REL 212: HISTORY OF RELIGIONS II
COURSE OUTLINE
COURSE DESCRIPTION
The religions of the Far East: Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism. Religions of the Near East:
Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam. The present and future prospects of these religions
in society.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
• At the end of the course the learner should be able to:
• Discuss the origin, doctrine and growth of religions of the Far East.
• Discuss the origin, doctrine and growth of Religions of the Near East.
• Critically evaluate the present and future prospects of these religions in the
society.
COURSE CONTENT
• Introduction
• An Overview on the need to study the religions of the East.
• An Analysis of the Origin, Growth and Doctrine of the Religions of the Far East
• Confucianism
• Taoism
• Shintoism
• An Analysis of the Origin, Growth and Doctrine of the Religions of the Near East
• Zoroastrianism
• Judaism
• Christianity
• Islam
• A Synopsis of the Religions of the Far and Near East.
• The Present and Future prospects of these Religions in Society.
References
• Goossaert, Vincent. 2011. “The Social Organization of Religious Communities in the
Twentieth Century.” In Chinese Religious Life, ed. David A. Palmer, Glenn Shive, and
Philip L. Wickeri, 172–90. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Hu Shi. 1991. “Introduction to Science and Worldview” (“ ”). In Selected Works of Hu Shi,
52–68. Taibei, Taiwan: Yuanliu Publishing Company.
• Hua Shiping. 1995. Scientism and Humanism: Two Cultures in Post-Mao China (1978–
1989), Albany: State University of New York Press.
• Jin Guantao () and Liu Qingfeng (). 2010. Research on the History of Concepts: The
Formation of Major Political Terminology in Modern China (: ). Beijing: The Law Press.
• Kwok, Danny W. Y. 1965. Scientism in Chinese Thought: 1900–1950. New Haven, CT: Yale
• University Press.
• Lin Yu-sheng. 1979. Crisis of Chinese Consciousness: Radical Antitraditionalism in the
May Fourth Era. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
• Molloy, M. (2005). Experiencing the world's religions: Tradition,
Challenge & Change. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education
• Lu Xueyi (). 2010. “Fifty Years of Sociology in New China” (“”).
• Accessed on September 5, 2015 at http://www.sociology2010.cass.cn/news/722005.htm
• MacInnis, Donald E. 1972. Religious Policy and Practice in Communist China: A
Documentary History. New York: Macmillan.
• ———. 1989. Religion in China Today: Policy and Practice. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books.
• McKinnon, Andrew M. 2005. “Opium as Dialectics of Religion: Metaphor, Expression and
Protest.” Critical Sociology 31(1/2): 15–38. Accessed August 27, 2015 at http://aura.abdn.
• ac.uk/bitstream/2164/3074/1/marx_religion_and_opium_final_author_version.pdf
• Marsh, Christopher. 2011. Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression,
Survival, and Revival. New York: Continuum.
Introduction to the Religions of the East
• In human life and society there is something distinctive called religion and this
phenomena appears in
different forms ie minor and major.
• This course is meant to give an in-depth account of the religions of the East such
as those founded in ancient China and Japan as well as those of the Middle East
such as Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
• It is imperative to note that some of these religions have had a profound impact
on the religious traditions of Africans today.
• This course is a continuation of History of Religions I and is designed to make the
students appreciative of the values in other faiths than one’s own.
Introduction to the Religions of the East
• Its aimed at broadening the scope of knowledge of religious traditions
for the purpose of enhancing reasonable coexistence.
• One cannot claim to understand religion if his interpretation is only
one of his forms.
• A student of religion should have imaginative sympathy appreciative
understanding and experiential participation in religion.
• It is also meant to equip future teachers and religious ministers with
background knowledge of other world religions.
Introduction to the Religions of the East
• Knowledge about other faiths is instrumental in forging constructive
dialogue, respect, tolerance and ecumenism among the various faiths in the
world.
• Inspite of the challenges facing religion like modernity, it has continued to
flourish.
• The religions of the Far East are found in places like China and Japan while
the religions of the Near East are found in Egypt, Babylon Assyria and Israel.
• The History of Religion is the thrilling story of Man’s upward climb to God.
Man’s search is so sincere, his need so great, and his discovery so important
that nothing in the world is more vital than the spiritual quest.
Introduction to the Religions of the East
• Every culture and every people seek for divine truth, sing of their beliefs, and
have their rites and rituals. No conviction is more universal, no theory more
fundamental, than this: life must have its origin in a divine Spirit or source.
• It is impossible to conceive of the universe without God, and one cannot visualize
life without him as Creative cause. Even a nation like Russia, which officially says
that God does not exist, is proclaiming him by its denial. The lowliest Russian
peasant knows that he needs but looks to the skies to discover that “the heavens
declare the glory of God; and the firmament show his handwork” (Ps. 19:1)
• The impulse to worship lies deeply ingrained in the heart of every man. It defies
opposition; it is bound to lead him in search for God.
AN ANALYSIS OF THE ORIGIN, GROWTH AND DOCTRINE OF THE RELIGIONS OF THE FAR EAST
CONFUCIANISM
Introduction
• Confucianism is one of the ancient religions of China and Japan.
• It is among the major religions of the Far East that has occupied the centre
of Chinese and Japanese culture for over many centuries.
• The term Confucianism refers to the religious and ethical ideas founded by
the philosopher Confucius around 500 B.C and held by the Chinese people
for 25 centuries.
• Confucianism, like Buddhism, emphasizes more on the ethical and moral
aspects of human beings and does not make reference to a supreme being
or an afterlife.
• Confucianism is not a belief system, i.e., it doesn't believe in any
supernatural human construct.
• It's real philosophy not a religion.
Confucianism cont’
• Confucianism sees the way of nature and formulates a set of ethical rules of propriety
accordingly.
• Confucianism teaches Chinese people to follow those ethical rules in their social life
• It is the way of life of the majority of the Chinese people with a following of over 300
million people worldwide.
• Confucianism influenced and dominated the culture of the Chinese people for many
centuries until 1949 when the Communist revolution under Mao Tse Tung greatly
weakened it hold.
• The Chinese civilization is founded on four tenets:
• Loyalty to one’s country
• Filial piety to one’s parents
• Thinking heart
• Righteous living
CONFUCIUS (551-479 B.C)
• The most important nobleman before Confucius was the Duke of Chou who lived around
1000 B.C. who developed the Chinese kinship system which emphasized blood ties.
• The Duke of Chou advocated putting the country before family, and family before self.
• So when Confucius was born in 551 B.C. in the state of Lu, there were already 1, 655
years of Chinese civilization available to study.
• His original name was Kung Fu-tzu which was latinised to Confucius meaning the kung
the philosopher or the sage.
CONFUCIUS (551-479 B.C) Cont’
• He came from an aristocratic family but impoverished.
• His father died when he was still young and brought up by his mother.
• Confucius was a great teacher of Chinese classics, ethics and customs.
• He discovered the achievements of the Duke of Chou and worshiped him as his hero.
• Confucius devoted his whole life selecting the noble ideas, customs, and traditions of the
Chinese people and synthesized them into one single holistic system that could be
transmitted from one generation to the next.
CONFUCIUS (551-479 B.C) Cont’
• Confucius felt a strong desire to study how a just, honest and peaceful
government could be established in society.
• He believed that the solution to the problem of poverty and oppression in the
Chinese society was through proper education.
• According to Confucius, ignorance was at the core of stopping people from living
dignified lives.
• To eradicate ignorance, Confucius devoted his life to educate the masses
• Confucius spent a short time serving as a magistrate in Lu. But he
gave up his post to pursue his first love, and that was to be a
wandering evangelist of Chinese classics, ethics, and customs.
• Confucius studied the reasoning behind every custom, ceremony,
ritual, and tradition.
• He consulted Lao Tzu who was 50 years his senior.
• Lao Tzu was the author of Tao Te Ching, the Chinese Classic guide to
Nature, Leadership, Influence, and Excellence.
CONFUCIUS (551-479 B.C) Cont’
• Confucius urged people to respect the past as it could teach them many life
lessons.
• He believed that social order can be achieved only when more people practice
ancient rituals.
• When he died in 479 B.C., at the age of 73, Confucius was said to have more than
3,000 disciples.
• 70 years after Confucius’ death, his disciples compiled his sayings and teachings
into one volume called Lun Yu or The Analects of Confucius.
Confucius’s Teachings
• Although Confucius lived 2,500 years ago, his teachings are startlingly
contemporary. In essence what he said still sounds like truth that should be
repeated on any television program
• He said “Government consists of the correct choice of officials. One must elevate
the just men, so that they can exert pressure upon the crooked men, for in this
way the crooked may be made straight.”
• Once when asked what made him most sad about the world, he said “the fact
that virtue/goodness is not cultivated, that knowledge is not made clear, that
people hear of duty and do not practice it, that those who know they are evil do
nothing to improve themselves. These are the things that make me sad”
• Although Confucius lived in the days of feudalism, five hundred years
before Jesus, he sounds as if he already suspected the coming of the
Christian faith so far as ethics are concerned. But he never wanted to
start a religion.
• “You speak of serving gods,” he once remarked to his followers, “but
how shall you serve gods when you have not yet learned how to serve
men?”
• They asked him about life after death, and he replied “we do not yet
know about the present life; how can we know about death?”
Confucius’s Teachings
• The principle thing that set him apart from other youths was his lust for learning
and a precociousness/talent that showed up in music, poetry, and philosophy at
early age.
• The only character that marked him as unusual was that he believed that man is
inherently good, that goodness always outweighs and conquers evil, and that
propriety/politeness is the cardinal virtue.
• Another quality that was exceptional was his insistence that a man must practice
what he proclaims or else his proclamations are vain. Therefore he tried
especially hard to live the good life.
Confucius’s Teachings
• Confucius never wished to start a religion. He lived during the days of the
wandering teachers and itinerant philosophers and he was one of them. No
doubt he was one of them. They called him K’ung the master or K’ung-fu-tze, a
name that was later Latinized by the Jesuits into “ Confucius”
• A school grew up around Confucius which at its peak numbered approximately
three thousand students.
• He taught these persons philosophy and music and placed great emphasis upon
ethics.
• Among the things he stressed in his teachings was the necessity of being good.
He thus talked of good fathers and mothers, good sons and daughters, good
citizens, good brothers and sisters and friends etc.
Confucius’s Teachings
• His major course might well have been titled “Wisdom to live by” since his
students insisted on reading religion into his teachings, they said it was a religion
of moral order. By this they were referring to moral order in Man, in society, and
in the world. Confucius had a word for it, He called it Li.
• Li meant not only moral order; it also meant righteousness, virtue, faith and most
of all propriety/ politeness. Confucius said “ True manhood consists in realizing
your true self and restoring li”
• Whosoever will realize his true self and restore li, The world will follow him”
• His commitment to harmonious relationships among persons and particularly
between the family and the ruler-ruled relationships formed the central part of
his moral teachings.
Confucius’s Teachings
• He held with serious idealism to the traditions of his fore-fathers and attached
great significance to the preservation and imitation of their ceremony and ritual.
• According to Confucius, “filial piety (devotion to family) consists in successfully
carrying out the unfinished work of our fore-fathers and transmitting their
achievements to posterity/future generations “.
• He hated hypocrisy and insincerity and promoted the dignity of each person.
Confucius is remembered as the model of a great teacher on the concept of order
and harmony between various segments of the society - parents to the children,
ruler to the ruled, old to the young.
Confucius’s Teachings
• He defined the ideal man or gentleman as one governed by propriety (Li), serious
in personal conduct, respectful to superiors, just and benevolent to all people,
particularly the poor.
• He observed filial piety which entailed the duty of sons to care for their parents
and the veneration of ancestors as prescribed by tradition. He is best
remembered for being the first to use the “Golden Rule”, albeit in negative form,
that is, “What I do not wish others to do to me, that also I do not wish to do to
them”. He taught five virtues namely; Benevolence, Righteousness, Propriety,
Wisdom and Sincerity.
C) Desire for education
• Brought up in an impoverished condition, Confucius felt a special desire for
learning. His intention was to study how a just, honest, and peaceful government
might be attained.
• He believed that the solution to the problem of poverty and oppression in China
of his time was through proper education.
• If the ignorance of the people could be eliminated, Confucius believed all
problems would disappear and people would be able to live in honour and
dignity.
• He therefore devoted his later life to the education of the people, both poor and
the nobility.
•
• He was a hard working person.
• His early experience among the poor exposed him to the sufferings of the
common people but given that he also hailed from an aristocratic/noble
family, he did also familiarize himself with the aristocrats, who were the
hereditary lords of creation.
• In his thirties, Confucius went to the Court of Chou to study the
ceremonies currently in use.
• He had considerable interest in the ritual and insisted on the correct
performance of the veneration of the ancestors.
• He acknowledged and included in his heart the presence of something
greater than himself.
Major Doctrines of Confucianism
The question as to whether Confucianism is a religious tradition or an ethical
system is a matter of debate.
Some scholars consider Confucianism as more of an ethical system than a religion.
This is precisely because of its emphasis is on ethical and moral aspects of man and
it almost neglects the supernatural and the life after death which is essential
elements of religion.
Major Doctrines of Confucianism cont’
• The central teachings of Confucianism are not religious but moral.
• Confucius himself showed very little interest in the supernatural aspects of life.
• He is reported on one occasion to have responded to his disciple who wanted to
know how to serve the spirits, saying, “You have not learned how to serve man
well, how can I teach you how to serve the Spirits?” On the whole, it has been
observed that the Chinese people are not among the most deeply religious
people of the world.
• Confucianism gives primary emphasis to the ethical meaning of relationships.
the ethical meaning of relationships.
• Confucius defined the ideal or superior man as one governed by propriety (li) i.e.
high moral conduct, just and kind to all people.
• He emphasized on ‘filial piety’ which is the duty of sons to care for their parents
and the observance of rites and ceremonies as prescribed by tradition.
• Therefore, the ethical teachings of Confucius could be summed up as follows:
• Human nature is good; evil is essentially unnatural.
• Virtue (jen) is an end in itself and is its own reward.
• Thus human conduct is not religiously sanctioned or conditioned.
• One does not do good for reward or refrain from evil for fear of
punishment.
• Confucius taught that people must be motivated in their behaviour by
virtue (jen), which includes values and norms such as a deep sense of
humanity, love, high principle and living together in harmony.
the ethical meaning of relationships cont’
• His ethical system, which is self-subsisting and requires no outside help from the gods or
anyone else, could be summed up in the Golden (also called Silver) Rule that he taught.
• Thus: “What you do not want others to do unto you, do not do unto them.”
• He also emphasized on the virtue of filial piety.
• This principle is said to have had more far-reaching effect on the social life of China than
any other single phase of his teaching.
• His social and political ethics stressed upon the so-called five relations: namely,
• the relation of ruler and subject,
• father and son,
• husband and wife,
• elder brother and younger brother,
• friend and friend.
the ethical meaning of relationships cont’
• In all of these proper behaviour or li was required.
• The father and son relation was seen as the most important and was
characterized by “filial piety”, where a son was expected to suppress
his own feelings and individuality to fulfil the wishes and pleasure of
his father.
• If this relationship can be rectified, then all other relationship will also
fall in place.
the ethical meaning of relationships cont’
• The importance of filial piety is that the home is the basis of teaching
love and virtue in society.
• His ethical ideal was to produce a superior man in society.
• One who lived at one’s best in a particular situation that one found
oneself.
• In developing the idea of a superior man (chun-tzu), Confucius taught
that the ideal citizen was one who is a scholar, a selfless servant of
society, and a gentleman who was well mannered in tradition.
• Among the vices that Confucius disliked included hypocrisy and
insincerity.
• Confucius was of the view that the ideal of jen was not based on any
belief in a supernatural power or divine rewards or punishment after
death.
• Rather it embodied the ancient Chinese way of life (Tao) based on
offering service to humanity and moral uprightness.
• According to Confucianism, external influences (social environment)
can aid the inner development of jen.
the ethical meaning of relationships cont’
• Thus the Confucian concept of propriety or good manners (li), which
involves rites, proper conduct, ceremonies, and doing things the right way,
was regarded as important in the cultivation of virtue and order in society.
• Confucianism teaches that the basic nature of humankind is good.
• Good natural disposition of the people is corrupted by bad external
example and that people will turn naturally to good when good examples
are present.
• To make them present is the duty of the ruler, advised by Confucian sages.
Despite the lack of a central belief in a supreme being, for Confucius the
performance of rituals and ceremonies was essential in the promotion of
good in society.
• Confucius teaches that now a gentleman is defined by his ethics,
morality, and virtues regardless of social status.
• Confucius emphasized the need to form a community of scholars,
noblemen, and gentlemen to exemplify virtue and unify the nation. In
this way, Confucius replaced feudalism with meritocracy, superstition
with moral courage, and mysticism with humanism.
• Chinese do not associate Confucius with”religion” but they speak of
the “school” or the “teaching”.
Confucianism as a religion(notebook
According to some scholars, the only justifiable reason why Confucianism is counted
among religions is that the:
 Westerners mistakenly supposed that there was an affinity/ like-mindedness between
other prophetic religious figures of the 6th Century BC in Israel, Persia and India and
Confucius.
 It is one of the 3 religions China-Confucianism, Taoism and Budhism
 Reference is made to gods and heavens
 Worship of deified powers of nature
 Worship of ancestral spirits
 The doctrines of Confucius were primarily political and social. However, they were
religious only in so far as they dealt with ethical matters.
Reverence to the Ancestors
• Reverence to the Ancestors
• Reverence to the ancestors has been a central aspect of the Chinese culture from
the earliest period and received the approval of Confucius, who on many
occasions stressed its importance.
• Despite the lack of a central belief in a supreme being, for Confucius the
performance of rituals and ceremonies dedicated to the ancestors was essential
in the promotion of good in society.
• Confucius once said:
• “Let there be a careful attempt to perform the funeral rites to parents
when dead; and let them be followed when long gone with the ceremony
of sacrifice; then the virtue of the people will resume its proper
excellence.”
• Part of the motives behind honouring dead ancestors was that of filial
devotion highly emphasized in China.
• But in the entire rituals attendant to the dead, Confucianism does not
speak of an afterlife for the departed.
• Confucius preoccupied himself little with matters dealing with afterlife. He
said: “If I do not know about life, how can I know about death”.
• He also warned his followers, thus “While you are unable to serve men,
how can you serve their spirits.”
Confucian Scriptures
• Confucius was closely associated with Chinese classical literature that formed the
foundation of the traditional culture.
• Among the Confucian classics which Confucius is believed to have edited and written
parts of them include
• the Book of History,
• the Book of Poetry,
• the Book of Changes,
• and the Book of Rites. Although these books were not originally written by him, he was
regarded as the symbol of their authority.
• He is credited for authoring the Spring and Autumn, which was a sort of catalogue of
the main historical events in the state of Lu.
• These classics credited to Confucius are considered as authoritative writings in
Confucianism.
• Other canonical books found in Confucianism include the Analects, an important
set of writings on the basic teaching of Confucian ethics and contains the
remembered words and sayings of Confucius himself.
• In the Analects there are several mentions of Heaven (T’ien), a sort of power or
spirit.
• These books are important because they reflect basic Chinese values and ways of
thinking.
• Their tradition went back before Confucius and continued after him.
Later Development of Confucianism
• Confucianism was advanced more through the works and ideas of the disciples of
Confucius such as Mencius and Hsun-tzu.
• Mencius, who lived 2 centuries after the demise of Confucius, did much to
popularize the teachings of the sage.
• He is remembered for having expounded on the teachings of Confucius and was
successful in influencing the rulers of his time to administer the major teachings
of Confucius on ruler-subject relation.
• Hsun-tzu popularized the doctrine of ritual action, li, and provided a model
for daily life based on expanded religious and ethical views of Confucius
and Mencius.
• Later on, the idea of a supreme deity was developed to encompass the
earlier view of Heaven.
• Although Confucius himself had little faith in the gods and nothing in his
teachings indicates any reliance upon gods for attaining salvation, he
himself was subsequently deified.
Later Development of Confucianism cont’
• By A.D. 57 regular sacrifices to Confucius were ordered.
• The veneration of Confucius, was until recent, carried out with elaborate
ceremonies, including animal sacrifices in hundreds of temples throughout the
empire.
• The Chinese generally hold Confucius not as a god, but a sage, raised to the very
highest possible eminence. That is the ceremonies dedicated to Confucius are not
“worship” in a strict sense, but a mark of veneration.
• And that the sacrifices of animals are in no sense expiatory in a religious
sense, but rather are tributes of respect and honour to Co nfucius.
• The strong influence of Confucianism over the way of life of Chinese people
has been slackened in recent times due to the impact of Buddhism,
communism and secularism.
• Under the impact of Communism few of the Confucian temples have
remained. Nevertheless, such Confucian virtues as morality, kindness,
respect for family and state, among others, have continued to influence the
lives of followers of Confucius to date.
TAOISM-Religion of good ethics
• Introduction
• This is one of the three Religions of China or as some scholars have it, one of the
three schools of thought in China.
• It is a native religion of China like Confucianism.
• While it is traditionally believed that the founder of Taoism was Lao Tzu, some
Scholars say that the system of belief by the name Taoism emerged gradually
though it had certain well known champions, notably, Lao Tzu, an older
contemporary of Confucius
LAOCIUS
• The Chinese name is Lao Tzu. It is not a proper name. It merely means Old
Master.
• According to the traditional legends. Laocius was born around the year 604 BC.
• After he was conceived in the womb of his mother, Laocius is said to have
remained in the womb for a period of 82 years before being born.
• Some authors talk of 60 years being in the womb of his mother.
• Laocius was thus born as an old man with a long white beard and a wrinkled face.
LAOCIUS cont’
• It is said that despite this appearance, laocius immediately after birth, went down
on the floor and began to perform or behave in a manner of a small child.
• He, however, aged very rapidly.
• He conformed to the pattern society demanded, carrying out the great Chinese
principle of filial piety for some time.
• Since old men were rare in those days Laocius an old man appeared exceptional
and was esteemed as a great sage.
• The legend about his age, no doubt reflects an outward aspect of his wisdom
LAOCIUS cont’
• Laocius remains a peculiar figure whose background is not well known. It is said
that he worked as a librarian in the court service.
• He is said to have met with Confucius while the latter was a visitor in the court of
Chou with the intention of studying Court ceremonies that were in use at the
time.
• The legends tells of how Laocius met Confucius and tried to persuade him to
abandon his arrogant ways and many desires which were not worthy of a sage.
• Confucius is said to have described the old master as a dragon.
LAOCIUS cont’
• As noted earlier, Laocius’ school of thought was different from that of Confucius.
• Laocius looked at Confucius with scorn for wanting to regulate life by strict rules
of conduct.
• Laocius believed in the unity and harmony of the universe.
• He stressed the need to return to nature of oneness with the way (Tao) was to be
attained.
• He also stressed spontaneous Self-expression.
• Unlike Confucius who is a historical reality, Laocius is a shadowy and perhaps
mythical figure of whom nothing is actually known except that he authored the
classical Taoist work known as Tao Te Ching or “way and moral principle classic”.
LAOCIUS cont’
• The traditional legend gives an interesting account of how Laocius came to write
the above Chinese classic work. It says that in his old age Laocius left China to
travel westward either to India or to the glorious Buddhist paradise of Sukhavati.
• His aim of travelling to the west was in search of further wisdom.
• While at the Chinese border, he was asked by the customs inspector to leave his
property behind for no one would pass the frontier with any property without an
export license.
• He declared that he owned nothing apart from his philosophy which was in his
mind.
• He was therefore told to leave his philosophy (wisdom) behind and for three
days he remained at the frontier writing down Tao Te Ching.
LAOCIUS cont’
• The book is so brief and it could easily have been written in three days and could
be read in half an hour.
• On the other hand, one could spend a year on it depending upon how thorough
one read it.
• This work deals with the highest word concept of the Chinese language, the word
Tao.
• Compared with the writings of Confucianism, Tao Te Ching does seem to be
aware of the teachings of Confucius and may have been written to provide an
alternative world view to Confucianism.
• The term Tao is of paramount importance in the Chinese thought.
• It means the way or the road and hence “the way of the universe”.
• It is supposed to be the first principle even preceding God. But what is Tao?
Tao: the way of the universe.
• In the opening sentences of the book attributed to Lao Tzu (Lao Tse) or
Laocius, the supposed author tells us the following concerning Tao:
• “There is a being, wonderful, perfect, it existed before heaven and earth.
• How quiet it is! How spiritual it is.
• It stands alone and it does not change.
• It moves around and around but does not on this account suffer.
• All life comes from it.
• It wraps everything with its love as in a garment and claims no honour, it
does not demand to be lord.
• I do not know its name and so I call it Tao, the way, and I rejoice in its
power”.
Tao: the way of the universe cont’
• According to the above statement, Tao is the ultimate reality and unity behind
the diversity of things.
• It is the first principle, the cause of all things.
• It stands for the inexpressible source of being.
• Tao according to Laocius is not just the way for men to follow or a way of life as
was conceived by Kung Futzu, it means more than that, it is the principle which
underlies and controls the world.
Tao: the way of the universe cont’
• Tao is the universal cosmic energy behind the order of nature.
• It is the way of the universe.
• It is mysterious that “they who know do not tell and they who tell do not know”.
• According to Laocius, Tao cannot be expressed in human terms or discussed.
• Any one who attempts to do so loses it, and as long as we do not try to conceive
it, it is there all the time.
• Tao is that by which men live and in losing which they die.
Tao: the way of the universe cont’
• Laocius used the simile of water to describe the nature of Tao.
• He agrees that it is not water but it is like water because it seeks the lowest place
and never stands high that means it is humble in so far as it knows and finds its
own place and does not aspire to be higher than it is.
• Also like water, it is the strongest and most powerful element on earth.
• Water is yielding and flows down to humble places, yet can be most
overpowering of substances by its very inertia.
Tao: the way of the universe cont’
• The natural manifestations of Tao are the sublime/beautiful rhythms
of the seasons and the perennial/recurrent processes of growth and
decay, creation and death.
• Tao refers to the way the universe works, as well as the principle of all
beings or the mother of all things.
• It is the divine principle which informs and underlies nature and out
of it issue the myriad things that make up the natural world.
Tao: the way of the universe cont’
• The aim of the wise man, according to Taoism, is to attain harmony with the Tao.
• Since there has been in the history of Taoism a vivid and fetching awareness of
the beauties and peacefulness of nature, the attainment of harmony with Tao is
also seen as living in accord with nature.
• In the process, therefore, of return to nature, man follows the laws of the earth,
earth follows the laws of heaven, heaven follows the laws of Tao and Tao follows
the laws of spontaneity/ impulsiveness.
THE DOCTRINE
• Taoism consists of two distinct movements.
• We have the movement called Tao-Chia or the Philosophical
movement and the other movement is called Tao-Chiao or the
Religions movement.
The Tao-Chia-- the Philosophical movement
The origin of the philosophical movement is obscure/unclear, however, it is
believed that Laocius and his disciple Chuang Tzu (399-295 BC) contributed to its
development.
• It is in this movement that we come across the concept of Wu-wei which literally
means “inaction”.
• It is a cardinal principle of classical Taoist thought that it is through inaction and
passivity that true results are obtained.
• Nature, so it was held, acts through not acting.
• It is effortless in its dynamism.
• Just as water, mentioned above, the fabric of nature obeys the law of
effortlessness.
The Tao-Chia-- the Philosophical movement
• In the concept of Wu-Wei, we find the element of spontaneity that is, supporting
all things in their natural state thereby allowing them to transform
spontaneously.
• Taoists follow that art of “wu wei”, which is to let nature take its course. For
example,
one should allow a river to flow towards the sea unimpeded; do not erect a
dam which would interfere with its natural flow.
• In this sense, Tao undertakes no activity and yet there in nothing left undone.
• In ordinary life this would be expressed as “producing or rearing things without
taking possession of them” or doing work but not taking pride in it.
• Thus the natural way stands in direct opposition to all artificial ways such as
regulations, organizations and ceremonies.
The Tao-Chia cont’
• One other important aspect of the philosophical movement is the principle of YinYang.
• This has to do with the belief that the cosmos is governed by two opposite forces,
namely, Yin and Yang.
• Yin represents femininity, maternity, earth, cold, darkness, weakness and death.
• It stands for negativity and passivity. It is identified with the North.
• Yang represents masculinity, paternity, heaven, warmth, light, strength and life.
• It stands for positivity and activity.
• It is identified with the South.
The Tao-Chiao---- the Religions movement.
• This is the religious movement in the concept of Taoism.
• Despite the political aspect of Taoism already mentioned above and which may
have won it a good deal of support among the hard-driven masses, the core of
the doctrines of the Tao-Chiao are religious and mystical in character.
• The Wiseman (sage) by stilling himself and his senses and appetites, can gain an
inner perception of the Tao.
• Through this he attains a sort of oneness with the eternal and a harmony with
the principle underlying and penetrating the whole world.
• Because of this unification with the everlasting Tao, the sage himself becomes
everlasting, though not in the sense of being destined for individual immortality
in heaven.
The Tao-Chiao cont’
• The Taoist mystic evidently strove to empty his mind, and may have
used techniques a kin to Buddhist Yoga.
• Certainly there is evidence of the use of similar breathing techniques
which constitute a preminary step to control over mental processes.
• The Taoist was concerned with a sort of immediate, inner, intuitive
enlightenment which was very different from the scholarly knowledge
promulgated by the Confucians.
• The essential thing was an existential rapport with the Tao.
• Taoism as a religious movement emphasizes the importance of
quietness.
• “To be always talking is against nature” according to Tao Te Change.
• The quietness, naturalness and power of Tao must be reflected by all
who follow it and who therefore become “quietists”.
• The sage does not struggle or push himself to the front, but his
water-like behaviour gives him fulfilment and long life.
• He seeks the “actionless activity (Wu-Wei)” and teaches by example
rather than by words.
The Tao-Chiao cont’
• In this way he is able to control all things including himself.
• So the sage who is in harmony with the Tao, “Does without doing”
And speaks in silence, for those who speak do not know and those
who know do not speak.
What distinguishes Taoism as a religion?
• There are several features:
• a) The multiplicity of gods: Taoism has a god for almost everything.
• There are gods of literature, wealth, medicine, kitchen etc,
• there are the three pure ones or the heavenly honoured ones, these are: one
without form, one with form and the other one with form Brahma form.
• b) Search for blessings and longevity: Popular Taoism is strongly
characterized by piety and devotion.
• Its chief objectives are earthly blessings such as happiness, health, children
and above all longevity.
• There were developed practices to enable people acquire blessings and
long life.
• These practices included breath control, baths, diet, mental concentration,
sex hygiene, physical exercises, medicine, the use of charms, attempts at
disappearance and change of bodily form and most interestingly
Alchemy/experimentation, especially the effort to transmute mercury to
Gold.
• c) Superstitions: The Taoist religion is a rich reservoir of superstitions,
including fortune telling, divination and the use of charms.
• d) Sects: Taoism is a wholesale imitation of Buddhism, notably in the
clergy, temples, images, ceremonies and its canon. There are two sects
referred to as the Northern school and the Southern school.
• The Northern school is called the complete unity sect- It emphasizes men’s
life that is, man’s vital force and relies on medicine and diet to prolong life.
It is materialistic and formal
• The Southern school is called the True Unity Sect- It emphasizes man’s
nature, that is man’s spirit or true self- it relies on charms and magic to
preserve life. It depends on “Self- Power”
What distinguishes Taoism as a religion? Cont’
• e) Ethical Teachings: Generally the followers of Taoism, Confucianism and
Buddhism consider religion as essentially a sanction of ethics.
• Development of virtue is ones chief task. The Three Jewels to be sought are
compassion, moderation and humanity.
• In the two most popular tracts, namely; The treatise on influence and response
and The silent way of Recompense, both of which have been influential for
centuries, we find included, the Confucian moral values such as filial piety, loyalty,
love, righteousness and good faith, the Buddhist virtues such as compassion,
kindness to all creatures and remonstration against all evil deeds, and Taoism’s
own ethics of patience, simplicity, contentment and harmony.
• All these aspects are strongly advocated in the two tracts.
GROWTH OF TAOISM
• We have already noted earlier that Taoism emerged perhaps to provide an alternative
way of life to the constraints of the authoritarian Chinese state established on the
Confucian moral demands.
• It may have been an escape from a too-this-worldly approach to life.
• In many ways, Taoism taught the very opposite of Confucianism.
• Confucianism was more a religion of the intelligentsia than Taoism, which was definitely
aristocratic although Confucius himself believed in equal opportunity. He was willing to
accept anybody who was gifted to follow his instructions and not only from aristocratic
class. The training of a Confucian destined him for official duties. The mass of people
remained outside the immediate influence of Confucius’ training.
GROWTH OF TAOISM
• In Confucianism, important rituals could not be performed by just
anybody. For instance, the emperor alone sacrificed to Heaven;
princes on their tours would sacrifice to Earth. Court ceremonial and
the cult of aristocratic ancestors were confined to the upper class.
• It came about that the ritual dimension of the ordinary people’s
religion was confined to the cult of the ancestral spirits and certain
personal and local deities and spirits familiar to the villagers. This
explains why, when Taoism became a popular religion, the mystical
ideas of the Tao Te Change and of Chuang overlaid with a
considerable amount of demonology and popular beliefs.
GROWTH OF TAOISM cont’
• Though Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are referred to as the
“three religions of China” it must be remembered that over most of
Chinese history the more important distinction, in some ways at least,
was not between the three religions which in any case tended in
some periods to merge into one another, but rather it was drawn
between the beliefs and practices of the common peasantry and
those of educated folk.
GROWTH OF TAOISM cont
• Chinese religion has nearly always existed at these two levels: there
was always a sizeable proportion of folk who had either an
intellectual grasp or an intuitive and devotional understanding of the
faiths to which they had allegiance but beyond them, there was the
mass of people who followed behind and for whom religion,
interwoven with magic had an immediate practical significance in the
struggle for worldly benefits and in the common round of agricultural
and family festivals.
• There are about 50 million adherents of Taoism although this number
cannot be ascertained because of the syncretic religious culture of
Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism, which has become a basic
component of the Chinese mind.
• The great revolutionary changes in China have contributed a great
deal in making Taoism as a religions less apparent than it used to be.
• Taoism has always been at odds with the Government due to its
emphasis on freedom from traditions and restrictions.
SHINTO: Religion of the way of the Gods
• The Religion called Shinto bears the unmistakable mark: “Made in Japan” like
many other creative productions of creative people, it is one of the most unique
faiths in the entire world.
• Unlike Christianity, Shinto has no founder, no prophet, no Saviour, no creed, no
scripture, no theology.
• Like Christianity it has its Churches, schools, and priests, its groups within groups,
and its sects and sub-sects.
SHINTO: Religion of the way of the Gods
• It also has approximately thirty million followers and a round 100,000
shrines.
• Like Hinduism, it has been described as a religion based on belief in
many gods or no gods; and like most religions it ranges from
orthodoxy to modernism, from self-denial to self- aggrandizement,
from science to magic, from faith to fireworks.
SHINTO: Religion of the way of the Gods
• Most Japanese are nominally Shintoists in the same sense that most
Americans are nominally Christian.
• Many Shintoists worship at their own shrines and at Buddhist shrines
and even pick up what they feel is good and profitable in Christian
faith as well as Confucianism.
• It is believed by the practitioners that Shinto has always withstood
bombings, earthquakes, and even loss of the emperor’s divinity and
therefore there is no reason to think it will not always be there.
The Name:
• Shinto is the name given to the ancient religion of Japan. This name is of Chinese
origin, Shen-Tao and it literally means the way or the teaching of the gods (Kami).
• The Japanese equivalent of the name Shinto is “ Kami no machi”. The term
“Kami” is usually translated as “gods” or “deities”. Actually the forces of nature
were indiscriminately called “Kami”. The term, however, means “above”,
”superior”, or “divine”, and signified anything that was the object of reverence
and respect.
• Accordingly, all the heavenly and earthly forces, great men, both living
and dead, and many animate/living and inanimate/non-living beings
such as plants, rocks, birds, beasts and fishes, as well as earthquake,
thunder, water, sun and moon were “Kami”.
• Shinto is better rendered as the way of the Kami. On one level the
Kami have to do with what is sacred or mysterious, with power or
fate, with life and death. They are the Japanese version of “the idea of
the holy”.
The Name: cont’
• On another level, although no hard lines drawn, human beings are Kami. Actually
it is believed that heaven and earth are one that means, there is no barrier
between them.
• The early myths spoke of 800,000,000 Kami usually divided into heavenly Kami
and earthly Kami. In this connection, the Japanese did not regard spirit as
superior to matter; rather they believed that the two coexisted on an equal
footing.
• It is evident that from the earliest past, Shinto was the Japanese way of
understanding the natural world around them and their relationship to it and to
one another.
• That which was particularly wondrous, whether in nature or among
people, was accepted as a superior object of worship and hence
“Kami”.
• As regards the name “Shinto”, it is good to note that for centuries the
ancient Japanese religion was nameless.
• The designation of “Shinto” arose in the 6th Century AD aimed at
distinguishing the traditional religion of Japan from Buddhism which
was, in that very Century, introduced in Japan.
Origin:
• Shinto is a loosely organized indigenous religious cult of Japan. Unlike religions
which base their teachings and conduct upon revelation given through a founder
or upon writings of inspired men, Shinto has neither a founder nor a written
canon.
• Actually, Shinto has no explicit system of beliefs or ethical code.
• Instead there are habits of thought and feeling, various ritual practices and “an
attitude of joyful acceptance of life”. Shinto has no sacred book.
• The closest it comes to, such a reality, are two ancient histories, the
Kojiki, that is , the records of ancient matters, and the Nihongi, that is,
the chronicles of Japan, both written in the 8th Century AD.
• Actually, the two works contain a collection of stories of the Shinto
gods.
• They contain lists of names and traditional stories rather than
religious devotional writings.
History of Japan:
• The official chronicles of Japan are characterized by a smooth transition from the
mythical past to the historical period.
• According to legends, the history of Japan began around the 7th Century BC, when the
first emperor of Japan was enthroned.
• This is, however, contested by modern scholars who hold that the history of Japan
began about 1700 years ago.
• But before the historical period, the inhabitants of Japan had some kind of religion but
the origins of the ancient Japanese religious cult that gradually developed and was later
referred to as Shinto are unknown.
• The ancient Japanese people were an admixture of various groups who migrated to the
Japanese Islands from the Asian Continent, and their religion also betrayed Northern
and Southern Asian influences.
• It took several Centuries for these ethnic groups and peoples to become assimilated
under the leadership of the so-called Yamato Clan around the 4th Century AD.
Divine origin of Yamato leadership
• The Yamato clan is said to have ascended to power after having overpowered
other clans. Its hereditary priest-king acquired supreme prestige. Significantly, the
function of the throne was to take charge of both religious rites (matsuri) and
political administration (matsuri-goto) which were regarded as inseparable.
• With the dominance of the Yamato clan, its myths began to provide foundations
for political theories. The prominent feature of the Yamato myths was the divine
origin of the Yamato people.
• The myth has it that from the list of many deities, two were outstanding. In fact
they are regarded as the primordial/pre-historic pair that gave birth to the Islands
of Japan.
• One was a male deity named Izanagi or He who invites. He married a
female deity named Izanami or She who is invited, and both gave birth
to mountains, rivers, seas, plants, animals and human beings, as well
as Kami.
• Among the Kami thus born were, the Sun-goddess or Amaterasu
Omikami; the moon ruler or Tsuki-yomi-no-mikoto; and the ruler of
the nether regions or Susa-no-o-no-mikoto. The most important of
these Kami was the Amaterasu Omikami, the Sun-goddess also called
the “Heaven illuminating goddess”. She ruled the light and the day,
wisely and kindly, giving peace and order and protecting the food
supply.
Divine origin of Yamato leadership cont’
• But her brother Susa-no-o-no-mikoto (swift impetuous) the storm god, destroyed
her domain and polluted her shrines. Amaterasu escaped to a heavenly cave and
plunged the world in total darkness.
• All other gods assembled outside the cave, uttered magical words and performed
a ceremonial dance which made her to look outside the cave only to see her
image in a mirror the gods had placed there.
• As she attempted to reach for her beautiful image, the other gods pulled her out
and light came back to the world.
• The gods banished Susa-no-o-no-mikoto to a sanctuary in Zumo on the
north coast of Japan. The swift impetuous god belonged to the domain of
the invisible magic and exorcism and is believed to be the cause of
pestilence and disaster unless he is propitiated through ritual during times
of calamity.
• Amaterasu is thus the chief of the Shinto gods and her shrine at Ise is the
holiest of all shrines.
• In it are, special imperial symbols namely; a mirror, a sword and a bead
believed to have been hers.
• The three symbols are believed to represent the three shinto virtues of
veracity/truth, mercy and justice.
Divine origin of Yamato leadership cont’
• Amaterasu is said to have sent her son Ninigi-no-mikoto to rule over the Islands
of Japan and to appease them.
• He married the daughter of Mount Fuji and their grandson, Jimmu Tenno became
the first emperor of Japan.
• The supremacy of Amaterasu is thus maintained by the imperial line.
• Emperor Jimmu Tenno became the earthy ancestor of the imperial family.
• Thus the emperor of Japan is therefore believed to be a descendant of Amaterasu
and given divine quality.
THE RELIGIOUS CULT
• The religion of ancient Japanese was a simple polytheistic nature worship
emphasizing gratitude to the beneficial forces of nature, while also to some
degree appeasing the malevolent forces.
• Actually the sun-goddess was worshipped side by side with other clan deities and
nature deities all of which composed the rich Shinto pantheon.
• The religious rites of the early Japanese were mostly fertility cults.
• Purification in a ceremonial sense was emphasized.
• Disease, wounds, death, sexual intercourse and menstruation were considered
displeasing to the “kami” and those who were thus polluted could not participate
in the rites.
The religious rites were performed by three kinds of persons, namely;
• i) The head of family or clan, considered Priest de facto.
• ii) Shamans, men and women with occult (hidden) powers who
performed divination, sorcery and lustration.
• iii) Hereditary lines of priests and shamans known to have existed in
at least some clans.
THE RELIGIOUS CULT CONT’
• These three types of priests and priestesses sometimes existed side by side and
in some cases one of them combined features of the others. The Shinto of those
early times expressed an attitude of joyful acceptance and a feeling of closeness
to nature as already noted earlier.
• There was no struggle between good and evil. The only concern was the ritual
purity perhaps originating in past from sanitary measures and certainly
contributing to the Japanese love of bathing and their record of being
undoubtedly the world’s cleanest people throughout history.
• Kami were felt to be everywhere and were worshipped and prayed to
as beneficent forces. There were the simple beliefs of Shinto in
earliest times, and they remain the heart of Shinto today.
• It is good to note that in old Japan; the world of the living was
everywhere ruled by the world of the dead - that the individual at
every moment of his existence was under ghostly supervision.
• In his home he was watched by the spirits of his fathers; without it he
was ruled by the god of his district. All about him and above him, and
beneath him were invisible powers of life and death.
THE RELIGIOUS CULT CONT’
• In his conception of nature all things were ordered by the dead - light and
darkness, weather and season, winds and tides, mist and rain, growth and decay,
sickness and health.
• The viewless atmosphere was a phantom sea, an ocean of ghost, the soil that he
tilled was pervaded by spirit-essence, the trees were haunted and holy; even the
rocks and the stones were infused with conscious life...How might he discharge
his duty to the infinite concourse of the invisible?
• The nature of the public rites varied according to the rank of the gods.
• Offerings and prayers were made to all, but the greater deities were worshipped
with exceeding ceremony.
GROWTH
• Shinto Religion- is mostly found in Japan although some pockets of it may be found
elsewhere in Asia.
• From 1868 until the end of World War II 1945 the Shinto religion was tied up with the
emperor cult and the shrine at Ise.
• However after the humiliation of Japan at the end of the war the emperor semi-divine
status was officially denied and Shinto lost its dominant position.
• Since then the observance of Shinto practices has become a voluntary matter though it
is estimated that about 30 million adhere to Shinto, the followers may be identified
with other religions.
• Such as Buddhism or even Christianity.
• Shrines are visited by large number of people particularly during the New Year from 1st
to 3rd January. Some items are bought to be taken at home and placed on the family
mini-shrines or Kemi shelf.
• The influence of Shinto religion on Japanese people is manifested in the
culture the Japanese have developed that loves nature and beauty, while
emphasizing the virtue of family unity, diligence at work and a sense of
duty.
• There has been considerable growth in Shinto sects i.e. Tenri-kyo (the
religion of heavenly wisdom) and Konko-yo (the religion of the Golden
light).
• These new sects are organized like churches providing security and
fellowship and amid the changing social conditions of modern Japan.
• Perhaps Shinto has survived so strongly in Japan because it had its own
secure niche in the Japanese way of life.
•
GROWTH cont’
• Confucianism dealt with political organization, ethical precepts and a rational
view of the universe; Buddhism was concerned with the relation of the
individual soul to the limitless cosmos and the afterlife, stressing either escape
from the unending cycle of painful existence through enlightenment or
salvation by faith into paradise.
• But Shinto was focused on adapting to life in this world and on a simple
merging of man into the natural environment around him.
• In the modern period Shinto has been used as a tool of anthropocentric
nationalism and chauvinistic/dogmatic militarism and is often thought of in
these terms by outsides.
• The cause of Shinto was greatly enhanced by the compilation of the
Kojiki and Nihongi in the 8th Century.
• They were considered as quasi-sacred scriptures of Shinto, although
Shinto has no concept of scripture comparable to the Bible or the
Koran.
• Amidst all the challenges faced by Shinto, it still remains the native
religion of the Japanese, that still has the control of the people of the
island of the rising sun.
ANALYSIS OF THE ORIGIN, DOCTRINE AND GROWTH OF
THE RELIGIONS OF THE NEAR EAST ZOROASTRIANISM:
The Religion of Good and Evil
• This is one of the major Religions of the near east.
• It is said to be second oldest after Judaism.
• The other two major religions are Christianity and Islam.
• Zoroastrianism, which originated in Iran or Ancient Persia has had an important
influence on the other three religious (Judaism, Christianity and Islam).
• Zoroastrianism was the outcome of a reform of the Ancient religion of Iran
carried out by Zarathustra during the late 7th and early 6th century BC.
ZOROASTRIANISM: The Religion of Good and Evil
• Many Scholars insist that Judaism and Christianity owe a great debt to
this Persian Seer, Zoroaster, because he proclaimed many truths that
Jewish prophets and Jesus himself reiterated.
ZOROASTRIANISM: The Religion of Good and Evil
• For Example in the Avesta, as the Sacred Scriptures of the Zoroastrians are called,
it is stated that the world was created in six days and that the man named
Mashya and a woman named Mashyoi were placed in the garden called Paradise
and then driven out because they disobeyed God.
• These Ancient writings, originally recorded on twelve thousand calfskin and
bound with rings of gold, also taught that:
• there is an abode called heaven and a place called hell
• and that God is a spirit whom men should worship “in spirit and truth”.
ZOROASTRIANISM: The Religion of Good and Evil
• Similarly between certain sayings of Zoroaster and the words of Jesus were more
startling.
• Long centuries before the Galilean began his ministry; Zoroaster was already
proclaiming a golden rule that said that a man is good only when he is willing not
to do to another whatever is not good for himself.
• Before Jesus teachings concerning the goodness of the father, Zoroaster
described God as “the giver of all good and perfect things”
ZOROASTRIANISM: The Religion of Good and Evil
• Hundreds of years before Golgotha, Zoroaster spoke about the
“Resurrection from the dead,” the “immortality of the soul” and even
went so far as to say that people who believed in him (Zoroaster)
“would not perish, but be given everlasting life.”
• The wise men from the East who followed the star and brought their
gifts to Bethlehem were Magi from Persia• Zoroastrians who had been divinely informed that the saviour had
been born. All this was sufficient to recommend the faith for further
study.
THE PRE-ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION
• For a better understanding of Zoroastrianism it is good to consider first the
Indo-Iranian religion which can be considered as the mother of
Zoroastrianism.
• This religion was polytheistic in nature.
• The gods were mainly personifications of prominent natural phenomena or
powers such as the sun, the moon, stars, the sky, the earth, fire, water
winds and storms.
• These gods were called Daevas.
• Mithra was among the prominent gods. Mithra was the god of wars and
light.
THE PRE-ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION
• Ahura Mazda became supreme over the gods of Persian religion.
• The worship of pre-Zoroastrian Persian (Iranian) gods involved numerous
sacrifices to them, offered in open spaces as well as at altars with priests as
officials.
• Oxen and the sacred “haoma” plant were offered as sacrifices and as part of the
ceremonies, priests and the worshippers drank the fermented juice of the
haoma.
• The juice was an intoxicating/Alcoholic beverage.
•
THE PRE-ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION
• These sacrifices were supposed to maintain or confer life in all its
forms, not only procuring well-being and off springs but also
providing a foretaste and earnest of immortality through the
intoxication induced by the sacred liquor.
• Fire was considered sacred and was the object of worship or
adoration. It was lit ceremonially, the grass around the altar was
sprinkled with haoma juice, and then portions of the burnt sacrifice
were placed there for the gods.
THE PRE-ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION
• Before the sacrificial animal was slaughtered it was touched with a bundle of
certain sacred leaves or boughs, the worshipper held these before his face during
the adoration of the sacred fire.
Fire adoration has continued to be an important feature of Zoroastrian all
through its history the present day.
•
At the time of the rise of Zoroastrianism the Iranians were no longer purely
nomads; they were mostly settled pastoralists and agriculturists.
• Due to this change of life style, there was already among the ancient Iranians a
feeling of dissatisfaction with existing ancient religion which was ill-suited to that
mode of life and developing economy.
• Its animal sacrifices were becoming increasingly burdensome.
SPITAMA ZOROASTER
• He is the founder of Zoroastrianism.
• He was born and educated in the traditional religion of Indo-Iranian or the
ancient religion of the Persian people.
• Zoroaster is the Greek version of the Persian name, Zarathustra. Hence
Zarathustra was the original name of the founder of Zoroastrianism.
• The name Zoroaster became so popular to the extent that the religion was
named after it.
• Zoroaster was born and worked in Iran and the date of his birth is placed
between 10th and 5th century BC. The weightier evidence seems to favour
6th or 5th century BC and is said to have died around the year 547 BC at
the age of 77
SPITAMA ZOROASTER
• Zoroaster was a son of a priest of a pastoral tribe. His birth is said to have been
miraculous: The glory of Ahura Mazda came down onto his mother-to-be (a
fifteen old unmarried girl).
• At birth, Zoroaster is said to have laughed.
• In his youthful age, Zoroaster is said to have shown great concern for others and
had a great interest in finding out religious truth.
• This made him wander about inquiring about it from the wise people.
• He would also spend long periods in seclusion in meditation.
a) His Call
• Zoroaster was undoubtedly a great prophet. Sometimes he was referred to as
the prophet of Iran.
• It was at the age of 30 years that he received his prophetic call.
• The archangel called Vohu Manah (Good thought), a gigantic figure as big as nine
men combined, appeared to him.
• After questioning him he took him up in spiritual form to the presence of god
(Ahura Mazda, the wise lord).
• Ahura Mazda purified him and appointed him his prophet.
• He also gave him instructions in the doctrines and duties of the true religion.
a) His Call
• It is reported that for the next eight or ten years he continued to have
vision meetings with the other six archangels who gave him further
instructions.
• He also had often seven conferences with Ahura Mazda.
• In this way, his original revelation and prophetic call were enhanced.
• He therefore felt divinely called to preach and teach the doctrine and
worship of the one time and only God, the Supreme Being whose
name, Ahura Mazda (wise lord) was opposed to the existing
polytheism.
a) His Call
• He also believed that he was divinely appointed and sent to convert men to this
true religion and to make this world progressive.
• He therefore preached and taught the true faith in the only God, Ahura Mazda
and denounced the current polytheism, idolatry and evil living.
• He faced opposition from priests who were not ready to embrace his reforms,
but the conviction he had of having received a divine call made him resistant of
the opposition.
• After ten years of preaching and teaching he won in first convert, his cousin.
His Call
• Later in eastern Iran he converted king Vishtaspa.
• To realize this great catch, he had to struggle for two years against
priests who surrounded and dominated the king.
• This conversion marked the real beginning of the establishment and
growth of Zoroastranism in Iran.
• The king’s household was converted following the example of the
king.
• The king is said to have used his power to propagate Zoroastrianism,
which became the religion of the state.
THE DOCTRINE
• The only source of his teaching is the Gathas. All other writings are of later
date and in part legendary.
• Zoroaster taught the following concepts among others:
• Ethical monotheism;
• Cosmic dualism;
• Death and judgement
a) Ethical monotheism
• Zoroaster did not introduce a new religion as such.
• The religion he taught was based on the old religion of his people, but which he
reformed so radically that it had now his prophetic genius.
• He taught a unique ethical monotheism in opposition to the polytheism and
ritualism of the old religion.
• He thus declared Ahura Mazda as the old and only true God.
• As opposed to other gods, Ahura Mazda was highly ethical.
•
Ethical monotheism
• He is the creator and sustainer of all things, he is justice and wisdom.
• He is described in the Avesta (sacred scripture of the Zoroastrian) as
“the creator, radiant, glorious, greatest and best, most beautiful, most
firm, wisest, most perfect, the most bounteous spirit.
• Zoroaster denounced all other gods as devils and deceivers who in
alliance with Angra Mainyu seduce people to do evil and turn them
away from the true religion of the worship of Ahura Mazda alone.
Ethical monotheism
• The other name of Ahura Mazda is Ormazd.
• He is one, but he also has another divine being very closely associated with him
and through whom he expresses and accomplishes his will and purposes.
• He is called Spenta Mainyu (Holy spirit).
• Actually according to Zoroaster, Ahura Mazda had two sons, or twin-spirits.
These twin spirits chose between good and evil. The two were:
• Spenta Mainyu and Angra Mainyu.
• Spenta Mainyu chose good. He is associated with truth, justice and life.
• Angra Mainyu chose evil and its attendant forces of destruction, injustice and
death
Ethical monotheism
• Besides Spenta Mainyu the close associate of Ahura Mazda, there were
other divine agents of Ahura Mazda. The seven principal ones are:
• Amsha spenta …………(the immortal Holy ones/God the eternal light)
• Vohu Manah …………..( good thought/good mind and mind of love)
• Asha………………… (right/knowledge of right and justice )
• Kshathra …………….(power or Dominion/strength of spirit),
• Hauvatat …………….(prosperity/ Health and perfection),
• Armaiti……………… (piety and faith )
• Ameretat …………….(immortality).
Ethical monotheism
• The first two are attributes of Ahura Mazda whereas the other five
are his gifts to men.
• Zoroaster calls them archangels of Ahura Mazda given that Vohu
manah, was the archangel who appeared to him in his initial
revelation and conducted him to Ahura Mazda’s presence.
b) Cosmic Dualism
• This appears to be a more special characteristic feature of his teaching than his
monotheism. According to Zoroaster there existed two powerful rival cosmic
spiritual principles right from the beginning of the universe:
• One was good (Spenta Mainyu-Holy spirit) and
• The other one evil (Angra Mainyu-Evil spirit).
• Both came from Ahura Mazda. However, their great opposition of nature and
character originated in the exercise of their power of freedom of choice.
Cosmic Dualism
• According to this Dualism, therefore, there is in the universe a cosmic,
spiritual ethical struggle between Ahura Mazda and his associate
Spenta Mainyu on one hand and Angra Mainyu on the other hand.
• This cosmic conflict between good and evil, truth and untruth, light
and darkness and order and chaos which originated in the spiritual
realm is characteristic of nature and existence and is especially
significant in men’s soul.
• The greatest emphasis is laid on freedom of choice both in the
spiritual realm and in the human realm.
Cosmic Dualism
• Zoroastrian Dualism does not consider the spiritual realm as wholly good just by
virtue of being spiritual.
• After all it was in the spiritual realm (where moral choice was made by the
original spiritual beings Spenta Mainyu and Angra Mainyu) that evil as well as the
cosmic spiritual ethical conflict originated.
• Thus in Zoroaster’s teaching the material or physical world (as well as the
spiritual world) is inherently good, being Ahura Mazda’s creation.
• Zoroaster’s dualism also had a social implication in that he considered the settled
community of herdsmen as the followers of the truth, while the raiders were
followers of the lie and engaged in sanguinary/bloody sacrifices in honour of the
daevas.
• This latter would have been the warrior-class in Iranian society.
Cosmic Dualism
• The settled herdsmen were the classic Iranian societies who were the real
producers of wealth.
• Responding to the teaching of the prophets, the herdsmen would have formed
the basis of the new Zoroastrian community.
• The fact that the hostile warrior class were by tradition worshippers of the many
daevas might have provided a stimulus to any incipient tendency.
• Zoroaster’s’ religious thought towards belief is the One rather than many; that is
the One Ahura, rather than the many ahuras.
Zoroaster’s Ethics
• His teachings constituted a highly ethical religious system.
• The underlying principle of Zoroastrian ethics is the teaching that in the spiritual-moral
struggle between good and evil, true and lie, light and darkness, a struggle which
extends into man’s heart, man has complete freedom of choice.
• That is, to choose the way of Ahura Mazda and Spenta Mainyu or to follow the way of
Angra Mainyu.
• Accordingly the highest virtue in Zoroastrianism is purity of thought, words and deeds
as well as ceremonial purity.
• Ceremonial purity was important particularly in the adoration of the sacred fire.
Zoroaster’s Ethics
• Fire was a gift of Ahura Mazda to mankind and symbol of him as god of light as
well as a symbol of purity and grateful warmth.
• The sacred fire had to be kept burning and should not go out. Nothing polluted
or impure was to come close to it.
• In Zoroaster’s Ethics the Goodman also recognizes and accepts the good and true
religion which the prophet Zoroaster preached.
• In addition, the good are willingly engaged in practical activities which promoted
the welfare and progress of the people, for example in good progressive
agricultural activities.
d) Death and Judgement
• Zoroaster saw the final triumph of good over evil as taking place in the next
world, beyond death and at the end of the present world.
• Actually in the Zoroastrian cosmology the history of the world is conceived as a
vast drama divided into four periods of 3000 years each.
• In the first 3000 years, Ormazd who dwelt in the light was attacked by Ahriman
who dwelt in the darkness. To avoid infinite war, Ormazd made a pact with
Ahriman and Ahriman retreated to the Abyss for 3000 years, following the
recitation of the “Ahuna Vairya” the most sacred prayer of the Zoroastrians by
Omarzd.
Death and Judgement
• During this time Omarzd created the world but towards the end of
the second 3000 years period, Ahriman emerged and caused havoc
on what Ormazd had created and from this havoc, mankind and
metals emerged (from destruction of primeval man) and from
destruction of primeval oxen, animals and plants arose.
• In the third period of 3000 years Ahriman triumphs in the material
world but is unable to escape from it, trapped by Omarzd, he is
doomed to generate his own destruction.
Death and Judgement
• The beginning of the last period witnesses the coming of religion on earth,
namely the birth of Zoroaster. In this last period of 3000 years, Three saviours are
mentioned who would come before the end at intervals of 1000 years. These are
Aushedah, then Aushedar-Mah and finally Saoshyant. All the three would be the
successors and posthumous sons of Zoroaster who also would be miraculously
born by a 15 years old virgin like Zoroaster himself. The last of the saviour,
Saoshyant would prepare for the final victory over forces of evil and the
resurrection of the dead which would then take place.
• The judgement of the individual takes place not long after death and one’s fate is
then fixed until the general resurrection at the end of the present world order.
Death and Judgement
• The judgement takes place at the bridge of the separation which crosses
over the abyss of Hell to Ahura Mazda’s paradise. At this bridge the soul’s
record is read, and the deeds are weighed, the good deeds against the bad.
• If the good deeds outweigh the bad, one is led by Zoroaster across the
bridge to the paradise, a place of eternal spiritual bliss, joyous
companionship and songs.
• If the bad deeds outweigh the good the soul precipitates into hell below
the bridge, a most foul-smelling place without light, with frightful noises,
yet terrible, loneliness and other types of punishments.
• These ideas were further elaborated after the prophet’s death by his
followers.
Death and Judgement
• The judgement takes place at the bridge of the separation which crosses over the
abyss of Hell to Ahura Mazda’s paradise.
• At this bridge the soul’s record is read, and the deeds are weighed, the good
deeds against the bad. If the good deeds outweigh the bad, one is led by
Zoroaster across the bridge to the paradise, a place of eternal spiritual bliss,
joyous companionship and songs.
• If the bad deeds outweigh the good the soul precipitates into hell below the
bridge, a most foul-smelling place without light, with frightful noises, yet terrible,
loneliness and other types of punishments. These ideas were further elaborated
after the prophet’s death by his followers.
GROWTH
• As a religion Zoroastrianism was much weakened as a result of Muslim conquest of Persia.
• Nevertheless, the conquerors tolerated Zoroastrianism considering it as one of the religions of
“a Book”, along with Christianity and Judaism.
• Due to the Muslim pressure Zoroastrians later migrated from Persia and settled in Bombay and
west India, where the greater percentage of present-day Zoroastrians called the Parsis (or
Parsees) are still to be found.
• The total population is about 150,000. About 30,000 remained in Iran and are known as
Gabars.
• The Parsi religion is no longer missionary and does not allow non-Parsi visitors into their place
of worship.
• Their places of worship are called doors of Mithra or fire temples.
• Worshippers bring offerings and receive ashes from the sacred fire kept alight in the inner
chamber of the temple.
• Prayers are also said at home early in the morning and at night.
• They don’t bury or cremate their dead for this would desecrate the earth.
• Their method of disposing the dead is spectacular in that the corpse are placed
upon the famous “Tower of Silence” where vultures pick the flesh and the sun
bleaches the bones, which are later thrown into a central well.
• In this way the sacred elements are not defiled by the corpse.
• These rituals are a means of symbolizing the purity demanded of a worshipper of
Ahura Mazda but they are also a powerful means of promoting the social
solidarity of the Parsis community.
• The earth being sacred, should not be contaminated with the dead.
• Fire, being holy, should not be defiled by a corpse.
• A dead body, being the natural abode for the devils of disease and contagion, had
best be consumed by the beasts or the birds.
• In essence, in giving their bodies to God’s creatures is their final act of charity.
JUDAISM: Religion of Divine Destiny
INTRODUCTION
• The name Judaism refers to the religion of the Jewish
people. It also means the entire civilization of the Jewish
people. The secular and sacred elements are inclusive in this
latter meaning.
• In its original usage the word Judaism does not refer to belief
but rather it means something like “Jewish identity”. This
means that Judaism as a belief or religion is a recent
development.
• Jews consider Judaism not so much a religion, but a way of
life. It is a way of life that endeavours to transform virtually
every human action into a means of communion with God.
Through this contribution to establishment of the kingdom
of God and the brotherhood of men on earth.
INTRODUCTION
• For the Jews, Judaism seeks to extend the concept of
right and wrong to every aspect of their behaviour.
• Judaism, as a religion has evolved by gradual stages and
Jews, even though recognize later developments tend to
consider the religion of the Bible as essentially the same
religion as the Judaism that existed ever since.
• It is considered as the parent religion of Christianity.
INTRODUCTION
• By Judaism, therefore, is meant the religion that going back to the
Hebrew scriptures extends beyond their chronological limits down to
modern times - the religion of the Jews (the people of Judaea).
• It rests on two basic doctrines namely;
• Monotheism, the belief in one and only God
• and the covenant election of Israel to be the bearers of this belief.
ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT
• Judaism has no obvious starting point. However, the Hebrew religion,
according to the bible originated with Abraham.
• Abraham is said to have learned by reflection and revelation of the
existence of the one everlasting God, maker of heaven and earth,
who rules the world and whose way is the doing of righteousness and
Justice (Gen 18:19).
• Abraham, the first of the patriarchs came from Ur in Chaldea and
obeyed a divine call to leave his home and proceed to the land of
Canaan.
• He was promised that descendants should live there as a great nation
and play a unique part in the history of the human race.
• The covenant between God and Abraham was repeated to Isaac and
Jacob whose family eventually settled in neighbouring Egypt.
• Thus from Abraham the ideals of monotheism were transmitted to
Isaac and Jacob and from them to the descendants until the exodus
and to their revelation at Sinai.
• Then under the dominating personality of Moses, the formally
enslaved Hebrew tribes (in Egypt), now known as the children or
people of Israel, became a nation and Hebrew monotheism was
originated and developed.
•
DOCTRINE
• Judaism differs from its daughter religions, Christianity and Islam, for its absolute
monotheism allows neither for the Christian dogma of the Trinity nor for the
affirmation of Mohammed as being the prophet.
• Judaism is a Conglomeration, the result of along process of religious development
• There is no such formal summary of Jewish doctrine as in Christianity where we have
the Apostles’ and Nicene creeds or in Islam where we meet “Kalima”, that would be
recognized as absolutely binding by all and sundry.
• Attempts have been made to systematize and formulate the tenets of Jewish religion.
• The first attempt to produce a formula against which doctrines and principles could be
measured was made by Moses Maimonides in the 12th Century AD. He worked out
thirteen articles listed in the authorized prayer book of the most Jewish congregations.
The denial of these fundamental axioms
cuts a man off from Israel. The following
are the articles:
• Belief in the existence of a creator and providence
• Belief in his Unity
• Belief in his in corporeality
• Belief in his eternity
• Belief that to him alone is worship due
• Belief in the words of the prophets
The following are the articles:
• Belief that Moses was the greatest of all prophets
• Belief in the revelation of the Lord to Moses at Sinai
• Belief in the immutability of the revealed Law
• Belief that God is omniscient
• Belief in retribution in this world and the hereafter
• Belief in the coming of the Messiah
• Belief in the resurrection of the dead
The following are the articles:
• This creed faced severe criticism in the subsequent centuries from
many Jewish authorities.
• Whereas elsewhere the relation between the deity and the
worshippers is rooted in the natural and physical, in Judaism, it is
determined exclusively by an act of free choice whereby God
discloses his presence and will to his elect.
• The denial of any nature bond between God and his people produces
results that constitute the distinguishing features of Judaism, as
compared with any other form of god belief. This can be epitomized
as follows:
Distinguishing features of Judaism
• 1) Divine transcendence: God is conceived in Hebrew as wholly other, unbounded
by any form or manifestation of physical existence.
• 2) God as ground of all existence: He is the sole creator of all things.
• 3) Ethical conception of God: God as a creator is not force but character, a free
personality with ethical attributes.
• 4) Concern for individual moral culture: Hebrew monotheism not only affirms the
ethical character of God but also makes conformity to the divine pattern the
supreme task of man.
Distinguishing features of Judaism
• 5) Universalism: All men are bound to seek God, the creator of the world
and the maker of them all, and to obey his moral law.
• 6) Election for service: Universality of true religion and morality demands
for its realization a knowledge of God and his law. The election as
conceived by the Hebrews is not for domination but for service.
• 7) Unity of history in the purpose of God: Everywhere else history is at
bottom meaningless a mere repetition of sin and misery. In Judaism it is
full of meaning and significance, every fresh phase in the historical process
being a further stage in the development of the purpose of God for the
establishment of his universal rule among all the sons of men.
Doctrine
• While it is difficult to find authoritative statements considered as
absolutely binding, the examination of Jewish teaching in certain
central doctrines of religions will cast some light to what Judaism
teaches.
• As regards the Doctrine of God and man; The Jews consider God as a
full personality free from all limitations and imperfections.
• Since man is made in the image of God, it follows that all human
beings are creatures of the same creator and meant to live as
brothers.
Doctrine
• Again just as God is considered as perfect unity, so man’s body and
soul are seen as unit, which knows no opposition between spirit and
matter.
• Over against the doctrine of original sin, Judaism puts its emphasis on
original virtue and righteousness, which, according to the Jewish
doctrine of “the merits of the fathers” are the common heritage of
every member of the congregation of Israel.
Doctrine
• Jews believe that a relationship exists between man and God
according to which God looks favourably on man and desires his wellbeing. That relationship is disturbed when man fails to act in
accordance with the will of God.
• As regards Atonement: This is the means by which the disturbed
relationship is restored. Repentance, prayer and active kindness
achieve perfect reconciliation.
• Future life: A few inherit heaven by right through the divine covenant
with Abraham.
Doctrine
• Good and Evil: The problem of good and evil is inherent in the
doctrine of monotheism.
• Dualism or pluralism can attribute good to one divinity and evil to
another.
• According to Judaism the motive determines the good or evil nature
of an action.
• It is noteworthy that if exodus constitutes one focal point of Jewish
doctrine, Sinai constitutes the other.
Judaism is characterized by the Torah, Prophecy,
Festivals and the Talmud.
• a) The Torah
• This is the most sacred of the scriptures of Judaism. It is composed of the first
five of the Hebrew Bible: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy.
These books also called the Pentateuch contain an account of the world from
creation to Moses. Torah contains the prescriptions for human conduct
composed under Divine inspiration.
• b) Prophecy
• The prophetic charisma is a charisma of revelation (Am 3:7, Jer
23:18), which makes known to man what he could not discover by his
own efforts. Prophetic tradition is an integral part of the community
of Israel. A prophet was considered one of the three pillars of the
society of Israel, the others being king and priest.
Judaism is characterized by the Torah, Prophecy,
Festivals and the Talmud.
• c) Festivals
• Judaism has three major festivals: (a) the Passover (b) the Pentecost,
(c) the Tabernacles.
• The three festivals appear to be linked to agriculture in character, in
that Passover corresponds to barley harvest, Pentecost with wheat
harvest and Tabernacles with vintage. The festivals served to keep
alive the memory of the pilgrimage that used to be taken three times
a year in order to offer sacrifice in Jerusalem.
• Passover: was traditionally held at the time of barley harvest. It is the
most important of the three festivals. It commemorates God’s
intervention on behalf of the Israelites, the exodus from Jewish
homes as this was the Israelites in leaving Egypt could not wait until
their dough leavened (Ex. 12:39)
• Pentecost marked seven weeks after Passover. In rabbinical tradition,
Pentecost was associated with the giving of the law at Sinai.
• Tabernacles: It is a typical autumn festival with prayers for the rain
and for the dead. The last day of Tabernacle is an occasion of rejoicing
especially for the youths. It marks the point at which the annual
reading of the Torah begins afresh.
• Judaism had three major festivals
• d) The Talmud: Is a summary of the Oral laws that evolved after
centuries of scholarly effort by sages who lived in Palestine and
Babylonia until the beginning of the middle Ages.
• It has two main components: the Mishnah, a book of balakkah (law)
• and the commentary on the Mishnah, known as the Talmud which
entails a summary of discussions and elucidations of the Mishnah
written in Aramaic - Hebrew jargon.
The Talmud
• Talmud refers to the summary of oral law that evolved after centuries of scholarly
effort by Hebrew sages who lived in Palestine and Babylonian until the beginning
of the middle Ages. The Talmud has two main components:
• The Mishnah, which is a book of law (balakkah), comprising of a collection of
rabbinical opinions. This collection was made by Rabbi Judah ha-Nasi in AD 200.
The rabbis whose opinions are collected in the Mishnah are called “teachers”.
• The language of Mishnah is Hebrew. The Mishnah is made up of six parts namely,
the seeds, feasts, women, Damages, Holiness and cleanliness (Levitical).
The Talmud
• The Talmud, the commentary of the Mishnah. It consists of a summary of
the discussions and elucidations of the Mishnah written in AramaicHebrew language.
• The rabbis whose opinions were collected in the Talmud were called
“speakers”. Talmud was probably completed before AD 450.
• Talmud can also be said to be the repository of thousands of years of
Jewish wisdom and the oral law which considered as significant as the
written law (the Torah) that finds expression therein. In essence, Talmud is
a collection of law, legend and philosophy. Although the main objective of
the Talmud is to interpret and comment on a book of law, it equally
became a book of art.
The Talmud
• Though the Talmud is regarded as a source of Jewish law, it cannot however be
cited as an authority for the purpose of giving a ruling.
• The Talmud writings are found in two forms and distinguished by their place of
origin that is (a) Palestinian Talmud (b) the Babylonian Talmud, completed by AD
500. The two Talmudic works were commentaries on the six parts of the
Mishnah. These commentaries arose when Mishnah became, after its
publication, the subject of rabbinical study.
• Talmud represents a wide range of views because it is not a
homogeneous work composed by a single author.
• Talmud is the end product of the editing of the thoughts and sayings
of many scholars over a long period, and who never envisaged a final
written work at the time of their oral exposition.
• This makes it difficult to come up with a clear trend or a specific
objective in the Talmud.
• However, to the Jewish people, they have always been keenly aware
that their continued survival and development depend on studying
the Talmud.
Factions within Judaism
• Pharisees: From perusim meaning “separate ones”. It was a party within
Judaism.
• Conceived Judaism as a religion centred upon the observance of the law and
interpreted the obligation of the law in the most severe manner.
• They were a lay group and were opposed to Sadducees a sacerdotal/priestly
party.
• They were close associates of the scribes who were the leaders and interpreters
of the law.
• Pharisees accepted Torah and the oral traditions of the elder.
• They believed is the existence of angels and spirits, the resurrection of the dead,
and judgement.
Sadducees:
• A sect within Judaism, a priestly aristocracy.
• They denied resurrection of the dead
• Denied the existence of angels and spirits,
• they had no messianic doctrine apparently, they accepted only the Torah
and rejected the tradition of the elders.
• Though they were not a political party, they had ideas on how to coexist
with the Roman government.
• They believed in peaceful collaboration with foreign rule. As a group they
disappeared with the destruction of the Temple in 70 AD, Judaism which
survived the disaster was rabbinical and pharisaic.
Zealots
• From Greek zelotes, one who shows zeal and enthusiasm.
• They were a Jewish sect, which represented the extreme of fanatic
nationalism.
• They believed in the worship of Yahweh alone and were convinced
that acceptance of foreign domination and payment of taxes to a
foreign ruler was a blasphemy against Yahweh.
• Their tactics were those of the modern political terrorists, they raided
and killed frequently. Romans called them sicarii (stabbers) because
of the way they killed in crowded areas. They were a rebellions
group
• Essenes: They were a Jewish sect
• They had a reputation for peculiar sanctity abstained from marriage but
adopted children.
• They practised community of goods and they demanded that new
members surrender their property, believed in the immortality of the soul.
• Had Holy books and believed could foretell the future.
• They had profound interest in the Torah. They are also considered as the
Qumran community.
• It regarded itself as the true Israel which could survive eschatological
tribulation.
Modern Trends in Judaism
• Judaism is not a static religion. It has been affected by many tendencies which
were largely as a result of or response to its contact with other people or faiths in
the world. Thus there arose several movements within Judaism.
• Orthodox Judaism: It stands for the strictly traditional section of Jewry. All
Orthodox Jews believe in the historical event of revelation at Sinai as described in
the Torah. They all accept the Divine law, in its written and oral forms as
unchangeable and binding for all times. They all acknowledge the authority of
duly qualified rabbis. Orthodox Judaism is rigorously exclusivist and exhibits a
marked reluctance to co-operate with non-Orthodox Jewish communities.
Conservative Judaism
• this stands between Orthodox and Progressive Judaism.
• Its three principal objectives are: (i) the fostering of the unity of
universal Israel, (ii) the perpetuation of Jewish tradition, and (iii)
cultivation of Jewish scholarship.
• Conservatism refuses to commit itself to a definite platform of
principles and dogmas and allows considerable freedom in matters of
practice and belief among its members.
• Progressive Judaism: This is also called Liberal and Reform Judaism. It was
influenced by the 18th century enlightened movement. It is a movement in favour
of the grammatical and historical exegesis of the Bible started among the Jews in
Europe in opposition to the dialectic school of Talmudic tradition. The
Progressives made scientific research as the yardstick of Biblical interpretation.
The Jewish dietary laws were considered obsolete and only the ethical
injunctions came to be regarded as obligatory. This movement came to be known
as liberal Judaism. Reform Judaism demanded the elimination of the references
to Zion, to a personal messiah and to the restoration of the sacrificial system. The
liberal and reform Judaism formed the Progressive Judaism in 1962.
Chassidism
• the term means the pious ones.
• It is a movement that began as a reaction against the dry legalism of
Orthodox Judaism.
• For long Chassidism was associated with the poorer, uneducated
masses of the eastern Jewry but later it gradually won the respect
and admiration among the learned.
• The founder of the movement, Israel Baal Shem-Tov, once taught that
zeal, prayerful devotion and humility were more acceptable to God
than intellectualism.
Zionism
• It is a movement that brings together both religious and secular ideas.
• It has attracted many members within the ranks of the Judaism and gained
further support after the founding of the state of Israel in 1948.
• It champions the return of the Jews to the Holy land.
• It is considered as a nationalistic movement with colonial undertones.
CHRISTIANITY
• Name:
The name Christian seems to have been used for the first time as a nickname for an
unpopular sect (Acts 11:26), or one of the renewal movements within Judaism
existing in Syria and Palestine between AD 30 and AD 70.
The name was used for the first time in Antioch.
It eventually took the place of such other designations as “disciples”, “brethren”,
“saints” or “those of the way”, and became generally used by Christians
themselves.
Thus it differentiated the Disciples of Christ from Pagan and also from Jews.
Today it is a generic description of all Christians and sects.
ORIGIN
• Christianity as a religion arose in Palestine among Jewish people, where Jesus
lived and died.
• The religion of the Jewish people was Judaism.
• It is in this regard that Judaism is regarded as the ideological and religious source
for Christianity, much of which was either explicitly expressed or foreshadowed in
the Old Testament.
• Jesus himself a Jew and the founder of Christianity is the central figure of
Christianity.
• He passed his entire life in an almost Jewish environment.
• Again when the Apostles spread the Gospel beyond the confines of
Palestine, Jewish communities scattered throughout the Roman
Empire provided the bridge by which contact might be made with the
Gentiles.
• Paul was known for starting his preaching in the synagogues before
moving to the gentiles.
• On the Greco-Roman side, the Pagans were in a receptive mood and
this was caused by the fact that the religious condition of the Roman
Empire was far from healthy.
• At least four tendencies can be distinguished:
• i) A decline in respect for the old paganism
• ii) Syncretism or the fusion of all the pagan religions into an amorphous, allinclusive unity.
• iii) Attempts to discover substitutes for the decadent/corrupt cults
• iv) The growth of the cults of the state and of the Emperor.
• In addition to the above factors,
• the unity and organization of the Roman Empire,
• the facility of communication it afforded,
• and the peace and protection it offered made it truly the “fatherland
of Christianity”.
• The enduring organization of this Empire was taking shape in the very
generation in which Christ was born.
JESUS
• a) Early life:
• Jesus was born at a time when the Jewish nation had come within the orbit of Rome
and feared for its very identity.
• About the year 4 BC a certain Judas of Galilee led a bloody rebellion against Herod
Antipas king of Galilee, sparked off by the question of tribute monies as due to the
Romans.
• The rebellion aborted and the city was razed and some two thousand rebels were
savagely crucified.
• Consequently in BC 6 Judea was placed under the direct rule of the Roman procurator:
Pontius Pilate.
• In this bitter atmosphere, the promise of a messiah who would, through force of arms,
drive out the Romans and re-establish an independent common wealth was a powerful
hope.
• Jesus was born around 4 BC or earlier.
• According to the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, he was born in Bethlehem.
• But his home was probably in Nazareth, and it was there he was brought up, as a
son of relatively humble parents.
• He was born by Virgin Mary betrothed to Joseph.
• His early life is veiled in mystery.
• All we hear of him is that when he was a boy of Twelve he astonished the Rabbis
in the temple by his questions.
• He grew quietly and unnoticed in a Galilean mountain village.
• His trade, like that of his father was as a carpenter, but he showed an early
interest in religious matters and came to know the Torah well.
b) Ministry:
• He began his ministry at the age of thirty.
• This was after his baptism in river Jordan by John the Baptist and probation in the
wilderness where he was tempted.
• We know next to nothing of the circumstances which impelled Jesus to submit to
the baptism of John, however the baptism event made a tremendous impact on
Jesus and gave him an experience suggestive of his own Messiahhood.
• The heavens were opened and the Spirit of God descended on him in form of a
dove and a voice was heard saying “This is my beloved son, with whom I am well
pleased”.
• He withdrew to the wilderness to meditate as a prelude of his
ministry.
• The story of the temptations which followed have the style of
parables, but they may be understood to indicate the kind of choice
Jesus had before him.
• Either he could become an active rebel and establish an earthly
kingdom or he could tread a thornier and more difficult path.
• Only after the resurrection did Jesus specifically instruct the Apostles to “teach all
nations”, his original plan logically called for the conquest of Israel first then,
through the Jews the conversion of the pagans.
• As both the national and the religious capital, of Judaism, Jerusalem was the vital
point.
• Jesus made his initial concerted effort there, and despite rebuff he returned again
and again.
• When this plan failed, when it became clear that official Judaism rejected him,
Jesus adopted an alternative scheme; Concentration on a faithful elite, the
Apostles and disciples who would constitute the core and hierarchy of the Church
for the proselytising of the entire world, Judea being abandoned to its fate.
• As far as his ministry is concerned, four different, but of course
inseparable, aspects of Jesus’ work can be distinguished:
• 1. He preached a new, higher concept of religion and morality to
replace the sterile formalism of the Pharisees.
• 2. He announced the kingdom of Heaven which was to be the reward
for those who accepted his teachings.
• 3. He organized the Church as the visible society of the faithful under
the guidance of especially trained Apostles, with Peter holding the
primacy in whom he vested all the authority requisite for their tasks.
• From the wilderness he returned to Galilee to preach.
• Soon he acquired four disciples from among the fishermen who plied the
sea of Galilee.
• Simon Peter was one of them. Simon Peter’s home was in Capernaum.
• There Jesus based himself during his early preaching. He often preached in
the synagogues, a circumstance which led some scholars to suppose that
he had been trained as a rabbi.
• Throughout his ministry Jesus preached only to the Jews. Whenever
possible he avoided contact with Gentiles, although this could not always
be done.
• 4. He established the fact of his own divinity and explained his relationship to the
Church, to the kingdom and to the religion he propounded.
• His immediate neighbours rejected him because they knew him too well, to them he
was insane.
• To the scribes and the Pharisees Jesus was an agitator of discord. He attacked them,
recognized authorities, and ridiculed their interpretation of the law.
• The Sadducees opposed anyone less conservative than themselves, for a threat to the
established order was a threat to their power and wealth.
• Herod too made Galilee unsafe, for he saw in Jesus the ghost of John the Baptist
whom he had slain.
• All this culminated in him being accused of blasphemy.
• Actually the precise charge on which the Sanhedrin found Jesus worthy of death
was the central issue of his work.
• His claim to be the Messiah and the son of God.
• To the Pharisees and Sadducees, this was blasphemy, a crime meriting
death under their Jewish law.
• However, since the Roman conquest the Sanhedrin no longer had
power of life and death; capital punishment could come only from the
civil government.
• This is the point where Pontius pirate entered the story.
• After hesitation, he yielded sentenced Jesus to the cross as a political
revolutionary, although the Jews accepted full responsibility for his
decision.
THE APOSTLES
• In the NT many persons receive the title of apostles: the twelve disciples chosen by Jesus to
found his church (Mt.10: 2, Ap 21:14), as well as Paul, outstanding apostle of the gentiles (Rom
11:13) are well known.
• Although the church was to consist of all the faithful united in Christ, it was also given a visible
form and an hierarchical order as an organized society presided over by the Apostles and
resting in a peculiar fashion on Peter.
• The pillars of early Christianity were travelling Apostles, prophets and disciples who moved
from place to place and who relied mostly on groups of sympathizers.
• People who followed Jesus are identified with homeless, lack of family, lack of possessions
and lack of protection.
• Actually the picture that we see of these people is that they were people released from
everyday ties of the world.
• They had left home, wives and children, left their families to bury their dead, and who took the
lilies and the birds as their model of ideal way of life. These were outsiders: the sick and
crippled, prostitutes and good for nothing, tax collectors and prodigal sons.
• Special importance was attached to the Apostles for they constituted
the visible structure of the infant church established by Christ to
preserve and spread the gospel after his departure.
• They were present at the most solemn moments of his life. He sent
them on special missions
• The apostolate, the official representative of the risen one in the
church, remains forever founded on the “apostolic” college of the
twelve; but it is exercised by all men on whom they confer authority.
• The sermon on the mountain sums up what Jesus tried to develop in his
audience: deep, interior spiritually that could not be daunted by the unpleasant
material circumstances of life.
• Love of God and of neighbour recurred as constant themes, and miracles
accompanied every lesson.
• When it seemed that the minds and hearts of his hearers had been sufficiently
prepared, Jesus turned to the discussion of the reward for the good life the
kingdom of heaven.
• Being aware of the Jews natural tendency to interpret anything he said in a
materialistic sense, Jesus adopted the parable form of discourse to present his
ideas.
• The crisis in the Galilean ministry came with the sermon on the bread
of life. This was entirely beyond his audiences comprehension as St,
John records” After this many of his disciples went back and walked
no more with him”.
• The event of resurrection was the focal point in Christianity for the
followers of Christ.
• With the Pentecost experience, the fulfilment of the masters promise
of an advocate (the Paraclete), Christian communities were formed
and within thirty years, they were scattered throughout the eastern
Mediterranean world, in Italy and in Rome itself.
• The disciples and early followers were convinced by the event of the
resurrection of the continued power of Jesus and his triumph over a
tragic death, which had thrown them into despair and
disorganization.
• They traced their new found power to the spirit of the lord Jesus, and
they found their position confirmed and strengthened in an
extraordinary experience that be fells them on Pentecost.
APOSTOLIC AND NICENE CREEDS
• APOSTOLIC AND NICENE CREEDS
• Christianity has always been a creedal religion.
• Creeds have been used both to express devotion and commitment to God and to
explicate the faith.
• Creeds have their origin in history.
• They develop out of life of the Christian community to forces which threaten its
existence.
• Once creeds have been written and established in the community, they begin to shape
history and the communities that produced them.
• Creeds are in intention universal not sectarian/ factional.
• The best known creeds of the ancient Catholic Church are apostles creed had its origin
in the baptismal creed that was in use in Rome at the beginning of the third century.
• Charles the great standardized its use in his realm, and it was adopted by Rome,
becoming the common creed of western Christendom.
• The Nicene Creed was promulgated by the council of Nicaea in 325.
• Its intention was the rejection of Animism, the doctrine that Jesus
Christ was God by courteous not in fact.
• The creed that is now known as Nicene is related to the council of
Constantinople (381) and contains an affirmation of the deity of the
Holy Spirit.
• The Nicene Creed, used in eastern as well as western Christendom,
can be designated the most universal Christian creed. It also
expressly deals with the decisive Christian affirmation and rejects the
most serious Christian heresy.
Creeds served many functions in the church:
• They played a central role in the liturgy of the church. In the form of “rules of
faith”, they were a guide for preaching.
• They played a significant role in teaching of the church. They served as bases for
the famous catechetical lectures such as those of Cyril of Jerusalem. They aimed
at transmitting the faith of the apostles.
• Creeds had from the beginning a hermeneutical function in the work of the
church. This was as true after the fixing of the canon as before. Every interpreter
has to distinguish between the central data and what is derived from it. In a
fundamental sense the creed is simply the way the church reads scripture.
• The rise of heresy was another occasion which required creeds are
said to be sign posts to heresies. The task of the creed was to defend
the church against heresies.
• Creeds have served as a battle cry, a standard. The early church
found them helpful in times of persecutions.
a) The Nicene Creed
•
“We believe in one God, the Father, the Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, of all
that, seen and unseen. We believe in one lord, Jesus Christ, the only son of God,
eternally begotten of the father, God from God light from light, true God from true God,
begotten, not made of one being with the father. Through him all things were made.
For us man and for our salvation he came down from heaven: by the power of the Holy
Spirit he became incarnate from the Virgin Mary, and was made man. For our sake he
was crucified under Pontius Pilate, he suffered death and was buried. On the third day
he rose again in accordance with the scripture; he ascended into heaven and is seated
at the right hand of the father. He will come again in glory to judge the living and the
dead, and his kingdom will have no end.
• We believe in the Holy Spirit, the lord the giver of life who proceeds from the father
and the son with the father and the son he is worshipped and glorified. He has spoken
through the prophets. We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic church we
acknowledge one baptism for the forgiveness of sins. We look for the resurrection of
the dead and the life of the world to come. Amen.
GROWTH
• The rapid spreading of Christianity had the blessing of the master who
commissioned his disciples saying “Go out to the whole world and make disciples
of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the father and the son and the Holy
Spirit, teaching them to observe all that I have commanded you, and lo, am with
you always to the close of the age”.Thus avenue was opened for the disciples to
execute the task given to them.
• The general cause or rather, circumstances, which favoured the rapid
spread, included the unification brought about by the Roman Empire,
the common language and the influence of the Jews and the
synagogues.
• There were, apart from the general causes, more specific ones which
included, the force of the Christian truth as opposed to the myths and
fables of other religions,
• The high moral standards of the Christians their integrity and charity
attracted many their doctrines particularly integrity and dignity of all
men in the sight of God.
• Miracles and wonders which abounded were seen as signs of Gods good pleasure
and support. The example of the martyrs showed that there was worth dying for.
It actually showed a strong belief in the reality of the life hereafter.
• The persecutions of Christians through imperial decrees contributed to the
spread of Christianity whereby the blood of the martyrs became the seed of faith.
• Again the council of Jerusalem (AD 49) which solved the problem in
the early church allowing the pagan converts to embrace Christianity
without being subjected to the ritual of becoming a Jew first through
circumcision but observing a few rules (Acts 15:19-21, opened the
door wide for more converts.
• The rivalry against Christianity was brought to an end when Emperor
Constantine in October 28, 312 defeated Maxentius at the battle of
the Milvian Bridge, a victory that he attributed to divine intervention.
Within a few centuries the whole of Europe was Christian. To the East
it spread to India as far as China, Japan and Korea.
• A threat to the spread of Christianity came with the emergence of Islam, founded
in Arabia. Islam spread quickly to those areas of the Middle East and the
Mediterranean lands where Christianity had found roots. While Muslims
organized Jihads (holy wars) Christians under the Popes organized crusades to
recover Christian lands seized by Muslims. The first such crusade recaptured
Jerusalem in 1099.
• Medieval Christianity was riddled with problems, some of which
centred on the office of the Pope.
• There was general decline in the papal power because of corruption
and immorality.
• There was rivalry between the States as to who had the final say. In
spite of these problems, the rise of ascetic living and monasticism
consolidated the power of the Church.
• Monasteries, as centres of learning produced great scholars and
theologians of the middle ages. It also produced the wealth and
expensive material culture of the Church of the time.
• Until the 16th Century, there was only one Christian Church though there were
doctrinal differences between the mainstream Roman Catholic Church in the
West and the Orthodox Church in the East regarding the nature of Jesus: whether
he was both God and man.
• The main crisis in the Church came when money was being raised for the purpose
of rebuilding St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome and people were called upon to pay
indulgences (money paid for the remission of sins).
• Some monks and friars objected to this. One of them, Fr. Martin
Luther, a German, went a step further and posted 95 propositions on
the door of the Castle Church in Wittenberg.
• The propositions led to a crisis which Luther never anticipated. Luther
was followed by Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin.
• They were protesting against what they thought was going wrong in
the Church.
• The protest gave birth to Protestantism, i.e. Lutherans.
• Others pushed for reforms but remained in the Church, thereby forming a
movement that came to be known as the Catholic Reform or Counter
Reformation.
• An Ecumenical Council was convoked, the Council of Trent ( 1545-1563)
and among the changes it brought was the provision for Seminaries aimed
at correcting the worst abuse in the Church - the unqualified and
incompetent class of Men who became Priests after little or no training.
• Missionary Orders were founded, e.g. the Society of Jesus ( the Jesuits )
which did a lot of missionary work in the Far East as noted earlier.
• The 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries were also Centuries of exploration and
discoveries. The Portuguese and the Spaniards went to America and the Far East
as conquerors. These Conquerors were Christians from Christian nations. They
therefore spread to the Americas, Canada, Australia, the Far East and Africa.
• A new impetus found way in the 19th Century. This was the Century
of colonization. Christian countries in Europe sent their men to found
colonies. It was this time that there was a scramble for Africa. There
was need for raw materials for the European industries; again the
Philanthropists were up to see the end of the slave trade. It was the
age when the Europeans thought it wise to introduce their form of
civilization to their colonies.
• On the Christian scene, 19th Century was marked by the missionary
zeal, because of the speed with which the Catholic as well as the
Protestant Churches founded missionary societies in Africa. The
Catholics founded the Holy Ghost Fathers, White Fathers, Mill Hill
Fathers, Verona Fathers e.t.c. The Protestants founded the Baptist
Missionary Society (BMS), London Missionary Society (LMS), Church
Missionary Society (CMS), Seventh Day Adventist (SDA), America
Society for Foreign Missions, e.t.c.
• In the mission fields, these societies had their spheres of influence. They built
colonies or settlements for freed slaves. Their evangelical approach included
literary education, production of literature, running of hospitals and introduced
industrial activities; there was a genuine imperial race for Christ.
• Today there are many different brands of Christianity. There are hundreds of
denominations and societies. All of them, however, have one thing in common:
that Jesus Christ was the Messiah promised in the Old Testament and that he is
the Saviour of mankind. This, therefore, marks their unity in spite of their
diversity.
• To enhance their unity, there have been organizations within churches aimed at
bringing differing groups together. Collectively these efforts are referred to as
Ecumenical Movements, for example; the All African Conference of Churches
(AACC) and the National Council of Churches of Kenya (NCCK).
• Christianity is a missionary religion, propagated by those who have
received faith.
• They have strong belief in the life hereafter, where they are led by the
Saviour Jesus Christ.
• They believe Jesus is alive and that he will come again to judge the
living and the dead.
• Their mission is to reach all corners of the earth before the Saviour
comes at the end of time
ISLAM
• Pre-Islamic Period
• Before the founding of Islam in the Arab world, most of the Arabs were still idolatrous.
• They acknowledged a supreme being, the God (Al-Ilah) but indulged also in a
polytheism to which each tribe contributed its deities.
• Mecca was a commercial capital.
• In this city there stood an ancient Semitic temple called the Kaaba (the cube) where the
black stone from heaven was enshrined and where the polytheism of tribal deities had
been assembled with its emblematic statues including a “virgin and child”.
• Legends insisted that the stone was once pure white but that it turned black because it
grieved over the sins of men.
• The cube like building called the Kaaba housed the sacred stone, and a number of
images- 360 of them- stood around it and were tended by priests who collected
extravagant fees from persons who came for worship
Origin of Islam
• The origin of Islam is associated with the Prophet Mohammed himself.
a) Early life:
• Mohammed (Ubu’l Kassim) was born in A.D. 570 at Mecca.
• He belonged to the Quraysh tribe and the Banu Hashim clan.
• This clan was highly respected though it appeared impoverished.
• The clan was not one of the ruling families.
• Mohammed never saw his father since by the time he was born his father Abdulla had already died few
months before his birth.
• His mother’s name is Bibi Aminah.
• He was named Muhammad by his grandfather Abdul Muthalib, who was a leader of the Banu Hashin
clan.
• Muhammad is an Arabic word which means ‘praised one’.
• His second name was Ahmed which means ‘one who praises god most of all’
• His mother died while he was about 6 years old.
• Mohammed did not receive any formal schooling.
• Thus he could neither read nor write.
• However, he distinguished himself as a respectable and trust worthy
person.
• His uncle enabled him to find employment as a manager of a caravan of
camels belonging to a wealthy widow, Khadija, who later became his wife.
• He married at the age of 25 years while the wife was 40 years.
• They had 6 children, 2 sons Quasim and Abdulla and four daughtersZaynub, Ruqaiyah, Umme, Kulsum and Fatima. The sons died at infancy.
Fatima survived and later married Ali.
• Muhammed used to lead the caravan as far as Damascus from Mecca.
• During these trade journeys, he must have come into contact and possibly
debated with Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians.
• It was after his marriage that Mohammed began to take religion seriously.
• He used to go for meditation and prayer to the hills and caves near Mecca.
• Profoundly dissatisfied with the Polytheism and Crude superstitions of his native
Mecca, he appears to have become passionately convinced of the existence and
transcendence of one true God.
• How much he was influenced by Christianity or Judaism is uncertain.
• However, it is believed that he must have come into contact with Talmudic
sources and had contact with some form of Christianity and one of these must
have shaped his monotheistic tendency.
• People said Ubu’l Kassim was a very lucky man. He had grown successful in
business, his wife was very rich, but still he was sad and serious and continually
made lonely pilgrimages to a cave on Mount Hira.
• The people did not know about his quest, nor did they know that one night a
great light filled the cave where he prayed. Then in the course of the experience
a voice said to him, “Read”.
• Ubu’l Kassim replied, “I cannot read. I have never learned to read. A second and
a third time the voice ordered, “Read!” “What shall I I read?” Ubu’l asked.
• Then, in a vision, words appeared to him; and the voice said “Read: In the name
of Allah who created man from a clot.
• Read: And thy lord is most bounteous who teacheth by the pen, teacheth man
that which he knew not. Verily, man is rebellious. He thinketh himself
independent. Lo, unto thy lord is the return!”
• When Ubu’l Kassim awoke from the trance, day was dawning.
• Beyond him lay the city of Mecca with its Kaaba and its many gods
and its sacred stone.
• As he looked toward the scene, he heard the heavenly voice saying,
“O Mohammed! Thou art Allah’s messenger!” “Who are you?” he
cried. “Let me see your face!” “I am Gabriel,” said the voice. And
Ubu’l Kassim saw the angel standing against the sky, holding a silken
shawl/scarf covered with the words he had earlier been asked to
read. No matter which way he turned, the angel Gabriel was always
before his eyes, saying to him, “You are no longer Ubu’l Kassim. You
are Mohammed, the prophet of Allah!” The voice was stilled and the
vision ended.
• Hostility in Mecca
• The hostility of the Meccan influential people became so menacing
that Mohammed had to advise his followers to immigrate to
Abyssinia, a country where the people believed in one God and
whose ruler welcomed refugees. The only outstanding convert at this
stage was the influential Umar Ibn al-Kattab. it was about this time
that both Khadija and Abu Tallib died. Abu Talib had never become a
Muslim but he gave Mohammed every support. Mohammed himself
a widower abandoned by his clan and his tribe, made a precarious bid
for safety in the oasis of Taif. He was pursued and barely managed to
regain Mecca unscathed.
• Thus for about ten years, his few adherents and his numerous
opponents in Mecca heard the recital of the first suras (chapters ) of
the Koran, telling how God is merciful, almighty, Creator, remunerator,
supreme and just judge, inaccessible, benevolent, ready to grant
pardon; stressing relentlessly that the hour of judgement was at
hand; proclaiming in the face of the Meccan polytheism, that there is
only one single God: promising paradise to the believers; claiming as
predecessors a long line of prophets, especially those of the Bible,
from Adam to Christ; affirming a living and vital continuity of this
faith, the faith of Abraham, the friend of God. Hostility became too
much.
• At an annual Meccan fair, Mohammed once met twelve merchants
from Yathrib, the rich Oasis of the north and two years later another
seventy-two of them. With them he made a pact whereby they would
protect him and his believers, if need be by force. Thus Mohammed
and his first adherents, the companions of the prophet, carried to
Yathrib, Mecca’s rival, the Word of God.
• e) Flight to Medina: Hegira (Hijra)
• The followers of Mohammed left Mecca in successive groups. Mohammed,
his great friend Abu Bakr and Ali, his cousin were the last to leave Mecca.
Mohammed’s flight from Mecca to Medina under hot pursuit by the
Meccans came to be known as Hegira. He avoided the Meccans by taking
hiding in a cave. Mohammed and his companions reached Quba, a suburb
of Yathrib on September 24th 622. This date marks the year one of the
Mohammedan era (abbreviated as A.H.)
• Thus this Hegira of Mohammed and his companions, leaving their tribe and
Family and their native town to go and live in Yathrib, is considered the
beginning of the Muslim community.
• The bond of blood on which rested the whole concept of tribal life
was to be replaced by a bond rooted in a freely accepted religious
pact.
• Yathrib came to be known as Medinat al - Nabi, the city of the
Prophet (Medina) Here the prophet devised a society based on the
spiritual fraternity of the Meccan companions and “auxiliaries” of
Medina. During the first two years which were the most difficult, each
auxiliary/supporters had to take one of the companions into his home
and treat him exactly as his brother.
DOCTRINE
• a) God and Angels
• According to Islam,
• God is the unfathomable mystery,
• The inaccessible.
• He is the creator of all things.
• He is the judge and remunerator.
• He is unique and one in himself.
• God is the true reality.
• He is the benefactor, protector,
• the pardoner who ceases not to absolve.
• Koran emphasizes among other things the inscrutable sovereign of God and total and blind
surrender to him. Actually the other word for total surrender or submission is Islam.
• The fundamental concept of God is his unity.
• The God of the orthodox Islam maintains the whole creation in being,
moment by moment by continual miracle.
• He is the source of both good and evil.
• His will is supreme.
• His nature and qualities are chiefly revealed in his ninety-nine “most
beautiful names” frequently repeated by the pious as they finger their
rosary.
• Mohammed’s emphasis on the uniqueness of God and His power as
creator of all things was a radical departure from Meccan religion which
recognized more than 360 deities, all represented in the Kaaba.
• Mohammed believed also in the existence of angels.
• He taught that angels were creatures above human beings but below
Allah. Orthodox Islam therefore acknowledges four Archangels:
• Jibril (Gabriel, the messenger of revelation),
• Mikail (Michael, the guardian of the Jews),
• Israfil (the summoner to resurrection)
• and Izrail (the messenger of death).
• Islam also acknowledges an infinite number of ordinary angels. These
angels are created of light, do not eat or drink or propagate their
species and are characterised by absolute obedience to the will of
Allah.
• Two recording angels attend on every man; the one on his right
records his good deeds and the one on his left records his bad deeds.
• There are also two angels called Munkar and Nakir, who visit every
newly-buried corpse in the grave. They make the corpse to sit up and
then they examine it in the faith. If the replies are satisfactory, it is
allowed to sleep in peace, but if on the contrary, it does not confess
the apostle, they beat it severely, some say the beating continues up
to the day of resurrection. Animals do hear the corpse crying because
of the beating but mortals cannot.
• One of the roles of angels was to serve as the direct messengers of
Allah to the prophets. It was through Jibril that Mohammed received
his first revelation. One of the angels disobeyed God and has been
responsible for causing evil and suffering since creation. This is Iblis or
Satan, the greatest enemy of humanity. Mohammed taught that evil
overcomes only those who yield to temptations.
The Five Pillars of Islam
• Islam as a religion is founded on obligatory rituals, beliefs and practices which every
Muslim must abide by. These obligations are in five categories.
• 1) Submission to Allah:
• This is done by reciting the creed (Kalima). Hence a Muslim must declare that there is no
god but Allah and that Mohammed is his special Prophet. To the majority of Muslims, a
mere recital of the creed is enough to enrol a new convert in the ranks of Islam. The
declaration includes the requirement that every Muslim prostrates before Allah and
avoids the worship of any idol or representation of Allah. This pillar portrays Islam as a
strictly monotheistic religion.
• 2) Prayer:
• Every Muslim is required to pray five times a day facing Mecca. Mosques are constructed
facing Mecca too. They are to pray at Dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, dusk/nightfall.
• Friday is the day set aside for weekly prayers in Islam. Imam leads the prayers. His role is
to recite the words from the Koran while the faithful prostrate themselves rhythmically
and in unison. The prayer leader also expounds Islamic doctrine.
• 3) Alms giving:
• It is obligatory for every Muslim to give alms to the poor. The alms should be at
least one-fortieth of the believer’s income, and are given today according to the
wish of individual believers otherwise in earlier days of Islam they used to be
collected for redistribution in the community.
• 4) Fasting during the month of Ramadhan:
• This is the ninth month of the Muslim year. All Muslims except the sick, travellers,
pregnant women, nursing mothers and young children are required to fast from
first dawn until sunset. This involves complete abstinence from all forms of food,
drink, smoking or sexual intercourse. The fast is much esteemed as inculcating
both self-control and sympathy with the poor and destitute. For twenty-eight
days every year Muslims are required to fast in the said month of Ramadhan.
They are however allowed to eat at night. Since the month of Ramadhan is
declared universally, this ritual portrays the universality of Islam as a living world
religion.
5) Pilgrimage to Mecca:
• The pilgrimage at least once is enjoined on every adult Muslim, male or female, who can afford it, and its value is emphasized in
such traditions as “every step in the direction of the Kaaba blots out a sin”, and” He who dies on the way to Mecca is enrolled in
the list of martyrs “. This ritual portrays most dramatically the unity of all Muslims in worship. The rituals performed in Mecca date
from Pre-Islamic times. It appears Mohammed chose this ritual to maintain continuity between the Arabian religious heritage and
Islam.
• The centre of the ritual is the Kaaba, which houses the sacred black stone. The pilgrims walk around the Kaaba seven times, kissing
the black stone every time.
• Then they run seven times between two nearby hills.
•
On the eighth day, they move to mount Arafat, twelve miles east of Mecca, where they spend one day meditating on the plain.
• On their way back to Mecca they stop at Mina, where they participate in the ceremony of “stoning the Devil”.
• This is followed by sacrifices and meat is distributed among the brethren. Pilgrimage is characterised by both seriousness and
festivity.
• Before the ritual is concluded the pilgrims go round the Kaaba once more.
• Throughout the pilgrimage, fasting is practised from dawn to dusk, and sexual abstinence is observed. The pilgrims are expected
not to cut hair or trim their nails.
Sharia
• The faith and practise of Islam are governed by two great branches of
Muslim learning, namely, theology and jurisprudence. Muslim
theology defines all that man should believe, while the law prescribes
everything that should be done. There is no priesthood and there are
no sacraments. Unlike any other system in the world today, the Sharia
embraces every detail of human life, from the prohibition of crime to
the use of the tooth pick, and from the organization of the state to
the most sacred intimacies of family life. It is “ the science of all
things, human and divine” and divides all actions into what is
obligatory or enjoined, praiseworthy or recommended, permitted or
legally indifferent, disliked or depreciated, or positively forbidden.
• Jihad
• Other than the five pillars, there is another religious duty, namely,
Jihad or Holy war. It is incumbent in general on all Muslims who are
adult, male and free to answer any legally valid summons to war
against the infidels; and he who dies in a jihad is a martyr and is
assured of paradise. From the earliest times Muslims have divided the
world into Dar al-Islam, where Islam reigns supreme, and Dar al-harb
(the abode of war), where the rule of Islam should be extended, if
necessary by war. Polytheists were given the option of conversion or
death, while the people of the Book (Jews and Christians) were given
the additional alternative of submission and tribute.
• Koran
• From its very beginning, Islam was to be directly centred on the Koran. For
the Muslims, the Koran completes and closes the earthly cycle of the
envoys of God. The Koran was spoken by the Prophet, it was stored safely
in the memory of the companions, written down by such as were able to
write and eventually it was all drawn up in an official recession by Uthman,
the third of the Caliphs.
• It has 114 Suras or chapters, and Muslims believe that its 77,639 words are
all holy. Its instructions and guidance for living the good life and obtaining
salvation are inviolable.
• The Koran is undefiled, unmatched, and uncreated; it existed in heaven
since the beginning of time and awaited the coming of the one who was
most worthy to receive it- Mohammed, the prophet of Allah.
• Humanity
• Of all creation, humans enjoy a unique relationship with God, for
after creating Adam (the first man), God breathed into him His spirit
(Q. 15:29). Moreover, the Quran states that God created human
beings in “the best of stature” (Q. 95:4) to be His representatives on
earth. As His agents on earth, God has given people the earth as a
divine trust so as to worship Him and execute God’s will. It is in the
basis of how humans execute this representation or how God’s will is
fulfilled that a person will be rewarded or punished.
• Each person is responsible for his or her actions and no one can suffer
for the actions of another. The Quran says: “Nor can a bearer of
burdens bear another’s burden...And whosoever purifies himself does
so for the benefit of his own soul.” (Q. 35:18) In another verse, God
says, “And whatever good you do, you shall not be denied the just
reward of it.” (Q. 3: 115) Sin in Islam is not inherited or transferable. It
is an act of disobedience, failure to do or not to do what God
commands or prohibits and for which the doer alone is responsible.
Human beings are not sinful by nature. God forgives the sins of the
one who turns to Him in repentance.
• The Last Day and Day of Judgement
• One of the principle articles of faith in Islam is a belief in the last day
(Qiyama) and the final judgement. The Last Day will mark the end of
life on earth, which will be followed by resurrection. On the Day of
Judgement, all humans will be judged by Allah according to the
records of their deeds on earth. Depending on the quality of one’s
deeds, people will be either sent to heaven (Jannah) or hell
(Jahanam). Heaven is described as a place of perpetual peace and
bliss. Hell is a place of physical torment and anguish. This belief
underscores that one’s life on earth has a consequence in the life
hereafter. Full justice will be meted out and everyone will be called to
account for his or her deeds before the Just Judge.