrapersonal events differ in how significant they are for the person
who experiences them and, thus, how much impact they have. A
distinction is made between internally controlling events that drive a
person towards a specific outcome and events that demotivate the
individual. Thus, one student perceives the disappointment of not
passing a test as particularly demotivating and gives up his studies as he
feels that he has little control over things and cannot make a difference.
The second student simply perceives the same event as a setback that
must be overcome because they believe that they have the ability to
perform better in the future.
Therefore, one’s beliefs about oneself and events influence to what degree
a person is internally motivated. At the same time, the management of an
organisation also has a significant impact on the environment in which an
individual operates and can have a powerful influence on how employees
perceive events within the organisation.
8.3.6
Management-centred
motivation
theories
of
The focus of the theories discussed in this section is the approach followed
by the manager and how this influences employees’ motivational levels.
How managers perceive and interact with their employees influences their
levels of motivation.
8.3.6.1
McGregor’s theories X and Y and the self-fulfilling
prophecy
Douglas McGregor’s book, The human side of enterprise, first published in
1960, helped to launch “the human-relations movement” (McGregor,
2006: vii). McGregor’s theory marked a transition from 20th- to 21stcentury views of organisations. In the past, employees were regarded as a
cost that needed to be monitored and controlled, and work was seen as
needing to be segmented and industrially based. In contrast, people are
now viewed as assets that should be valued, and work is viewed as
collaborative and knowledge-based (Kochan, Orlikowski & Kutchner in
McGregor, 2006).
McGregor believed that managers have two broadly opposing
assumptions about employee behaviour, with the result that different
managers treat employees very differently (Hellriegel et al., 2008).
McGregor labelled these philosophies as Theory X and Theory Y,
summarised in Table 8.1.
Table 8.1
Theory X versus theory Y
Theory X
Theory Y
Managers believe that employees:
• are lazy
• avoid work and responsibility
where possible
• cannot be trusted
• need to be closely supervised
• need to be forced to work.
Managers believe that
employees:
• are ambitious
• enjoy work and want
responsibility
• gain satisfaction from doing
a good job
can be trusted to work
• independently.
SOURCE Kiley (2015: 127)
The assumptions made by managers about subordinates often become
self-fulfilling prophecies, which are predictions that directly or indirectly
cause themselves to become true. This is based on the premise that “if
[people] define these situations as real, they are real in their consequences”
(Janowitz in Craighead & Nemeroff, 2001: 862). In other words, if
managers believe employees to be lazy, responsibility-averse and
untrustworthy (Theory X), this tends to be the behaviour they get from
their employees. Similarly, if managers believe that their employees want
to work hard, embrace responsibility, act in a trustworthy manner and are
motivated by doing a good job (Theory Y), their employees are likely to
prove their beliefs to be true (Kiley, 2015).
For example, a manager has particular expectations about her
subordinates. If she believes in a particular employee she will tend to give
them more work. The behaviour of the manager is therefore impacted
upon by her own expectations of a specific employee. This, in turn, has
implications for the employee’s self-confidence and ability as they get more
practice and experience. The employee’s behaviour results in the
performance of the employee becoming consistent with her expectations.
The same process occurs with employees in whom she has less confidence
with the result that they will have less self-confidence (to do more work)
and gain less experience and therefore confirm the negative perception
held by the manager.
8.3.6.2
Facilitating and stimulating performance: Practical
management strategies
Many practical strategies can be used to motivate employees and these are
linked to the different theories and concepts of motivation in various ways.
One of the key factors influencing the level of motivation of employees is
the psychological contract, which is the unwritten agreement between the
individual and the organisation specifying what the two parties expect
from each other. The psychological contract is based on exchange theory,
which operates on the premise that organisations and their employees
engage in a reasonably predictable give-and-take relationship with each
other. The satisfaction of both parties is determined by the match in their
expectations. Employers expect certain levels of work competency and
work performance in exchange for paying a certain level of remuneration
and other benefits. In turn, employees expect certain working conditions
and the support to be able to comply with the employer’s expectations
concerning work performance (Ivancevich, Matteson & Konopaske, 2017).
Examples of psychological contracts are illustrated in the following
information box.
INFORMATION BOX Why implement a psychological contract?
One of the biggest headaches for CEOs is how to engage and align their people to achieve
their organisational strategies. Organisations can leverage the psychological contract to
increase employee commitment and performance. The term psychological contract refers to
the mutual expectations people have of one another in a relationship. These may change
over time. However, the fulfilment or breach of the contract has a significant impact on
feelings and behaviour.
Essentially, the psychological contract describes the expectations an employee has of the
organisation they work for and the expectations the organisation has of the employee. Every
organisation has a psychological contract, which, in most cases, is not clearly defined or
communicated, and often the words, even if articulated, are not fulfilled by management
actions.
Increasingly, organisations are making use of the psychological contract to clarify
understanding between employees and the company. An excellent example of this is that of
Sasol.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT AT SASOL
At Sasol, people matter. When we speak about people, we mean not only our more than 30
000 employees in the 33 countries in which we operate, but the tens of thousands of
contractors and suppliers who work with us daily, the communities in which we operate and
the customers we serve. In all that we do, we are grounded by our corporate values and
guided by our vision – to be a leading integrated global chemical and energy company,
proudly rooted in our South African heritage, delivering superior value to our stakeholders.
Our people are testimony to the integrated nature of our company - spanning a spectrum of
disciplines, functions and locations. We provide career opportunities to experience variety
through exposure in various facets of our integrated energy and chemicals value chain upstream (oil, gas and mining), mid- and downstream (chemicals and energy) as well as
marketing and sales, all supported by business functions. Our engaged, skilled and inspired
people are at the centre of our business excellence and delivering our growth aspirations.
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT AT OLD MUTUAL SOUTH AFRICA
Old Mutual, one of the largest financial services organisations in South Africa, has a different
psychological contract. The underlying assumption is that the company will create more
value and confidence for clients if its people provide outstanding solutions and services. By
showing commitment to people’s careers, Old Mutual inspires people to reciprocate through
greater commitment to their work and the quality of client service that they provide.
WHAT OLD MUTUAL EXPECTS FROM EMPLOYEES:
Do you have what it takes to work at Old Mutual? Ask yourself the following questions:
• Do you enjoy setting stretch targets and being measured for success and reward?
• Do you have lots of energy and drive?
• Are you consistently going the extra mile for your clients?
• Are you continuously investing in the development of your career?
• Are you always looking for opportunities to do things better, and be more innovative?
• Do you make use of technology to improve the way you work?
• Do you maintain integrity in everything you do?
• Are you transparent and respectful with people?
• Do you believe in and want to help build a great South Africa?
WHAT EMPLOYEES CAN EXPECT FROM OLD MUTUAL:
• Recognise and reward individuals’ contribution.
• Heritage, collective wisdom: Old Mutual has a diverse pool of talent with collective
knowledge, culture, systems and services gathered since 1845.
• Learning and development: Old Mutual invests heavily in developing its people; there are
many opportunities to develop skills and competence.
• Career opportunities: Old Mutual is a large and diverse company and there are a
multitude of opportunities to develop your career, and realise your talents and ambitions.
• Remuneration and benefits: A great selection of remuneration and benefit options and
fair reward for the effort and skill you bring to the company.
• Facilities: The Old Mutual Cape Town and Johannesburg offices have a broad range of
facilities, that is, shopping mall, gym, canteen, restaurants, medical suite, hairdresser,
post office, crèche and sporting facilities.
• Community involvement: You will be given the opportunity to positively impact your
place of work, colleagues, communities and shape the future of South Africa.
• Commitment to SA: Old Mutual is passionate about delivering value for clients, investing
in staff and communities, which makes a difference to the future of South Africa; we
have invested in local infrastructure and have an annual investment in education.
• Talented colleagues: Old Mutual grows talent and develops leaders and experts; our
knowledgeable people place us as the leading edge in the dynamic financial services
industry.
• Diversity: Old Mutual cultivates a work environment that embraces diversity and
inclusion.
• Part of the Old Mutual Emerging Markets Group: Old Mutual operates in 17 countries and
offers opportunities for international experience.
SOURCEs © Sasol – Used with Permission; Old Mutual (2017)
The following are some strategies that can be used to create mutually
acceptable psychological contracts between the employees and the
organisation:
• The organisation has and communicates a clear vision, mission and a
set of values that inspire and direct employees.
• Using value-based recruitment practices that use objective and fair
recruitment and selection methods to hire individuals who exhibit the
values of the organisation.
• Fair organisational policies that are consistently applied.
• Providing two-way communication channels that enable management
and employees to share ideas and voice concerns.
• Creating a sense of community-based participation and teamwork.
• Providing development opportunities through challenging jobs,
promotion opportunities and training, both on- and off-the-job.
• A commitment to ‘people-first values’, whereby people are valued more
than short-term profits and productivity.
• Recruiting and developing ‘right-kind’ managers who are competent
and exhibit the right kinds of organisational values and management
practices.
• Empowering employees by providing working conditions that help
them to feel competent and in control, both in the jobs that they
perform and in life in general (Cook & Hunsacker, 2001).
• Setting challenging goals that are specific, measurable, achievable,
realistic and have deadlines (see SMART, Section 8.3.4.1), and
providing regular feedback on these (Lunenburg, 2011).
• Paying salaries and benefits that are equitable and linked to
performance and merit (Gibson, et al., 2012).
Example box
Managing performance remotely
With the increasing focus on remote work due to the impact of the 4IR as well as the Covid19 pandemic, there is a greater emphasis on managing performance remotely. However, one
of the key challenges here is that this has been forced upon employees in many instances by
circumstance, rather than choice (Taboada & Musser, 2020). Some approaches to managing,
and therefore, motivating remote employees, include:
• Focus on the purpose of their jobs and the accompanying results, rather than how they
perform their jobs.
• Employees should be granted autonomy in the performance of their job tasks, that is,
they should not be micro-managed.
• Treat poor performers with compassion and understand that they may have challenges in
their personal lives.
•
•
•
•
Celebrate employee achievements. Just because employees are not in the office, it
doesn’t mean that their achievements are not recognised.
Provide employees with workloads that are manageable; they should be able to reap the
benefits of the work-life balance allowed by working from home.
Be flexible with deadlines, allowing employees sufficient time to perform their duties.
Performance metrics should be negotiated between employees and their managers.
SOURCE Compiled by the author from information in Taboada & Musser (2020)
In conclusion, the older theories (needs theories by Maslow and
McClelland, theories X and Y, Herzberg’s two-factor theory), and the
more contemporary theories (cognitive evaluation, goal setting, selfefficacy reinforcement, equity and expectancy) have practical value in the
performance management of employees. At the same time, the
information box, What motivates employees?, illustrates that, despite the
evolution in management theories over many years, motivating factors for
employees have more or less stayed the same.
INFORMATION BOX What motivates employees?
Even though the workplace has changed, the basics that motivate employees have generally
stayed the same. In a study conducted in 1953, Saltonstall identified a list of nine basic
motivating factors that individuals seek from their jobs, namely:
• Being generally satisfied with their jobs, their teams and the broader organisation.
• That they are doing something worthwhile, interesting, and varied and that they produce
useful products or services.
• Having competent and trustworthy leaders and managers who understand their needs and
stand up for them.
• Actively participating and having their views and opinions valued.
• Being recognised and respected, having their skills and ideas valued and getting credit
for the efforts.
• Earning a fair wage that is reasonable in relation to the level and importance of the job.
• Being given the opportunity to grow and being encouraged to work for promotion.
• A safe future with a job that is secure with safe working conditions.
• Open communication, being informed by management what is going on and where they
fit into the organisation.
• A pleasant work environment comprising good relations with fellow employees and the
necessary resources required to perform the job.
Different combinations of the strategies discussed in Section 8.3.6.2 can be
used to motivate employees. It is critical that a climate of creativity is
fostered and an open-minded approach is used to attract, stimulate and
retain skilled and talented employees (Mullins, 2005). This means that
management should continually look for new and dynamic strategies to
motivate employees.
Human-resource specialists, such as I-O psychologists, and employers
should consider the implications of these strategies with regard to diversity
factors (for example, cultural factors) in organisations and among workforces. This includes considering which approach will work best in
different situations for each employee, and the ethical impli-cations for
applying these concepts and their related practical applications in the
workplace.
What is clear from the literature is that motivation and emotion are
closely linked. People are motivated by their emotions and things that
motivate people often evoke strong emotions in them. Just think of socalled crimes of passion and how feelings of love and often hate may
sometimes drive your actions, or consider the emotional expressions of
satisfied and unsatisfied sports fans.
8.4
The nature of emotion
“The word emotion refers to a wide range of subjective states, such as love,
fear, sadness, and anger” (Lefton & Brannon, 2006: 440). Emotions are
the feeling aspect of cons-ciousness; they are characterised by a level of
physical arousal that may be translated into behaviour that communicates
these feelings to the outside world. It is now widely accepted that emotions
regulate, influence and even organise human behaviour. Subconscious
emotions mediate people’s attitudes, thinking and motivations; emotions
transform a person’s perceptions and experiences of products and services
and can build associa-tions with brands that people use or buy. In short,
emotions influence people’s disposition or internal orientations to do or
not do things (Hallward, 2004).
In the most basic sense, emotion is assessed as either being positive or
negative, in that it leads us to either approach or avoid someone or
something. This is a basic instinct shared by all living beings. People
decide if something is good or bad based on their value system. This is
based on experience, memories, instincts and cognitive evaluation
(Hallward, 2004).
Emotions drive people’s behaviours. However, much of what seems to
be important about emotions is internal and fundamentally private to
people. Emotions may be experienced without any externally visible sign or
obvious effect on behaviour (Hoyenga & Hoyenga, 1984). This has the
function of preparing and motivating people to react in specific ways.
Although people have some control in this process, this largely depends on
previous experiences and personal attributes.
8.4.1
Mood,
temperament
expression of emotions
and
the
A distinction is made between primary and secondary emotions. Primary
emotions, as illustrated in Figure 8.6, are those that have distinctive
physiological patterns and corresponding facial expressions. They tend to
be fairly universal in all people and are easily recognisable, for example,
love, joy, anger, fear, sadness, surprise and disgust. Conversely, secondary
emotions comprise the various blends of emotions that tend to be specific
to cultures and will differ from culture to culture (Wade & Tavris, 2006).
Cultural differences in emotional expression sometimes make it
challenging to recognise expected emotions in people. At the same time,
people can recog-nise sounds that express negative emotions, such as
expressions of disgust, across cultures. In contrast, positive emotions tend
to be culturally specific, except for laughter – which appears to be universal
(Walton, 2010).
Figure 8.6
Primary emotions are universally recognisable
SOURCE Shutterstock Nikulina Tatiana
Emotions are often expressed, which means that they have a physiological
component (for example, respiration, heart rate and body temperature), an
expressive component (facial display), an experiential component
(subjective feelings) and eventually a behavioural response, for example,
hugging, kissing or even hitting someone (Fredrickson, 2001; Hallward,
2004).
Mood and temperament are key concepts in the discussion of
emotions. Temperament refers to “… those dimensions of personality that
are largely genetic or constitutional in origin, exist in most ages and most
societies, show some consistency across situations and are relatively stable,
at least within the developmental eras” (Plomin in McCall, 1986: 17).
Temperament is thus a relatively stable and pervasive pattern of emotions
that are exhibited by an individual or group of individuals. An example
would be a highly active and enthusiastic manager who gets irritated with a
passive and slow-paced employee.
On the other hand, mood is a generic term denoting general feelings
that are the result of a specific situation. Mood is seen as “a pervasive and
sustained emotion that colours the person’s perceptions of the world.
Common examples of moods include depression, elation, anger and
anxiety” (DSM-IV TVR in First, Frances & Pincus, 2001: 185). Moods
are thus generally shorter in duration and linked to a specific occurrence, as
reflected by the question we often ask, what put you in such a bad/good
mood?
Empathy, the ability to understand the emotions of others, is a key
human characteristic in interpersonal relationships as well as in
organisations. The term has its roots in the German word einfuhlung,
which Theodore Lipps used to describe how people responded emotionally
to works of art. The translation of ein is one; fuhlung means feeling.
Empathy was first used as a reference to the state of oneness, whereby the
receiver experiences the same emotions as the target (Omdahl, 1995). It is
important that a manager can read and understand the emotions of their
subordinates in order to manage them effectively.
8.5
Theories of emotion
To a large extent, defining emotion depends on the theory used. A simple
definition is that emotions are “the experience of subjective feelings which
have a positive or negative value for the individual” (Stratton & Hayes in
Alder, 2000: 6).
There are essentially four explanations of how emotions arise:
• The view that emotions begin as a subjective feeling, such as fear or
happiness, which leads to physiological changes, such as increased
heart rate, then followed by the appropriate behaviour.
• The view that emotions begin with physiological changes, which, in
turn, lead to subjective feeling.
• The view that subjective feelings and physiological changes coincide.
• The view that emotions are the result of a complex interaction between
cognitive factors, the environment and the nervous system (Gorman,
2004: 6).
8.5.1
Physiological theories of emotion
The basic premise of physiological theories of emotion is that all emotions,
such as sadness, love, hate, anger and happiness, have a common
physiological basis. According to these theories, emotions are
predominantly controlled by the brain and expressed through the
sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous
system (Lefton & Brannon, 2006). The facial feedback hypothesis suggests
that by their actions, facial movements can create emotions by giving
feedback to the brain that offers an emotional response (Lefton &
Brannon, 2006: 440).
8.5.1.1
The James-Lange theory of emotion
In the 1880s, William James, an American psychologist, and Carl Lange, a
Danish physiologist, simultaneously proposed one of the earliest theories
of emotion. The James-Lange theory argues that “emotion is equal to the
pattern of physiological arousal that the person experiences during the
emotion” (Pastorino & Doyle-Portillo, 2009: 363).
They argue that an event in the environment leads to a physiological
change, which is interpreted as an emotion (see Figure 8.7). For example, a
student leaving campus one night notices that she is being followed. Her
heart starts to beat faster, her breathing becomes deeper and she begins to
shiver. She becomes aware of this and interprets this as fear that she is
about to be mugged.
Figure 8.7
The James-Lange theory of emotion
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Walter Cannon (1927) identified several problems with the James-Lange
theory, namely:
• People who experience different emotions may exhibit the same
physiological state, such as crying when either happy or sad.
Physiological changes are often too subtle to be noticed by the person
• (having the experience) to be used as cues.
• Emotions occur very quickly, while the physiological changes are often
too slow to be a source of these. The question here would be whether
you first cry and then feel sad, or do you first feel sad and then cry at
times?
• Physiological arousal may occur without the experience of an emotion,
such as during exercise, when your heart rate increases with no
accompanied emotional significance.
8.5.1.2
The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
In the 1930s, Walter Cannon and Phillip Bard made use of information
about human physiology not available to James and Lange. They proposed
that emotion originates in the thalamus, the section of the brain that
simultaneously relays messages from the sensory organs. The thalamus
controls physiological arousal, the skeletal muscles, which control motor
behaviour and the cerebral cortex, which controls conscious thought. The
Cannon-Bard theory thus argues that the body and mind are activated
independently in the experience of emotion (see Figure 8.8).
Figure 8.8
The emotional process according to the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
SOURCE Compiled by the author
8.5.2
Evolutionary theories of emotion
Evolutionary psychologists argue that the mind was designed to solve
problems encountered by our ancestors and that emotions serve an
adaptive purpose. In other words, emotions help people adapt to their
environments and survive. The roots of this approach lie in the writings of
Charles Darwin. In 1871, Darwin published The Descent of Man, a book in
which he argued that emotional expressions are common to all cultures
and, therefore, emotions are inherited, as opposed to learnt. He argued
that emotions are elementary evidence of behaviours inherited from our
ancestors (Workman & Reader, 2004).
In 1952, Paul MacLean published his theory of the triune brain which
argued that emotions are located in the primitive paleomammalian
structures of the brain. In contrast, higher cognitive activities take place in
the more recently evolved neomammalian structures (see Figure 8.9).
Emotions are protective mechanisms vital for survival. For example, fear
enables us to understand danger, while affection and love ensure the
survival of the species through attraction (Stich & Warfield, 2003).
Figure 8.9
MacLean’s triune brain theory
SOURCE Compiled by the author
8.5.3
Theories of emotion
cognitive appraisal
based
on
Cognitive appraisal theories of emotion attempt to explain how rational
judgements cause people to experience different emotional states
(Cropanzano et al., 2000). The basic argument is illustrated by the
following example. Two policemen who are being shot at by a burglar
experience the same levels and types of physiological arousal. However,
due to their cognitive interpretations, one may interpret this arousal as
fear, and the other may interpret it as excitement. Key cognitive appraisal
theories include Schachter and Singer’s two-factor theory, and the theories
of Arnold and Lazarus, which are discussed in the following sections.
8.5.3.1
The two-factor theory of emotion
Schachter and Singer’s (1962) theory argues that emotional states are a
function of two factors, namely physiological arousal and a cognition
(thought) suitable to this arousal. The theory states that when a person
experiences physiological arousal for which there is no immediate
explanation, they will label this according to the cognitions/understandings
available to them of what the causes of the experience are. For example,
the same state of physiological arousal could be labelled joy, fury, jealousy
or any one of a great diversity of emotional states. A manager will have
expectations of her subordinates. She will have positive expectations about
a skilled employee and will, therefore, give the employee more
responsibilities. The manager’s behaviour is affected by her expectations
about the employee. This, in turn, impacts upon his self-confidence and
ability because he gets to do more and gains more experience. This leads to
the employee’s behaviour becoming the same as the expectations consistent
with the expectations of the manager and a self-fulfilling prophecy has
thus occurred. It is dependent on how the individual interprets the
situation (Schachter & Singer, 1962: 398).
Figure 8.10
The emotional process according to Schachter & Singer’s two-factor theory of
emotion
SOURCE Compiled by the author
In an attempt to prove their theory, Schachter and Singer conducted an
important if somewhat controversial, experiment discussed in the
following box.
Ethical reader
Schachter and Singer’s experiment
To prove their theoretical claims, Schachter and Singer (1962) conducted an experiment that
would be ethically unjustifiable in today’s world. They gathered a group of volunteers who
were told that they were participants in a vitamin supplement trial called Suproxin. What
they were actually injected with was either the drug epinephrine or a placebo (a simulated
intervention that has no medical effect). Epinephrine, also known as adrenaline, is released
by our hormonal system whenever we face a stressful situation. It leads to physiological
arousal in the form of increased blood pressure, heart rate and respiration.
The justification was that once the epinephrine began to take effect, the subjects would
begin to search for the cause of their arousal. Some of the epinephrine-injected subjects
were told that even though the drug was not harmful, they could expect some common side
effects, such as feeling flushed, shaking hands and pounding hearts. The second group of
subjects were given no information about the effects of the drug. Those subjects who were
informed that the drug would arouse them should have assumed that the drug was causing
their hands to shake and their hearts to pound. However, it was assumed that the subjects
who were not warned about the drug’s effects would be more likely to interpret their arousal
as an emotion.
Schachter and Singer believed that the type of emotion the subjects experienced would
depend on the available situational cues. To test this idea, they manipulated this variable by
arranging for their subjects to wait for the drug’s effects in a small room together with
another person, who was their confederate. The confederate was trained to behave in either
a euphoric (that is, excited) or angry manner. The euphoric confederate clowned around
during the 20 minutes doing things like doodling on scratch paper, playing a game of
basketball with balls of paper, making and flying a paper plane, building a tower out of file
folders and playing with a hula hoop. In contrast, the angry confederate became increasingly
agitated during the 20 minutes. The subjects were required to complete questionnaires that
contained very personal questions. While completing the questionnaires, the confederate
loudly criticised questions that requested information about childhood diseases, father’s
income, family members’ bathing habits and psychiatric adjustment. Finally, the confederate
flew into a rage at the question ‘How many times each week do you have sexual intercourse?’
Each subject’s actions were observed and coded, and they were also asked to describe
their emotional state. As predicted, the physiologically aroused subjects who hadn’t been
informed about the drug’s side effects responded with emotions that matched the
confederate’s actions. They either felt happy when their fellow subject was happy, or angry
when their fellow subject was angry. By contrast, the subjects who had been forewarned and
the unaroused subjects who had received the placebo did not display any pronounced
emotion.
SOURCE Compiled by the author from information in Schachter & Singer (1962)
8.5.3.2
Arnold and Lazarus’s theory
Magda Arnold, who become famous for her excitatory theory of emotion
in the 1960s, defined emotions as “a felt tendency towards anything
appraised as good, and away from anything appraised as bad” (Schorr,
2001: 21). She argued that the initial appraisal started the sequence and
produced both the appropriate actions together with the emotional
experience itself. The physiological changes accompany the emotions, but
are not responsible for these.
Richard Lazarus’s cognitive-meditational theory sees emotions as being
“constantly in a state of flux” as emotional reactions are affected by the
interaction between emotion-eliciting conditions and coping processes.
Lazarus identified two major types of appraisals (see Figure 8.11); primary
appraisal, which aims to establish the significance or meaning of the event
to the person; and secondary appraisal, by which the person judges their
ability to cope with the event. He argued there were two types of coping
processes; direct actions aimed at changing the relationship with the
environment and cognitive reappraisal processes, which allow emotional
reactions to be either aroused or reduced (Lazarus, 2001).
Figure 8.11
Lazarus’s cognitive-meditational theory
SOURCE Compiled by the author
To understand the approaches taken by the different theories of emotion,
we need to take the period in history when each theory was postulated into
account because this influenced the prevailing scientific methods as well as
the theorists who proposed them. Table 8.2 provides a summary of the
different theories on emotion and illustrates the similarities and differences
between them.
Table 8.2
Theory
Comparison of the different types of theories of emotion
Main
theorists
Role of
physiology
Role of
cognition
Role of the
situation
Physiological Theories
JamesLange
theory
William
James
(1884)
and Carl
Lange
(1922)
You become
physiologically
aroused and
then interpret
the events
associated with
this.
Bodily arousal
is interpreted
as emotion.
Not relevant.
CannonBard
theory
Walter
Cannon
(1871–
1945)
and
Phillip
Bard
(1898–
1977)
(1960s)
Physiological
arousal and its
interpretation
occur
simultaneously.
Physiological
arousals are
given meaning
through
cognition that
occurs
simultaneously.
Not relevant.
Emotions are
inherited and
contained in
primitive brain
structures.
Higher
cognitive
structures play
little or no
role.
Emotions are
inherited
survival
mechanisms
that help the
individual
survive
Evolutionary Theories
Emotion
Charles
Darwin
(1871)
particular
situations.
Triune
brain
theory
Paul
MacLean
(1952)
Emotions are
located in the
primitive
paleomammalian
structures of
the brain.
Higher
cognitive
activities take
place in the
more recently
evolved neomammalian
structures.
A particular
situation
brings
appropriate
emotional
programmes
forward.
Cognitive theories
Twofactory
theory
Schacter
and
Singer
(1962)
Physiological
arousal is only
regarded as an
emotion when
interpreted
cognitively.
The cognitive
label
determines
what emotion
is experienced.
The situation
is the key
factor that
determines
how the
physiological
arousal is
interpreted.
Cognitive
appraisal
Magda
Arnold
and
Richard
Lazarus
(1960s)
Cognition is
more important
than the
physiological
arousal.
Emotions are
affected by the
cognitive
appraisal of
the situation.
A situation
needs to be
appraised
before
emotions are
experienced.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
8.6
Culture and emotion
Emotions are part of culture and critical to understanding how people
shape and are shaped by their world. Emotions are shaped through
discourse, that is, they are produced in language and through human
interaction, and certain emotions cannot be understood outside the culture
in which they were formed (Scheeper-Hughes, 1992).
Emotions provide the main support for many social norms, for
example, we are passionate about aspects of our culture. Not all cultures
recognise or conceptualise the same emotions, and when an emotion is
linked to a social norm in a particular culture, there may be a frequent
occurrence of that emotion in the specific culture (Elster, 2000). Some
examples of emotions that are unique to particular cultures are in the
following information box.
INFORMATION BOX Cultural-specific emotions
Positive feelings, often dependent on particular circumstances, include:
• Shinrin-yoku (Japanese) – the relaxation gained from bathing in the forest, figuratively
or literally.
• Gigil (Tagalog) – the irresistible urge to pinch or squeeze someone because they are
loved or cherished.
• Yuan bei (Chinese) – a sense of complete and perfect accomplishment.
• Iktsuarpok (Inuit) – the anticipation one feels when waiting for someone, whereby one
keeps going outside to check if they have arrived.
Others representing more complex and bittersweet experiences:
• Natsukashii (Japanese) – a nostalgic longing for the past, with happiness for the fond
memory, yet sadness that it is no longer.
• Wabi-sabi (Japanese) – a ‘dark, desolate sublimity’, centred on transience and
imperfection in beauty.
• Saudade (Portuguese) – a melancholic longing or nostalgia for a person, place or thing
that is far away either spatially or in time; a vague, dreaming wistfulness for phenomena
that may not even exist.
• Sehnsucht (German) – ‘life-longings’, an intense desire for alternative states and
realisations of life, even if they are unattainable.
SOURCE Lomas (2017)
Examples from the African context include Guerts (2002), who observed
that the Anlo people of West Africa have a sensation-related word,
seselaelame, best translated as ‘feel-feel-at-flesh-inside’, which refers to a
culturally elaborated way of simultaneously attending to one’s body and
orienting to objects and the environment. Dzokoto (2010) also identified
interesting cultural differences in emotions in that she found that
Ghanaian participants paid more attention to their bodies and less to
emotions than American participants.
Anderson and Kanyana (1996) found that African cultures often
attributed negative events to discontented ancestors and evil spirits. In a
study of five African nations, South Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania and
Zimbabwe, Kim-Prie and Eid (2004) discovered that the more
collectivistic African nations found guilt more desirable and pride less
desirable than the less collectivistic African nations, while Africa-specific
norms for emotions included a large class of people who found all negative
emotions undesirable. Emotions are also expressed differently within
African culture with the expression of pain (both emotional and physical)
being discouraged in Sepedi and Sesotho cultures, especially among men
(Nortjé & Albertyn, 2015).
Last, emotions are also associated with effective intellectual
functioning, such as the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) (see also
Chapters 6 and 12). Briefly, EI refers to “the ability to monitor one’s own
and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use
this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Emmerling,
Shanwal & Mandal, 2007: vii). From this it is clear that EI is vital in
human motivation because it relates to how well people understand and
express their own emotions, can show understanding of other people’s
feelings and can control their own emotions to act and think effectively
and appropriately.
8.7
Summary and reflection
This chapter covers different approaches to and views on motivation and
emotion and how emotion links into and supports motivation. The role of
various influences on motivation, such as emotion and culture, are also
examined.
Motivation is concerned with goal-directed behaviour. At the same
time, emotions impact on motivation, in that they drive behaviours and
influence both the strength of motivation as well as the appraisal process
that triggers behaviour.
There are a wide range of factors that attempt to explain work
motivation. One crucial distinction is between factors in the environment
and intrinsic motivators. Different theories of motivation attempt to
explain these from varying perspectives. Each theory does not invalidate
the other theories, but simply provides an alternative view of what
motivates people. The different theories of emotions attempt to explain
how emotions arise and how these affect people from different
perspectives.
However, the individual, with their unique personality, attitudes and
beliefs, experiences, abilities and culture, must be considered. Employees
gain particular experiences, or a form of programming, from other
organisations or contexts before they join an organisation and, therefore,
bring these with them to the organisation. By taking these factors of
diversity among employees and groups into account, it may become more
apparent how dramatically people differ in their levels of work motivation
and expression of emotions in the workplace.
It is a critical competency for managers to understand the theories and
processes involved in motivating people. However, despite the apparent
illogic, the reality is that many managers may still use practices and create
environments that serve to demotivate their employees rather than
motivate them.
Assessment tasks
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Define motivation and explain how intrinsic motivation differs
from extrinsic motivation.
2 Discuss the similarities and differences between the theories of
Maslow, Herzberg and Alderfer’s ERG theory.
3 Distinguish between the four different approaches to job design
and explain how these can help motivate employees.
4 Explain the concept of the self-fulfilling prophecy and the
difference between theory X and theory Y managers. Which
1
would you say best describes your lecturers? Motivate your
answer.
5 Set up three goals for yourself as a student applying the SMART
acronym.
6 Explain how the psychological contract impacts on the level of
motivation of employees in organisations.
7 Explain how emotion impacts on motivation through various
theories of emotion.
8 Briefly distinguish between the three main types of theories that
aim to explain emotions.
9 Discuss how culture impacts on emotion using examples from
the chapter as well as from your personal experience.
10 Several emotions are thought to be unique to particular cultures.
Read through the list in the information box in Section 8.6 and
motivate whether these are in fact unique emotions, or
alternately emotions that we experience, but simply don’t have
unique words to describe.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS
As a student, you are frustrated by the photostat machine that is
not working as you need to print an assignment. Herzberg refers
to this as a …
a motivator
b frustration
c hygiene factor
d driver
e emotional factor.
2 Masoko is a student leader who enjoys managing and inspiring
her followers. According to McClelland she is most strongly
driven by her …
a need for power
b need for affiliation
c ego needs
d self-actualisation needs
e need for achievement.
1
3 … refers to ‘an individual’s desire to achieve one’s full potential’.
a Self-efficacy
b Self-actualisation
c Self-esteem
d Self-achievement
e Goal-directedness
4 …involves adding similar tasks that are at the same level of
difficulty and responsibility to a job.
a Job enlargement
b Job rotation
c Job enrichment
d Self-managing team
e Job sharing
5 … theory claims that emotions are inherited and contained in
primitive brain structures.
a Two-factor theory
b Evolutionary theory
c James-Lange theory
d Cognitive appraisal theory
e Cannon-Bard theory
6 Which theory of motivation would be most appropriate to
evaluate whether an employee incentive programme is likely to
work?
a Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
b Alderfer’s ERG theory
c Homeostatic drive theory
d Expectancy theory
e Herzberg’s two-factor theory.
7 Siphiwe is a runner who constantly strives to improve her
personal best time when running a half marathon. According to
McClelland she is most strongly driven by her …
a need for power
b need for affiliation
c ego needs
d self-actualisation need
e need for achievement.
8 … refers to ‘the individual’s estimate of their own ability to
perform a specific task in a particular situation’.
a Self-efficacy
b Self-actualisation
c Self-esteem
d Self-achievement
e Goal-directedness
9 Which of the following is not a primary emotion?
a Joy
b Sadness
c Frustration
d Anger
e Surprise.
10 … theory claims that physiological arousal and its interpretation
coincide.
a Two-factor theory
b Evolutionary theory
c James-Lange theory
d Cognitive appraisal theory
e Cannon-Bard theory.
CASE STUDY Virtual working – managing
working from home
ABC Medical Aid is a large organisation with over 500 000 clients and 1
000 employees and is one of the top employers in SA. They offer some of
the best salaries and benefits in the industry as well as high levels of job
security. The majority of employees who started working from home due
to the Covid-19 pandemic are continuing to do so because of the
advantages of remote working both for the individual and the
organisation.
ABC Medical Aid therefore created a policy to manage the work-fromhome practices that are now commonplace in the organisation. This
policy outlines the roles and performance expectations, as well as
disciplinary guidelines. Some of the procedures set out in the policy
include:
• Micromanagement tools such as screen tracking software are
discouraged given that this results in employees who are less
engaged and productive.
• There are set working hours that are negotiated between employees
and their supervisors/managers.
• Employees are encouraged to take routine breaks.
• Employees set up task lists that they share with their
supervisors/managers in online project management software.
• Project management software is used broadly to manage goals and
hours worked.
• While hours worked are regarded as important, the focus is on job
outcomes.
• Employee development is prioritised with use made of online learning
platforms for general training, induction and the sharing of policies.
• Online meetings are held at least once a week.
• Supervisors are required to provide their subordinates with goals,
tasks and instructions that are clearly set out in their project
management software.
• There is a disciplinary code that deals with poor and non-performance
on the part of employees.
• While there is a disciplinary code in place, managers are required to
investigate reasons for non- or poor performance and provide the
necessary support where required before resorting to disciplinary
measures.
• A large focus of the performance management system is based on
team performance.
• Top performers are rewarded and employee performance is recognised.
• The productivity management system clearly outlines time frames and
deadlines and provide feedback and status updates to employees.
• Employees are all provided with a state-of-the-art laptop and
subsidised fibre connections at home.
• There are proper support systems in place that are easy to contact
(telephone and email) for IT and HR support.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Questions
Answer the following questions in relation to the motivation theories:
1. Which employee needs are being met by ABC Medical Aid according to
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs model?
2. Which approach, according to McClelland, is ABC Medical Aid
following by not micro-managing their employees?
3. Why, according to goal-setting theory, is it important that goals are
negotiated between managers and subordinates?
4. Why, according to Alderfer’s ERG theory, is employee development
important?
5. What is the requirement for setting out goals in terms of how these
should be formulated?
6. What needs are being fulfilled by providing employees with laptops
and fibre according to Herzberg?
7. What QWL aspects are being addressed by ABC Medical Aid?
Social processes in the
workplace
Amanda Werner
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
Explain the importance of viewing the organisation as an open system
Outline the characteristics of organisational designs associated with Industry 4.0/Fourth
Industrial Revolution
Suggest strategies for optimising performance in virtual teams
Suggest ways in which group development can influence and enhance group efficiency
Explain the impact of group structure on group behaviour and effectiveness
Explain how group processes can either hinder or enhance group behaviour and
effectiveness
Suggest strategies for aligning employee behaviour with the desired organisational culture
Discuss social change in organisations.
IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Cross-functional teams
Culture
Industry 4.0/Fourth Industrial Revolution
Group cohesion
Group decision-making
Group dynamics
Groups
Network organisation
Norms
Open-systems approach
Organic design
Organisational designs
Punctuated equilibrium model
Relational demography
Role conflict
Role stereotype
Roles
Socialisation
Span of control
Virtual teams
9.1
Introduction
The ability to work in a team is one of the most critical skills that
managers cite when they recruit new employees (Johnson, 2016). Groups
and teams fulfil a very important role in organisations. Even though an
individual may perform certain tasks independently, organisational goals
are ultimately attained through the co-ordinated efforts of individuals,
groups and teams. Two major forces of change, namely Covid-19 and
Industry 4.0/Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) have accentuated the
need for employees to be able to work remotely in teams and for
organisations to give guidelines in this respect. This evolution towards a
greater online environment has propelled organisations and employees to
adopt a range of real time technologies and use these technologies
effectively. Figure 9.1 illustrates group members working remotely across
the world in different time zones. This has implications for planning,
communication, task coordination, process flow as well as the well-being
of employees.
The organisation itself can be perceived as a group because it is a
collection of people who work together to achieve a common goal, as
defined by the organisation’s vision and strategy. The organisational design
and structure, which can vary from being bureaucratic to virtual (small core
with extended network), as well as organisational policies and processes,
shape relationships among employees. Industry 4.0 challenges the
traditional concept of what an organisation is as many future employees
may never enter a physical workspace in a central location that is known as
the ‘organisation’. The emerging organisation is a conglomerate of
networks and teams that co-ordinate across the world to deliver a product
or service to customers who are spread across the world. It is therefore not
an outrageous idea that the cognitive concept for work will change and, in
future, a person will indicate what their profession is rather than who they
work for.
Whether they are located in one location or are dispersed, not all
groups and teams are successful. Some groups are marred by conflict, poor
communication, ineffective problem solving and power struggles, whereas
others build up a reputation for excellent performance, innovation and
growth. For this reason, it is important that industrial and organisational
(I-O) psychologists, human resource (HR) practitioners and team
facilitators are equipped with the necessary competencies to understand
how groups and teams work so that they will be able to help them develop
and grow.
Figure 9.1
Working remotely across time zones
SOURCE Shutterstock elenabsl
This chapter presents an integrated approach of organisational
management and organisational behaviour. The aim of this chapter is to
investigate various organisational designs and how they shape
relationships and interactions, explore how group structure and group
processes either enhance or hinder the functioning of group members and
to develop an understanding of the organisation as a social system.
9.2
Viewing the organisation as a
system
The systems model provides a general framework through which an
organisation, and groups in the organisation, can be diagnosed and studied
(Hellriegel et al., 2012). This model presents the organisation as a living
and open system consisting of interdependent groups, individuals,
processes, technology and other components. Change that occurs within
any part of the system spills over into other parts of the system, causing a
ripple effect. Furthermore, the organisation exists in a constantly
fluctuating environment, which exerts influence on the organisation. The
systems model is illustrated in Figure 9.2.
Figure 9.2
The organisation as an open system
SOURCE Compiled by the author
The open-systems approach views the organisation as an open system
with permeable boundaries that actively interacts with the environment as
illustrated in the example box, 4IR – Changing the operating nature of teams.
The organisation receives input (such as cloud-based technology and
customer requests) into the organisational system, which is then
transformed by the system into outputs (goods, services or ideas). Cloudbased technology refers to shared technology that is provided to a
company, via the Internet on a subscription basis, when needed by the
organisation. The organisation has to adopt optimal social and technical
systems that will enable it to be successful and survive in a competitive
environment. The social component consists of individuals, groups and
their work relationships; the technical component consists of tools,
machinery, technology processes and techniques.
The systems view sees the organisation as a macrosystem, the group as
a mesosystem and the employee as a microsystem, all within a changing
environment. These systems are interdependent, in constant interaction
and responsible for the system’s outputs. The implication of the opensystems view for I-O psychologists and HR practitioners is that all
organisational members need to develop a very good understanding of how
the organisation works and how behaviours (for example, innovation,
communication or conflict) in one part of the system affect behaviours in
other parts of the system. Any intervention introduced into the system
should have maximum positive impact on the total system.
The next section focuses on organisational design, which has huge
implications for the ability of the organisation to adapt to change.
Example box
4IR – changing the operating nature of project teams
Traditionally, project teams in a building environment would schedule meetings, photocopy
and staple building plans and other documents, have long discussions and then repeat these
discussions for those who missed meetings or were disorganised. Once the building project
started, long distances would be travelled to visit building sites for inspection and making
adjustments. Considering that these teams include professionals from different disciplines
such as architecture, quantity surveying, health and safety, engineering and construction, it
is clear that teamwork can be arduous and inefficient.
However, modern technologies have changed the nature of interaction in these teams.
Today, meetings are organised and conducted via communication technologies such as Zoom,
Microsoft Teams and WhatsApp group calls. Cloud-based storage facilities allow designated
team members to link to a central repository to access, edit, update or comment on plans
and documents. Building information modelling and virtual technologies enable the team to
work on:
• The same building model
• Detect building problems proactively
• ‘Visit’ sites via drones and augmented reality
• Coordinate, communicate and visualise collaboratively.
The implication of the 4IR is that people will increasingly collaborate with diverse role
players and technological interfaces in a variety of settings. It has the potential to connect
more people to the web, drastically improve efficiencies in businesses and redefine
relationships between people and business and automated systems. The evolution of work
also implies that employees need to adapt to a new work environment, adopt new behaviours
and acquire new competencies and skills.
9.3
Organisational design
When an organisation is established, or when change is required in longestablished organisations, a decision must be made about how to group
and connect people to meet organisational goals. To take this decision, the
nature, size, complexity and goals of the business are taken into
consideration. For example, an organisation may want to shift from using a
product-based business model to one that is customer-focused and using
cloud-based technologies. The new design of the organisation should be
aligned with its vision and mission. The end product is a blueprint of the
organisation illustrated by an organogram or organisational chart that
indicates different tasks, responsibilities, workflow and authority. Figure
9.3 provides a snapshot from an organogram illustrating the HR
department.
Figure 9.3
A snapshot from an organogram illustrating an HR department
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Traditional organisational designs were more bureaucratic, mechanistic
and rigid and rely heavily on function and division. Modern designs are
more fluid, have fewer rules and procedures and utilise decentralised
decision-making. These modern designs can be considered organic, in the
sense that they are more flexible and can easily change if the environment
changes. The fundamental characteristics of organisational structure
influence the extent to which an organisation will have a mechanistic or
organic design:
• Work specialisation: Also called the division of labour, refers to the
extent to which tasks are divided into jobs. A high degree of work
specialisation implies many jobs with a restricted number of tasks
linked to each job. The employee is, therefore, assigned a specific task,
which is then repetitively performed. For example, an HR consultant
may be only involved with employment and not employee
development. This may lead to a lack of individual growth and limited
systemic thinking.
• Multi-skilling and teamwork: Is encouraged by modern organisations.
Employees do not have narrowly defined job descriptions, but have to
apply themselves where they are needed in the team or organisation.
Such organisations are more organic and better able to reinvent
themselves to rapidly respond to a changing environment.
• Standardisation: Refers to written procedures, job descriptions, rules
and regulations that ensure that routine jobs are uniformly and
consistently performed (Hellriegel et al., 2012). Standard operation
procedures (SOPs) define the exact steps that need to be followed to
perform a task, irrespective of who performs the task. These
procedures are especially important in work environments where strict
adherence to a set of instructions is important for quality and safety
purposes, but is also useful in other work situations.
• Departmentalisation: Refers to the grouping of jobs into logical
groups, or departments. It can be based on function, product, service,
geography and process or customer type.
• Chain of command: Indicates the lines of authority in the
organisation, who reports to whom. This is important because it
defines responsibility and accountability. Responsibility refers to one’s
duty to perform a task; accountability to being the responsible person
for reporting and justifying results to a higher authority (Daft, 2008:
310). Authority is the legitimate right that managers have to make
decisions, give directions and allocate resources. The higher the
position in the chain of command, the greater the authority attached to
it. Line authority refers to managers who are directly responsible for
the core functions in the organisation while staff authority supports
line functions. In a motor component organisation, line managers are
responsible for the manufacturing of quality motor components, while
the technical, maintenance and research functions are supportive of the
manufacturing unit. HR is also considered a support function as HR
practitioners assist managers, for example, by recruiting suitable people
and providing training for them. Delegation of authority, which is
associated with empowerment, occurs when a manager gives a
subordinate the right to make decisions with regards to a complete
task. Organisational decision-making can also be delegated to a
committee; for example, the safety committee makes decisions that
everyone, irrespective of position, must adhere to.
Figure 9.4
Comparison of a narrow and a wide span of control
SOURCE Compiled by the author
• Span of control: Indicates how many employees report to a supervisor.
A narrow span of control implies that the supervisor manages a few
employees, while a wide span of control implies that the supervisor
manages many employees (Figure 9.4). A narrow span of control
results in a tall organisational structure (bureaucracy), whereas a wide
span of control results in a flatter organisational structure. A flatter
span of control is associated with employee empowerment.
• Centralisation and decentralisation: Refers to where in the
organisational hierarchy decisions are made. Centralisation is evident
when decisions are made high up in the organisational hierarchy (by
senior managers); decentralisation is when decision-making is pushed
down to the lowest possible level (by committees or employees). In a
decentralised organisation, employees are empowered through training,
information sharing and supportive organisational practices to take
responsibility for decision-making related to their jobs.
Decentralisation increases participation and involvement and can
enhance creativity and flexibility. Centralised decision-making, on the
other hand, ensures standardised procedures and conformity to these
procedures.
9.3.1
Traditional organisational designs
Examples of traditional organisational designs include a bureaucracy and a
matrix structure.
9.3.1.1
Bureaucracy
The main characteristic of a bureaucracy structure is the standardisation of
work processes through policies, rules and uniform procedures.
Bureaucracies adopt highly systematic and routine work procedures
through functional departments, centralised decision-making, a clear chain
of command and a narrow span of control, as indicated in Figure 9.4
(narrow span of control). Although a bureaucracy is associated with red
tape, slow decision-making, control, inflexibility and a lack of innovation,
it can have some advantages. The use of specialised departments for
specific functions allows for the efficient execution of standardised
activities, economies of scale, minimum duplication of personnel and
equipment and efficient control (Hellriegel et al., 2012). Bureaucracies
could require less talented and less costly middle- and lower-level
managers if the tasks of managers are to oversee operations rather than to
think strategically or innovatively.
9.3.1.2
Matrix structure
A matrix structure is very typical in the built environment and combines
functional and product departmentalisation. In this environment, project
teams representing different disciplines are utilised. A notable
characteristic of the matrix structure is the dual lines of authority. A
project member reports to both the project leader and the functional
manager. The vertical structure represents traditional lines of authority,
while the horizontal structure provides co-ordination across traditional
departments. Figure 9.5 illustrates a matrix structure.
Figure 9.5
Matrix structure
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Figure 9.5 illustrates three different projects. Each project team consists of
engineers, procurement officers and quantity surveyors. An engineer, for
example, will therefore report to both the senior manager of engineering
and project manager A. Such dual reporting may be confusing at first, but
can be managed through role negotiation.
9.3.2
Contemporary organisational designs
Examples of more contemporary organisational designs include the virtual
organisation and team-based organisations.
9.3.2.1
The virtual organisation
Covid-19 and the subsequent lockdowns across the world have forced a
huge part of the working population to work online in a virtual work
environment. Not only have both organisations and employees had to
adapt to this change, but the situation has also called for leaders to step up
their leadership approaches and for attention to be given to employee
wellness (Mawson, 2020). A virtual team is defined as a group consisting
of co-workers who are not co-located (in the same location), but work
towards a shared goal for which they are mutually responsible. With the
lessons learned from Covid-19-induced remote working and the evolution
of Industry 4.0, it is predicted that working remotely will feature more
prominently in the future world of work. However, working remotely does
provide challenges for employees, both in terms of adjustments and
wellness, as explained in the example box, Employee experiences of working
remotely during Covid-19.
Example box
Employee experiences of working remotely during Covid-19
Many people working remotely during the Covid-19 pandemic have enjoyed the flexibility
that remote working has provided to them. Family members have spent more time together
and employees have saved money and time by not commuting to work. Employees may have
experienced increased performance and rapid learning, especially in terms of the use of
various technologies, for example, Microsoft Teams. The downside of working remotely can
include:
• Not having the necessary resources (for example, a printer and data).
• An inability to switch off from work.
• Blurred boundaries between work and life.
• Disconnectedness from team/team leaders.
• Over connectedness to customers and colleagues.
Over connectedness can be aggravated by information streaming in 24/7, an inability to put
boundaries in place and the perception that colleagues and customers expect immediate
responses.
Many employees could have experienced heightened levels of anxiety due to working
remotely and stress brought on by Covid-19, specifically in terms of health, the economy and
safety of family and friends. Employee wellness has, therefore, become more important and
many organisations have provided guidelines to employees and managers on how to best
operate a remote work environment.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Research done on virtual teams gives attention to leadership,
communication, relationships and organisational culture. In terms of
leadership and management, perceived supervisory support and trust
appear as critical factors in virtual teams. With these two factors present,
employees are more willing to share important information with leaders
such as challenges, mistakes and personal needs that hamper effectiveness.
Goal setting, clarifying expectations and regular feedback are indicted as
critical leadership actions for ensuring that unfairness and bias are not
experienced in virtual teams (Sniderman, Blanton & Monahan, 2017).
Communication between team members in a virtual environment is
characteristically of shorter duration and lacks non-verbal cues, with the
result that members have to infer the intention and attitude behind the
communication of others based on little information. This can lead to
misunderstanding and dissatisfaction. Synchronous communication is
necessary when groups work at more complex tasks, and the
communication tools and media used (for example, Zoom, Microsoft
Teams or email) should fit the context and dynamics of the team
(Newman, Ford & Marshall, 2020). As such, time zones, culture and
language should be taken into account. The role of the leader in clarifying
task expectations and creating a culture that fosters co-ordination and
collaboration is critical. In addition, the importance of trust in
communication between the leader and team members is stressed.
Relationships can also suffer in a virtual environment. In such an
environment, employees work asynchronously and physical distance can
turn into psychological distance and a lack of trust, which can impede
performance. In a virtual environment, employees may experience less peer
pressure to perform and weakening mutual feelings of obligation
(Sniderman, Blanton & Monahan, 2017). This creates a perception that
remote employees are less competent, reliable or trustworthy. They suggest
that to strengthen employees taking responsibility, digital leaders in a
virtual environment need to state clear and consistent expectations,
promote intentional collaboration and provide adequate organisational
support. Though digital technologies could reduce trust and responsibility,
they are also useful for stimulating communication, sharing information
and providing feedback.
The organisational culture need to be purposefully strengthened. In a
virtual environment, building a culture of sharing knowledge, learning and
agility may be more challenging. Yahoo has been cited as an example of an
organisation that previously ended virtual work arrangements to preserve
the organisational culture of open communication and collaboration
(Mawson, 2020). In a virtual team, shared vision needs to be constantly
reinforced in communication, task allocation and feedback given.
9.3.2.2
Team-based organisations
In recent years, many organisations have been redesigned into team
structures which, as illustrated in Figure 9.4, results in a flatter
organisational structure. In a team-based organisation, employees are
grouped into self-directed teams and empowered to take responsibility for
a complete product, task or project. Teams are made up of employees with
diverse skills relevant to the task or project. These teams are responsible
and accountable for team output and receive minimal supervision. Team
members plan, organise and monitor the team’s activities, compile reports
and give feedback to management. Management takes on a consulting and
coaching role and assists the team in solving problems. Team members
receive ongoing training and coaching to improve their technical,
interpersonal and conceptual skills. Team members have equal status, and
leadership is often rotated or shared.
A cross-functional team is another type of team used in organisations.
In this case, members representing various levels and departments are
brought together to address mutual problems or projects. Team members
report to both their functional managers and the team leader. For example,
during Covid-19, many organisations had to rapidly compose crossfunctional teams to formulate and implement an integrated approach to
managing the impact of the pandemic. These teams included health, HR,
IT, security, finance practitioners/officers, cleaning services, corporate
communication, line managers and employee task teams.
9.3.2.3
Future organisations and networks
The convergence of the new technologies and capabilities that characterise
Industry 4.0 has implications for organisational design. In the future,
organisations will purposefully focus on creating value networks (an
external perspective) rather than value chains (an internal perspective).
Organisations will enter into strategic partnerships with other
organisations and individuals to create efficiencies and competitiveness.
For example, instead of designing a project in-house, an organisation can
publish specifications for materials, and use crowdsourcing (posting the
task on the Internet and inviting any organisation or individual to
contribute to the design) with a minimal investment and in a very short
time span. To develop Industry 4.0 initiatives, manufacturers will bring
together IT, production, operations, engineering, and R&D capabilities
outside of traditional organisational structures. As such, the future
network organisation is not merely created by technologies, but by people
who are able to take an ecosystemic perspective of the organisation,
viewing the total value system with consideration of suppliers, operations,
manufacturers, distributors and customers (Deloitte, 2015).
The implication for I-O and HR management is that the future
organisation and organisational network will require new talent and new
capabilities. Specifically, organisations will need employees and partners
skilled in new technologies, as well as data scientists and database
managers skilled in analysing data for critical decision-making.
Organisations will seek employees who are creative, innovative and
entrepreneurial and who can work comfortably in a dynamic and
networked business environment. This also applies to the HR
environment, where HR metrics and diagnostics will become increasingly
important to ensure the speedy supply of talented individuals, talent
management and creating environments in which people will thrive. In
addition, organisational change knowledge and practice will be imperative
to assist employees in adjusting to new requirements and expectations.
9.4
Groups
In an open system, individuals, groups and teams are continuously
interacting with each other and organisational processes to effectively
respond to environmental influences and demands. Not all groups and
teams are equally effective, as effectiveness depends on the extent to which
groups and teams achieve synergy. Synergy occurs when group members
collaborate and join their strengths to pursue a shared goal.
To be defined as a group, a group should demonstrate the following
characteristics:
• Social interaction, which allows people to communicate and exert
influence on one another.
• Agreed or common goals and targets in order to achieve certain
objectives.
• Group structure, such as tasks, roles and rules, to enable interaction
over time and across situations.
• Group members’ acknowledgement or perceived sense of being part of
a group (group identity).
9.4.1
Group development
Groups that are newly formed are not productive from the beginning.
Group members must first get to know each other, understand the mission
of the group, agree on desired behaviour and then share information and
expertise to attain goals. Groups therefore develop over time in terms of
maturity. The development of a group may be complicated if a group is
operating in an online environment and especially if new people joining
the group. Understanding the psychological processes related to group
development can assist in managing remote groups more effectively. The
most popular views are that groups develop either in five stages or
according to the punctuated equilibrium model (Robbins et al., 2016).
Understanding how groups develop enables the I-O psychologist,
managers, group leaders and group members to proactively anticipate and
manage group processes so that the group can start performing well as
quickly as possible. The five-stage model and punctuated equilibrium
model of group development are discussed in the next sections.
9.4.1.1
The five-stage model of group development
The five stages of group development are forming, storming, norming,
performing and adjourning. Every stage is characterised by certain
emotions and behaviours that constitute group dynamics.
Forming (when a group is established) is characterised by a great deal
of uncertainty about the group’s purpose, structure and leadership, which
often results in dependency on the leader. Members try to determine what
types of behaviour are required. The group uses defence mechanisms such
as procrastination, denial and projection to remove the discomfort. This
stage is complete when members start to think of themselves as part of a
group.
Storming is a phase characterised by intra-group conflict. Members
resist the constraints that the group imposes on individuality. There is also
conflict over who will control or lead the group. Aggression also manifests
in the form of fight (against authority or peers) or flight (passivity or
avoidance). Another way of coping with the uncertainty is to form pairings
(such as management/others, males/females, black people/white people, or
members with long tenure/short tenure). When this stage is complete,
there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within the group.
Norming refers to the development of a common set of expectations
that defines desired behaviour in the group. Rules are laid down in explicit
or implicit ways. When group members buy into these expectations and
rules, close relationships develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness.
There is now a strong sense of group identity and camaraderie.
Performing manifests in a fully functioning and accepting group.
Group energy moves from getting to know and understand one another to
performing the task at hand. Group members interact effectively to solve
problems, make decisions and execute tasks. For permanent working
groups this is the last stage of development.
Adjourning (or mourning) happens when the task is completed and
the group can adjourn. The group wraps up its activities. Some members
may feel proud of the group’s accomplishments, whereas others may be sad
for the loss of camaraderie gained during the work group’s life. Table 9.1
provides guidelines to managers or group leaders for managing each stage
in the group’s development so that the group will not waste time and
energy in unproductive behaviours.
Although this model illustrates typical behaviours and emotions
associated with group dynamics, which need to be acknowledged and
addressed, not all groups develop exactly according to these stages. Some
groups may skip the storming stage, immediately bond and proceed with
the task. Groups that have already reached the performance stage may,
however, experience conflict and regress to the storming phase.
Table 9.1
The five-stage model of group development
The five stages
Implications for managers and team leaders
Forming
•
•
•
•
•
Storming
• Clarify leadership of the team and the
leadership role
• Assign and clarify group members’ roles
• Resolve conflict through confrontation of
Welcome members to the team
Acknowledge existing uncertainty
Organise an ice-breaker
Introduce team members to each other
Clarify the goal and purpose of the team.
issues
• Facilitate interaction between diverse
group members
• Conduct team-building sessions
• Foster team identity through team
branding.
Norming
•
•
•
•
Discuss behavioural expectations
Clarify group protocol or group etiquette
Encourage peer control
Reward desired behaviour.
Performing
• Facilitate information sharing
• Facilitate problem solving and decisionmaking
• Encourage creativity and innovation
• Provide feedback on group progress
• Stimulate constructive conflict.
Adjourning
(applicable to
temporary groups)
• Wrap up activities
• Celebrate successes
• Reflect on group experience and
effectiveness.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
9.4.1.2
The punctuated equilibrium model
The punctuated equilibrium model (see Figure 9.6) suggests that groups
do not develop in a universal sequence of stages. Instead, the model
suggests that groups have similar experiences at specific points in the
groups’ development that shift the direction of the group. These points are
labelled the first meeting, the transition and the last meeting (Robbins et
al., 2016).
• The first meeting: This meeting sets the group’s direction. During this
meeting, and often in the first few seconds, the group decides on rules
(a framework of assumptions) the members believe will ensure the
survival of the group and behavioural patterns for approaching the
project.
• Inertia: Once these rules and behavioural patterns are set out, the
group’s direction becomes firmly established and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first half of the group’s life. This is a period
of inertia, when the group tends to act in a fixed manner, even when
the group realises that the rules (assumptions) were incorrect and the
behavioural patterns not conducive to success.
• The transition: Halfway between its first meeting and the official
deadline, the group experiences a transition despite the fact that some
groups may spend as little as an hour on their project, while others may
spend six months. It is as if the groups universally experience a midlife
crisis at this point. The mid-point is like an alarm clock, heightening
members’ awareness that their time is limited and that they need to get
moving. This transition ends the first phase and is characterised by a
concentrated burst of changes, the dropping of old patterns and the
adoption of new perspectives. The transition sets the group on a
revised direction for the second phase.
Figure 9.6
The punctuated equilibrium model
SOURCE Compiled by the author
• Second phase of inertia: This phase represents a new equilibrium or
period of inertia. In this phase, the group executes plans created during
the transition period and stay on this course until the last meeting.
• Last meeting: The group’s last meeting is characterised by a final burst
of activity to finish its work and meet the deadline.
The example in the following information box is typical of the punctuated
equilibrium model.
Example box
Example of the punctuated equilibrium model
A project team meets online through Microsoft teams for the first time and a basic timetable
is established. Members agree that they have nine weeks to complete their project. The
project manager’s requirements are discussed and debated. From that point, the group
regularly meets online to carry out its activities. About four or five weeks into the project,
however, problems are confronted. Criticism is taken seriously. Discussion becomes more
open. The group reassesses its position and aggressively moves to make the necessary
changes. If the right changes are made, the group will develop a first-rate project within the
next four or five weeks. The group’s last online meeting, which will take place just before the
project is due for completion, will last longer than the others. During this meeting, all final
issues will be discussed and details resolved. Members will work additional time to bring all
the loose ends together and then reflect on the quality of the final product and success of
the work process.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
Group leaders and managers can use their knowledge of the punctuated
equilibrium model to facilitate effective and efficient group functioning.
The model demonstrates the importance of focusing on the task right from
the beginning, clarifying goals and behavioural expectations, setting shortand long-term goals, having a monitoring system to purposefully check
progress at regular intervals and dealing with deviations.
9.5
Group structure
A working group is not an unorganised mob. It has a clear structure that
shapes the behaviour of members and explains and predicts individual and
group behaviour. An I-O psychologist, group facilitator or team leader
typically assist a group in identifying how structural factors influence the
functioning of the group. Where required, changes are considered and
suggested. Structural variables for consideration include formal leadership,
roles, norms, group status, group size and composition. The example box,
Applying group structure to address anxiety in a remote work environment,
shows the application of some of these concepts.
9.5.1
Leadership
A leader is defined as someone in the group who mobilises group efforts
towards the attainment of a common goal (Johnson, 2016). This can be
any group member who, according to the group members, is best able to
serve the leadership needs of the group. Groups have multiple goals at any
given time and any group member may emerge as a leader – it may not
necessarily be the designated group leader. This view of leadership is
contrary to a traditional Westernised view of centralised power and leaders
who impose a vision on followers (Feldman & Msibi, 2014; Johnson,
2016).
The implication of this view is that a formal leader should create a
group climate where members would step forward to assume leadership
based on their knowledge, skills, the task and the emotional demands of
the group. Feldman and Msibi (2014) suggest a balanced approach
between Eurocentric and Afrocentric leadership in South African
organisations (or teams). Eurocentric leadership tends to be more
directive, while Afrocentric leadership favours the principles of ubuntu
that aim at creating respect, collaboration and consensus. In the company
that they researched, they found change towards a more balanced approach
post-democracy (1994). This type of approach focuses on inclusivity which
implies sharing information, providing a voice to all members and building
unique and authentic relationships in the group.
9.5.2
Roles
Role refers to a set of expected behaviour patterns associated with a given
position in the group. Individuals fulfil different roles on and off the job,
which may sometimes be conflicting such as being a night-shift employee,
parent and member of a school’s governing body. These different roles
demand different behaviours, which are difficult to integrate into the
normal flow of life.
Managers and people in groups can assume various types of roles,
which may either facilitate or inhibit group effectiveness. Task-oriented
roles facilitate and coordinate decision-making; relations-oriented roles
encourage group morale; and self-oriented roles serve individual needs at
the expense of the group and its functioning. The information box, Which
roles do you play in your group/s?, illustrates some of these roles.
INFORMATION BOX Which roles do you play in your group/s?
TASK-ORIENTED ROLES:
• Initiators present fresh or modified ideas for achieving group goals and solving problems.
• Information seekers clarify issues and ensure valid and relevant information is provided.
• Evaluators assess how well the group is functioning such as whether it is to the point,
practical or logical.
RELATIONS-ORIENTED ROLES:
• Encouragers facilitate acceptance and warmth towards group members by agreement and
supportive behaviours.
• Gatekeepers encourage participation by all members and will prompt quiet members to
contribute their ideas.
• Followers usually just go along passively as friendly group members.
SELF-ORIENTED ROLES:
• Blockers behave negatively and usually resist and oppose suggestions and decisions, or
may bring back old or resolved issues.
• Dominators try to take control of the group or influence particular members of the group
by using flattery, assertion or interruptions.
• Avoiders purposefully keep a distance from others, resisting issues passively by not
taking part.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
9.5.2.1
Role identity
A person demonstrates role identity by displaying attitudes and actual
behaviours that are consistent with a role. For example, a teacher with role
identify will be concerned about the development of children and love
teaching. A person has the ability to shift roles rapidly when they recognise
that the situation and its demands require changes. This may happen, for
example, if a pro-union attitude changes to a pro-management attitude or
when an individual is promoted to a senior management position.
9.5.2.2
Role perception
People’s view of how they should act in a given situation is described as
their role perception. These perceptions are formed from observing others
and through learning. The interpretation of how to behave will lead to
specific behaviour. For example, a trade union representative may believe
their role is to aggressively challenge management decisions, while another
may perceive the same role as an opportunity to create understanding and
collaboration.
9.5.2.3
Role expectation
Role expectation is the way in which others believe the individual should
act in a given situation or context, such as family, work and society. For
example, a public relations manager will be expected to act in a
professional manner in order to promote the reputation of the unit when
communicating to outside stakeholders such as clients, the bank
representative, suppliers and even senior management. When at home, his
or her children and spouse have different expectations and may expect
food, attention and love. At work, group members can negotiate with each
other in terms of the different roles that need to be fulfilled for goal
attainment, based on the expectations of the group. For example, one
group member may be requested to manage the work schedule for the
whole unit. This person may agree, but then demands that any specific
requests are provided by a specific date.
When role expectations are generalised into specific categories, role
stereotypes evolve. An example is the traditional role stereotype of women
being in caring or nurturing positions rather than in executive
management positions. Fortunately, this stereotype is rapidly changing in
South Africa, where justice, fairness and equality are promoted by the
Constitution and law.
The psychological contract is an unwritten contract about the
expectations between employees and their employer. Problems may occur
when role expectations, implied in the psychological contract, are not met.
If management does not keep its part of the bargain, negative
repercussions on employees’ performance and satisfaction can be expected.
When employees fail to live up to expectations, the result is usually some
form of disciplinary action up to and including discharge.
9.5.2.4
Role conflict and work-life integration
Role conflict occurs when an individual is confronted by divergent role
expectations. The extreme case would be a situation in which two or more
role expectations are mutually contradictory. For instance, a student might
be expected to write an examination, attend a casual job and be present at a
family gathering on the same day. These expectations might cause much
anguish to the student.
Example box
Applying group structure to address anxiety in a remote working environment
Employee wellness has emerged as an important issue in the Covid-19 pandemic. Employees
have experienced anxiety and stress as a result of working online. Being exposed to
information 24/7 created the role perception for many that they had to be available all the
time. This was aggravated by employees working flexitime, giving a false impression that
colleagues were always connected. It also created role conflict as working parents felt torn
between fulfilling their task role and meeting the needs of family members (for example,
home schooling their children). Many struggled to achieve work and life integration. In
addition, some colleagues have been happy to work exceptionally long hours, especially
those who are task driven, high achievers and don’t have small children to attend to
(illustrating diversity).
Leadership, in addition to employees applying self-management, could assist with
finding solutions to these issues. Leaders should step up and agree with employees on key
performance areas and expectations, give the necessary support (for example, administrative
assistance), provide feedback and give recognition (Sniderman, Blanton & Monahan, 2017).
This could include agreeing on norms such as response times, nature of connectivity and
respecting other colleagues’ private time. Leaders could also encourage team members to
fulfil relationship roles in addition to task roles, stimulating a culture of collaboration and
support in the team.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
9.5.3
Norms
Norms exist in every life situation, such as switching off cellphones during
meetings, employees not criticising their bosses in public and colleagues
supporting one another. The information box, Why are norms important?,
illustrates the purpose of norms. All groups have established norms, which
are standards of behaviour that are shared by the group’s members. Most
norms are informally agreed upon and not written down. Each group’s
norms are unique. However, work groups typically have norms related to
performance, appearance, informal social arrangements and resource
allocation.
9.5.3.1
Performance-related norms
Members are given explicit cues on what to do, how to work and related
expectations and processes. These norms are extremely powerful in
affecting an individual employee’s performance. An employee might,
irrespective of ability or personal motivation, increase or decrease their
performance to meet the performance norms of the group.
Figure 9.7 depicts appearance and social-arrangement norms, which
are discussed in the next section.
9.5.3.2
Appearance-related norms
Appearance-related norms refer mostly to appropriate dress, but can also
refer to the general image created by a person by working overtime, taking
work home or being exceptionally organised or professional (in
appearance). Factory employees wear prescribed protective clothing, sales
agents clothes that are branded, and students wear casual clothes, unless
they do formal presentations or attend interviews. In South Africa, you
may find employees with headdresses, scarves, body piercings, dreadlocks,
shaved hair, brightly coloured hair, caps and so on. Attire may depend on
personal preference, religion, culture or even health status.
Figure 9.7
Appearance and social-arrangement norms are apparent among students
SOURCE Shutterstock
INFORMATION BOX Why are norms important?
Norms are standards of behaviour agreed upon by group members. Groups enforce those
norms that are most important to the group. Norms are important for the following reasons:
• To ensure that the group survives: Norms provide for uniformity or unity and ensure
that members have a similar approach to attaining group goals. Group members are,
therefore, able to collaborate and learn from each other to develop best practices.
• To ensure predictability: Members know what to expect of each other and how to
respond.
• Reduce embarrassment: Members who do not follow norms are reprimanded, while those
who do are valued and appreciated.
• Express the central values of a group: One group’s typical behaviour shows exceptional
care for the customer, while another’s shows an affinity for using computerised solutions
to address customers concerns.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
9.5.3.3
Social-arrangement norms
Social-arrangement norms develop informally and dictate the nature of
interaction among group members. Group members may have lunch
together at work, but not socialise with each other outside working hours.
It may also dictate who sits with whom during meetings. Because of the
diversity in South Africa, many different social norms may apply. For
example, more respect may be shown to older employees, eye contact may
be avoided, interrupting others in conversation may be frowned upon and
dominant or assertive behaviour may be considered rude. However, these
norms do differ depending on the area in which a person was raised, their
generation, age and gender. It is suggested that teams have a 20 to 30
minute conversation on their preferences and expectations for how people
should look, act, feel, think and speak in order to proactively identify areas
where misunderstanding could occur (Toegel & Barsoux, 2016).
9.5.3.4
Allocation of resources
Norms for the allocation of resources can originate in the group or in the
organisation, and cover aspects such as pay, assignment of difficult jobs
and allocation of new tools and equipment. In some organisations, for
example, new personal computers are distributed equally to all groups.
Every department may get a certain number of computers, regardless of
the number of people in the department or their need for computers. In
other organisations, equipment is allocated based on the position and task.
Most of the time, people are not even aware of the development or
existence of norms, whereas other times norms are purposefully established
to achieve a certain outcome. The information box, How do norms develop?,
illustrates how norms develop.
INFORMATION BOX How do norms develop?
Most norms develop in one or more of the following ways:
• Statements made by a group member, for example, an announcement made by the leader
or request from an employee.
• Critical events in the group’s history, for example, new security rules after confidential
information is leaked.
• Primacy events, for example, following old habits such as phoning HR instead of using
•
•
the new online chat facility.
Carry-over behaviours from past situations, for example, issuing each employee with a
diary at the beginning of the year despite the availability of online scheduling and
storage facilities.
Purposeful team building, for example, norms limiting collaboration and excellence are
identified and addressed (not having scheduled connection times).
SOURCE Compiled by the author
9.5.4
Status
Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group
members by others. Many aspects of organisational life are ruled by status;
there seems to be no such thing as a statusless organisation. Status is a
significant motivator and can cause dissatisfaction if people feel their
perceived status is not acknowledged.
Status can be formal or informal:
• Formal status: Is awarded through titles or facilities. This includes
being recognised as someone special or receiving an award. In the
organisational context, it refers to status symbols, such as a large office,
an impressive view, titles, high pay, fringe benefits and preferred work
schedules.
• Informal status: Is awarded based on personal attributes, such as
education, age, gender, skill and experience.
Status equity refers to the belief that status differences in a group are fair.
When inequity or unfairness is perceived, it creates dissatisfaction and
could lead to negative competition. Though status could be an indicator of
expertise and a motivational factor for some people, too much emphasis on
status can block information sharing and collaboration in a group. In
modern organisations where teamwork and collaboration form the basis of
continuous improvement and innovation, status differences are less
emphasised. In such organisations, high performance is a main contributor
to status.
9.5.5
Group size
A group’s size affects the group’s overall behaviour, depending on the
context. Smaller groups tend to be faster at completing tasks than larger
ones. However, if the group is engaged in problem solving, large groups
consistently get better results than their smaller counterparts. Deciding on
the ideal size for a group is not easy, but the following guidelines can be
considered:
• Large groups (those with 12 or more members): Are good for gaining
diverse input. If the goal of the group is fact finding, larger groups
should be more effective.
• Smaller groups: Are better at doing something productive with the
input they receive. Groups of approximately seven members tend to be
more effective in taking action.
Research on group size shows that an odd number of members is desirable
when voting is required and that five or seven members combine the best
elements of both small and large groups. The negative outcomes associated
with large groups are shown in Figure 9.8.
Figure 9.8
Negative outcomes associated with large groups
SOURCE Compiled by the author
One negative outcome of bigger groups is social loafing. Social loafing is
the tendency of group members to do less than they are capable of as
individuals, as they rely on the group as an entity to take responsibility for
group outcomes. To overcome social loafing, the group needs to emphasise
the group goal, but also clarify individual responsibilities at the formation
of the group.
9.5.6
Group diversity
Group diversity refers to the similarities and differences that are found
among the members of the group. These differences or similarities are
either observable (such as gender, race and age), or unobservable (such as
thinking style, life story and skills). This could be referred to as surfacelevel and deep-level diversity.
Groups are therefore described as either heterogeneous or
homogeneous.
Heterogeneous groups (those composed of dissimilar individuals) are
more likely to have diverse abilities and information and should be more
creative and effective. However, performance of heterogeneous groups
depends on the representativeness of group, status equity and the ability of
the leader to create a climate of openness (Johnson, 2016). Though
heterogeneous groups may experience more conflict and become less
methodological, they outperform homogeneous groups.
Another variable to consider is relational demography, which reflects
how a single person in a group differs from the other people in the group.
Being the only female, the only person from a given race, the only person
with disabilities or the only person from a unit might be daunting for some
people. Such differences have implications for separation and inclusivity in
the group and require a response from both the group leader and group
members for the group to function optimally.
Cultural diversity is an important factor to consider in groups. Culture
is a system of values, beliefs, customs and habits that are carried over from
generation to generation. These values, beliefs, customs and habits are
reflected in language, religion, art and social relationships and can change
and develop over time.
Different cultures place different values on aspects such as group work,
independence and authority. People from one culture may prefer to work
in groups (collectivism), whereas those from another culture may prefer to
work on their own (individualism). These differences influence peoples’
behaviour at work and the way they interact with others. Cultural and
other differences can result in stereotyping, prejudice and ethnocentrism;
factors that negatively affect trust, relationships and co-operation. People
often make judgements of others based on tiny bits of information, and in
groups it is important to celebrate differences and find common ground.
Diversity management involves creating an inclusive climate in which
all group members feel that they are valued and are making a valuable
contribution to the group. Diversity management, therefore, aims at:
• First, establishing trust, constructive interpersonal relations and shared
values.
• Second, providing opportunities for collaboration, shared decisionmaking, networking and creativity to increase quality, productivity and
efficiency.
While group structure provides a framework within which groups
function, group processes influence how well employees participate and
collaborate.
9.6
Group processes
Group processes refer to the interaction between group members and
include communication patterns, group decision processes, leader
behaviour, power dynamics and conflict interactions. Group processes can
either enhance or hinder the performance of a group. For example, open
communication supports creative thinking and problem solving, whereas
social loafing leads to less productive results.
9.6.1
Group dynamics
Group dynamics refer to dynamic social processes in groups, and
specifically to changes that occur in groups that trigger actions and
reactions from members of the group (Gençer, 2019). These changes can
influence the extent to which members identify with the group as well as
the nature of interaction. On a practical level, groups dynamics influence
how group members greet each other, how far apart they sit from each
other, how they communicate, make decisions and handle conflict.
The word dynamics implies that there are continuous behavioural
forces in the group that influence the group’s effectiveness. For example, a
group member may act in a dominant manner with the result that other
group members withdraw, submit to or challenge the dominant behaviour.
The dominant behaviour, as well as the group’s reaction to it, influences
the group’s performance. Group members do not always reflect on the
dynamics in the team and the effect thereof on both group performance
and relationships. I-O psychologists and HR practitioners often specialise
in group dynamics and group facilitation to assist groups in understanding
the group identify and developing more optimal behavioural patterns.
When I-O psychologists and HR practitioners facilitate group
discussions, workshops and meetings, they observe the behaviour in the
group to understand how people communicate, make decisions, influence
each other and relate to each other. Making the group aware of these
under-the-radar social processes and calling out unproductive behaviours
can assist the group in its growth towards maturity and excellence.
The following are specific examples of concepts that are typically used
by I-O psychologists when they observe and facilitate group behaviour (see
Figure 9.9):
• Dependency is when the group as a system experiences anxiety, for
example, when the group finds its task demands too challenging. To
cope with this anxiety, the group expects the manager or management
to take charge or even do the work. The group, therefore, becomes
dependent on the authority figure. When the authority figure does not
step in to rescue the group (because they are not supposed to), the
group feels frustrated and aggressive. As a result, a state of counterdependency develops where the group ignores the leader and tries to do
the task themselves. Ideally, the group should work at its task while
allowing the authority figure to facilitate the growth process, a
situation that constitutes interdependency and collaboration.
• Fight or flight versus engagement. Fight or flight are concepts used to
describe when group members either rebel against the leader or
withdraw from the situation. In the fighting response, the group may
act aggressively towards the authority figure who does not take up the
leadership role in the way the group wants them to. Flight occurs when
the group avoids getting involved in the task in a constructive way.
Members might leave the group, procrastinate or talk about
unimportant issues. The ideal is that all group members actively engage
with the task and make a meaningful contribution to the group’s goals.
• Group members often try pairing with members who they perceive as
powerful. The unconscious need for them is to feel secure and
accepted. However, pairing also implies splitting, which implies
cognitive categorising. This means that group members may divide the
group into us versus them, which is detrimental to collaboration and
teamwork. Typical examples of splits or cognitive categorising include
seeing management as both good and bad and dividing colleagues
based on race, gender or level of competence.
• Me-ness is evident when individuals separate themselves cognitively or
emotionally from the group to maintain individual freedom. This may
affect the team’s performance negatively as it works against cohesion
and collaboration. Group facilitators need to explore the reasons for
this separation.
• We-ness is the opposite of me-ness and involves the group members
pursuing unity as the overarching goal of the group in pursuit of
meaningfulness, well-being and wholeness. Group members believe
that being a strong united force will solve problems and therefore strive
towards cohesion and synergy. However, building a strong bond in the
group may either facilitate or hinder performance. On the one hand, it
can lead to more collaboration, but on the other hand to group think,
which implies an unwillingness to debate issues openly.
Figure 9.9
Behaviours displaying group dynamics
SOURCE Adapted from Bergh & Geldenhuys (2013: 252)
Experienced I-O psychologists, group leaders and facilitators develop a
very good understanding of group dynamics. These facilitators are able to
clinically observe groups and identify the various manifestations of group
dynamics. They are then able to assist the group members become aware
of and acknowledge these dynamics themselves and ultimately help the
group develop more constructive ways of interacting. The example box,
Group facilitation, describes how a facilitator can systematically apply
facilitation skills to enhance group development.
Example box
Group facilitation
Group facilitation is aimed at assisting a group to become aware of how the group is
functioning, both in terms of the task as well as in terms of group processes (for example,
collaboration and communication). To improve group understanding, it is suggested that
group members explore the different ways group members look, act, speak, think and feel to
create a deep-level understanding and acceptance of differences. This will protect the group
against unproductive conflict in the future (Toegel & Barsoux, 2016).
During group facilitation, the group reflects on its own functioning (processes), and then
develops more effective behavioural patterns that support group growth and maturity:
• First, the facilitator attends (by observing and listening) to the group’s behaviour in
terms of mechanics and dynamics, content and processes, intellect
(concept/understanding) and feelings (experience), left- and right-brain activities and
verbal and non-verbal behaviours. Rapport is built with the group because it is clear that
the facilitator is caring and listening.
• Second, the facilitator responds to the verbal and non-verbal information received by
paraphrasing, summarising and reflecting back to the group, which helps the group
members understand and explore the problem/s themselves. The two activities of
attending and reflecting can continue for a long while – until the group reaches the
point of understanding (the ‘aha’ moment), which means the facilitator has helped the
group to personalise (own and take responsibility for) the problem.
• Third, as a final step, the facilitator initiates action, for example, by asking: ‘What
alternative actions can the group take to improve its performance in the future?’ This is
then discussed in terms of taking responsible action.
For example, the facilitator may notice many interruptions when members speak, or unequal
participation and frustration. The facilitator makes the group aware of these events in the
group’s functioning and then challenges and guides the group to find alternative ways of
functioning. The facilitator will encourage new behaviours and also reflect on the growth
that has taken place over time.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
9.6.2
Group cohesion
Group cohesion refers to the degree to which members are attracted to
one another and motivated to stay in the group. Cohesive groups are more
effective because members are willing to cooperate with each other to
achieve goals. Cohesiveness is influenced by the following factors:
• Time spent together: Group members who spend enough productive
time together will increase their cohesiveness and synergy as a result of
positive attitudes, increased knowledge and general responsiveness to
each other. In virtual teams, time spent together is limited and
communication provides less non-verbal cues about intention and
attitude.
• Exclusivity of the group: The more difficult it is to get into a group,
the more proud people are to be members of the group, and the more
cohesive they become.
• Group size: The bigger the group, the more difficult interaction with
all members becomes. As the group’s size increases, the likelihood of
cliques and subgroups also increases, thus decreasing overall
cohesiveness.
• Member orientation: If members are less competitive in relation to
each other and more co-operative, they will bond more easily.
• External threats: Cohesiveness can increase in the presence of an
external threat. Under such conditions, group members tend to interact
and communicate more often with each other and develop closer
bonds.
• Previous successes: If a group has a history of successes, it builds a
positive group spirit that attracts and unites members. Successful
groups find it easier to attract new members than unsuccessful ones.
Highly cohesive groups are more effective than those with less
cohesiveness, but only if the group adheres to performance-related norms.
Cohesiveness influences productivity and productivity influences
cohesiveness. Camara-derie reduces tension and provides a supportive
environment for the successful attainment of group goals. The relationship
between cohesiveness and productivity depends on the performancerelated norms established by the group, (see Table 9.2). If performancerelated norms are high (for example, there is high output, quality work,
and co-operation with individuals outside of the group), a cohesive group
will be more productive than a less cohesive group. However, if
cohesiveness is high and performance norms are low, productivity will be
low. If cohesiveness is low and performance norms are high, productivity
increases, but less than in the high-cohesiveness-high-norms scenario.
Where cohesiveness and performance-related norms are both low,
productivity will tend to fall into the low-to-moderate range.
Table 9.2
The relationship cohesion, level of performance norms and level of performance
Level of cohesion in
group
Level of performance
norms
Level of
performance
a) High cohesion
High performance
norms
1 = high
b) Low cohesion
High performance
norms
2 = moderate to
high
c) High cohesion
Low performance norms
3 = moderate
d) Low cohesion
Low performance norms
4 = low to
moderate
SOURCE Compiled by the author
9.6.3
Group communication
Communication is one of the basic group processes and can be defined as
the exchange of information and meaning by two or more people.
Communication is a fundamental social process because it is only through
communication that one establishes relationships with other people.
Breakdowns in transmission can result from filtering and distortion:
• Filtering: Occurs when parts of the message are left out when the
message is sent from one person to the other. People tend to transmit
only what they deem important on behalf of the receiver.
• Distortion: Occurs when people rephrase a message differently to how
it was formulated by the original sender, and the meaning of the
message is therefore changed.
Figure 9.10
Communicating in an online environment
SOURCE Compiled by the author
With large groups, communications can also fail due to less overall
participation and dominance by a few members. People do not always
receive and decode messages well. Misunderstanding can occur due to
physical barriers (for example, noise), information overload and the
psychological state of the receiver. Feedback is very important in
communication as it indicates to the sender whether the message was
understood and accepted by the receiver. To ensure effective feedback in
the communication process, the receiver should reflect, ask questions and
give comments.
Modern technology makes it much easier for group members to stay in
contact and communicate with each other, but it also brings new
communication challenges such as communication overload and poor
work-life integration. Sensitive issues and conflict are often much better
handled face-to-face than electronically as people tend to be less inhibited
and take more risks when using social and other electronic communication
media. Figure 9.10 provides guidelines for communicating effectively in a
virtual environment.
9.6.4
Influence, power and organisational
politics
Power and influence are two behavioural tactics used in groups to direct
the behaviour of group members, get views accepted, obtain information or
dominate others. People in authority have legitimate power to influence
the behaviour of group members. When a person does not have power,
influence can be used to shape behaviour. Influence is the ability to change
the perceptions, attitudes or behaviour of another person, even in the
absence of formal power. A person can influence the perceptions and
attitudes of others by sharing information, networking, forming coalitions
and complimenting others.
Organisational politics generally refer to self-serving behaviours that
benefit some individuals and groups, but that are not endorsed in the
organisation. These behaviours generally have negative consequences for
the organisation and for other members. Organisations with high levels of
political behaviour are characterised by bias, uncertainty, competition,
unequal distribution of resources, self-promoting behaviours and rewards
based on dubious criteria (Silva de Carvalho Chinelato et al., 2020). These
researchers found in their study that employees are more engaged if they
perceived low levels of organisational polities and experienced a
psychological safe organisational climate.
Political skill is the ability to effectively understand others at work and
to utilise political knowledge to influence others and enhance personal and
organisational goals (Perrewé et al., 2007). Political skill consists of four
dimensions: social astuteness (accurately understanding social situations);
interpersonal influence; networking ability (such as developing
connections) and apparent sincerity (being honest, having no hidden
motives). People with political skill communicate upwards with managers,
network, build positive relations, are authentic and observant in terms of
the dynamics of situation.
It is therefore important for group leaders, group members and group
facilitators to observe how power and influence are used and whether they
serve the group’s best interests.
Ethical reader
The use of influence in the workplace
Influence is a double-edged sword – it can either be used positively to create a positive
impression and promote oneself, or, alternatively, in a negative way to disadvantage others.
Therefore, the use of influence has ethical implications. Young people are often advised to
promote themselves through visibility, a positive social media profile, networking with
powerful others and engaging in activities that demonstrate desired graduate attributes.
These are positive actions when aimed at exposure and career development.
On the other hand, the media reports cases of bribery, nepotism, insider trading and
sexual harassment. These are examples of where influence is used negatively in an
organisation to the detriment of the community, customers, employees and others, while the
reputations of those involved are irrevocably tarnished.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
9.6.5
Conflict,
altruism
collaboration
and
team
Conflict in a group occurs when group members have different goals or
when they disagree on how to achieve goals. Conflict can be good, but it
can also be negative in a group if not managed correctly. Conflict can
emerge because of the organisational context, task interdependence, goal
and reward structure, competition for scarce resources and communication
obstacles.
The occurrence of conflict in a group or organisation depends to a
large extent on the formal goals, how performance is defined and the
rewards given to people for their performances. Conflict is less likely to
occur if team members are collectively made responsible for goal
attainment and are rewarded for collective efforts.
Another source of conflict is communication. Misunderstandings occur
due to an inability to communicate or access communication channels, as
well as from communi-cation barriers, poor listening skills and language
and cultural differences. The link between communication and
collaboration is also highlighted (Johnson, 2016).
The role of the leader in fostering team altruism has been emphasised
in research on collaboration in teams (Li, Kirkman & Porter, 2014). Team
altruism is prosocial behaviour defined as team members’ interdependent
voluntary actions that benefit others, that involve sacrifice and that is not
formally expected by team leaders or managers. Team altruism is therefore
extra-role behaviours aimed at benefiting team members, the team as a
whole, or people in other teams and implies team members going the extra
mile. Team leaders can encourage team altruism by serving as role models
and by creating positive effect (a climate of caring and empathy) in teams.
This is especially important during the forming and storming stage of
group development. Once altruism is established in the team, it becomes a
team norm that reinforces or perpetuates altruistic behaviours.
9.6.6
Trust and ethics
Trust is a vital characteristic for teams, leadership and therefore also for
organisations (Yanik, 2018). Trust is a psychological state in which a
person (for example, an employee) is willing to be vulnerable (and
authentic) due to the person’s positive expectation of the actions and
reactions of another or of others (such as the leader). Trust develops over
time and is influenced by past experience, roles, interpersonal relations and
interdependency. When people trust each other, they are more willing to
share information and collaborate. Trust develops when people are
perceived as competent, when it is believed that they have the other party’s
interest at heart and when the person is seen to act with integrity
(openness, honesty and fairness). As such, trust cannot be separated from
ethics.
Ethics is the study of moral values and behaviour and refers to what is
good and right. Unethical behaviour affects the individual, work team and
organisation. Ethics contributes to an organisation’s reputation due to the
link between ethics and trust. Organisations with a good reputation attract
a better-quality employee and instil trust in customers. Ethics is especially
important during the decision-making process. To be able to make ethical
decisions, groups need to be able to:
• Identify an ethical issue and the consequences of alternative decisions.
This implies that the group needs to self-monitor and recognise the
potential of decisions to harm others, such as customers, colleagues or
the organisation.
• Have the confidence to seek out different opinions about the matter in
terms of what is right in a particular situation.
• Be willing to make a decision when there is no clear answer to an
ethical issue and complete information is impossible, and to defend the
decision in a rational manner.
In Chapter 10 ethics as an organisational value is discussed in more detail.
9.6.7
Group decision-making
This section focuses on factors that either enhance or hinder the
effectiveness and efficiency of group decision-making. Various group
decision-making techniques can be used to ensure that high quality
decisions are made.
Many organisational decisions are made by groups, teams or
committees because of their collective resources. The advantages and
disadvantages of group decision-making are shown in Table 9.3.
Table 9.3
Advantages and disadvantages of group decision-making
Advantages of groups over
individuals
Disadvantages of groups over
individuals
Pooling of resources: More
input is brought into the
process.
Time-consuming: Groups take
longer to make decisions.
Heterogeneity or diversity:
Groups provide more input and
a variety of alternatives.
Pressures to conform: Social
pressures in groups and a desire to
be accepted can result in
conformity and, possibly, poor
decisions.
Increased acceptance of
solutions: Group members
Domination by a few: If the
members have low and medium
support these decisions, the
resulting actions and the
consequences due to
participation.
ability, the group’s overall
effectiveness will suffer.
Increased legitimacy: Group
decision-making is perceived as
more democratic and, therefore,
more legitimate than autocratic
and non-consultative individual
decision-making.
Ambiguous responsibility: With
an individual decision, it is clear
who is responsible and
accountable, whereas in the case of
group decisions, the responsibility
is often undecided or obscured.
SOURCE Bergh & Theron (2009: 208)
9.6.8
Group-think and group-shift
Two by-products of group decision-making that influence a group’s ability
to appraise alternatives objectively and make quality decisions for
appropriate solutions are group-think and group-shift.
9.6.8.1
Group-think
Group-think occurs when group processes, such as cohesion and
conformity, work against the effectiveness of the group (Johnson, 2016).
Group-think describes situations in which group pressures force
conformity to norms, which deters the group from critically appraising
unusual, alternative, minority or unpopular views. Group-think is evident
when:
• Group members rationalise or explain away any resistance to their
assumptions. They may say, for example, that because the resisters are
new to the organisation, they do not really understand the issues and
then give reasons why their decision is good.
• Members apply direct pressure on those who momentarily express
doubts about any of the group’s shared views or entertain the validity of
alternative arguments.
• Those members who have doubts or different views from the group
keep quiet or minimise their doubts.
• There appears to be an illusion of unanimity (total agreement). If
someone does not speak up, the assumption is that everyone is in
agreement.
• Groups act as if they are invulnerable, ignoring other influences or
danger signals that may indicate they are on the wrong track.
Three variables moderate or influence a group’s vulnerability to groupthink: the group’s cohesiveness, the leader’s behaviour and insulation from
outsiders.
9.6.8.2
Group-shift
Group-shift is a special case of group-think. Group-shift indicates that in
discussing a given set of alternatives and arriving at a solution, individual
group members tend to exaggerate (or shift) the initial positions they held.
What appears to happen in groups is that the discussion leads to a
significant shift by members towards a more extreme expression of the
position to which they were already leaning before the discussion. Thus,
conservative people become more cautious and more aggressive people take
riskier positions. The ultimate decision reflects the dominant opinion in
the group. For example, some group members might individually feel
upset about an issue; once the issue is discussed in the group, they may
become even more upset or aggressive and decide to respond in an extreme
manner.
Group-shift may be the result of group members becoming more
comfortable and familiar with each other and, therefore, more bold and
daring, or when risk-taking behaviour is considered as desirable or the
result of shared rather than individual responsibility for the outcome of
decisions.
Group effectiveness also depends on the techniques the group uses to
make decisions. Some of these techniques are discussed in the next section.
9.7
Group
techniques
decision-making
The most common form of group decision-making takes place in face-to-
face interacting groups. However, as demonstrated in the discussion of
group-think, interacting groups often censor themselves and pressurise
individual members towards conformity of opinion. The following
techniques can reduce many of the problems inherent in the traditional
interacting group: brainstorming, the nominal group technique, SWOT
analysis, the Delphi technique and online decision-making meetings.
9.7.1
Brainstorming
During brainstorming, which was also referred to in Chapter 6, page 221
(cognitive processes), group members are encouraged to generate as many
ideas or solutions to a problem as possible, without criticising any of the
suggested ideas/solutions. It is meant to prevent conformity and to
stimulate the development of creative alternatives.
All the alternatives are recorded for later discussion and analysis. The
fact that one idea stimulates others, and that judgement of even the most
bizarre suggestions is withheld until later, encourages group members to
think the unusual.
9.7.2
The nominal group technique
The nominal group technique enables a group to overcome typical group
problems, namely a lack of participation, dominance and conformity. With
this technique, group members are not allowed to communicate directly
with each other at all. Instead, they communicate via the group leader or
facilitator, who acts as a conduit of communication. First, the group leader
will clearly state the problem so that everyone understands it well.
Thereafter, group members individually list their ideas and solutions on
paper and then hand them to the group leader. The group leader draws up
and presents a uniform list with all the ideas and solutions. If any group
member is unclear about a suggested idea or solution, they indicate that to
the group leader. The leader will then ask the person who suggested the
idea to explain it (by speaking directly to and facing the group leader).
Once clarity is attained, each group member votes on paper by ranking the
ideas they considers best. The group leader tallies up the rankings (votes).
The ideas and solutions that receive the most votes become the group’s
decision.
9.7.3
The Delphi technique
The Delphi technique is similar to the nominal group technique, except
that the group’s members never meet face to face. They may be located at
different plants and organisations or even in different countries all over the
world. An example is a group of international medical specialists who work
together during the Covid-19 pandemic identifying possible solutions to
managing and controlling the pandemic, or making decisions about
treatment protocols. With the Delphi technique, members are presented
with the problem and asked to provide potential solutions on a carefully
designed template with questions. All the responses are synthesised and
returned for another round of input, and this process continues until
consensus has been reached.
9.7.4
SWOT analysis
SWOT is an acronym for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.
The first two dimensions are internal to the organisation and the last two
are external. The analysis of these dimensions is used for the evaluation of
strategies. The idea is not to list specific strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats, but rather to ask questions about the existence
of them and then to formulate strategies related to them. A SWOT
analysis therefore guides decision-making in an organisation. The
information box, Questions for conducting a SWOT analysis, provides
examples of questions that can guide this process.
INFORMATION BOX Questions for conducting a SWOT
analysis
•
•
•
Strengths: Is there distinctive competence? Are there adequate financial resources? Are
there competitive skills? Is the organisation well thought of by consumers? Are there
cost advantages? Is management competent?
Weaknesses: Are facilities obsolete? Is there a lack of management depth and talent?
Which key skills or competencies are missing? Is the market image weak? What
competitive disadvantages are there?
Opportunities: Can additional customer groups be served? Can new markets or segments
be entered? Can the product line be expanded? Can faster market growth be attained?
Can complementary products be added?
•
Threats: Is it likely that new competitors will enter? Is slower market growth a
possibility? Are there growing competitive pressures or adverse demographic changes?
SOURCE Compiled by the author
A SWOT analysis is more than just a set of four lists. Therefore, the
listing must be evaluated in terms of what the implications are for strategy
and what adjustments in strategy need to be explored.
9.7.5
Online decision-making
Online decision-making enables large groups to contribute to the process.
During online meetings, issues are presented to the participants, who then
type their responses on their computers. Individual comments and
aggregate votes can be displayed as the voting takes place and can be
followed by all.
The major advantages of online meetings are anonymity, honesty and
speed. Participants can anonymously type any message they want and it
flashes on the screen for all to see. It also allows people to be brutally
honest without being penalised. It is fast, because small talk is eliminated,
discussions do not digress, and many participants can talk at once without
stepping on one another’s toes.
The information box, Techniques for facilitating group decision-making
and creativity, describes additional techniques that can be used.
INFORMATION BOX Techniques for facilitating group
decision-making and creativity
•
•
•
Focus groups. Focus groups are used a lot in business, especially in marketing. They
consist of selected people who give feedback and discuss goods, services and ideas.
The devil’s-advocate technique. In this technique, two groups present their ideas on a
selected issue and exchange or present their recommendations to the other group. Each
group is asked to purposefully criticise the other group’s ideas, after which they both
revise their initial ideas. This process of presentation and criticism is followed until final
solutions are reached.
The expert-systems technique. The use of this technique allows management to take
advantage of whatever technology or human resources it has to increase innovation and
change. In this technique, computer technology is of great help, but management also
has to have employees who are leaders, idea generators and good project managers.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
9.8
Organisational culture
As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, the organisation is an open
social system, consisting of interacting and interdependent groups and
individuals. Over time, this system develops a unique identity and
characteristics, referred to as the organisational culture. Organisational
culture distinguishes one organisation from another. Organisations are
mostly defined by the people who belong to them and by their attributes,
behaviour and interactions. Social processes in the organisation such as
communication, decision-making and conflict resolution are affected by
both the structure of the organisation and the use of technology. A bank,
for example, has a different structure and culture from that of a fast-food
outlet. Different banks also have different cultures: a bank that operates
only online will most likely have a different culture (one that reflects
different values) than one that serves clients online as well as face-to-face.
Organisational culture is defined as an interdependent set of beliefs,
values, behavioural tendencies and tools that become so common to an
organisation that they maintain themselves over long periods of time.
Organisational culture includes both observable and unobservable
characteristics of an organisation:
• Observable characteristics include aspects such as dress code, myths,
jargon and distinct behaviour patterns.
• Unobservable characteristics include shared values, norms, beliefs and
assumptions of the organisation’s members.
Organisational culture is an invisible guide for employees in terms of
which behaviours are acceptable and will be rewarded and which
behaviours are unacceptable and will be sanctioned. It also guides
employees when they have to make decisions or solve problems.
9.8.1
How organisational culture is formed
The development of an organisational culture is influenced by the
organisation’s initial owners or founders, its management and the
organisation itself, as follows:
• The founder of an organisation brings a specific philosophy into the
organisation. If the founder is traditional, systematic, perfectionist and
controlling, the organisational culture will reflect a rigid hierarchy with
many rules, procedures and checks. If the founder is an entrepreneur
who strongly believes in freedom, creativity and innovation, the
organisational culture will reflect an informal atmosphere in which
diversity, experimentation and different opinions are encouraged.
• The management of an organisation influences the organisational
culture through its actions and words (Brown, 2011). Senior
management formulates and articulates an organisational vision and
organisational values, which influence the behaviour and feelings of the
organisation’s members, provided, of course, that the managers
themselves act according to these values and vision.
• The nature of the organisation itself also influences the development of
an organisational culture. For example, an organisation that
manufactures hi-tech computer chips that become obsolete in less than
a year is likely to have a different culture from that of an organisation
that manufactures office furniture.
Employees respond to an organisational culture by acting in the
prerequisite manner. If the corporate culture requires employees to seek
approval before they make decisions, to follow rules and to uphold
traditional ceremonies, employees are likely to do these things or they
might lose their jobs. By acting as required, employees unknowingly
reinforce the current organisational culture.
9.8.2
Organisational
onboarding
socialisation
and
Organisational socialisation refers to the process through which new
employees are exposed to the organisation’s values, beliefs and customs and
are moulded into the organisational culture. The first part of this process is
the most important, but a person should keep in mind that employees are
socialised throughout their careers (Robbins et al., 2016). Onboarding
incorporates socialisation and implies that a person is able to adjust to the
organisational values as soon as they enter the organisation and is,
therefore, able to perform excellently without the organisation having to
spend too much time or resources on orientation and training. The
foundation of onboarding is therefore recruiting and employing employees
whose personal values are congruent with organisational values and
introducing them to the organisational culture as quickly as possible. The
process of organisational socialisation presented in Table 9.4 illustrates the
experiences of the employee from even before the person is appointed and
the action taken by the organisation to ensure the successful integration of
the employee in terms of organisational values.
Table 9.4
The process of organisational socialisation
ORGANISATIONAL SOCIALISATION - creating a fit between employee and
organisational values
EMPLOYEE
ORGANISATION
Anticipatory
socialisation/
pre-arrival
Questions and
fantasies/dreams about
working for the
organisation;
researching the
organisation via
personal contacts and
the Internet;
expectations are
shaped.
Carefully designed
recruitment, selection and
placement programmes
giving a realistic view of
the organisation; matching
individual competencies to
job profiles.
Encounter
Actual experience;
relationship with
supervisor and
colleagues; role
demands; importance
of organisational
Initial and ongoing
orientation; training;
assignment of challenging
tasks; assignment of a
supervisor with an
achievement orientation
Adjustment
values.
style; exposing the
employee to the broader
system.
Work-life integration;
internalising of
organisational values.
The employee is perceived
as a valued member of the
organisation and serves as
a role model to new
employees.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
9.8.2.1
Stages of socialisation
Generally, three stages can be identified during socialisation, namely,
anticipatory socialisation (pre-arrival), encounter and adjustment.
Anticipatory socialisation (pre-arrival)
Before entering an organisation, individuals want to determine whether
working for the organisation will meet their needs and expectations. For
example, when considering Woolworths as an employer and searching
their website (www.woolworths.co.za), it becomes evident the organisation
is very quality conscious and promises employees at all levels opportunities
to learn new skills and grow.
Encounter
Accommodation occurs after the person has entered the organisation. The
individual views the organisation, or job, for what it really is, and attempts
to become a competent performer and an active participant in the
organisation by developing relationships with the supervisor, co-workers
and customers and learning new behaviours related to the job and
organisation in general. If this stage is not successful, the employee may
leave the organisation.
Adjustment
During the adjustment stage, the individual works towards meeting the
expectations of the work group and acting according to organisational
values. The individual also find ways to integrate work and personal life
demands. The process is complete when new members have internalised
the values of the organisation, are confident and trusted and can serve as
role models to new employees.
The next sections focus on organisational change.
Example box
Employee socialisation in an online environment
Industrial psychologists, HR practitioners and line managers need to carefully consider the
socialisation of new employees in an online organisational environment. New employees
may easily feel neglected or isolated, and not understand jargon used by existing employees.
In addition, existing employees may already have bonded into smaller supportive groups and
may be less willing to embrace new employees. Therefore, various communication platforms
need to be used effectively to integrate new employees into the team, and team members
need to understand what their role is in the socialisation of a new employee.
SOURCE Compiled by the author
9.9
Organisations and social change
Organisations operate in an environment that is constantly chang