Fire and Life Safety Educator Textbook

Fire and Life Safety Educator Principles and Practice SECOND EDITION Marsha P. Giesler JONES & BARTLETT LEARNING Jones & Bartlett Learning World Headquarters 5 Wall Street Burlington, MA 01803 978-443-5000 info@jblearning.com www.jblearning.com Jones & Bartlett Learning books and products are available through most bookstores and online booksellers. To contact Jones & Bartlett Learning directly, call 800-8320034, fax 978-443-8000, or visit our website, www.jblearning.com. Substantial discounts on bulk quantities of Jones & Bartlett Learning publications are available to corporations, professional associations, and other qualified organizations. For details and specific discount information, contact the special sales department at Jones & Bartlett Learning via the above contact information or send an email to specialsales@jblearning.com. Copyright © 2018 by Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, an Ascend Learning Company All rights reserved. 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The recommendations in this publication do not indicate an exclusive course of action. Variations taking into account the individual circumstances and local protocols may be appropriate. The publisher disclaims any liability or responsibility for the consequences of any action taken in reliance on these statements or opinions. 21273-0 Production Credits General Manager, Safety and Trades: Doug Kaplan General Manager, and Executive Publisher: Kimberly Brophy VP, Product Development: Christine Emerton Executive Editor: Bill Larkin Senior Development Editor: Janet Morris VP, Sales, Public Safety Group: Matthew Maniscalco Business Development Manager for Fire: Janet Maker Director of Sales, Public Safety Group: Patricia Einstein Vendor Manager: Nora Menzi Director of Marketing Operations: Brian Rooney VP, Manufacturing and Inventory Control: Therese Connell Composition and Project Management: Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd. Cover Design: Kristin E. Parker Rights & Media Specialist: Robert Boder Media Development Editor: Shannon Sheehan Cover Image: Courtesy of Marsha Giesler Printing and Binding: RR Donnelley Cover Printing: RR Donnelley Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Giesler, Marsha P., author. Title: Fire and life safety educator / Marsha P. Giesler. Description: Second edition. | Burlington, Massachusetts : Jones & Bartlett Learning, [2017] | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016043856 | ISBN 9781284041972 Subjects: LCSH: Lifesaving at fires--Study and teaching. Classification: LCC TH9402 .G52 2017 | DDC 363.37071--dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016043856 6048 Printed in the United States of America 21 20 19 18 17 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 Dedication Lucas, Jonah, Wren, Spencer, and Lincoln. You own my heart. Let’s go play now! Brief Contents CHAPTER 1 Historic Fires, Injury Prevention, and Community Risk Reduction CHAPTER 2 Fire Behavior, Systems and Devices, and Fire Prevention CHAPTER 3 Fire Department Basics and the Fire and Life Safety Educator CHAPTER 4 Learning Styles and Theories, Teaching Methods, and Strategies CHAPTER 5 Age Group Characteristics CHAPTER 6 High-Risk Audiences and Behaviors CHAPTER 7 Messages for Different Age Groups CHAPTER 8 Messages for Holidays, Special Circumstances, and Safety Campaigns CHAPTER 9 Professionalism and Presentations CHAPTER 10 Public Relations and Working with Media CHAPTER 11 Evaluation, Assessment, and Reflection CHAPTER 12 Management of a Fire and Life Safety Program CHAPTER 13 Community Risk Assessment CHAPTER 14 Program Design and Management CHAPTER 15 Educational Materials, Lessons, and Programs CHAPTER 16 Evaluation for FLSE Managers CHAPTER 17 Administration of a Fire and Life Safety Program CHAPTER 18 Planning and Developing Safety Strategies CHAPTER 19 Program Education, Implementation, and Evaluation CHAPTER 20 Public Information Officer CHAPTER 21 Youth Firesetter Intervention Specialist CHAPTER 22 Youth Firesetter Program Manager Appendix A Appendix B Glossary Index Contents CHAPTER 1 Historic Fires, Injury Prevention, and Community Risk Reduction Introduction Historical Fires in the United States The Great Chicago Fire (October 8–10, 1871) Iroquois Theater Fire (December 30, 1903) Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire (March 25, 1911) Cocoanut Grove Nightclub Fire (November 28, 1942) Our Lady of the Angels School Fire (December 1, 1958) Beverly Hills Supper Club Fire (May 28, 1977) MGM Grand Hotel Fire (November 21, 1980) The Station Nightclub Fire (February 20, 2003) 16 Fire Fighter Life Safety Initiatives Human Behavior in Fires Facts and Fallacies of Human Behavior in Fires Occupant Characteristics and Other Factors Determining Human Behavior in Fires Human Response to Cues Decision Making When Encountering a Fire Training the Public for More Efficient Evacuation Injury Prevention Early Pioneers and Their Contributions to Injury Prevention Injury Prevention Makes Strides Injury Causes and Prevention Motor Vehicle Crashes and Prevention Bicycle Injuries and Prevention Drowning and Prevention Burns and Prevention Falls and Prevention Poisoning and Prevention Suffocation and Prevention Effective Strategies for Injury Prevention Community Risk Reduction Where Does the Fire Service Go from Here? Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 2 Fire Behavior, Systems and Devices, and Fire Prevention Introduction Fire Behavior What Is Fire? Fire Growth Fire Stages Emerging Studies in Fire Growth Stages Fire Classification The History of Fire Prevention and Code Development Fire Prevention History The Nation Looks at Fire Prevention The Beginnings of Organizing for Code Compliance Codes, Ordinances, and the Process Code Compliance through Changing Human Behavior Occupancy Storage Means of Egress Holidays Provisions for People with Disabilities Types of Hazards Home Inspections Fire Protection Systems Fire Alarm and Detection Systems Automatic Sprinkler Systems Residential Sprinkler Systems Other Fire Suppression Systems and Agents Portable Fire Extinguishers New Technology Awareness Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 3 Fire Department Basics and the Fire and Life Safety Educator Introduction Fire Service Traditions and Symbols The Dalmatian The Fire Plug Cherry Pickers and Snorkels Fire Boxes and Gamewells Fire Marks The Maltese Cross St. Florian, Patron Saint of Fire Fighters Fire Service Responsibilities Emergency Medical Service Department Vehicles The Fire Department: Myths and Frequently Asked Questions The Duties of Fire Fighters Payments and Refusals Grocery Shopping and Other Daily Routines Cats in Trees and Other Services Provided Response Times Driving Job Requirements Job Descriptions and Organizational Charts Helping Fire Fighters Help You Making Addresses Visible Pulling to the Right for Sirens and Lights Calling 911 or the Local Emergency Number Keeping Fire Hydrants Accessible Station Tours Setting Up the Tour Safety for Station Tours Put Your Best Foot Forward Have a Plan Rules for Station Tours In Closing Personal Protective Equipment Preschoolers Elementary School Students Upper Elementary Grades and Middle School Students High School Students Adults and Older Adults Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 4 Learning Styles and Theories, Teaching Methods, and Strategies Introduction Active and Passive Learning Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience The Three Domains of Learning Learning through the Senses: Three Learning Styles Learning through Multiple Intelligences Other Types of Learning What Learning Styles and Domains Mean for Educators What Is Teaching? What Teaching Means for Life Safety Educators Life Safety Educators’ Advantages The Foundation of an Effective Teaching Session What Do Good Teachers Do? Teaching Methods and Strategies Lectures Lectures with Discussion Panels of Experts Discussion Demonstrations Questioning Role Playing Peer and Cross-Age Tutoring Storytelling Brainstorming Multimedia Tools Experiential Learning Puppets, Magic, and Props Fairs, Open Houses, and Community Events Classroom Management Learning Activities Graphic Organizers Sum-Up Writing Games, Charts, Surveys, and Checklists Ideas to Enhance Teaching and Learning Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 5 Age Group Characteristics Introduction Domains of Development Preschoolers Developmental Characteristics What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators Elementary School Students Developmental Characteristics What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators Adolescents Developmental Characteristics What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators Adults The Andragogical Model Characteristics of Adult Learning Barriers to Adult Learning What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators Older Adults Developmental Characteristics Cognitive Characteristics Physical Characteristics Psychological Characteristics What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 6 High-Risk Audiences and Behaviors Introduction Who Is at Risk? General Considerations for Working with Any High-Risk Group Young Children Older Adults People with Disabilities Visually Impaired Deaf or Hard of Hearing Speech Impaired Physically or Mobility Impaired Cognitively and Developmentally Impaired Socioeconomic Factors Culture Differences and Language Barriers Literacy What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 7 Messages for Different Age Groups Introduction Prevention Messages Reaction Messages Preparedness Messages Messages for Preschoolers Prevention Messages for Preschoolers Reaction Messages for Preschoolers Preparedness Messages for Preschoolers Secondary Audiences for Preschoolers Messages for Elementary-Aged Children Prevention Messages for Elementary-Aged Children Reaction Messages for Elementary-Aged Children Preparedness Messages for Elementary-Aged Children Secondary Audiences for Elementary-Aged Children Messages for Adolescents Prevention Messages for Adolescents Reaction Messages for Adolescents Preparedness Messages for Adolescents Secondary Audiences for Adolescents Messages for Adults Prevention Messages for Adults Reaction Messages Preparedness Messages Secondary Audiences Older Adults Prevention Messages Reaction Messages Preparedness Messages Secondary Audiences Resources for Fire and Life Safety and Injury Prevention Programs Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 8 Messages for Holidays, Special Circumstances, and Safety Campaigns Introduction Holiday Messages and Campaigns Christmas, Chanukah, and Kwanzaa Fourth of July Halloween Monthly Safety Observances Audience-Specific Messages and Programs High-Rise Evacuation School Fire Drills and Crisis Reaction Planning Places of Assembly Rural Communities National Campaigns Fire Prevention Week National EMS Week Smokey Bear Change Your Clock, Change Your Battery Fire is Everyone’s Fight Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 9 Professionalism and Presentations Introduction True Professionalism The Face of the Department Doing the Right Thing Professional Practices General Practices Liability and Safety Time Management Writing Record Keeping and Documentation E-mail Etiquette Presentations Where to Begin Do Things the Right Way A Roadmap for Presentations The Nuts and Bolts of Presentations Room Setup Educational and Instructional Materials Dealing with the Unexpected Slide and PowerPoint® Presentations Partnerships, Teams, and Coalitions Working with Other Fire Department Members Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better Reference Additional Resources CHAPTER 10 Public Relations and Working with Media Introduction What Is Public Relations? Principles of Public Relations Monitoring the Issues Addressing the Issues Planning and Researching Publics and Audiences Persuasion and Changing Behavior The Persuaders Persuasion Appeals Messages Message Delivery Message Purpose Message Quality Message Receivers Ethics and Legal Issues Publicity General Guidelines for Working with the Media What’s Newsworthy? Marketing Printed Materials Radio and Television Banners and Signs Direct Mail Contests and Drawings Ethnic Marketing Community Involvement Testimonials Word of Mouth Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 11 Evaluation, Assessment, and Reflection Introduction What Is Evaluation? Why Is Evaluation Necessary for Safety Education? What Needs to Be Evaluated and Assessed? Types of Evaluation Formal Evaluation Informal Evaluation Formative Evaluation Process Evaluation Summative Evaluation Quantitative Evaluation Qualitative Evaluation Methods of Evaluation Evaluation Results Interpreting the Results Reporting the Results Avoiding Pitfalls of Evaluation Reflection Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 12 Management of a Fire and Life Safety Program Introduction The Budget Process for FLSE II What to Do First? Estimating Expenses Developing a Budget Proposal The Purchasing Process Public Policy for FLSE II Fire Department Policy Making Policy Recommendations Formation of Local Policy Barriers to New Policy Acceptance Presenting Policy Recommendations Managing and Supervising Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better Additional Resources CHAPTER 13 Community Risk Assessment Introduction Identifying Community Risks Department Data That Identifies Risks Human-Created Risks Naturally Occurring Risks Contributing Factors and Populations at High Risk Identifying Target Hazards Building a Community Demographic Profile Prioritizing Identified Risks Applying the Assessment for Your Community Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 14 Program Design and Management Introduction Program Design The Five-Step Process Step 1: Conduct a Community Risk Assessment Step 2: Develop Community Partnerships Step 3: Create an Intervention Strategy Step 4: Implement the Strategy Step 5: Evaluate the Results Is There a Step 6? Facilitating a Collaborative Partnership Internal and External Partnership Members Organizational Guidelines Partnership Meeting Meeting Times and Locations Group Dynamics and Small Group Work Atmosphere and Norms Roles and Responsibilities Group Detractors Preparing Requests for Resources from External Organizations Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better. References Additional Resources CHAPTER 15 Educational Materials, Lessons, and Programs Introduction Building a Foundation for Programs and Lessons Planning Curricula, Units of Study, and Lesson Plans Standards Curricula Scope and Sequence Instructional Goals Objectives Lesson Plans Developing Educational and Informational Materials Revising Educational Programs and Materials Assessment and Evaluation Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better Additional Resources CHAPTER 16 Evaluation for FLSE Managers Introduction Formative Evaluation Process Evaluation Impact Evaluation Outcome Evaluation Employee Evaluation Laying the Groundwork Conducting the Evaluation Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better Additional Resources CHAPTER 17 Administration of a Fire and Life Safety Program Introduction Professional Development for the FLSE III Organizational Policies and Procedures Report Writing and Data Entry Budget Development Purchasing Guidelines and Policies Budget Skills Application Alternate Systems of Program Delivery Grants Volunteers Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better Additional Resources CHAPTER 18 Planning and Developing Safety Education Strategies Introduction Developing a Comprehensive Organizational Education Strategy Creating and Leading a Community Risk Reduction Program Create the Right Environment The Six Steps of CRR Creating a Safety Education Coalition Framework for Coalition: The Eight Steps Barriers to Starting a Coalition Projecting Future Safety Education Needs Proposing Public Policy Developing A Marketing Plan for Safety Education Ten Steps of a Social Marketing Campaign Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better References Additional Resources CHAPTER 19 Program Education, Implementation, and Evaluation Introduction Creating Messages Based on Community Risk The Health Belief Model Administrative Policies for FLSE Programs Leadership and the FLSE III Organizational Culture Change for FLSE Creating an FLSE Training Program Creating an Awareness Campaign within the Organization Creating a Comprehensive FLSE Report for Policymakers Determining Effectiveness of Safety Education Programs Evaluating Qualitative and Quantitative Aspects of CRR Programs A Framework for Program Evaluation Putting It All Together The Program Development Process Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better Reference Additional Resources CHAPTER 20 Public Information Officer Introduction Roles and Responsibilities Emergency Response Media Interviews The PIO “Go-kit” Preparing for the Interview Establishing a Media Area Dissemination of Information to Community Groups Preparing a News Release Preparing a Media Advisory Distributing Information to Media Groups The News Conference Coordinating a News Conference Before the News Conference News Conference Site and Time Briefing Members of the News Conference The Day of the News Conference Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better Additional Resources CHAPTER 21 Youth Firesetter Intervention Specialist Introduction Why Fire and Life Safety Educators? The Youth Firesetter Problem Why Do Children Set Fires? Fire Interest, Firestarting, and FireSetting Curiosity Firesetting Problem Firesetting Addressing Youth Firesetting General Youth Firesetter Intervention Terminology Administrative Tasks Implementing the Intervention Process The Assessment Instrument Interventions and Referral Options Following Up Evaluation Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About It and Make It Better Additional Resources CHAPTER 22 Youth Firesetter Program Manager Introduction Administration Formulating Polices Developing a Program Budget Identifying, Training, Assigning, and Supervising Maintaining Records and Case Files Planning, Development, and Delivery Establishing an Interagency Network Creating or Selecting Forms and Materials Delivering a Training Program for YFIS Delivering a Community Awareness Program Establishing a Data Collection System Evaluation Summary Points Key Terms Review Questions Critical Thinking Think About it and Make it Better Additional Resources Appendix A Appendix B Glossary Index Preface This text was written to provide fundamental and universal community education and fire and life safety principles that can be used by all fire service personnel. It is intended for: Fire science students learning about the role and importance of safety education in the fire service. Firefighters and EMTs with limited formal training in teaching methodologies who are expected to deliver effective fire and life safety education for their communities. Civilians with little knowledge of the operations and nuances of the fire service who are tasked with teaching fire and life safety education. Training officers who realize that fire and life safety education skills are a necessary tool for all department personnel. Fire departments and public health professionals who wish to more effectively reach the public but lack the resources to send personnel to seminars or specialized training courses in fire and life safety education. Safety education instructors who are looking for a resource that contains wellresearched data and practical advice based on years of field implementation in successful program delivery by respected educators. Any member of the fire service and health care professions working in community outreach, injury prevention, or safety education seeking a handy desk reference that provides information to better serve the public through education. The fire service has long recommended that public education be recognized and supported as an integral component of keeping our communities safe from fire and injury. It would be ideal if all school districts implemented a comprehensive safety curriculum in the schools, but the reality is that this subject is often swept aside because of other mandated requirements and budget constraints. It would also be ideal if every fire department across the country hired a full-time fire and life safety educator to perform a community risk assessment and develop programs specific to their community. This is not always possible. How, then, do we achieve the goal of educating the public in the practices that will prevent fires and injuries, and prepare everyone for natural disasters without these ideal circumstances? We begin by providing a solid foundation for all students of fire science and acknowledging that fire and life safety education is part of the job for all fire service personnel. About the Author Marsha Giesler has served as a fire inspector, as the interim Fire Prevention Bureau Chief, and as the fire and life safety education and public information officer for the Downers Grove Fire Department in Downers Grove, Illinois, since 1991. As a former teacher, she has brought her education experience and expertise to the fire service. She received her bachelor’s degree in education from the University of Illinois and a master’s degree in organizational management from National Louis University. Giesler has served as a past chairperson and as a member of the Illinois Fire Inspectors Association’s Fire and Life Safety Education Committee throughout her fire service career. For the past 20 years, she instructed the public education module, which she authored, for the state’s Fire Prevention Officer I class, teaching both firefighters and civilians. Most recently, Giesler developed the Illinois FLSE I 40-hour class. The hands-on class curriculum has consistently received accolades from even the most steadfast detractors. Giesler also worked with the Illinois Fire Chiefs Association to write and instruct the curriculum for the FLSE and Community Risk Reduction section of the Fire Officer I and Chief Fire Officer programs. She has written and instructed the fire and life safety education section of the Illinois Fire Services Administrative Professional Association class for the past 20 years. Giesler also served on the Illinois Task Force for the 16 Firefighter Life Safety Initiatives, representing Initiatives #14 and #15. She continues to work as a program designer and practitioner in the field of fire and life safety education, teaching safety and injury prevention to preschool through high school students, older adults, families, and businesses in her community throughout the year. Many of her ideas have been adopted and published by the fire service across the country, including the NFPA Education Section. Giesler and the Downers Grove Fire Department were recipients of the 1996 NFPA Learn Not to Burn® Champion Award and returned in 1997 as mentors for the 1997 Champions. Marsha Giesler was very honored to be named the 2012 NFPA Educator of the Year. Acknowledgments As I prioritize most things in my life, family is first. I would like to thank my entire family for the love, laughter, and support they’ve given me again throughout my work on this second text book project. I thank my husband, Steve, who continued to quietly anchor me during periods of doubts, deadlines, and drama! My children and their spouses are competent young professionals, and I thank each of them as they helped me to understand their areas of expertise and provided up-to-date practices and resources. My mom and mother-in-law are shining examples of independent older adults and the determination it takes to maintain quality of life as we age. My grandchildren are a constant reminder of the importance of our role in keeping these energetic and curious little lives safe as they go about exploring their world. I thank the men and women of the Downers Grove Fire Department for their continued and increasingly active involvement in education, which always makes my job so rewarding. My current fire chief, Jim Jackson, patiently listened to my proposals for modifying our 7G program for FLSE to create a more sustainable cadre of instructors. His willingness to work through the process and implement the initiative has paid off for the department. Thank you to Dale, Nick, TJ, and Rob who took the first plunge as instructors. The Illinois Fire Inspectors Association has served as my boot camp for fire prevention, and I thank them for the privilege of serving on their committees. A special thank you to Executive Director, Robert Morris, my long time mentor and friend for answering my many questions and providing a sounding board for all the ‘what ifs’ I often propose. This section could take on a life of its own if I thanked all the people who have mentored me in my career. But I will always acknowledge a few of the legends in fire and life safety education from whom I’ve learned and continue to respect, including Patricia Mieszala, Sharon Gamache, Peg Carson, and Meri-K Appy. A very special thank you to Chief Patrick Kenny, IFCA, who understands and supports the mission of fire and life safety education and has worked with the Illinois Fire Chiefs Association to ensure that fire and life safety education has been updated and included in the Chief Officer programs. I continue to value your guidance. To the school districts, teachers, and students in Downers Grove, Illinois, thank you for allowing our department in your classrooms on a regular basis. I have learned so much from you and your students. A thank you goes to all the firefighters in my classes who have provided me with a unique view of their frustrations in this field, their potential strengths as educators, and their opinions about what the fire service needs from a book like this. In no particular order, I would like to thank the following people who were invaluable in lending their time and talent to this project. Patti Cepeda, behavioral specialist, for allowing me to see children with cognitive and emotional disabilities through her eyes and to gain a better perspective of their challenges and those of their families and their teachers. Deputy Chief Matt Daly, our administrative DC, for unwavering support of our education efforts throughout his career as both a young line firefighter working in the schools and throughout his administration, working to provide both budgetary and policy considerations for our community programs. Peg Paul of the Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition, who arranged the delivery of an important graphic to the text within a tight deadline. Audrey Borling, MAT, the young, energetic, and passionate teacher and school administrator who daily inspires me to consider the challenges and the importance of teaching and reaching those families in underserved areas. I owe a thank you to Marissa Giesler for her candor as she continues to teach me about Latino culture and respect for family. Last, a big thank you to Chris Giesler for lending me his creativity and talent during a very busy time in his life. The publisher and I are very grateful to each of the evaluators who took the time to read through the manuscript during draft stages and who provided constructive and essential suggestions. We would like to acknowledge: Paul Berens, Fire Prevention Officer Castle Rock Fire and Rescue Department, Castle Rock, CO David Blizzard, Public Education Officer Markham Fire & Emergency Services, Markham, ON David L. Bullilns, Director of Public Safety Mitchell Community College, Statesville, NC J. Barry Burnside, Fire Chief Clinton Fire Department, Clinton, MS Jason W. Burrow, Lieutenant Hanover Fire EMS, Hanover, VA Paul E. Calderwood, Deputy Fire Chief/Fire Marshal, Ret. Everett Fire Department, Everett, MA Robert M. Cembor, Lieutenant Warwick Fire Department Warwick, RI Greg Dickens, Fire Safety Inspector/Public Educator Missouri Division of Fire Safety, Jefferson City, MO Andy Dotson, FFC, Public Education/Fire Prevention Coordinator Morgantown Fire Department, Morgantown, WV Dr. Mary Beth Finn, Administration Section Chief Alabama Fire College, Tuscaloosa, AL C. Larry Hansen, Battalion Chief of Operations Oklahoma City Fire Department, Oklahoma City, OK Thomas L. “Tommy” Harper, Assistant Professor Jefferson College of Health Sciences, Roanoke, VA Bradley Iverson, Firefighter, Adjunct Instructor Las Vegas Fire & Rescue, College of Southern Nevada, Las Vegas, NV JD Jenkins, Fire and Life Safety Education Coordinator Virginia Department of Fire Program, Glen Allen, VA Einar Jensen, Community Risk Reduction Specialist South Metro Fire Rescue, Centennial, CO Dan Kerrigan, MS, EFO, CFPS, Assistant Fire Marshal/Deputy Emergency Management Coordinator East Whiteland Township Dept. of Codes and Life Safety, Malvern, PA Karla Klas, BSN, RN, CCRP, Managing Director, Injury Prevention and Community Outreach University of Michigan Trauma Burn Center, Ann Arbor, MI Pete Metcalf, Assistant Fire Chief Veazie Fire Department and Eastern Maine Community College Fire Science Technology, Bangor, ME Robert Morris, Illinois Fire Inspectors Association, Executive Director Mount Prospect, IL Kathi Osmonson, Deputy State Fire Marshal Youth Firesetting Prevention and Intervention, St. Paul, MN Steven M. Phillips, Lieutenant, Assistant Fire Marshal Hanover Fire/EMS, Hanover, VA James D. Reynolds, Fire/EMS Instructor Caperton Center for Applied Technology/RESA V, Parkersburg, WV Jennifer Rubin, Injury Prevention Program Lead Dignity Health Mercy San Juan Medical Center, Carmichael, CA Robert Swiger, Fire Chief, Ret. Town of Carrboro, Ret. Field Supervisor, NC Office State Fire Marshal NCRRS/ISO Consultant Management Solutions for Emergency Services, Raleigh, NC Tanja Tanner, Community Risk Reduction Coordinator Goodyear Fire Department, Goodyear, AZ Melanie Taylor, Public Education Specialist/Washington Public Fire Education Chair, King County Fire and Life Safety Secretary Kent Regional Fire Authority, Kent, WA Michael Warzewick, Public Education Coordinator Division of Fire and Life Safety, Anchorage, AK Gerald Wheeler, Fire Protection Specialist, Ret. Founder, New York State Association of Fire and Life Safety Educators, Horseheads, NY We would also like to thank the contributing authors who provided the Voice of Experience case studies found within the chapters. I met so many interesting and helpful people as I worked on this book. If I have forgotten to mention anyone who contributed to this project in any way, I sincerely apologize. As we continue to work together, we hope that fire and life safety education will take its rightful place as part of every firefighter’s job in every fire department across the country for the safety of their community and their firefighters. —Marsha Giesler CHAPTER 1: Historic Fires, Injury Prevention, and Community Risk Reduction Paper:© silver-john/ShutterStock, Inc.; Chapter Opener Photo: © Bettmann/Getty. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Develop an appreciation for the roles engineering, enforcement, education, economic incentives, and emergency response play in fire and life safety. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 1–2) Understand the importance of learning about historical fires and the implications their outcomes have for fire and life safety efforts in the future. (p. 1) Identify the role of fire and life safety education in preventing line-of-duty deaths for fire fighters. (p. 16) Explain the reasons a safety educator needs a basic understanding of human behavior in fires and other disasters. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 17–18) Determine the type of information the public needs to know to improve their chances of survival in a fire or other emergencies. NFPA 4.1.1 (p. 20) Recognize and dispel common myths about human behavior in fires. NFPA 4.1.1 (p. 18) Apply and include information about human behavior in fires to appropriate fire service programs. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 17– 19) Describe the role fire service and life safety educators play in the area of injury prevention education. NFPA 4.1.1 (p. 20) Describe community risk reduction as it relates to fire prevention. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 29–30) Explain the basic steps to a community risk reduction plan. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 29–30) Identify the value of community partners. (pp. 29–30) Introduction Watch any disaster movie and you’ll see victims pushing each other out of the way, climbing over and clawing at each other in an attempt to save only themselves. Panic and pandemonium take over as the volume of screaming intensifies on the soundtrack. Yet a review of large life-loss fires tells us that this is not the most common behavior when these tragedies occur. What then are the behaviors of the public in these situations? History is riddled with tragic fires from which many lessons have been learned. Fire and life safety educators who are students of this history will better serve their public when they understand factors that contributed to past fires and the prevention efforts that could reduce the number of similar tragedies in the future. As the fire service continues to expand its role in preventing unintentional injuries, educators will also be better prepared if they understand the evolution of this area of study. Historical Fires in the United States U.S. history tells us that as far back as 1679 in Boston, Massachusetts, building codes were being changed to require that buildings be built of stone or brick, more fire-resistant materials than those of previously existing structures. Roofs were required to be covered with tile or slate to prevent the fast spread of fire. Even then, city leaders realized that a change in building construction could help prevent catastrophic fires. Over time, it became clear that most fires are preventable, loss of life could be minimized, and property damage could be kept to a fraction of the reported dollar loss. Some of the most important lessons have been learned in the aftermath of tragic fires that resulted in a devastating loss of life. Upon review of some of the large life-loss fires that occurred in the United States, educators will find that all of them could have been prevented or diminished in their level of devastation if one or all of the Three Es of fire prevention had been carefully planned for ahead of time. In the fire service, the Three Es of prevention were first noted as important during the convention President Truman held in 1947 to address the United States’ losses from fires. These interventions are commonly known as engineering, enforcement, and education. Engineering is a form of intervention used to change structures, products, and processes through the use of technology, materials, construction, and environmental change that provide a greater level of safety for property and occupants. Enforcement is the creation and adoption of codes, ordinances, and requirements for compliance to ensure that people, structures, and associated systems adhere to the safest practices. Even with these two interventions working together, the one element that can still negate the effectiveness of these systems is human behavior. This is where the third “E,” education, becomes so important. Education is the process of preventing or altering specific unsafe attitudes, behaviors, and conditions in an effort to produce desired behaviors. It involves raising awareness and imparting information and knowledge to change attitudes and produce safer behaviors by teaching individuals, targeted groups, or the population at large about preventive measures. In recent years, two more Es of prevention have been added to support the effectiveness of the original triangle of interventions for fire prevention. Economic incentives provide additional compliance through both positive and negative reinforcement. Consider the positive impact of reduced insurance rates or the call to action when negative incentives, such as fines for violations, are imposed. Emergency response has been included with the Es as the final consideration for risk reduction. If the other interventions have failed, it will always be necessary to have well trained and adequately staffed emergency response teams to provide assistance during later stages of risk development. There are some risks that can be mitigated only by adding new emergency response capability or enhancing current emergency response capabilities. It is only when the Three Es work together that the fire service stands the greatest chance of preventing fires. Even when, and if, a fire occurs, the Three Es offer the best hope of survival. Any two of the legs of this tripod are ineffective without the third FIGURE 1-1. Keeping the original Three Es in mind during the following discussion of historic fires, consider how each could have impacted the final outcome of each of these stories. FIGURE 1-1 The original Three Es of fire prevention, now supported by economic incentives and emergency response to represent the Five Es of fire and injury prevention. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. The Great Chicago Fire (October 8–10, 1871) The Great Chicago Fire of 1871 remains one of the most famous fires in United States history. It is the anniversary of this fire that is marked by Fire Prevention Week every year. By 1871, Chicago, Illinois, was already a major American city, boasting a population of more than 334,000 as the fourth largest city in the country. The city experienced rapid growth and was built in a hurry. About 60,000 buildings, 90 percent of them made of wood, were built close together amid wooden streets, sidewalks, and picket fences. Five-story buildings were constructed with poorly laid bricks. Chicago was the center of the country’s woodworking industry, home to an abundance of furniture mills, lumber yards, and paint and varnish shops. The city was also the largest grain market in the world. Seventeen massive grain elevators were built along the Chicago River, a waterway with 24 bridges. The river was often clogged with up to 200 wooden sailing vessels. Chicago was home to the Union Stockyards and was becoming the gateway to the West and the Pacific Northwest with 10 different railroads and the transcontinental railroad. Despite this remarkable growth, the city’s fire department had not kept pace. By 1871, there was less than one engine per square mile, and the department employed only 216 men. Between 1858 and 1871, Chicago had experienced nearly 3700 fires, 700 in one year alone. This alarming rate of fires caused the city’s insurer, Lloyd’s of London, to send a representative who issued a report recommending and convincing the firm to cancel the outstanding policies and cease insuring any property in Chicago. The summer and fall of 1871 were hot and dry. The resulting drought left the region open to grass and forest fires. With only 1 inch of rainfall between July and that October, the city made of wood was an open invitation for an uncontrolled fire. On Sunday, October 8, the men of the Chicago Fire Department were already exhausted, having battled 20 major fires since September 30. Just the night before, “The Saturday Night Fire” began between 10 and 11 pm in the boiler room of a planing mill, which was located in the middle of a block next to a lumber shed, coal yards, wooden outbuildings, and smaller houses. By the time the fire department arrived, the mill was almost entirely engulfed in flames. A strong wind quickly spread the fire, and in less than 20 minutes, all of Canal Street was ablaze. The fire burned more than four square blocks. Pioneer Hook and Ladder Co. 1 was destroyed, along with much of the department’s other equipment and the coal necessary to power the steamers. On Sunday, the men of the department were completely spent. At 8:40 pm, flames broke out in the cattle barn belonging to Patrick and Catherine O’Leary just four blocks south of the Saturday Night Fire. There are conflicting stories about the exact cause of this fire, but there is no doubt that the fire began at the O’Leary’s barn and spread rapidly to adjacent barns and shacks. Six blocks away, Joseph Lauf, a watchman on duty, spotted the fire from his perch in the tower. By 9:16 pm, a spotter inside the courthouse tower north of the river saw the fire. He struck a box, giving an inaccurate location more than one mile southwest of the actual fire. At the same time, a passerby ran into the Jefferson Street firehouse and reported that a fire was burning a few blocks south—the opposite direction of that given by the alarm office. Other alarms and reports continued to come in. By now, the combination of a relentless south wind and lost time had already begun to write this horrific fire in the pages of history. Flames were 60 ft (18.3 m) in the air and continued to push north. Engine 5 tried to put a stop to the advancing blaze but ran out of coal and could no longer function. Other fire fighters could not get through the streets because people were not moving for them. The fire continued to feed on the roofs and walls of buildings. It then took on a life of its own as it began to consume everything in its path. People spoke of “fire devils” that danced from roof top to roof top. The fire continued through the night and on into Monday. Churches, prisons, factories, the city’s gas works facility, bridges, train depots, and mansions were all destroyed. Nothing was free from the ravages of this beast. People trampled one another in an attempt to flee their city. Some jumped into Lake Michigan. More than 100 prisoners were released and told to run for their lives. At 2:30 am on Monday, October 9, the fire jumped the Chicago River and then ignited a lumberyard and a train of tank cars filled with kerosene. By 3:30 am, the fire struck the Goth Waterworks, approximately 5 miles north of O’Leary’s barn, and knocked out all of the city’s remaining pumping ability. At noon, the fire reached Lincoln Park, where it destroyed the Chicago Historical Society. Along with other historical documents and records, an original draft of President Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation was destroyed. Between 2 and 3 am on Tuesday, October 10, a strong downpour extinguished the last of the hot spots. The fire that burned for more than 30 hours had taken a terrible toll on the thriving new city. When the final damage was assessed, the fire had ravaged a 3.5 to 4 m2 (9 to 10 km2) area, causing $200 million in damage. Accounts differ as to the number of buildings destroyed, with some reporting 15,700 and others as many as 17,450. About 300 people died, but this number also remains uncertain because so many bodies were burned beyond recognition. Others drowned as they tried to escape by diving into the lake and river. About 90,000 to 100,000 people were left homeless. Fire fighters came from as far away as Philadelphia and New York to assist the Chicago Fire Department. Interestingly, the magnitude of this fire often overshadows the fact that on the same day other serious fires occurred in Holland, Michigan, and Peshtigo, Wisconsin. It is estimated that the Peshtigo fire, which was driven by the same weather system that pushed the Chicago Fire, killed 1200 people. The fire yielded many sobering lessons about fire prevention and codes, building construction, city planning, and firefighting. Within one year, more than half of the old city was rebuilt. In November 1871, Tribune publisher Joseph Medill was elected mayor on the “Fireproof” ticket. In 1922, the 51st anniversary of the Chicago Fire, the week in which October 8 to 10 falls was proclaimed National Fire Prevention Week. The site of the O’Leary barn is now the block-square training academy of the Chicago Fire Department. Outside the front door stands a monument to the fire, a spiraling metallic flame FIGURE 1-2. FIGURE 1-2 This spiral statue stands as a memorial in front of the Chicago Fire Academy, which is located on the site of the O’Leary Barn on De Koven Street where the Great Chicago Fire started. © Helen Sessions/Alamy. Iroquois Theater Fire (December 30, 1903) “Absolutely Fireproof.” That’s the way Chicago’s newest and most beautiful show palace was advertised in 1903 FIGURE 1-3. Yet only five weeks after the doors opened, on December 30, 1903, this theater became a deathtrap for 602 people, mostly women and children. The fire ranks as America’s worst single building fire. FIGURE 1-3 The Iroquois Theater was advertised to the public as “absolutely fireproof,” yet it had one of the most horrific fires in history. Courtesy of Chicago History Museum, ICHi-34981. It was a Wednesday afternoon, and the schools were out for Christmas break. The sellout performance of Mr. Bluebeard was set to feature the popular comedian Eddie Foy. As the largest theater in the country, it officially seated 1600. But on this cold and sunny day, the actual attendance was almost 2000. About 200 to 300 of those eagerly awaiting the performance held standing room only tickets. Members of the audience were standing four deep in the aisles from the orchestra up through three balconies. Behind the stage were another 400 stagehands, dancers, and actors. The theater, which was fashioned after the Opéra Comique in Paris, had a plush interior with magnificent mahogany and stained glass windows. The lobby welcomed its visitors with its impressive 60-foot- (18.3 m) high ceiling, white marble walls, and large mirrors. Two grand marble staircases led to the upper balconies. Architect Benjamin H. Marshall had studied prior theater fires, including the tragic Brooklyn Theater of 1876, which killed 285 people. He made every attempt to provide safety at his new theater. The 25 exits were estimated to empty the theater in less than five minutes, an asbestos curtain was installed on the stage that could be quickly lowered to provide a fire barrier, and off-duty fire fighters were hired to be on hand during the performance and were to be provided with hand-operated extinguishers. With this kind of planning and prevention efforts, what could possibly go wrong? But even before the show began, the stage was set for disaster. The theater was grossly overcrowded. Seating was made of wood, and the cushions stuffed with hemp. The theater had no fire alarm and no fire box out in front of the theater. In the rush to open on time, other safety factors had been overlooked or ignored. That afternoon, the holiday spirit and great anticipation filled the air. Yet within only minutes of the show’s beginning, the audience witnessed a bright flash that came from either the overheated wires of a light or a light touching the curtain. A six-inch flame streaked across the stage and set the oil-painted backdrops on fire. Stagehands and fire fighters attempted to extinguish or stomp out the fire, to no avail. Burning and falling debris continued to spark new fires backstage. The small loft fire spread quickly to the unprotected upper curtains and heavy combustible sets above the stage. Smoke began to fill the auditorium. Up to this point, most of the fire was backstage, but when a flaming piece of drape swung across the stage, orchestra members and the audience began to leave. The featured entertainer, Eddie Foy, came onstage and encouraged everyone to remain seated and stay calm, saying, “Ladies and gentlemen, there is no danger. This theater is fireproof. Don’t get excited.”1 He signaled the conductor to direct the remaining six musicians to continue playing to calm the crowd. In the end, although Foy’s message was incorrect, his actions actually saved many by helping to calm the audience members. A flaming set then came crashing down, at which time Foy ordered the stagehands to lower the asbestos curtain to protect the audience. But it snagged on a cable or a light reflector, leaving a 20foot gap between the bottom of the curtain and the stage. Nearly 2000 people pushed and shoved in their attempt to evacuate. They were misdirected by signs that led to washrooms and locked private stairwells. Aisles became clogged and impassable. Some died by suffocation in their seats. When the lights went out, the crowds of children, mothers, teachers, and family members cowered together in terror. Family members were separated from one another and cried out in the darkness. Many children fell and were trampled to death. Others died at doors that opened inward or had been locked to keep out freeloaders. Meanwhile, backstage employees opened a huge set of double doors, which sucked in so much air that it created a powerful wind tunnel inside, fanning the flames and sending huge sheets of fire underneath the curtain into the galleries and balconies. Another gust of wind sent a fireball raging into the auditorium, searing people still in their seats or in the aisles. The 75,000 ft of oiled manila rope suspended above the loft and the asbestos curtain burned and added to the already disastrous conditions. Outside the theater, there was no sign of the terror raging inside. The fire had gone undetected by everyone outside the theater for at least 15 minutes. Because there was no fire alarm outside the theater, after the fire was noticed, someone had to run around the corner and report the fire to the nearby firehouse. Things were so calm on the exterior of the theater that when the first responding fire companies pulled up on the scene with their horse-drawn steamers, hose carts, and aerial ladders, they thought it was a false alarm. But that picture changed quickly as they tried to enter the structure and had trouble accessing the auditorium because so many bodies were stacked at the doors. It is estimated they encountered 200 bodies stacked approximately 10 high. After fire fighters began their attack, it took only 10 minutes for them to put out the fire because most of the combustibles had already burned. A fire escape door behind the top balcony led to a platform, but the iron staircase was missing. Those who pushed the door open fell to the ground, meeting their death as they plummeted 100 ft (10.5 m) to the cobblestone alley below. Fire fighters later found 125 bodies in “Death’s Alley” behind the theater. The victims: 572 died in the fire, and 30 more died in the weeks to follow, bringing the total to 602, including 212 children. Some were never identified. 250 more were injured. The victims were from 13 different states. Later Reports An investigation of the “absolutely fireproof” theater revealed many troubling findings: Two pop-open smoke vents in the roof behind the stage had been covered over with heavy timbers and bars and nailed shut because they had not been finished in time for the opening. This contributed to the high death toll by asphyxiation. The asbestos curtain had actually been made of burlap, cotton, and other combustible materials and was only coated with asbestos. There had been no pre-fire planning or fire drills for ushers and other personnel. They had no idea what they should do in the event of fire. The theater had no fire alarm. No sprinklers had been installed because they were deemed unnecessary considering all the other fire protection. They were also too costly and considered unsightly for the new building. Management had bolted nine pairs of iron panels over rear doors. They had installed illegal padlocked accordion gates at the top of interior second and third floor stairway landings. All exit lights had been shut off during the performance to keep the audience from being distracted. Some exits were covered with thick draperies. The outside exits that were to allow the theater to be emptied in less than five minutes were found to open inward, not outward. Officials from the city and the fire department denied knowledge of the fire code violations. They blamed inspectors, who allegedly overlooked the dangerous infractions for free theater passes. In the months to follow, theater owners, a city inspector, and two fire fighters were indicted and then exonerated on technicalities. The building itself was practically unharmed. It reopened in 1904 but was razed in 1924 to make way for a new theater. Code Changes and Reform As with many tragic fires, officials learn from past mistakes and try to improve conditions for the future. The Iroquois Theater fire resulted in the following important changes for other theater buildings: Outward opening exit doors must remain unlocked and fitted with panic hardware. Mandatory upgrades include exit lights; automatic sprinklers, standpipes, fire alarms, and flame-resistant scenery, props, and curtains. Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire (March 25, 1911) One of the most infamous industrial fires in United States history is known as the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire. Located in the heart of Manhattan at 23–29 Washington Place, the Asch Building was typical of other sweatshops in New York, which was home to many tenements and loft factories. Most of the company’s 500 workers were young Italian and European Jewish immigrant girls between the ages of 15 and 19. The immigrant workers toiled in crowded, unsanitary, and dangerous conditions for low wages while working long hours. Many female workers had gone on strike earlier, and some of the workers had become members of the International Ladies’ Garments Workers’ Union (ILGWU). Although others may have benefited from the union’s efforts, the workers at the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory were no better off in terms of pay, hours worked, or working conditions. The young girls were intimidated by the new language and culture and could not afford to lose their jobs, so they continued to work in the deplorable conditions without speaking up for themselves. The Triangle Shirtwaist Company was located on the eighth, ninth, and tenth floors of the 10-story Asch Building. The company manufactured the popular Gibson Girl-style blouses, which were made of a highly flammable sheer lightweight fabric known as lawn. Each floor of the building was approximately 900 ft2 (86.6 m2). On the eighth and ninth floors, four foot-wide work tables with 240 machines ran in five long, unbroken parallel rows almost the length of the floors. Approximately 230 to 275 young women were employed on these two floors. The tenth floor, full of cardboard and wooden boxes, was the shipping area, where another 60 workers put in long overtime hours. Although the factory had experienced four previous fires, it was in almost total compliance with the existing laws of the city at that time. Attention to fire prevention meant 259 water pails on site, one fire escape, two narrow stairways, four freight elevators, and a standpipe water connection on each floor. The New York fire chief had earlier stated that the building needed more fire escapes and that sprinkler systems should be installed in manufacturing plants, but the manufacturers association said these measures were too unsightly and expensive. Among the hazards were the stairwells, which were only 33 inches wide; locked exit doors to make sure workers did not sneak out; many workers who smoked; exit doors that opened to the inside; solid rows of machines lined up in front of doors; and having no fire extinguishers on site. At 4:30 pm on Saturday, March 25, 1911, 130 young women lined up for a purse inspection on the eighth floor before leaving for their weekend. As the girls lined up and talked excitedly about dates, wedding engagements, and their plans for the future, the men, mostly cutters, had put on their coats and left because they were not subject to this inspection. Almost simultaneously with the ringing of the bell signaling the end of the work day, a fire broke out at 4:42 pm in the northeast corner of the eighth floor. It is believed to have originated from a match or lit cigarette in a rag bin that had not been emptied in weeks or by a match igniting piles of the highly flammable scrap material on the floor near the cutting tables. Efforts to put the fire out with the available pails of water failed. In a short time, the fire spread over the entire floor and out the windows to the floors above, through elevator shafts, and up stairwells. A large amount of stock was in the process of manufacture, which contributed to the fireload. Flames swirled from the bin to ignite paper patterns hanging overhead. One of the girls ran upstairs to notify the bookkeeper, who was the only person authorized to call the fire department. Efforts to locate her took precious time as the fire gained momentum. Operators had to move between tables all the way to the north end of the floor before being able to cut across to the stairway. Conditions were the same on the ninth floor. Because the doors opened inward, girls were crushed at the door leading to the stairway, and it slammed closed. Other doors on the eighth and ninth floors had been locked to prevent the girls from sneaking out. The 17.5-inch-wide fire escape became jammed. The intense heat caused the fire escape to buckle and swing, flinging a flaming load of human life to the courtyard below. Many made their way to the elevator, but when the cage door opened it created a draft of air. Girls pleaded with the elevator operator to return to their floor to save them. When the elevator was too full to accommodate any more workers, some threw themselves on top of the elevator as it descended, burning to death from the heat in the shaft. Many jumped, believing it was a better fate than that which they saw co-workers meet on the floors. At first, people on the tenth floor thought the spreading word of fire was a prank. They began to smell smoke and had to go to the roof because the stairwells were impassable. One hundred fifty laborers were able to get to safety when students from the New York University Law School next door extended a ladder across to their building. Passersby saw smoke coming from the eighth floor and what they believed to be flaming bolts of material flying out of windows. To their horror, they realized the fiery scene was really young bodies hurling to the ground. By the time the fire department arrived from only six blocks away, six bodies were already on the ground. Upon their arrival, fire fighters found the standpipe hose had rotted and the valves were frozen shut. Those who had made it into the stairwells began to claw their way out and collided with the ascending fire fighters, slowing their efforts. The stream of water from the fire department’s connection was only able to reach the seventh floor. Fire fighters’ ladders were too short to rescue those who remained at the windows because the aerial ladders only reached between the sixth and seventh floors. Yet with all the loss of human life, the fire department was able to knock down the fire in only 18 minutes. A total of 146 young lives and all contents were lost, but the walls, floors, and outside structure of the building remained intact. The building still stands and operates on the original site today. Triangle owners Isaac Harris and Max Blanck were indicted on charges of first- and second-degree manslaughter, but a jury found them innocent on a legal technicality. Code Changes and Reform Again, it was a tragic loss of life that paved the way for more stringent fire codes and proactive legislation. This landmark fire was the real precursor for today’s National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 101—Life Safety Code®. Other changes brought about after this fire included: All stairways and elevators must be enclosed in fireproof shafts. If more than 25 people work above ground level, the facility must be sprinklered. Escape routes cannot be blocked. The fire commissioner can enforce fire drills, and a private fire department should be organized in factories. Doors must open outward and remain unlocked during work hours. The Sullivan-Hoey Law was passed, which ordered the creation of a separate fire prevention bureau in the fire departments of New York. New York enacted America’s toughest factory fire protection legislation, which served as the model for other states. Unfortunately, even to this day, illegal garment shops with serious hazardous conditions continue to operate in large cities.2 Cocoanut Grove Nightclub Fire (November 28, 1942) It is now the 1940s. Since the Triangle Shirtwaist Fire, the United States and other countries have experienced other serious large life-loss fires, such as the 1940 Rhythm Night Club Fire (207 deaths), and learned lifesaving lessons from each of them. Surely by now, there are enough protection and prevention efforts in place to prevent such fires. But, on November 28, 1942, the Cocoanut Grove Nightclub fire in Boston, Massachusetts, sent a wave of shock throughout the country when 492 persons perished in this historic tragedy. The original building was built of concrete in 1916 as a garage and later functioned as a film distribution company. Over time, changes in ownership along with changes in use and occupancy, and significant additions to the building, had altered the building’s original footprint. The building had a history of shady owners and laundered money. In 1938, the Melody Lounge was built downstairs of the main level with a circular bar and artificial palm trees, complete with artificial bamboo. The new Broadway Lounge, a cocktail lounge, opened to the public on the first floor in November 1942. Access to patrons in and out of the club was limited to keep people from skipping out on their bills. The only access to the lower level Melody Lounge was a single set of stairs from the lobby. There was no other means of egress from this level. The main exit from the building was a set of revolving doors at street level FIGURE 1-4. Only eight days before the fire, on November 20, inspectors found the club to be in good condition, with “no flammable decorations” and with sufficient exits and extinguishers. FIGURE 1-4 Many decorations, locked doors, and closed-off areas contributed to the large life loss in the Cocoanut Grove Nightclub fire. © Bettmann/Getty. However, exits were indeed a problem. The doors opened inward. The main dining room had double doors, which were hidden by curtains. A row of windows was covered with wood panels, making it impossible to know where the windows were from the inside. Another service entrance was available in the basement behind the orchestra stage, but it was locked inside and out at night. A public exit from the Broadway Lounge was reachable only through a small vestibule. An exit through a cloak room was blocked by shelves. Another emergency exit down a small hallway at the top of the stairs was later found to be locked and bolted shut. On the night of November 28, 1942, the club, which had been transformed into a tropical paradise, was packed with highly flammable decorations; there was artificial leather on the bars and walls, curtains covering doors and windows, a night sky made of cloth on the ceiling, and an overcapacity crowd of more than 1000 patrons. Maximum capacity was figured at 600. The Melody Lounge could accommodate up to approximately 100 persons, but on the evening of the fire probably twice that number with people four deep crowded around the bar. Areas were so crowded with people, chairs, and tables that it was necessary to turn sideways to get through the room. The place was noisy, smoky, dimly lit, and packed. At about 10:15 pm, some of the crowd began to sing along with the lounge piano player as she played a popular wartime tune. One of the bar boys had been instructed to turn on a light in one of the artificial palm trees in the northwest corner of the room. One of the patrons had apparently unscrewed the light in the already dimly lit bar to provide even more intimacy for him and his girlfriend. After the bar boy returned from his task, a spark of blue light flickered above the palm tree, where it quickly torched the drapes and satin fabric on the ceiling. Some accounts report that the busboy lit a match to be able to see, which he quickly ground out. Realizing the fire was growing, some employees made an attempt to extinguish the fire with pitchers of water. Initially, those on the other side of the room did nothing because the fire seemed small and far across the room. But within minutes, the fire gained momentum, consuming tablecloths and decorations in its wake, and crossed 40 ft (12.2 m) of the Melody Lounge to the only public stairway out of the lower level. Most of the crowd ran up the narrow four-foot-wide stairs, which acted like a chimney and quickly became jammed. Many people were overcome by smoke. Some were able to escape the building by crawling through a small basement window. Upstairs, the first indication that something was wrong was when a woman ran screaming through the crowd with her hair on fire. In less than five minutes from first flame, the fire had crossed the main dining room and passed more than 200 ft to the entrance of the Broadway Lounge. As people scrambled for exits, they were either unable to find them because of the decorations or found them to be functionally unusable. Eventually, people jammed into the Broadway Lounge as the most remote point from the fire, but the inward-opening door was forced closed by a crush of people. At one point, the lights went out, leading to more confusion and fear. The heat upstairs was unbearable. A door located at the top of the stairs from the Melody Lounge in the lobby had panic hardware but had been double-bolted shut. Bodies were piled high against what should have served as a viable emergency exit. The revolving doors, as the main entrance to the club, were no match for the number of patrons pushing against them in an attempt to exit from the inferno inside. At approximately the same time, 10:15 pm, an alarm came into the nearby firehouse for an automobile fire. Fire fighters arrived and quickly extinguished the car fire. As the fire fighters were loading hose back on the reel, one of them heard a commotion and turned to see another fire around the corner. They drove around to the front of the new lounge and found people running everywhere and heavy smoke coming from the building. Agonizing screams filled the air. The chief ordered a fourth alarm and one minute later upgraded the call to a fifth alarm. Even with the advantage of being on the scene so quickly, by the time fire fighters approached the club, it was engulfed in flames from its origin in the Melody Lounge out the street to the Broadway exit. The fire fighters worked desperately around the Broadway Lounge door to gain access and rescue those inside. They could see people collapsing and bodies piling up just inside the doorway. Fire fighters made many heroic efforts to save as many as they could, but the numbers of people trampled and crammed together were insurmountable. Although rescue was their primary concern, fire fighters were able to extinguish the fire in less than 30 minutes. In fewer than 12 minutes, nearly 500 people died. About 200 bodies were found at the revolving doors. Another 100 were found at the Broadway entrance, and the remaining fatalities were discovered throughout the facility. Boston City Hospital received the greatest number of victims, estimated to be one Cocoanut Grove victim every 11 seconds over a 75-minute period, totaling more than 300 casualties.3 Massachusetts General Hospital also received 114 patients that night. Code Changes and Reform With a final death toll of 492 in one of the most horrific fires in history, it was time to reexamine the cause and code changes again. The events of the Cocoanut Grove Fire put nightclubs squarely under the microscope. The most significant changes from this fire were as follows: The definition of public places was expanded to include nightclubs. Before this fire, many jurisdictions did not include restaurants and nightclubs in this category. It was now recognized that these venues posed even more possibility of fire than theaters. Exits must be adequate for the occupancy and provide two remote points of access from the building. Doors must swing with the direction of crowd flow and be provided with panic hardware. Revolving doors are not considered a means of egress. All revolving doors must be flanked by standard exit doors. Materials used as decorations in places of public assembly must meet nationally recognized test methods for flammability. No combustible materials should be used in these occupancies. Any such materials must be treated with flameproofing materials. Emergency lighting must be permanent and operate independently of other lighting failures. Automatic sprinklers are recommended as an alternative to other regulations for below-grade nightclub occupancies. Aside from fire code regulations, the Cocoanut Grove fire resulted in important advancements in burn treatment and respiratory management of burn victims. With the tragic lessons learned and resultant proactive code changes, the fire service hoped to never experience another nightclub fire of this magnitude. Educator’s Tip When conducting evacuation drills in a facility with a revolving door, be particularly observant of this exit. If this is the entrance most people used when arriving at the facility, it is most likely the way they will exit. The Cocoanut Grove story serves as an important lesson to teach the value of learning about all building exits, including the two exit doors flanking the revolving doors. Reinforce the message that revolving doors must not be used during an evacuation by posting a sign or a person in front of the exit during the drill. Our Lady of the Angels School Fire (December 1, 1958) Our Lady of the Angels was a Catholic grade school in Chicago, Illinois. The school was located in a modest, well-kept, and closeknit Italian neighborhood of the city. The south wing of the U-shaped building was built in 1903. In 1910, the north wing was built to create a church/school combination, and in 1939, the building was converted and designated as a school. More remodeling took place in 1951. The school’s exterior was made of brick. The interior was made primarily of combustibles. Stairs, walls, floors, doors, and the roof were made of wood. Floors were coated with flammable petroleum-based waxes. There were no smoke or heat detectors, sprinklers, or fire-safe doors between the stairwells to the second floor. No fire alarm was connected directly to the fire department. There were two fire alarm switches in the entire school, both in the south wing. The school had one fire escape, meaning evacuating from the north wing depended on passing through the main corridor to reach it. The school’s four fire extinguishers were each mounted at 7 ft, out of the reach of most children and many adults. Second floor windows were 25 ft from the ground. Only weeks before the fire, the school had passed a fire department inspection. It did not have to follow all of the current fire safety guidelines because it had been grandfathered by a clause in the 1949 standards, which grandfathered all existing schools from complying with the most current standards. The school complied with a 1905 law FIGURE 1-5. FIGURE 1-5 More than 50 years after the Our Lady of the Angels Fire, the city of Chicago still remembers the story of the tragic loss of their children. © Bettmann/Getty. It was December 1, 1958, and school had recently resumed after the Thanksgiving vacation. In 1958, the school was filled to capacity. Some classes had up to 60 students crowded together in one room. Shortly before school let out for the day, a fire broke out at the foot of a stairway in the north wing. It was several minutes before the fire was discovered because there was no fire detection system in the building. The fire went undetected and raced up to the second floor. Two boys returning from emptying wastebaskets reported they smelled something burning when they returned to their class on the second floor. Pearl Tristano, a fifthgrade teacher, smelled smoke between 2:35 and 2:40 pm. She notified another teacher in an adjoining room, who unsuccessfully tried to find the mother superior. She went downstairs to find the principal. No one was allowed to sound the fire alarm without first notifying the mother superior. The principal was substituting in another classroom, so the teacher returned to her room. In the meantime, Miss Tristano led her class to safety and then sounded the interior fire alarm at about 2:42 pm. Students on the first floor evacuated as though it were a regular fire drill. At 2:30 pm, school janitor Jim Raymond was walking behind the school and saw smoke and a red glow from a frosted basement window in the northeast corner of the school. He rushed to the basement and told two boys to leave. He then ran to the rectory and told the housekeeper to call the fire department. Raymond then reentered the school and assisted a priest in evacuating students. Four of Raymond’s own children attended the school. The fire alarm started ringing at 2:42, but it was too late for the second floor north wing. Glass transoms broke, and heat and flames filled the classrooms. Fire blocked the only escape from the second floor for students and teachers. Students began jumping from the 25-foot second story windows. Others were later found seated at their desks with their heads bowed and their hands folded in prayer. In some cases, the window ledges were too high for the students to access. Fire had gotten in the cockloft and dropped down through two registers in the ceiling in the corridors, forcing children back to their classrooms. There was no fire box on the corner of the school. The fire department responded to the rectory address because that was the address that was called in with the alarm. The school was a half block away and around the corner. The fire already had a tremendous start before the fire department arrived at 2:44 pm. A shaft in the basement wall that extended up two stories to the cockloft above the second floor over six north wing classrooms allowed the fire to burn the roof. The roof directly over the burning stairwell collapsed and brought down the ceiling of the second floor corridor, sending a blast of superheated air and gases through the building. This knocked fire fighters down two flights of stairs as they attempted to reach the second floor. They realized there was no time to make individual rescues and began dropping children onto nets below. A total of 160 children were saved by pulling the children from windows and passing them down the ladders to nets below. Fire fighters began grabbing children and throwing them to the ground, figuring it was better to break bones than the fate they would surely face. It took little more than one hour for the fire department to put out the fire. After that, the grim reality set in for fire fighters as they searched the school. On the second floor in room 212, they found 27 fifth graders and a nun who had died, mostly from smoke. In room 210, there were 29 fourth graders and one nun who had succumbed to the fire and had been badly burned. Twenty-seven eighth graders’ bodies were discovered in rooms 209 and 211. At the end of the corridor nine seventh graders were found huddled together in death with one of the nuns. By the end of that night, 87 grade school children and 3 nuns had died. More deaths followed after agonizing in the hospital for months. In the end, the Our Lady of the Angels Fire was responsible for the deaths of 92 students, 3 nuns, and serious injuries of 77 survivors. Fingers of blame pointed in all directions. Some accused the church and the school of poor housekeeping and overcrowding. Others blamed the fire department for a slow response. Many questioned the delay in notifying the fire department. Within days of the fire, inspections and exit drills were performed in schools across the nation. An investigation of the fire revealed that sometime after 2 pm that fateful day, a 30-gallon cardboard trash drum at the bottom of the school’s northeast stairwell had smoldered undetected. As the temperature rose, heat shattered a window at the bottom of the stairs, and the fresh supply of oxygen caused the fire to flash up and spread up the unprotected stairwell and its 14 layers of paint. Code Changes and Reform The entire city of Chicago was brought to its knees by the deaths of so many young children in such a short time. The tight-knit community was devastated and wanted answers. Some families lost more than one of their children to this dreadful fire. Communities across the nation clamored for ways to prevent this tragedy from happening to them. In response to the loss, both local and national efforts were made to proactively change the codes and practices affecting school safety. The proposed changes were substantial: Effective in 1959, Chicago mandated that all schools of less than fire-resistive construction and greater than one story must have automatic sprinklers with water flow detectors and alarm devices. The Chicago Fire Prevention Code regarding extinguishers, including the number and type, was to be enforced. All legislation relating to fire safety in schools must be retroactive. Enclose all vertical passageways with noncombustible construction. Remove transoms over doors and replace them with fire-resistant materials. Require automatic building alarm systems. If there is no city fire alarm system, a conspicuously marked alarm control or fire telephone must be placed at the school entrance. A full first alarm response must be made to all school alarms. Subdivide all hallways greater than 300 ft in length. Limit schoolroom occupancy. Train school personnel in fire safety. All school personnel are allowed to call the fire department for help. Require monthly drills witnessed by the fire department. All exit doors open in the path of travel. Stairwells must be enclosed. Several years later, in 1962, a 13-year-old boy who had started similar fires in Cicero, Illinois, was questioned and signed an eightpage confession. He had attended Our Lady of the Angels school as a fifth grader the year of the fire. His confession contained details that corroborated much of the information obtained in the investigation that had not previously been released. The boy was sent away to a home for troubled boys in Michigan but was never officially charged with the fire because of a technicality surrounding the way his confession was obtained. Beverly Hills Supper Club Fire (May 28, 1977) When fire swept through the huge Beverly Hills Supper Club in 1977, 165 persons lost their lives in the largest loss of life fire since the Cocoanut Grove fire 35 years before, making this fire the third deadliest nightclub fire in U.S. history. The club was originally built in 1937 on a 17-acre site in Southgate, Kentucky. Southgate, a small bedroom community just across the Ohio River from Cincinnati in northern Kentucky, was protected by 60 volunteer fire fighters manning a 750- and a 1000-gpm pumper, a light rescue van, and an ambulance. The department averaged 80 calls a year. The club was shut down in 1961. In 1970, it underwent a $170,000 remodeling. While still under construction, the club experienced a fire, but an investigation into arson proved inconclusive. On February 10, 1971, the new Beverly Hills Supper Club opened to the public. Two weeks later, the Cincinnati Enquirer reported that the club had opened without remedying 10 major safety defects outlined by the state, including stairway enclosures and exits, and that the state fire marshal had not approved the club for occupancy. This publicity was downplayed by officials in Kentucky. In 1974, the owners applied for another permit to add a larger showroom. One month into construction, a small fire, apparently caused by a short circuit, broke out in the club’s main electrical panel. Flames were put out with an extinguisher. In November of that year, the Cabaret Room opened to the public. 1975 brought about more construction to accommodate smaller parties in the Zebra Room, and the Garden Room was completed in 1976. Additions to the building were piecemeal. The split-level building was divided into a number of large and small dining rooms, 18 private party rooms, bars, and the large Cabaret nightclub. A maze of narrow corridors connected the rooms. A later investigation found that the architect was not licensed by the state of Kentucky. State codes at that time did not require sprinklers or fire detection systems, and none had been installed. The club also had a 3-ft air space between the ceiling and the roof in some areas of the club, which concealed air ducts and unprotected roof supports. Other areas had vast spaces above the ceilings more than 6 ft high with wooden catwalks traversing the spaces. Exterior construction was concrete block and brick. A January 1977 stateordered inspection concluded that evacuation would not be a problem with the existing exits. Sitting high on a bluff, the complex was known as “the showplace of the nation” and attracted thousands of people every weekend for dining and big name entertainment. It is believed that as many as 3000 patrons and 182 employees were inside the club at 9 pm on the hot, muggy night of May 28, 1977. It is estimated that a total of 1300 patrons were in the Cabaret Room, the larger of the two showrooms, as the early show began. The room was overcrowded, air conditioners strained to keep up with the demand on the system, and many guests were seated on temporary seating erected on ramps to the stage. An awards banquet with 425 people in attendance was taking place in the Empire Room. Everywhere else, the club bustled with people enjoying meals and drinks in several restaurants, private party rooms, bars, and conference rooms. Upstairs, the six Crystal Rooms were occupied with various functions. The headliner in the club that night was the popular entertainer John Davidson, a favorite with the ladies. The 36year-old performer was shaving backstage when his drummer told him about the fire and led him to safety. Earlier in the 1970s, Davidson had joked on the Tonight Show about how performers had to walk through the entire club to reach the upstairs dressing room. The club had put in a backstage door only about a year before the fire. This small door provided only the third exit from the Cabaret Room. That door is how Davidson and others were able to escape. The fire, which was later determined to be caused by an electrical short, had apparently burned inside a heavily plastered wall of the Zebra Room for more than an hour before it was noticed. The following timeline may help readers grasp the grave reality of the rapid devastation of the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire: 8:25 pm: A small wedding reception breaks up early when occupants complain of too much heat in the room. They close the door and leave. 8:45: Employees discover a fire in the room, which they attempt to extinguish with three portable extinguishers before notifying the fire department. 8:59: The initial call comes into the Fort Thomas Police Department, dispatching for the county’s 16 fire departments. About this same time, an 18-year-old busboy, Walter Bailey, aware of the gravity of the situation, walked up the stairs at the front of the stage and reached for the microphone from one of the comedians performing in the lavish Cabaret Room. He pointed out the exits and exit signs, told people to leave, and stated that there was a fire at the front of the building. Initially, many people thought this announcement was somehow part of the act. At least 700 persons began to leave from the room’s two exits, but many did not. In the end, Bailey was credited with saving 1500 lives through his actions. As the fire continued to grow, some patrons had to wait at their tables for 5–10 minutes before beginning to leave because of the overcrowded conditions. Small, round cocktail tables were so close together that guests reported they were elbow to elbow with guests at the next table. As the crowd moved toward the exits, heavy black smoke banked down from the ceiling, causing zero visibility. Tables overturned; people fell, and others fell on top of them. Some exits had been illegally blocked, further hampering evacuation efforts. 9:01: Both Southgate pumpers and the rescue van respond to their first working fire of the year. At first, the men noticed many persons orderly evacuating from the building down the wooden steps of the south exit of the Cabaret Room. No smoke was showing in this area. However, when the chief arrived at the club’s main entrance, he saw hundreds of panic-stricken people running out of the club. He also saw gray smoke coming from the roof and eaves. Only two weeks earlier, three fire departments had flowed water in a drill for a pre-fire plan. But on this night, crews had great difficulty advancing lines into the main entrance against the flow of stampeding occupants. Heavy black smoke began to pour from the building. Chief Riesenberg ordered his men to abandon handlines and dedicate efforts to rescue. Each call for additional units had to be called individually because there were no running assignments. The steep hill made placement of apparatus difficult. People were standing around everywhere, blocking hose lines and getting in the way of rescue efforts. Those escaping began to collapse, stumbling down the steep hillside. Suddenly, the flow of people exiting the building ceased. Fire fighters wearing self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBAs) entered the south exit and found it blocked by bodies. They removed bodies and tried to revive those overcome by heat and smoke. They removed an additional 20 to 30 people before the intense heat drove them back. The same conditions prevailed in the Cabaret Room. Twelve physicians had been dining at the club that night, and they assisted with triage. A heavy black column of smoke climbed 100 ft into the night sky; flames were through the center section of the roof. Additional water was needed. Teams unfamiliar with the club’s topography had difficulty finding the pond because of the darkness, the high brush, and a packed parking lot. They had to give up and instead assist with operations at the front of the club. John D. Hoyle, the chief administrator of Southgate’s St. Luke Hospital, activated the Campbell County disaster plan. Field disaster kits were distributed to the scene, and all off-duty doctors were called to the hospital. 10:00: The official body count is 50. 10:45: The official body count is greater than 100. 12:05 AM: The north wall of the Cabaret Room caves in. 12:25: The east wall falls outward. 2:00: The fire chief calls the fire under control. By September of that year, a Governor’s Task Force declared the Beverly Hills Supper Club an “electrician’s nightmare.”4 The report blamed the fire on structural problems, substandard wiring, flammable building materials, a shortage of exits, gross overcrowding, and “myopic” inspection efforts. The governor condemned both the owners and the inspectors. The only people innocent of the dangers hiding behind the walls were the patrons and victims of the fire. In 1978, the 165th victim of the fire died in Cincinnati General Hospital FIGURE 1-6. That same year, a special grand jury, which was impaneled to investigate any crimes associated with the fire, actually blamed the victims for panicking and not evacuating until it was too late! FIGURE 1-6 It took days before the final death toll could be confirmed in the Beverly Hills Supper Club Fire. © Chachoff/AP Photo. Code Changes and Reform Does the account of this fire bring to mind many of the same conditions encountered in the Cocoanut Grove fire? By now, an adequate number of exits were required, flammable interior finishes were prohibited, and fire doors on stairwells were required. But time had passed, greed had taken over, and fire prevention again took a back seat to unsafe nightclub conditions. The occupant load was almost twice the allowable capacity, the club had no evacuation plan or staff training, staircases did not have fire doors at each level, and poor inspection efforts proved useless as means to preventing another tragedy. This time when experts returned to the drawing table, they knew it would take even more stringent code and education efforts to keep the public safe. The Beverly Hills Supper Club fire triggered requirements for automatic sprinklers and fire alarm systems in new and existing assembly occupancies when the number of occupants exceeds 300. MGM Grand Hotel Fire (November 21, 1980) The MGM Grand Hotel was a 26-story building constructed in 1972 to 1973 and opened to the public in December 1973 on the “Strip” on the southeast corner of the intersection of East Flamingo and Las Vegas Boulevards in Las Vegas, Nevada. The building consisted of a very large ground floor with a casino, restaurants, showrooms, and a convention center and the upper level of a jai alai fronton (open-walled arena). Below grade was the Arcade level, consisting of a movie theater, a large number of shops and boutiques, service areas, and underground parking. Open stairs connected the casino and arcade levels. The gross dimensions of the casino and arcade levels were 380 ft by 1200 ft (115.8 m by 3655.8 m). The Casino alone was approximately 150 ft by 400 ft. The hotel, built on top of the casino and arcade, consisted of three wings forming a T-shaped tower. Each wing was 320 ft long and 70 ft wide. There were 2076 guest rooms in the hotel. A total of 780 additional guest rooms were under construction on the west side of the existing building. On the morning of November 21, 1980, at least 5000 guests, staff, and others were inside the building. The structure was made of mixed construction. Interior finishes were of both combustible and noncombustible materials. The arcade level, a major portion of the casino, and part of the 26th floor were sprinklered. The large gambling casino and the high-rise tower were not sprinklered. Egress from the high-rise tower included one interior stairwell and one smokeproof tower for each wing for a total of six stairwells. All exited to the outside via horizontal passages. The three stairwells and one of the smokeproof towers were not enclosed with two-hour fire-rated construction. Once in the stair enclosures, it was not possible to access other floors because the doors were locked. The building had a manual fire alarm system; no pull stations were in the arcade or the casino, but the system could be activated from the security office. Pull stations were located throughout the guest room floors. The system was a local signaling system only. No automatic detection devices were in the building. Fire doors had only been installed after fire fighters, who were attending an earlier hotel convention, complained. Fire marshals had pressured the owners to sprinkler the entire building, but hotel executives fought the effort for budgetary reasons. A Clark County building official interpreted the code and ruled that sprinklers were not needed. The casino was exempted from putting in sprinklers because it would be occupied 24 hours a day. By the time the fire occurred, this area no longer operated 24 hours a day. At 7:10 am, an employee was cutting through a restaurant called The Deli at the east end of the casino on the way to work and discovered a fire in a bus station (a waitress and busboy service area). The worker was not trained in procedures for reporting fires. The restaurant was not open for business, but the casino and a coffeehouse were in full operation. Security was contacted, but attempts to extinguish the fire were unsuccessful because of the magnitude of the fire. The Clark County Fire Department was notified at 7:16, and the first crew arrived within minutes. There are no indications that a building alarm was sounded at that time. The fire spread to combustible interior finishes and chairs with foam plastic padding. The bus station flashed over and then The Deli. The fire communicated to the casino because of the lack of fire-resistant barriers. The highly combustible furnishings and contents, the interior finishes, and the large undivided area contributed to the rapid spread of fire and heavy smoke. By 7:25, the Casino and the porte cochere (the roofed structure extending from the entrance over the adjacent driveway) were fully involved. Limited or nonexistent barriers to fire spread allowed heat, smoke, and products of combustion to travel to upper floors. Fire fighters reported seeing a stratified layer of black smoke that was down approximately 6 to 8 ft (1.8 to 2.4 meters) from the ceiling. Shortly after that, a fireball and a heavy, dense, black cloud began to roll out. Elevator shafts, stairs, and other shafts located at seismic joints in the high-rise tower provided chimneys for the fire to spread. Large amounts of air flowing through the adjacent Orleans Coffee House and the arcade added to the growing inferno. The air system provided direct openings from the casino into the stairs. Fire dampers had been disabled so they could not close. Products of combustion traveled throughout the heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) system. Occupants became aware of the fire by smelling or seeing smoke and hearing yelling or helicopters overhead. Many were able to leave or were rescued by fire fighters. A total of 300 people were rescued from the roofs by helicopter, but many others were trapped in their rooms awaiting rescue efforts. The total evacuation time was four hours. Studies indicate that most people did not panic. Reports indicate that people put towels around the doors and used wet towels over their faces. There were many examples of altruistic behavior as people offered refuge to others in their rooms and notified other occupants. Heroes included not only fire fighters but also construction workers, who used scaffolds to help people escape from windows, and individual efforts, such as the man who carried an elderly woman down 21 flights of stairs to safety. Only nine people reportedly tried to reenter the structure. Most of the casualties occurred in the stairwells from smoke inhalation. Doors locked behind the occupants, and they were unable to reenter another floor. A total of 64 persons were found dead on the upper floors, mostly the 20th to 25th floors. Fire fighters discovered people in elevators with soot at their noses and mouths who had died by inhaling smoke. Others had left messages in lipstick on bathroom mirrors. Some were found in guest rooms, corridors, elevator lobbies, and stairs. Fourteen people were found on the casino level. Eighty-five people died and 679 were injured as a result of this fire, which marked the second largest life-loss hotel fire in the U.S. history. Investigators determined the cause of the fire to be an electrical ground fault inside the wall soffit, which had smoldered for hours. Wiring was used to power a refrigeration unit for the pie case in The Deli. The vibration of the machine caused the wires to rub against each other, and the friction damaged the wires, causing them to arc and cause the fire. As the fire spread to the lobby, it was fed by wallpaper, PVC pipes, glue, and mirrors, producing toxic fumes. The sprinkler system actually did keep the fire contained within the casino and restaurant area and kept the fire out of the hotel as the system was designed to do. The alarm system was destroyed before the alarms could activate. The major factors contributing to the fire were poor design, installation errors, 83 building code violations, a fire damper bolted open that should have been caught during an inspection, and a large amount of combustible materials. Additionally, no one pulled any of the many available manual alarms. Code Changes and Reform The fire was the catalyst for Nevada to update fire codes and retrofit laws that make the state’s resorts among the safest places to stay. However, it took another fire to make believers of retrofitting. For three months after the MGM fire, there was opposition to retrofitting, which was estimated to cost $2 million dollars. Then, on February 10, 1981, an arsonist set fire to the Las Vegas Hilton. Eight people were killed and 200 injured. The national press happened to be in Las Vegas covering an event starring Frank Sinatra. As news and pictures of the Hilton fire quickly made their way around the world, opposition to retrofitting also disappeared. In the end, 1327 lawsuits were filed against 118 companies for their contributions to the code violations, design flaws, installation errors, and materials that contributed to the fire FIGURE 1-7. FIGURE 1-7 The MGM Grand Fire. © Keystone/Stringer/Hulton Archive/Getty. The Station Nightclub Fire (February 20, 2003) Sixty years after the Cocoanut Grove Fire, 33 years after the Beverly Hills Supper Club Fire, and 13 years after the Happy Land Social Club Fire in New York, the United States experienced another devastating nightclub fire. In the late night of a cold February 20, 2003, more than 400 fans gathered to hear Great White, a heavy metal band of the 1980s, at The Station nightclub in the mill town of East Warwick, Rhode Island. With a total of 100 dead and 208 injured, the fire immediately earned its unenviable rank as the fourth deadliest nightclub fire in the country’s history. The wood-frame structure had been built in 1946. During the 1950s, the club changed hands many times and was reinvented by different owners with the club hosting country and western bands, standup comics, and motorcycle gangs over the years. But it was always known for its noise and the loud cars out front. Residents had complained to police for years about the loud noise, cars blocking their streets and driveways, rowdy customers, and beer bottles littering their lawns, all generated by the local pub. In 2000, two brothers, Michael and Jeffrey Derderian, bought the business and promised the town that they would clean up the place and bring down the noise level. After investing in cosmetic improvements, the brothers opened their doors, often promising bands an audience of 500 (well over the club’s capacity of 404). Pyrotechnics had been part of the acts before the 2003 fire, but none had obtained the permits required in Rhode Island between 2002 and 2003. Noise continued to be a problem, and the club’s license was in jeopardy if the owners did not abate the noise. At the suggestion of one of the neighbors who sold packaging foam, the owners purchased 25 sheets of untreated foam and added it to foam already on some of the club’s walls to absorb sound. Michael O’Shaughnessey, a forensic consultant and fire specialist with North Eastern Technical Services of Fall River, calculated that “the installation of the foam put the incendiary equivalent of about 13 gallons of gasoline on the walls of the wood-frame building.”5 The highly flammable, untreated polyurethane foam was installed by the owners and was never questioned by inspectors. This wood-frame building, with wooden exterior shingles and a mansard roof facade on the north side, was unsprinklered. The building was mostly flat. Windows in the restrooms and the office area were fitted with security bars. The interior of the structure was arranged into two distinct areas—the bar and the club. Walking into the front entrance, two 36-inch (91 cm) outward-swinging doors opened to a short 15-ft by 6.5-ft (4.6 m by 2 m) corridor and led visitors to a doorway on the right and another one on the left. The bar, kitchen, and dart room were located to the left, and the club—the majority of the facility—was located to the right. The club had many small tables and chairs and booths along the southwest wall. Billiard tables had been moved against the walls in the sunroom to make room for additional occupants. A raised platform for the entertainers was located in the center of the west wall of the club area. An alcove was located to the rear of the stage platform to allow extra room for the band, often used by the drummer. The ceiling above the stage was slightly elevated to allow for a stage-lighting unit. The interior surfaces were composed of wooden paneling, painted surfaces, and expanded foam plastic insulation FIGURE 1-8. FIGURE 1-8 The Station floor plan. Reproduced with permission from NFPA Case Study: Nightclub Fires. Copyright © 2006. National Fire Protection Association. There were four exits—an exit at the front, a bar side exit, a kitchen exit, and one exit from the platform composed of two doors in succession with the interior door opening inward. The bar and kitchen doors had panic hardware. Illuminated exit signs were located above each exit door. The club had a fire alarm system, pull stations, heat detectors throughout, horn-strobes, and fire extinguishers. The system was not connected to the fire department or to a central service alarm system. The kitchen had a chemical extinguishing system for the cooking area. With the overcrowded conditions, highly flammable interior finishes, inadequate exits, a pyrotechnics show, and an untrained staff, the stage was set that night for a serious fire, not the entertainment the unsuspecting attendees had anticipated. At 11:08 pm on February 20, 2003, just seconds into Great White’s opening act, the headliner’s tour manager lit off a “gerb” to begin the pyrotechnic show. A gerb is a pyrotechnic canister that releases a fountain of sparks. The sparks lit the flammable soundproofing foam behind the stage, further catching the walls and ceiling on fire. At first, the crowd did not grasp the gravity of the situation, thinking it was all part of the pyrotechnic special effects. Within 10 seconds from the ignition of the pyrotechnics, flames appeared at the corner of the drum riser; 15 to 20 seconds later, the flames began to move across the ceiling, and billowing smoke began to fill the air. Thirty seconds after the first flames appeared, the band stopped playing and began to evacuate. In less than one minute, the entire stage was engulfed in flames. The crowd had begun to react and exit within that first minute. Even though there were four exits, most headed to the exit through which they had entered the building. They crushed into the narrow hallway that led to the main entrance, eventually blocking it completely. This became an area of numerous deaths. Some fled to the bathrooms, only to be trapped by the security bars on the windows. But others were able to escape through the windows in the main bar room and the sunroom. The fire alarms began to sound 40 seconds after first ignition. At 90 seconds, heavy black smoke filled the club to within 1 ft (.3 m) of the main floor; no one could see the exit signs. Flames blocked the stage side exit door. Within two minutes of the start of the fire, the front doorway was jammed. Those who had managed to escape were attempting to free those trapped in a pile inside the door. The fire department arrived 4.5 minutes into the fire. Initial 911 calls were received from cell phones at the scene. Fire fighters initially stretched a hose line to the front entrance and aimed water into the front corridor in an effort to save those who were trapped. Fire crews from all over Rhode Island and southern Massachusetts were called in to assist with rescue efforts. Soon after fire fighters began their attempts to rescue victims and extinguish the fire, they were ordered to evacuate. The roof caved in shortly after. Across the street, a triage center was set up for the victims. Approximately 30 ambulances and a bus lined up. Victims were transported to 15 different medical centers. The wooden structure burned to the ground, leaving only the burned-out shell of The Station. Code Changes and Reform News of the fire traveled faster now than it would have in the past. The media jumped on the story, especially because 21 had been killed only three days earlier (on February 17, 2003) in the E-2 nightclub in Chicago, Illinois, from a massive crowd crush. A cameraman had been on site to cover the Great White concert, and graphic footage of the tragedy was available online along with interviews from those who had been able to escape. The entire country was outraged. An investigation and changes to codes needed to happen immediately. The NFPA code change process generally runs in three-year cycles, but this time committee members believed the situation was too critical to wait. They proposed Tentative Interim Amendments (TIAs) to tighten up codes that had already been developed in response to the lessons learned from past nightclub fires. Among the many TIAs that were approved for the 2006 Life Safety Code were: Festival seating is prohibited in assembly occupancies with an occupant load of more than 250 without a life safety evaluation. (Festival seating is defined by the 2006 Life Safety Code as “a form of audience/spectator accommodation in which no seating, other than a floor or ground surface, is provided for the audience/spectators gathered to observe a performance.”6) Crowd managers must be provided for assembly occupancies when the occupant load exceeds 250. Automatic sprinkler protection must be provided in bars, dance halls, discotheques, nightclubs, and assembly occupancies with festival seating when the occupant load exceeds 100. Automatic sprinkler protection must be provided in all new bars, dance halls, discotheques, nightclubs, and assembly occupancies with festival seating. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) recreated this fire in its laboratory and then again with sprinklers. Readers can access results of their findings at http://www.fire.nist.gov. A means of egress inspection must be conducted before opening buildings to the public. Records must be maintained. The main entrance and exit of new assembly occupancies shall accommodate two-thirds of the total occupant load in bars with live entertainment, dance halls, discotheques, nightclubs, and assemblies with festival seating. This was increased from half the occupant load before The Station nightclub fire. Rhode Island and Massachusetts revisited their codes and created stricter and more proactive measures to prevent another fire of this magnitude. The Rhode Island Safety Board adopted NFPA 1 and 101 for new and existing facilities. There would be no grandfathering. It is clear that in the United States, many have lost their lives and many others were seriously injured, and families have been destroyed by the brutal enemy we know as fire. A lack of engineering, enforcement, and education were evident in each of these fires, as well as in other historical large life-loss fires TABLE 1-1. TABLE 1-1 Historical Large Life-Loss Fire in the United States Date Event Number of Deaths October 8–10, 1871 Great Chicago Fire 300 (est.) October 8, 1871 Peshtigo, WI 1200 (est.) December 5, 1876 Conway’s Theater – Brooklyn, NY 285 December 30, 1903 Iroquois Theater – Chicago, IL 602 January 12, 1908 Rhodes Opera House – Boyertown, PA 170 March 4, 1908 Lakeview Grammar School – Colinwood, OH 175 March 25, 1911 Triangle Shirtwaist Factory – New York, NY 146 May 15, 1929 Cleveland Clinic Hospital – Cleveland, OH 125 April 21, 1930 Ohio State Penitentiary – Columbus, OH 320 April 23, 1940 Rhythm Club – Natchez, MS 207 November 28, 1942 Cocoanut Grove Night Club – Boston, MA 492 July 6, 1944 Ringling Brothers and Barnum & Bailey Circus – Hartford, CT 168 December 7, 1946 Winecoff Hotel – Atlanta, GA 119 December 1, 1958 Our Lady of the Angels School – Chicago, IL 95 November 23, 1963 Golden Age Nursing Home – Fitchville, OH 63 May 28, 1977 Beverly Hills Supper Club – Southgate, KY 165 November 21, 1980 MGM Grand Hotel – Las Vegas, NV 85 March 25, 1990 Happy Land Social Club – New York, NY 87 February 20, 2003 The Station Nightclub – West Warwick, RI 100 Source: Reproduced with permission from NFPA’s report “Deadliest single building or complex fires and explosions in the U.S.” Copyright ©, 2008, National Fire Protection Association. Appendix B includes a worksheet to help you better understand how the Three Es of fire prevention can positively affect the safety of occupants. Complete the worksheet and it will become obvious that many of the same mistakes continued to contribute to fires over the years, but that each fire also contributed to improvements in codes and calls for better education and technology. We should also look beyond our borders for lessons learned from fires in other countries. Considering all the fire service knows about preventing fires, the United States’ fire death rate still continues to be one of the highest. TABLE 1-2 provides a comparison of firerelated deaths in the United States with other countries. As the fire service continues to change its codes and improve response times and equipment, the fire death rate gradually declines. Can we as educators help bring down these numbers even faster through education and training? TABLE 1-2 Trend Comparison of Fire Death Rates per Million Population (1979–2007) Country Trend (percent) Year Range Years of Data United Kingdom –69.5 1979–2007 29 United States –66.1 1979–2007 29 Hungary –42.6 1979–2007 29 Sweden –29.0 1979–2007 29 Denmark 3.6 1979–2007 29 Japan 7.1 1979–2007 29 Finland –22.8 1979–2007 28 France –49.1 1979–2007 27 Norway –35.8 1979–2005 27 Austria –50.9 1979–2007 26 Switzerland –20.7 1979–2007 26 New Zealand –42.2 1982–2007 23 Canada –70.7 1980–2002 23 Spain –54.6 1979–2007 21 Netherlands –14.8 1979–1996 18 Australia –44.6 1991–2007 17 Czech Republic 18.9 1991–2007 17 Greece –19.4 1992–2007 16 Poland –9.6 1992–2007 16 Germany –52.6 1990–2006 16 Slovenia –13.8 1994–2004 11 Ireland –54.4 1997–2007 11 Italy –51.6 1995–2007 9 Notes: The fire death rates are presented by the number of years of available data, then by the trend change. The Netherlands fire death data were not reported between 1997 and 2005; trend calculations are based on 1979 through 1996 data. Singapore is not included as the small number of fire deaths resulted in a poor trend fit. Sources: World Fire Statistics Centre fire death data and the U.N. Demographic Yearbook population estimate data. Data from FEMA. Topical Fire Report Series. 16 Fire Fighter Life Safety Initiatives History has taught the fire service that a lack of prevention efforts can result in death and serious injury for civilians. But these same conditions and actions also prove dangerous and fatal for fire fighters. On average, every year 100 fire fighters die in the line of duty in the United States. Every six hours, a fire fighter is seriously or critically injured on the job.7 Much can be done to prevent these deaths if fire fighter safety becomes a primary concern of every fire fighter, fire department, and fire organization. Recognizing that the time had come to begin serious efforts toward this awareness, the first National Firefighter Life Safety Summit convened in 2004, uniting fire service leaders and organizations across the country with the common goal of addressing the problem and identifying and applying solutions. The result was the creation of the Everyone Goes Home Program and a set of key initiatives, the 16 Firefighter Life Safety Initiatives. Members of the 2004 summit were asked to return for the 2007 National Firefighter Life Safety Summit, which was held to reinforce the fire services’ commitment to provide specific recommendations and solutions by which fire departments can begin to realistically implement the 16 Firefighter Life Safety Initiatives TABLE 1-3. For more information on the 16 Firefighter Life Safety Initiatives, visit www.EveryoneGoesHome.com. TABLE 1-3 16 Fire Fighter Life Safety Initiatives 1. Define and advocate the need for a cultural change within the fire service relating to safety, incorporating leadership, management, supervision, accountability, and personal responsibility. 2. Enhance the personal and organizational accountability for health and safety throughout the fire service. 3. Focus greater attention on the integration of risk management with incident management at all levels, including strategic, tactical, and planning responsibilities. 4. All fire fighters must be empowered to stop unsafe practices. 5. Develop and implement national standards for training, qualifications, and certification (including regular recertification) that are equally applicable to all fire fighters based on the duties they are expected to perform. 6. Develop and implement national medical and physical fitness standards that are equally applicable to all fire fighters, based on the duties they are expected to perform. 7. Create a national research agenda and data collection system that relates to the initiatives. 8. Utilize available technology wherever it can produce higher levels of health and safety. 9. Thoroughly investigate all fire fighter fatalities, injuries, and near misses. 10. Grant programs should support the implementation of safe practices and/or mandate safe practices as an eligibility requirement. 11. National standards for emergency response policies and procedures should be developed and championed. 12. National protocols for response to violent incidents should be developed and championed. 13. Fire fighters and their families must have access to counseling and psychological support. 14. Public education must receive more resources and be championed as a critical fire and life safety program. 15. Advocacy must be strengthened for the enforcement of codes and the installation of home fire sprinklers. 16. Safety must be a primary consideration in the design of apparatus and equipment. Reproduced from National Fallen Firefighters Foundation. Everyone Goes Home® Program. www.everyonegoeshome.com Safety educators have an important role in this effort. Initiative 14 states: “Public education must receive more resources and be championed as a critical fire and life safety program.” For every fire prevented, every successful evacuation, and every other correct action of the part of the public, educators help minimize the potential risks for fire fighters. When fire fighters realize that no one is trapped inside a home because they are already out and accounted for at a designated meeting place, their efforts turn to protecting a structure versus saving a life. Educators teaching young children not to fear a fire fighter in gear and not to hide in a fire are lessening the chances that fire fighters must crawl deeper into a dangerous situation to find a young victim. Businesses that are taught the importance of sprinkler systems, evacuation drills, and training employees in workplace safety procedures become partners to the fire fighters rather than a hindrance to firefighting efforts. It is incumbent on all educators to begin to include information for the public about their responsibility for their own safety and how their practices can impact the safety of their local fire fighters. The safety of fire fighters must become an integral part of all messages and programs for all demographics. Educator’s Tip Review all presentations and programs before delivery. Incorporate and connect the importance of the safety message to fire fighter safety wherever possible. We have paid a heavy price to understand just how much we need to plan for all eventualities and build in protection for the public before the fire department suppression forces even arrive on the scene. Most of the changes that resulted from the previously chronicled fires were in the areas of engineering and enforcement. Although these changes were necessary and effective, they alone are not enough. As fire and life safety educators, there are more proactive measures we can take to ensure the safety of our community members. A better understanding of people’s actions and reactions in emergencies will help provide a more solid foundation for future education and training efforts. A study of human behavior in fires allows educators to correct misconceptions and prevent counterproductive practices as an integral part of instruction. Voice of Experience “You know, sometimes it feels like this: There I am standing by the shore of a swiftly flowing river and I hear the cry of a drowning man. So I jump into the river, put my arms around him, pull him to shore, and apply artificial respiration. Just when he begins to breathe, there is another cry for help. So I jump in the river, reach him, pull him to shore, apply artificial respiration, and just as he begins to breathe, another cry for help. So back in the river again, reaching, pulling, applying breathing, and then another yell. Again and again, without end, goes the sequence. You know, I am so busy jumping in, pulling them to shore and applying artificial respiration that I have no time to see who is upstream pushing them all in.” —Irving Zola The fire service has often found itself in this same predicament. Until the last quarter of the twentieth century, responders were so busy responding to emergencies that there was little time to focus on the root cause of the incidents in the first place. This is the essence of fire and injury prevention and other methods of community risk reduction. It should be one of the first lines of action in fighting the leading causes of lifelong disability and death among our citizens. The new generation of fire service personnel can and should be at the forefront of effecting change by promoting prevention as an important tool for fighting fires and injuries before they occur. It is time to decrease the need to respond and increase the efforts to prevent fires and injuries. —Marsha Giesler, FLSE, Downers Grove Fire Department, IL Human Behavior in Fires This relatively new field of study in fire prevention began in the early twentieth century with a study of evacuations. In 1927, the first edition of the NFPA Building Exits Code was developed in response to evacuation studies of the previous 10 years. Beginning in 1985, studies became more refined and were based on academic and professional research in the field. Until this time, the reactions of the victims in a fire were blamed on people’s ignorance. Methods such as case studies, experiments, surveys and questionnaires, models, and computer simulations have been used to understand the abilities and preferences of victims in escaping fires. The behaviorist models, in which empirical and observable responses to the environment are studied, credit occupants with having more control over the outcome of their actions. Studies of human behavior in fires began to gain attention as an important area of study after the MGM Hotel fire. Armed with the information provided by this intriguing area of study, fire and life safety educators can more intuitively and accurately provide people with the essential information they will need to retrieve when an emergency presents itself. It is time educators begin to investigate the field of prevention efforts to more fully understand and appreciate the factors that influence how people react and behave in threatening fires. In turn, educators will have a greater ability to provide comprehensive and useful training to families, employees, managers, and fire service personnel. Evacuation is the process wherein occupants become aware of a fire-related emergency within the building and experience a variety of mental processes and actions before and while they travel to reach a place of safety within or outside the building.8 Evacuation can also include leaving open areas such as outdoor venues or neighborhoods in the event of wildfires. The success of evacuation efforts depends on a number of factors specific to the structure, occupant characteristics, and cues. The more information an educator can impart to occupants of a structure before an emergency occurs, the greater the possibility they will be able to reach back and capture the necessary information and apply it to the emergent situation. It is through training that this information is disseminated, and through practice that it is internalized, allowing for more informed decision making in stressful and emergency situations. As the accounts of the historical fires have proven, the most important decisions and actions happen before the arrival of the fire department. Therefore, the more education and training occupants have to guide them through a fire in any occupancy, the better the chance of their survival. Facts and Fallacies of Human Behavior in Fires Before embarking on the task of training the public for correct emergency responses, it is necessary to clear up a few myths about what people actually do in fire emergencies. First, many accounts of fires describe the occupants’ reactions as panic. Panic was defined by Dr. John Keating in 1982 as “a fearinduced flight behavior which is non-rational, nonadaptive, and nonsocial, which serves to reduce the escape possibilities of the groups as a whole.”9 In fact, studies of the past 30 years have shown that in most cases, panic did not occur. As few as one-third of the victims in the Cocoanut Grove fire panicked, and there was no panic behavior among the 165 victims of the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire, nor in the MGM Hotel fire. Instead, panic is commonly used as a synonym for fear, stress, tension, dread, anxiety, or nervousness and is extremely rare.10 Irrational behavior is rare, but ineffective and inefficient behavior may be common. Mass panic is rare. People actually try to solve the problem with the information they have at hand and deal with circumstances adaptively in what would be a rational manner for those conditions at that time. They are often helpful and calm in the face of danger. It is only after the incident, during interviews, in retrospect, or in media reports, that the word panic is used as a descriptor. Another myth assumes that people are selfish and capricious in a fire situation. Even in very dangerous situations, people do help one another and come to the aid of those less able to take care of themselves. Their actions are described as altruistic. What is true, and what have studies shown about the kinds of behaviors people can be expected to exhibit during a fire emergency? In general, people are poor estimators of their risk, their levels of susceptibility, and their abilities to cope with all hazards. People tend to engage in the “milling process” whereby they initially move around, watch the reactions of other individuals, compare those reactions with their own set of expectations, seek out co-workers or friends to discuss what might be happening and the best course of action to be taken. It is an essential step in the decision-making process and should be facilitated with additional information to speed up the assessment of the situation and decision making. The collective behavior is the outcome of these interactions. People engage in affiliative behavior, demonstrating a concern about the joint escape with the members of their own group who are threatened, as in the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire. Affiliation reduces anxiety. As wonderful as this may seem, this behavior can actually lead to a delay in the escape because the group will move at the speed of the slowest group member. Family groups adopt an evacuation strategy favoring group survival. People tend to gather with family members and close friends before beginning an evacuation. The closer the ties of a group, the more this behavior will be exhibited; for instance, parents will never leave their children. The safety of loved ones and these attachments can generate intense searching behaviors, which may affect response and rescue. Smaller groups fare better than larger groups exhibiting this dynamic. People move toward the familiar. For example, no matter how many exits are available for immediate evacuation, occupants tend to move to the exit they are familiar with, usually the front door or the door they use every day to enter and exit their workplace. Movement to a protected stairwell is not an intuitive reaction. This is where training and drills become important. Individuals look to a leader or wait to see what the group is going to do. The group leader can determine the outcome for everyone, either positively or negatively. Natural leaders may emerge and may coordinate efforts. These may be people who may or may not have previously been in leadership roles within the group. Occupants are unlikely to take on the role of leader and be assertive about the situation. This is why it is so important to provide training and designate fire wardens who are empowered to take on that role. People are likely to take more responsibility for an incident in their own home more than in a public building. Educators can expect that occupants will be subject to learned irrelevance. If conditions, such as emergency exit signs, are repeatedly encountered in the workplace or elsewhere, people learn to ignore them. In an emergency, occupants will not attend to the signs or other cues unless the familiarity is broken by making it look or sound different—only under emergency conditions.11 Educator’s Tip It is critical to educate and inform the public about the role of leaders and the importance of their behaviors in emergencies. Encourage businesses, school administrators, and other institutions to think ahead about who will take responsibility to get people up and moving and begin making informed decisions before a situation is beyond their control. Emphasize that they are responsible for the safety of their occupants. Occupant Characteristics and Other Factors Determining Human Behavior in Fires When predicting human behavior in a fire, the occupant characteristics must be considered. These characteristics include, but may not be limited to, age, gender, physical and cognitive capabilities, familiarity with the building, social and cultural roles, the presence of others, past experience and knowledge of fire emergencies, density, alertness, social affiliations, roles and responsibilities, the focal point, and commitment to activities. Educators must take different intervention steps to change behaviors according to the needs and characteristics of the people. Consider a few of these characteristics and how they affect evacuation in an emergency: Age: The very young and the very old may have more difficulty in escaping from a fire because of cognitive and physical limitations. Occupancies with large populations of either of these age groups should be given even more consideration when working with staff to plan and implement evacuation strategies. Gender: In general, females have been found to alert others, report the fire, and take protective actions for others, and males are more likely to attempt to fight the fire. Females are more responsive to the smell of smoke and will begin investigating the situation, taking key roles in the initial stages of a fire. As the roles in society continue to change and gender-assigned roles become less prevalent, these findings may shift over time. Alertness: When people are in a deep stage of sleep or under the influence of drugs or alcohol, their response to fire or alarms can be considerably delayed. Familiarity with the building: Some frequent users of a building may be familiar with all exits, stairwells, and warning systems. This will certainly increase their chances of a safe evacuation. But many occupants do not know the location of the exits and stairwells unless they have been trained in their use. Members of the general public visiting a facility are likely to leave by the route they entered even if other exits are available and closer. Some children stay in their bedrooms because the setting is more familiar than venturing out into the hallway. Role and responsibility: The roles and responsibilities of occupants during the normal use of a building influence their behavior in an emergency. Well-trained and authoritative staff take charge and assist early in the decision-making process. Commitment: This factor can be pivotal in the reaction people exhibit in a fire. Because people tend to be action- and goaloriented, their commitment to the reason they are in attendance or engaged in an activity may cause them to be very reluctant to leave a facility. In general, they do not really want to be bothered by something that derails them from what they are doing.12 Take the instance of a store hosting a big sale. People have waited in line to get in the door, have taken the time to choose their items or have scuffled with others to grab the last item of its kind, and are now waiting in line to pay for a new prized possession. They are committed to making their purchase before walking out of the store. It is unlikely they’ll be the first to leave when the alarm sounds! Focal point: Occupants who are riveted by a performance at a theater, a graduation ceremony, or a concert are directing their attention to a focal point. In the initial stages of an alarm, this situation can work positively to get the attendees’ attention and begin directing them to the appropriate exits and instructing them to leave immediately. Consider the busboy at the Beverly Hills Supper Club who jumped onstage and grabbed the microphone from the hands of the comedian. This action saved the lives of hundreds of people. Imagine how differently things might have turned out at The Station nightclub fire if the band’s sound system had automatically cut out and the lights had gone on as soon as the alarm sounded. The attention of the crowd was already focused on what could have been an effective point of emergency communication. Human Response to Cues How are people alerted to begin evacuating from a fire? Fire prevention codes have evolved to include alarm systems that blare at high-decibel levels, strobe lights, and voice override systems to give additional information. Fire itself produces cues such as the odor of smoke, something burning, visible smoke, crackling noises, flames, and heat. Then there are the cues from people (neighbors, co-workers, occupants), such as verbal alerts and observations of the movement of others. Building services provide cues when elevators stop working, power goes out, and other services are disrupted. Yet recognizing and responding to these cues depends on the characteristics of the people involved. Certainly, those under the influence of alcohol or with limited experience with fire will not respond quickly. Ideally, when a building alarm begins to sound, all occupants will immediately and dutifully begin leaving the structure, but studies have proven otherwise. People have learned to ignore alarms, rarely making the connection that the fire alarm means there is a real fire, unless there are additional cues. The initial response tends to be ignoring or denying the situation. People develop a rationale for the smell of smoke or other initial notices. Occupants seek more information and try calling others to find out what is going on. They may begin milling around and conferring with others before acting on their own or deciding on the best course of action. Even in the presence of smoke or fire, people often underestimate the seriousness of the situation. In some settings, people may assume someone else will call the fire department or take steps to mobilize the crowd or extinguish the fire. The assumption that it is not necessary to take action because “surely there are others who will handle the situation” is considered the dissolution of responsibility. If the busboy at the Beverly Hills Nightclub had succumbed to this pattern of behavior, many more lives would have been lost. What will it take for people to react as efficiently and promptly as the fire service knows to be necessary? When a cue is given, occupants must be able to receive the cue, identify the cue as a fire emergency cue, and finally interpret the cue as being important and worthy of immediate action. If a building alarm system continually experiences false alarms, people will no longer identify the system alarm as an important emergency signal. That system has lost its credibility. Proulx suggests that the more explicit and truthful the information is when given, the better the reaction and results will be.13 Prerecorded voice messages are more effective than an alarm only but are limited in what information can be given. A live voice message telling occupants what is really suspected (fire) is even more effective than the prerecorded message. Instead of worrying about panic, it is more beneficial to get occupants thinking about the reality of the situation to help convince them to break their commitment with whatever they are engaged in at the time and to begin moving. To be effective, the message must identify the problem and location, give instructions, and be repeated three times. Trained wardens facilitating the evacuation and walking through the premises, coupled with the alarm, create the most effective strategy of all. As soon as occupants make the decision to evacuate, they have committed to initiate the behaviors required to accomplish their safety. It is when this process fails that the occupant must reassess. As options become more limited and more failures are encountered, then decision making becomes less rational. If they make the decision to evacuate early, there is less likelihood of facing this situation. Decision Making When Encountering a Fire After occupants have identified the cues and defined the situation as a fire, they may not necessarily evacuate right away. There are decisions to be made. Some may leave immediately, but others will gather family members and pets, notify others, seek more information, get dressed, or collect valuables or other items deemed necessary. Others will continue with their current activities or attempt to fight the fire. Pre-movement time is the time between the recognition of the cue to the moment the occupants actually begin to evacuate. The actions taken during this pre-movement time may be the most critical of all actions. The types of decisions made vary based on a person’s personality, experience, cognitive abilities, available information about the situation, amount of time before the situation becomes desperate, and what else might be at stake. Regardless of what the final decision turns out to be, most people are unlikely to search for a large number of options when they perceive fire cues and when time and information are limited. Good fire evacuation training provides people with the information they will need at the critical time. They will be better prepared to think about their options without the clutter of extraneous and ineffective information. Educator’s Tip Decision making during a fire is different from decision making in everyday life. Information and time are limited. There is more at stake. Decisions in emergencies are easier to make when a person has a plan and has practiced the plan. It provides something familiar to fall back on. This is why education and training are critical! Educators should explain this to audiences when introducing the importance of fire evacuation planning. Training the Public for More Efficient Evacuation People will do the best they can with the information they have.14 Educators can incorporate the available information about human behavior in fire into the training process and use it to educate those who work with the fire protection design and code processes. Often the design of the systems must help to compensate for human error. Again, the Five E’s of prevention come together to protect occupants. Training provides the ability to later recall or retrieve the right skills quickly. It helps eliminate the need for people to stop and figure out what to do. Because people rarely consider everything they need to make decisions during a fire, it is the educator’s responsibility to help them determine plans before an emergency presents itself. Provide staff training through classroom instruction and evaluate its effectiveness by conducting evacuation drills. Drills validate the effectiveness of the classroom learning; they also educate, familiarize, highlight misinterpretations, and identify potential issues. Visitors will look for guidance. Those who have participated in drills will react faster and with better decision making than those without training. Trained staff members have a positive effect on evacuation times, especially pre-movement time. They will be the leaders needed to provide guidance for others. Behavior in a situation is a “function of previous experience in a similar situation.”15 It is the fire and life safety educator’s job to provide this experience through instruction and drills. Fire is only one type of emergency; a complete evacuation plan includes planning and preparation for other emergencies as well. When educating staff and occupants in evacuation procedures, it is important to include information about the hazards, behavior under fire conditions, building systems, shutdown procedures, system maintenance, reporting procedures, and actions to be taken after occupants are outside of the building. Not all employees will need all of this information, but each area needs to be addressed with someone on the staff to avoid being overlooked. Teach people the importance of attending to alarms immediately. Remind building management teams that fire alarms alone will not trigger movement. Encourage and remind staff and fire department personnel to use voice communication systems with specific and alerting information whenever possible to reduce interpretation time and improve pre-movement time. To assist the educator in training staff, visit the website www.crowdsafe.com. Educator’s Tip Fire changes rapidly. There are many unpredictable variables. Each building and population is unique. It is not the educator’s job to teach an exact sequence of actions to follow but rather to make recommendations for planning, awareness, and becoming familiar with the building and its occupants to provide the most appropriate reactions for their situation. Reduce the ambiguity of choices by training staff members. Injury Prevention Initially, the primary mission of the fire service was responding to fires. During the twentieth century, emergency medical services evolved as an equally important responsibility for fire fighters. The fire service is no stranger to responding to emergencies that result in injuries, from the child who falls off playground equipment to multiple fatalities at the scene of a serious vehicle incident. The role of the fire department has shifted from a “load-and-go” emergency medical services responsibility through more advanced prehospital care to injury prevention- based fire and life safety education programs. It is this development that has prompted the fire service to frame its education efforts in terms of fire and life safety education rather than its previously acknowledged title, public education. As the fire service was learning to design more stringent codes, technology, and education efforts in response to large life-loss fires, the injury prevention community was also working to develop strategies to combat the number of injury-related deaths and disabilities. Even today, injuries are all too often attributed to accidents, events over which people have little or no control— random, uncontrollable, acts of fate. Some people are simply considered “accident prone” when succumbing to injuries. In fact, injuries are defined as any unintentional or intentional damage to the body resulting from acute exposure to thermal, mechanical, electrical, or chemical energy or from the absence of such essentials as heat or oxygen.16. Unintentional injuries, sometimes referred to as accidental injuries, are injuries judged to have occurred without anyone intending that harm be done. Injuries are not simply accidents. Many unintentional injuries could be prevented with increased education and awareness. An examination of some of the landmarks in the history of this misunderstood and underrecognized public health problem will demonstrate the evolution of the field of injury prevention and the important role the fire service now plays in its surveillance, implementation, and promotion. Early Pioneers and Their Contributions to Injury Prevention As early as 1788, Johaan Peter Frank declared injury prevention activities as a desirable part of a comprehensive public health program, but this revelation was not embraced at the time by individualistic and independent Americans. Much later, as the country moved into the twentieth century, others began to recognize the need for efforts dedicated to this area of study. In 1937, Edward Godfrey, commissioner of the New York State Department of Health, which later became the first full time accident control program in the United States, wrote an article about the importance of injury prevention. This work became a pioneering description and basis for subsequent injury prevention program planning and development. In 1946, a paper titled “Accident Prevention” appeared in the American Journal of Public Health. Although these were steps in the right direction, for the most part, any programs aimed at injury prevention in the 1920s through the 1950s focused on the shortcomings of the victims and relied on posters and pamphlets to promote awareness and change behavior. It was not until the 1940s that more serious consideration and research began in the field of injury prevention. One of the first important landmarks in the field came from Hugh DeHaven, a World War I pilot who survived a crash and later became a physiology researcher. Intrigued with why he survived and searching for ways to reduce the toll of death in airplane and automobile crashes, DeHaven studied the cases of survivors in free falls who had experienced little or no injury. Dr. DeHaven’s influential article was published in 1942. He concluded: “Structural provisions to reduce impact and distribute pressures can enhance survival and modify injury within wide limits in aircraft and automobile accidents.”17 He is credited with being the first researcher to understand the importance of biomechanics in injury prevention research. It was his work that provided the idea that individuals could be “crash packaged” through the use of safety belts, air bags, and structural changes.18 One of the next great strides in the field came not too long after DeHaven’s work. Harvard epidemiologist John E. Gordon studied the causes and distribution of injuries in the same way classic infectious diseases were studied. He looked at injury distribution patterns according to factors such as age, place, time, demographics, and other factors and was able to demonstrate that the occurrence of injuries was not random. Basing his studies on the three-pronged epidemiologic model for study of disease, he described injuries as being the result of “forces from at least three sources … the host … the agent … and the environment in which host and agent find themselves.”19 Rather than focusing on injuries as the result of a single cause, Gordon’s work shed light on the interplay of several factors. For example, in the case of a drowning injury, the host might be an active, curious three-year-old child, the agent could be an inviting swimming pool on a hot day, and the environment might be the lack of supervision and an unfenced area around a pool. This combination of factors could result in a serious, heartbreaking injury or death. With proper intervention at any one of several points in the scenario, the injury could be prevented. The seed had been planted to examine the modification of environments to prevent injury. However, Gordon’s work was not enthusiastically embraced. With injuries resulting from such innumerable and varied agents, it seemed an insurmountable task to be able to pinpoint or understand the “agent.” James J. Gibson, an experimental psychologist at Cornell University, is credited with solving the puzzle in 1961 surrounding how to define the agents of injury. Although Gibson was not an injury specialist, his studies with human and animal behavior related to the environment led him to conclude that injuries can only occur to a living organism by some energy interchange, classifying the energy according to the forms of physical energy involved. Physical energy is mechanical, thermal, radiant, chemical, or electrical. Dr. William Haddon, Jr., of the New York State Health Department, in agreement with Gibson’s conclusions, developed the renowned “phase-factor matrix.” He modified Gibson’s energy-transfer model to include “negative agents” for injuries produced by the absence of elements such as oxygen or heat. Can you think of an injury that results from the absence of one of these two elements? Haddon also revisited Gordon’s analysis of agent (the vector; the thing or person causing the injury), host (the person receiving the injury), and environment (the setting, surrounding and context in which the injury occurs) and expanded the concept to create a matrix including the host, agent, physical environment, and socioeconomic environment. These interact over a period of time, broken down into pre-incident, incident (injury), and post-incident TABLE 1-4. Working through the phases of the matrix allows individuals, engineers, manufacturers, legislators, caregivers, educators, and society as a whole to break the chain of events at any point to prevent or improve the outcomes of potential injuries. Behavior and social causes of injuries had now arrived on the scene as major contributors to understanding injuries. In 1962, Haddon developed a list of 10 countermeasures to interfere with the energy transfer-injury process. The 10 general strategies can be applied to almost all injury scenarios. Appendix B includes a worksheet for breaking down an injury based on Haddon’s ten strategies. A review of multiple causes of injuries gave way to the need for multidisciplinary approaches and collaborative efforts in the future. Because injuries can occur at any point within the matrix, three phases of prevention have been identified as important to the strategy. Primary prevention efforts are focused on stopping an injury before it occurs. Secondary prevention efforts are implemented to reduce the seriousness of the injury once it has occurred. Tertiary prevention is initiated through medical treatment and rehabilitation to reduce the disability immediately after the injury occurs. Just as the Three Es applied to fires, the same mix of strategies is needed for all injuries. TABLE 1-4 Haddon’s Matrix as Applied to Adolescents, Drinking, and Boating Phase Host (human) Vector (boat) Physical Environment Social/Economic Environment Pre- Driver ability, training, Condition of boat, Visibility, weather and water Attitudes toward drinking, laws related to event judgment, experience, speed of travel, type conditions, number of boats drinking and boating, access to alcohol, alcohol intoxication of boat, stability of on lake boats and other watercraft boat Event Position of people in Size of boat, crash Presence of unsecured Attitudes about alcohol use and boating, boat, Number of people worthiness, items, guard rails, speed enforcement of waterway speed limits, laws in the boat, Physical placement of seats, limits on lake, crowded about alcohol use and boating, PFD use condition of occupants, load containment conditions in boat and on laws PFD use water Post- Victims’ general health Design of watercraft Emergency communications Public support for trauma care and event status systems to minimize systems, availability and rehabilitation systems, training of EMS post-event explosion quality of emergency medical personnel, education for boat and and capsizing services recreational watercraft rental agencies, education for local establishments selling alcohol Injury Prevention Makes Strides Groundwork had been laid by these forward-thinking pioneers. Building on each other’s theories, they had been able to drill down to the root cause of injuries and pave the way for other fields to work together to reduce and prevent injuries in the future. During the 1950s through the 1970s, the nation experienced increased activity in the field as various agencies established bureaus to specifically deal with injury prevention, more works were published promoting the importance of the subject, and laws were passed at the state and federal levels mandating safer practices and standards TABLE 1-5. TABLE 1-5 Selective Historic Timeline of Injury Prevention and Control 1912 First Cooperative Safety Congress. 1913 US Congress charters National Safety Council (NSC). 1924 Cadillac offers first car with safety windshield glass equipment as a standard. Uniform Vehicle Code – The NSC and the U.S. Chamber of Commerce initiate a National conference on Street and Highway Safety resulting in the Uniform Vehicle Code, a model for traffic laws in all states. 1937 Godfrey publishes one of the first U.S. statements on the need for public health involvement in “accident” prevention, in AJPH. 1941 President Franklin D. Roosevelt calls on the NSC to “mobilize it nationwide resources in leading a concerted and intensified campaign against accidents, and to call upon every citizen, in public or private capacity, to enlist in this campaign and do his part in preventing wastage of human and material resources of the nation through accidents.” 1945 APHA Subcommittee on “Accident” Prevention develops program guidelines for accident prevention. 1950 American Academy of Pediatrics forms Committee on “Accident” Prevention and Poison Control. 1955 McFarland publishes “Epidemiological Principles Applicable to the Study and Prevention of Child Accidents” in AJPH. 1956 First annual Stapp conference on the biomechanics of crashes. 1960 APHA publishes public policy statement recommending that “accident” prevention be recognized as a major public health problem. 1961 APHA publishes Accident Prevention: The Role of Physicians and Public Health Workers.Journal of Trauma begins 1963 Haddon publishes “injury matrix” concept paper. 1965 Ralph Nader publishes “Unsafe at Any Speed.” 1966 National Highway Safety Bureau (later National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, NHTSA) established to set car safety standards in 1968. 1968 The Federal Gun Control Act passed by Congress. American Trauma Association established. Lap belts for all seated occupants are installed by the four major manufacturers of US automobiles. 1970 The Federal Poison Prevention Packaging Act passed. National Institutes on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism established. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health established. 1972 The Federal Flammable Clothing Act passed. Consumer Product Safety Commission established. 1973 EMS Act passes U.S. Congress. 1974 General Motors produces first air bag. 1978 US state of Tennessee first worldwide to mandate child passenger safety law. Operation Lifesaver Program implemented to reduce injuries and fatalities at railroad-highway grade crossings. 1979 Federal Division of Maternal and Child Health (DMCH) of the US Department of Health and Human Services established. 1980 Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) established. 1981 First National Conference on Injury Control, sponsored by the Johns Hopkins University and CDC. First annual Make It Click – Buckle Up seat belt campaign. Data from Injury Prevention for Children and Adolescents: Selected Historic Time Line for Injury Prevention and Control, Les Fisher, pp. 345–348, 2006. and National Safety Council Timeline History, http://www.nsc.org/about/timeline.aspx 1982 CDC publishes Injury Control Implementation Plan for State and Local Governments. 1985 Every state has passed legislation requiring the use of child safety seats. Injury in America: A Continuing Public Health Problem published by the Committee on Trauma Research. 1986 Minimum Drinking Age Act passed by Congress. 1987 Launch of the National Safe Kids Campaign. First Injury in America Conference (as partnership with CDC and NHTSA). 1988 Injury Control, a follow-up to Injury in America published. CDC establishes the National Center for Injury Prevention and Control. 1989 Injury Prevention: Meeting the Challenge published as a supplement to the American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 1990 Healthy People 2000 – National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives report published. 1995 Injury Prevention begins publication. 1997 Institute of Medicine National Committee on Injury Prevention and Control holds public meeting in Washington, DC. 2001 Funding of National Poison Control Center Enhancement Act. 2004 Forging a Poison Prevention and Control System. Committee on Poison Prevention and Control. Board of Health Promotion and Disease Prevention. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies of Sciences, Washington, DC Firearms and Violence, National Academy of Science, Washington, DC Data from Injury Prevention for Children and Adolescents: Selected Historic Time Line for Injury Prevention and Control, Les Fisher, pp. 345–348, 2006. and National Safety Council Timeline History, http://www.nsc.org/about/timeline.aspx Between 1981 and 1987, injury prevention programming tripled at the state levels, but the nation still needed more coordination for a systems approach. In 1983, congressional action authorized the secretary of transportation to ask the National Academy of Sciences to report on the injury problem. They were tasked with researching the gaps in the basic knowledge of injuries and the necessary research to fill the gaps. What federal agencies and their involvement would improve the process? The Academy’s National Research Council collaborated with the Institute of Medicine and the Committee on Trauma Research and formed a panel of experts to explore this issue. In 1985, the group released Injury in America: A Continuing Public Health Problem. Among other formalized actions, this influential report led to the formation of the Centers for Disease Control’s (CDC) Center for Injury Control. Congress acted on the panel’s recommendations almost immediately. The work of the CDC complemented the work of other longstanding prevention activities and initiatives. By the late 1980s, it was apparent that there was a need to get the results of the research and recommendations into the hands of those who could use it to make the greatest difference. Although Injury in America: A Continuing Public Health Problem focused on injury research, the new publication was to provide practical recommendations and applications for the results of the research. Injury Prevention: Meeting the Challenge was released in 1989 and served as a reference for practitioners in the field of injury prevention on how to apply and mobilize in a well-designed, scientifically sound manner to ensure injury prevention and control efforts. Agencies were challenged to work together to reduce the number of deaths, the severity of injuries, and the duration of disability. According to Angela Mickalide, former director of the National Safe Kids Campaign® (NSKC), “People had been working in prevention, but prior to [the report, Injury in America] society hadn’t pulled together.”20 NSKC was launched in 1988 and is dedicated to the prevention of unintentional childhood injury. This organization spearheaded the Safe Kids national initiative. Although unintentional injuries continue to be the leading cause of death for children today, efforts to reduce fatalities from preventable injuries through increased public awareness about injury risk; lower costs and wider distribution of safety products such as smoke alarms, bicycle helmets, and child safety seats; and tighter legislation for the use of safety products proved effective as deaths for children up to age 14 years were reduced by 17 percent between the publication of the report and 1995. In the 1990s, the field took off. In the decade from 1980 to 1989, approximately 100 articles were published on injury prevention. In contrast, more than 700 were published during the 1990s, with an increase in that number from 2000 to 2005.21 As the movement grew and called for coalitions to provide well-rounded approaches for comprehensive injury prevention, the fire service was recognized as a natural and necessary partner on both local and national levels. In 1991, the Phoenix, Arizona, fire department produced Urban Survival as an answer to the call for an inclusive injury prevention program, which could be used for the fire service in partnership with schools. The program included lesson plans for fire safety, drowning awareness, pedestrian safety, bicycle safety, accidental poisoning awareness, babysitting skills, desert survival, gun safety, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) awareness, pet safety, outdoor recreation safety, latchkey children, dangers of construction sites, and basic first aid. The NFPA introduced Risk Watch® to the fire service community in 1998. The goal of the national program was to integrate interactive injury prevention lessons with the school curriculum for children ages 3 to 14 years. Designed as an initiative to be used and modified by local coalitions, the program was to be taught by the schools with representatives from local fire, police, hospital, and other injury prevention experts serving as support partners. Based on national unintentional injuries statistics, the Risk Watch® program covered the eight risk areas for unintentional injury that pose the greatest threat to school-age children: motor vehicle safety; fire and burn prevention; choking, suffocation, and strangulation prevention; poisoning prevention; falls prevention; firearms injury prevention; bike and pedestrian safety; and water safety. A disaster preparedness module was later added to the curriculum. Unintentional injuries plague not only children but all ages of the population. Very young children and older adults are at higher risk. Many publications and programs are now available that provide resources to assist in these prevention efforts. Note A good resource for current and best practices in the field of fire safety and injury prevention is the Fire and Life Safety Conference of the Rockies. Also check out the Fire and Life Safety Conference of the Rockies: http://www.firesafetyeducators.org. Injury Causes and Prevention Data from the CDC reveals that the most common cause of death to most age groups of the population are unintentional injuries (see “Additional Resources” for the CDC link to this information). Due to efforts in all areas of prevention, there has been an increased awareness of injury prevention, but the areas of concern have steadily remained the same. Following are several subjects you will need to be aware of when working with the public. You are also encouraged to partner with other organizations and agencies that have a similar mission in keeping the community safe. Motor Vehicle Crashes and Prevention The leading cause of death for people from ages 1 through 44 is motor vehicle crashes. Data from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) 2015 report estimates that the use of seat belts in passenger vehicles saved an estimated 12,584 lives (occupants 5 and older); and an estimated 2388 lives (occupants 13 and older) were saved by frontal air bags in 2013. This data demonstrates the effectiveness of both active and passive injury prevention measures. An estimated 263 lives (child occupant 4 and younger) were saved by the use of child restraints. Sadly, the same report estimates that another 2,800 lives would have been saved if seat belts had been used. It is widely acknowledged that the use of seat belts, child restraints, motorcycle helmets, frontal airbags, and other engineering measures have helped to keep the public safer. The most difficult challenge is convincing all drivers and occupants to use the available technology. Educators should include messages about the value and importance of motor vehicle safety wherever and whenever possible when working with the public. The American Academy of Pediatrics provides detailed information regarding proper child safety restraints at healthychildren.org. FIGURE 1-9 lists the general guidelines from NHTSA for children ages 12 and younger. FIGURE 1-9 NHSTA Guidelines for Child Safety Seat Restraints for Children 12 Years Old and Younger. Courtesy of National Highway Traffic Safety Administration,www.safercar.gov Technology has provided many useful improvements for the advancement of injury prevention. However, educators need to be aware that new inventions and devices often bring with them new risks and unforeseen threats to safety. Cell phone usage and distracted driving is a prime example of this phenomenon. Widespread use of cell phones while driving has been identified as a major cause of motor vehicle crashes. Educators need to exert added efforts to combat these deadly behaviors. Bicycle Injuries and Prevention According to Safe Kids Worldwide (2013), children between the ages of 5 and 14 are seen in emergency rooms for injuries related to biking more than any other sport. Head injury is the leading cause of death in bicycle crashes. Survivors are often left with serious traumatic brain injury (TBI), especially older children. Helmets can reduce the risk of severe brain injury by 88 percent, yet only 45 percent of children 14 and under usually wear bike helmets. The following tips should be included in bicycle safety programs: All cyclists, children and adults, should wear a properly fitting helmet whenever riding a bicycle or other “wheeled sport” equipment (skateboards, rollerblades, scooters). The appropriate helmet should be worn for each sport. Helmets should meet U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission standards. Ride on the right side of the road with traffic, not against it. Stay as far to the right as possible. Use appropriate hand signals. Obey traffic signs and signals just the same as other traffic. When riding at dusk or dark, use lights and reflective clothing. Children should ride a bicycle that is the appropriate size for them, not a bike they will “grow into.” Avoid wearing long, loose clothing that could get caught in spokes, gears, or other parts of the bike. Children cannot accurately judge the speed of cars until they are approximately 10 years old, so they should be instructed to ride on the sidewalk until such age. Adults should model appropriate safety behaviors by wearing helmets themselves, using hand signals, and obeying traffic signals. Children will have a difficult time adopting behaviors they do not see reinforced as important by their adult role models. Safe Kids Worldwide promotes the slogan, “A helmet is a necessity not an accessory.” Helmets come in a wide variety of sizes, styles, and colors today which helps increase their appeal to children. It is up to parents to require that their children wear helmets from a young age so it becomes a lifelong habit. When choosing a helmet for a child it should fit properly for both comfort and safety: The helmet should sit on top of the head, not tipped to the back. Place only two fingers between the eyebrows and the rim of the front of the helmet to ensure proper placement. The riders should be able to see the bottom of the rim of the helmet if they look up. The straps of the helmet should make a “Y” around each ear. The strap should lay flat and fit snugly under the chin, but the rider should be able to open his or her mouth comfortably, as with a big yawn, when it is clasped. No more than one or two fingers should fit between the chin and the strap. Drowning and Prevention Drowning is the leading cause of unintentional death for children ages 1 to 4. It is the third leading cause of unintentional death for children ages 19 and under. In 2015 the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) stated that between 2010 and 2012 the majority (55 percent) of the fatalities involving children younger than 15 occurred in in-ground pools, with portable pools accounting for seven percent of the reported fatalities. The majority of fatal drownings (75 percent) occurred in residential pools. CPSC staff have estimated 5,400 pool- or spa-related hospital emergency department treated nonfatal drownings each year from 2012 through 2014 involving children younger than 15 years. With statistics such as these facing safety educators, it is apparent that efforts must be made to educate children, parents, grandparents, babysitters, and other caregivers about how quickly and silently drownings can occur, especially to children. Increased precautions need to be taken around lakes and pools, but very young children can also drown in bathtubs, toilets, buckets, and other containers of water. Because of their limited strength, and the disproportionate weight of their heads to their bodies, very young children are unable to extract themselves from these situations. Other drowning causes include boating without wearing personal floatation devices (PFDs) for all age groups, and the use of alcohol by teens and adults when operating watercraft. The following tips should be promoted in water safety programs: Supervise children around water at all times! The primary focus of the adult should be the safety of the child. Distractions such as texting, talking on the phone or other activities is strongly discouraged. It only takes a few seconds for a child to slip under the water and lose consciousness Adults and children should wear PFDs while boating TABLE 1-6. PFDs should be properly fitted for the size of the individual and worn as designed. All straps and fasteners should be used. Floats, noodles, novelty rafts, and toys are not a substitute for PFDs. Residential pools should be fenced and separated from the house. The CDC recommends that the fence be at least 4 ft tall, and all latches are out of the reach of children. Boat operators should be instructed on the rules of the lake, and how to safely drive the craft. Children should be instructed about pool rules before entering the pool, even at a neighbor’s home. Common pool rules include not running on the deck, entering the water only with an adult’s permission, no diving in restricted areas, and no pushing or shoving others under the water. The American Red Cross recommends that all family members learn to swim. TABLE 1-7 PFD Types and Recommendations Personal Floatation Device Type Description Type I - This lifejacket type is designed for survival in the open ocean, in rough seas, or in remote Offshore water, where rescue may be slow to occur. Lifejacket © objectsforall/Shutterstock. Type II – Near The near shore buoyant vest is intended for general boating activities. It is designed to be Shore Buoyant used in calm waters, where there is a good chance for fast rescue. Vest © mikeledray/Shutterstock. Type III – This lifejacket type is designed for general boating or for the activity that is indicated on Flotation Aid the device (i.e., water skiing, hunting, fishing, canoeing, kayaking). It is intended to be used in calm waters, where there is a good chance for fast rescue. © Vereshchagin Dmitry/Shutterstock. Type IV – This type of device, which includes boat cushions, ring buoys, and horseshoe buoys, is Throwable designed to be thrown to the person being rescued. It must be supplemented by Device wearable lifejackets. Throwable devices should be readily available for emergencies. They are not to be used for small children, unconscious people, or non-swimmers. © E. O./Shutterstock. Personal Floatation Device Type Description Type V – Special use devices include work vests, deck suits, and hybrids for restricted use. Hybrid Special Use vests are inflatable to provide additional flotation. Device © Vereshchagin Dmitry/Shutterstock. Burns and Prevention Each year, more than 450,000 burn injuries occur in the United States that are serious enough to require medical treatment. Each day more than 300 children from infants to age 19 are treated in emergency rooms as a result of burn-related injuries, and two children will die as a result of their burns. Millions of burns are reported each year, many resulting in permanent disability, disfiguration, and emotional trauma. Treatment for burns is costly, extremely painful, and often continues for a lifetime. The American Burn Association reports that 73 percent of burns are sustained in the home, the place considered by most to be their safest dwelling. Very young children are most likely to sustain scald burns caused by hot liquids or steam. Older children are more likely to be burned from direct contact with flame. Older adults are again at high risk for scalds. Both the very young and older adults sustain burns quickly because of their lack of physical abilities to react appropriately and cognitive and sensory abilities to accurately recognize risk in their environments. The types of burns are categorized by the source of heat that damages the skin. Care for the burn is determined by the type of burn: Thermal burns are caused by fire, steam, hot objects, or hot liquids. Recommended treatment is to cool the burn and slow the burning process. Wet or smother the area if clothing is involved. Cool the burn with water for five minutes. Do not use ice. Cover it with a clean, dry cloth and seek medical attention for serious burns. Chemical burns occur when living tissue is exposed to a corrosive substance such as a strong acid or base. Recommended treatment is to wash and completely irrigate the area with cool water. If it is a dry chemical, gently brush away the chemical first. Continue to apply water and seek medical attention. Electrical burns result from electric current passing through the body causing rapid injury to the skin and other organs, including the heart. The first step in treatment is to ensure that the power source is no longer in contact with the patient. Humans are conductors of electricity and the power could be transmitted directly to the person delivering care, so extreme caution must be exercised when assisting a victim of an electrical burn. Seek medical attention immediately. Radiation burns are caused by exposure to radiation such as thermal radiation, radio frequency energy, ultraviolet light and ionizing radiation causing damage to the skin or other biological tissue. Sunburn is a form of radiation burn and can be treated the same as a thermal burn, based on the thickness of the burn. Other radiation burns require medical consultation. Classification of burns is determined by the depth of the skin (epidermis) involved in the burn. Other factors taken into consideration are the duration of contact, blood flow to the skin, temperature, anatomic location, and size of burned area. Older adults and young children have thinner skin than the rest of the population. The following general areas should be covered in detail when teaching burn prevention: Cooking safety Working smoke alarms Hot water heaters set no higher than 120°F, anti-scald devices Match and lighter safety and storage for homes with children Electrical appliance safety Bath safety and burn prevention measures around young children Falls and Prevention Falls are the leading cause of non-fatal injury for all children ages 0 to 19 in the United States. An average of 2.8 million children in this same age group are seen in emergency departments each year. More than 200,000 children under the age of 14 are treated in emergency rooms for playground injuries, with those ages 5 to 9 being most at risk. These injuries lead to fractures, internal injuries, concussions, dislocations, and amputations. Falls are the leading cause of unintentional injury deaths for adults over the age of 65. In 2013, 25,500 adults over the age of 65 died from unintentional fall injuries, and 2.5 million adults in this same age bracket were treated for nonfatal falls in emergency departments. Fire departments across the country respond to these calls on a frequent and regular basis. Some report responding for the same patient more than once in the same day. Falls are preventable for all age groups. It is time to dedicate efforts and resources to lower these risks. Experts in safety have recommended the following practices to lower the risk of falls to children: Maintain safe and soft surfaces on playgrounds and equipment. Install guards on windows above ground. Screens are not meant to keep children from falling out of windows. Use stair gates and guard rails. Use helmets, wrist guards, and knee and elbow pads for sports such as in-line skating to prevent fractures and concussions. Prevent TV and furniture tip-overs. Provide constant supervision for young children, especially toddlers. As people live longer and more independently, the rate of debilitating falls has reached alarming numbers. The long term consequences include hip fractures and traumatic brain injuries, resulting in reduced mobility, fear of falling leading to limited activity, and social isolation. The rate of fall-related fractures are twice as high among women as men. Older adults should be informed of the following recommendations to help reduce the chance of falls and to maintain an active lifestyle: Exercise regularly, especially weight bearing exercise. Review medications and take them as prescribed to avoid dizziness. Discuss any dizziness or new health issues honestly with the physician. Have eyes checked regularly. Reduce tripping hazards such as scatter rugs and cluttered living arrangements. Install railings and grab bars, night lights, and nonslip surfaces. Poisoning and Prevention The leading cause of unintentional injury death among the 25–64 year old population is poisoning. Every day, more than 300 children under the age of 19 are seen in emergency rooms of poison related incidents. Young children are curious. They will touch and ingest things within their reach, including household chemicals, plants, and medications. A serious and growing concern is the number of teens dying from poisonings as a result of prescription drug misuse. Medication which was dispensed by a family doctor for a family member is often taken incorrectly or shared with friends. Poisonings in the adult population are most often due to an overuse or overdose of painkillers and other prescription drugs. The home is the most dangerous place where poisonings occur. The following prevention tips are just a few of the reminders that should be shared with the public to keep them and their families safe in their own homes: Keep household cleaners in their original containers and do not mix them together. Lock it up. Keep all medications and cleaners locked up so children cannot access them. Do not call medicine “candy” Teach children than medicine should only be taken if an adult gives it to them. Identify poisonous plants around the home. Dispose of medications. Mix them with coffee grounds and throw them away or drop them off at a local drop-off site. Read all labels carefully before taking or dispensing medications. Have a working carbon monoxide (CO) detector in the home. Learn how to prevent CO poisoning and recognize the early signs and symptoms. Know the Poison Help number (1-800-222-1222). Call this number if the patient is awake and alert. If the patient is unconscious, call 911 immediately. Post the number at home and program into cell phones. Older adults should exercise caution when taking medications by turning on the lights and keeping prescriptions in the original containers. Medications should not be shared with others. Suffocation and Prevention Unintentional suffocation includes strangulation and choking on food or other objects. Most infant suffocation deaths and injuries occur as a result of unsafe sleeping environments. According to Safe Kids Worldwide, unintentional suffocation is the leading cause of injury-related death among children less than a year old. Toddlers often inhale or ingest food or other objects causing respiratory obstruction. Older children may experience suffocation, entrapment, or strangulation incidents on playground equipment. Older adult suffocations are commonly the result of obstructed airways while inhaling or ingesting food. The good news about suffocations is that they are very predictable and preventable. Touching, holding, climbing, and exploring are the ways young children learn. The following messages will help caregivers maintain a safer environment for children: Do not give children younger than four years old any hard or smooth foods that can partially or completely block the windpipe. A list of these foods include nuts of any kind, raw carrots, peas, celery, popcorn, hard candy, and raw apples and pears. Older adults will benefit from some of these same messages. Encourage children to sit when eating and chew thoroughly. Do not allow children to run or play with gum, candy, or lollipops in their mouths. Make sure small pieces of toys, games, and other household projects are out of reach of young children. Older children should be warned of the dangers of choking games. Adults should get down on their hands and knees in every room of the house to see things from a child’s perspective. Correct any situations at their eye level and within their reach they may cause choking or strangulation. Do not place a child’s crib or bed within close distance of window blinds and cords. Older children, parents, and all caregivers should learn CPR. Effective Strategies for Injury Prevention Recognizing that unintentional injuries are the leading cause of death and disability for children, adolescents, and young adults in the United States, it is necessary for all agencies to accelerate their efforts to change this paradigm. The following strategies have been identified as critical to the success of this work: Multiple strategies grounded in a theory of behavior change delivered with a range of diverse activities at the same time; repeat messages in different forms and contexts to begin to develop a culture of safety. Community stakeholders involved in the community-based strategies to increase the likelihood of ownership, modeling, peer pressure, and adoption; a range of agencies involving local people. Community-based networking and cooperative advocacy by multiple interventions which reinforce each other; interventions integrated into the community and tailored to meet unique local needs. Local surveillance and data collections tailored locally to generate local interest and mobilize community involvement, media, and political interest, and obtain resources for targeting specific local problems. Allowing enough time to coordinate existing and developing new local networks; development of long-term strategies. Modeling by agencies, representatives, community members, parents, and caregivers. A combination of active solutions and passive solutions. Active solutions are changes in behaviors such as wearing bicycle helmets and pedestrian skills. Passive solutions are design and engineering solutions such as the safer design of playground areas and traffic calming. Effective, focused leadership along with multi-agency collaboration. Use of rewards and contingencies, direct or indirect, to coax desired actions. Community Risk Reduction The fire service and injury prevention communities have long known that the previously recommended strategies are necessary for effective risk reduction; however, approaches have largely been isolated, segregated, or disjointed until recent years. The efforts were embraced by the education and health community, but not by the emergency responders. Community risk reduction (CRR) is a comprehensive all-hazard unifying approach gaining momentum among fire service prevention advocates and front-line personnel across the United States. CRR includes programs, actions, and services used by a community, which prevent or reduce the impact of fire, injuries, and other disasters within a community. The concept began in Merseyside, England, as a pilot program. The quantifiable success of their efforts to significantly reduce fire fatalities defined the work as an effective model for risk reduction in communities. The systematic, practical, and realistic process is gaining momentum in the United States largely through Vision 20/20 (strategicfire.org). Vision 20/20 is a national strategic planning process for fire loss prevention that results in a national plan to coordinate activities and fire prevention efforts. The basic tenant of the plan is that no two communities are identical. A canned prevention program will not effectively mitigate all communities’ risks; therefore, CRR assists communities to identify and develop a combination of unique strategic interventions to address individual problems with the most efficient use of their resources. Participants can come from many areas of a community, including all areas of fire prevention, injury prevention, and natural disaster mitigation advocates and stakeholders. All efforts have a champion at the nucleus of the activity. The champion can be anyone from a line fire fighter to a fire and life safety educator to a fire chief, or anyone in between from another organization who understands the necessary steps to be taken. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (Coffee Break Training, May 12, 2011) defines the role of the champion as a strategist who: Helps create and support risk reduction initiatives. Leads the process of identifying and prioritizing risk to community at the station level. Supports those who are involved actively in the ongoing risk reduction process. Works strategically to mitigate targeted risks and helps to propose the public policies that support risk reduction. A basic overview of CRR is provided here for the educator to gain insight to the method of risk reduction. All educators should become familiar with the intricacies of CRR. Visit Vision 20/20 at strategicfire.org for a complete overview and supplementary materials of this highly effective area of fire prevention. Recognizing that it will take the efforts of a multidiscipline approach, FEMA encourages all fire departments to join the Fire Is Everyone’s Fight™ Initiative. Fire Is Everyone’s Fight™ is a national initiative designed to unite the fire service, life safety organizations and professionals to reduce home fire injuries, deaths, and property loss by changing how people think about fire and fire prevention FIGURE 1-10. CRR is a road map to guide these efforts. FIGURE 1-10 Fire is Everyone’s Fight logo (FEMA.gov) Courtesy of U.S. Fire Administration and FEMA. The use of this logo does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Fire Administration or FEMA. In its simplest form, CRR can be broken down to six basic steps, as provided in the “Vision 20/20 Community Risk Reduction Guide” (April, 2015): Step 1: Identify risks. This includes a comprehensive assessment of fire department incident data, identification and prioritization of data for fire and EMS calls, and development of a community profile that includes demographic data, partners, risk trends, geographic location of calls and risks, high risk populations, causal factors, target hazards, and a hazard analysis. Step 2: Prioritize risks. Analyze the likelihood of the risks, the severity, consequences, and impact of the risks, and the occupancy vulnerability of target hazards (properties where there is a great potential for loss of life or property loss if a fire erupts, such as hospitals, schools, nursing homes, shopping centers, theaters). Step 3: Using the profile developed through Steps 1 and 2, begin to develop strategies and tactics to mitigate the risks. Step 4: Prepare the community risk reduction plan. The five-step process is a useful guide for this step, which is fully explained in the chapter Program Design and Management. Step 5: Implement the plan for the community. Step 6: Monitor, evaluate, and modify the plan while tracking short-term and long-term results. Continue to analyze all data and report results to stakeholders and the community. Build in measures to sustain the plan. A critical component to community risk reduction is evaluation from the beginning of the process throughout the life of the implementation. Integral to CRR is a strong membership made up of community partners and stakeholders. Community partners are any individuals, agencies, organizations, or businesses that have a vested interest in the prevention or mitigation of particular risks within the community. They may bring resources in the form of expertise, experience, financial assistance, outreach, volunteer bases, gatekeepers, or any other necessary tools to the process. No one agency has all of the answers to solve a community problem. A strong base of community partners will ensure a more successful outcome. CRR plans help communities evaluate the need for fire prevention strategies. At the end of all analysis, these efforts may focus on code enforcement, fire and life safety education, or a combination of both, along with fire suppression. The final result may focus primarily on injury prevention issues, depending on the issues facing the community. In some cases, one of the partnering agencies outside of the fire department may take the lead. There will also be communities experiencing different risks in different areas of the same fire district, each area requiring different risk-reducing strategies, partners, and resources. Without the scrutiny CRR provides for community risks, some of the most important work may be overlooked. Aside from fires and injuries, most areas of the country are subject to natural or man-made disasters particular to their geographic area. Natural disasters such as wildfires, flooding, tornadoes, hurricanes, or earthquakes will generate many calls for fire department assistance. Fire and life safety educators should be responsible for delivering information to help residents and businesses prepare for and deal with the aftermath of such disasters. CRR will allow educators to be part of a network of stakeholders with the most current and necessary local information for their community. Step 2 of the process identifies potential target hazards which will assist in preparing the community for any technological high hazards that are likely to occur in the community. Whether the risk is a fire, injuries, natural disasters, technological hazards, or terrorism, CRR serves to lay a firm foundation for a community to come together with multifaceted strategies to prevent, mitigate, prepare for, and minimize the dangers to the populace FIGURE 1-11. FIGURE 1-11 Community partners coming together to assist during a disaster. © Carlos Osorio/AP Photo. Where Does the Fire Service Go from Here? As the fire service, public safety, and public health agencies move forward as agents of behavior change in injury prevention, what can fire and life safety educators do to contribute to desired outcomes? Keeping in mind the strategies outlined above, fire and life safety educators are in a pivotal position to network with other injury prevention agencies, integrate injury prevention messages into existing programs and presentations, monitor local risks and trends, and take a leadership role in creating a local injury prevention coalition. Reflecting on the Three Es—engineering, enforcement, and education—educators need to consider all three interventions and apply each to injury prevention as well. One of the most effective legislative interventions targeting the actual injury vector that required one-time changes was the 1973 mandate for child-resistant packaging and the limiting of amount of a drug that could be contained in any one package. After the Poison Prevention Packaging Act was enacted, accidental poisonings in children younger than five years of age were reduced by 50 percent in the first three years of the Act.22 Enforcement in the form of legislation has proven effective in toy regulations, furniture, flammability standards, and child-restraint laws for automobiles. Engineering has contributed to a reduction in injuries as cars have been designed to “crash package” passengers, and appliances are equipped with automatic shut-off devices FIGURE 1-12. Studies have shown that children can successfully learn a variety of skills ranging from bicycle safety to dealing with emergencies, but these programs rely on intense modeling, rehearsal and the use of clear, positive consequences with small groups or individual children.23 Fire and police department officials may visit a school once a year with a safety message. “Although educators would never consider teaching arithmetic by having a mathematician work problems before the children for one hour or teaching spelling by having an English professor discuss spelling one morning in class, these didactic methods routinely serve as most schools’ “safety curriculum.”24 Brief education messages delivered in one way during one presentation are not effective to ensure retention and continued protection. Educators must wrap their messages in a variety of methods with a range of strategies and through repeated and progressive program delivery for sustained behavior change. FIGURE 1-12 Automatic shut-off devices help eliminate fires and burn injuries. Courtesy of iGuardFire. www.iguardfire.com. People view themselves as practicing safer habits than their actual activities indicate. It is the educator’s job to alert the public to the realities of the risks, make connections to their vulnerability to the risks, the available technology to assist in providing safer environments, and the actions the public can take to lessen the likelihood of unintentional injury to themselves and their families. Wrap-Up Smoke: © Greg Henry/ShutterStock, Inc. Summary Points Fire and life safety educators who learn from the past and apply history’s lessons to current practices will have a greater appreciation for the role of education in the prevention of fire deaths. All Five Es of prevention—engineering, enforcement, education, economic incentives, and emergency response—are necessary to effectively prevent fire and protect the public and firefighters from its damage and destruction. Most fire code changes have come about through the tragic lessons learned from large life-loss fires. Everyone must be educated about the reasons behind the codes and enforcement. This includes the general public, building owners, other code officials, fire fighters, and employees. Human behavior in emergency situations is more rational and altruistic than previously believed. This fact confirms the need to continue teaching appropriate information and skills for evacuation and survival. Through training and drills, educators can provide people with situations to fall back on in times of emergency when they need to retrieve the most viable choices in a short period of time. Injury prevention education is a responsibility of the fire service along with fire prevention education. If it is the fire department serving as first responders to unintentional injuries, then it is also the fire service on the front lines of understanding how these injuries occur and the measures to prevent them in the future. Community risk reduction (CRR) is a strategic planning process for fire loss prevention that allows fire and life safety educators to more effectively work with community partners and resources. Everyone is responsible for teaching fire and life safety, and everyone—from young preschool children to CEOs, city leaders, and fire chiefs—should invest the time to learn about this field of the fire service and its contribution to saving lives. Key Terms Accident An event over which people have little or no control; random, uncontrollable acts of fate. Active solutions (injury prevention) Changes to achieve safer behavior due to the deliberate actions taken by participants. Community risk reduction (CRR) Programs, actions, and services used by a community, which prevent or mitigate the loss of life, property, and resources associated with life safety, fire, and other disasters within a community. Dissolution of responsibility The assumption that it is not necessary to take action because others in the vicinity will take care of the situation. Economic incentives Monetary rewards or threats used to motivate improved compliance and safer behaviors. Education The process of preventing or altering specific unsafe behaviors through raising awareness and imparting information and knowledge to change attitudes and produce safer behaviors. Emergency response Having well-trained and adequately staffed teams of first responders for risk reduction during later stages of risk development when other interventions have failed. Enforcement The creation and adoption of codes, ordinances, and requirements for compliance to ensure that people, structures, and associated systems adhere to the safest practices. Engineering A form of intervention used to change structures, products, and processes through the use of improved technology, materials, construction, and environmental change to provide a greater level of safety for property and occupants. Evacuation The process wherein occupants become aware of a building fire-related emergency and experience a variety of mental processes and actions before or while they travel to reach a place of safety within or outside the building. Injury Any unintentional or intentional damage to the body resulting from acute exposure to thermal, mechanical, electrical, or chemical energy or from the absence of such essentials as heat or oxygen. Learned irrelevance A process in which, when conditions (such as emergency exit signs) are repeatedly encountered in the workplace or elsewhere, people learn to ignore them. Panic A fear-induced flight behavior that is nonrational, nonadaptive, and nonsocial, which serves to reduce the escape possibilities of the groups as a whole. Passive solutions (injury prevention) Changes to achieve safer environments through design and engineering solutions. Pre-movement time The time between the recognition of the cue to the moment the occupants begin to evacuate. Primary prevention Efforts focused on stopping an injury before it occurs. Secondary prevention efforts implemented to reduce the seriousness of an injury once it has occurred Tertiary prevention Medical treatment and rehabilitation to reduce the disability immediately after an injury occurs. Sullivan-Hoey Law As a result of the Triangle Shirtwaist fire this law was passed, which ordered the creation of a separate fire prevention bureau in the fire departments of New York. Unintentional injury Injury occurring by causes without intent, such as motor vehicle and bicycle crashes, drowning, burns, suffocations and strangulations, or falls. Unintentional injuries do not include homicide, suicide, assault, or abuse. Review Questions 1. What are the Five Es and how does each positively affect community risk reduction? 2. List five behaviors people can be expected to exhibit during an emergency. 3. List the occupant characteristics and situational factors that impact human behavior in fire emergencies. How should this information be incorporated into the objectives of educators’ messages? How can this information be helpful to fire fighters in an effort to lessen their risks during a response? 4. What is the difference between an accident and an unintentional injury? 5. Describe attributes of both active and passive forms of injury prevention strategies. Critical Thinking 1. Reports of several historic fires prove that the time it actually took fire departments to extinguish the fire, in contrast to the loss of property and lives, was minimal. What conclusions can you make about the importance of fire suppression and fire prevention working together? 2. If history has taught so many valuable lessons about fire, why is it that as recently as 2003 the United States experienced a fire of the magnitude of The Station nightclub fire? How can local safety educators help to prevent such tragedies in their communities? 3. What current initiatives or programs in your local community lend themselves to the addition of injury prevention messages? How can safety educators tailor other messages to incorporate injury prevention for specific populations? Think About It and Make It Better There is a new country and western restaurant and bar in town, which is housed in a remodeled older storage facility. It has passed its initial inspection for occupancy and is expected to draw huge crowds when featuring well-known bands. The parking lot will be full. It is located on a busy interstate that runs through the town. The crowds are anticipated to be primarily young adults. The owners had initially wanted to decorate with bales of hay, wagon wheels, wooden horses, and barn wood. It is rumored that they hope to move some of these props in after the novelty of the place has worn off and it is not under the microscope of fire department officials. How can you begin to work with the fire prevention officers and the owners? Who needs to be educated? References 1. Cowan, D. Great Chicago Fires: Historic Fires That Shaped a City. Chicago: Lake Claremont Press, 2001, p. 33. 2. Cornell University Industrial and Labor Relations (ILR) School, Kheel Center for Labor-Management Documentation and Archives. (2001, March 24). The Triangle Factory Fire: Part 2, p. 1. Available at http://www.ilr.cornell.edu/trianglefire/narrative2.html. 3. Grant, C. C. “Last Dance at the Cocoanut Grove.” NFPA Journal, (2007, Nov/Dec): 60. 4. Doherty, D., Hicks, A., Leach, J.C., Oppmann, A., Pearce, S., and Wells, D. “The Beverly Hills Fire, Tragedy Rooted in Code Violations: A chronology,” The Cincinnati Enquirer. (May 1997): 2. Available at http://www.enquirer.com/beverlyhills/chronology.html. 5. Boston Globe. “Deception, missteps sparked a tragedy,” (June 8, 2003): 6. Available at http://www.boston.com/news/packages/nightclub_fire/Deception_missteps_3sparked_a_tragedy+.shtml. 6. National Fire Protection Association. NFPA 101, Life Safety Code. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2006, p. 33. 7. National Fallen Firefighters Foundation. National Firefighter Life Safety Summit, Novato, CA, (March 3–4, 2007):1. 8. Society of Fire Protection Engineers. Engineering Guide: Human Behavior in Fire. Bethesda, MD: Society of Fire Protection Engineers, June 2003, p. 1. 9. The City University of New York John Jay College of Criminal Justice, Flannery Associates. Introduction to Fire Science, Section 1, Unit 4—Human Behavior and Fire, January 2001, p. 8. Available at http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~tflan/documents/101docs/FIS101HumanBehavior-Fire.pdf 10. Proulx, G. “Human Behavior in Fire.” Presented at the Illinois Fire Inspectors Association Seminar, Addison, IL, June 2009. 11. McClintock, T., Shields, T. J., Reinhardt-Rutland, A. H., and Leslie, J. C. “A behavioural solution to the learned irrelevance of emergency exit signage.” In Second International Symposium on Human Behaviour in Fire. London: Interscience Communications Ltd., 2001, p. 31. 12. Proulx, G. (June 2009). 13. Proulx, G. (June 2009). 14. Groner, N. E. “Using Design to Help People Make Better Decisions During Fires.” Presented at the NFPA World Conference and Expo, Boston, MA, June 2007. 15. Leslie, J. C. Behavioural Safety: Extending the Principles of Applied Behavioural Analysis to Safety in Fires in Public Buildings. London: Interscience Communications Ltd., 2001, p. 2. 16. The National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control. Injury Prevention Meeting the Challenge. (Supplement to the American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 5(3), 1989). New York: Oxford University Press, p. 4. 17. Christoffel, T. and Gallagher, S. Injury Prevention and Public Health, 2nd ed. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 1999. 18. The National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control (1989), p. 7. 19. The National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control (1989), p. 7. 20. Wolf, A. “Playing it safe.” NFPA Journal, (1997, Sept/Oct): 61. 21. Pless, I. A Brief History of Injury and Accident Prevention Publications, 2006. Available at http://injuryprevention.bmj.com. 22. Peterson, L. and Roberts, M. “Complacency, misdirection, and effective prevention of children’s injuries.” American Psychologist, Vol. 47 No. 8 (1992): 1042. From Smith, G. S., and Falk, H. (1987). Unintentional injuries. In R. W. Ambler and N. B. Dold (Eds.). Closing the Gap: The Burden of Unnecessary Illness. New York: Oxford University, pp. 143–163. 23. Peterson and Roberts (1992), p. 1043. 24. Peterson and Roberts (1992), p. 1041. Additional Resources Cowan, D. Great Chicago Fires: Historic Fires That Shaped a City. Chicago: Lake Claremont Press, 2001. Cowan, D. and Kuenster, J. To Sleep with the Angels: The Story of a Fire. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996. “Demonstrating Bicycle Helmet Effectiveness: A How to Guide.” Retrieved from www.safekids.org. Dunne, Thomas. Evaluating the Human Factor on the Fireground. Retrieved from http://www.fireengineering.com, 2013. Duval, R. “The Legacy of Nightclub Fires.” NFPA Journal (2007, May/June). Gottschalk, J. Firefighting. New York: DK Publishing, 2002. Johns Hopkins Center for Injury Research and Policy, http://www.jhsph.edu. “Life Jacket Wear – Wearing Your Life Jacket,” http://www.uscgboating.org Kuligowski, E. D. The Process of Human Behavior in Fires. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST Technical Note 1632 U.S. Department of Commerce, May 2009. Liller, K. D. Injury Prevention for Children and Adolescents. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association, 2006. The National Committee for Injury Prevention and Control. Injury Prevention: Meeting the Challenge. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989. National Fallen Firefighters Foundation. Everyone Goes Home. Available at http://www.everyonegoeshome.org. National Fire Protection Association. NFPA Ready Reference: Human Behavior in Fire Emergencies. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2003. Proulx, G. Response to Fire Alarms. Retrieved from http://magazine.sfpe.org. Raphael, B. M. “Crowds and other collectives: Complexities of human behaviors in mass emergencies.” Psychiatry: Interpersonal & Biological Processes, 2005. Schorow, S. The Cocoanut Grove Fire. Beverly, MA: Commonwealth Editions, 2005. Society of Fire Protection Engineers. Engineering Guide: Human Behavior in Fire. Bethesda, MD: Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 2003. “Ten Leading Causes of Death by Age Group, United States – 2014”. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/injury. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. CPSC Rep. Wasserman Schultz, Water Safety Community Join Forces to Urge All Families to Pool Safely, May/June, 2015. Retrieved from http://www.aboutpoolsafety.gov. “Vision 20/20 Community Risk Reduction Guide”. (April, 2015). Retrieved from http://www.strategicfire.org. CHAPTER 2: Fire Behavior, Systems and Devices, and Fire Prevention Paper: © silver-john/ShutterStock, Inc.; Chapter Opener Photo: © Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Describe the stages of fire, types of heat transfer, and the fire triangle and tetrahedron. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 36–37) Demonstrate an understanding of the history of fire prevention and the resulting agencies and codes. (pp. 39–42) Identify organizations and sources of codes for reference. (pp. 42–44) Discuss the behavioral and physical arrangements and changes businesses, schools, and other public facilities can make to comply with codes that will result in safer conditions for occupants. (pp. 45–48) Differentiate among basic fire detection and suppression devices and explain their benefits when installed correctly. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 50–58) Dispel misconceptions regarding the operation and cost of commercial and residential sprinkler systems. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 57–60) Discuss the need to investigate new fire safety and injury prevention technology as it relates to the work of fire and life safety educators. (p. 60) Introduction Fire and life safety educators interact with the public at schools, churches, street fairs, high-rise buildings, small businesses, and safety fairs—to name only a few. Although a well-planned presentation will serve as a roadmap for the messages to be taught, it will not always cover other questions that arise during a discussion. It is the responsibility of safety educators to understand basic principles of fire science and fire prevention so they can answer these inquiries from the public with understandable explanations. Fire fighters will already be familiar with much of the basic information in this chapter, but it will serve as a practical reference for frequently asked questions regarding fire prevention practices, definitions, and the rationale behind codes and ordinances. Keep in mind that most civilians will not need or want a detailed explanation of the chemistry of fire or the technology behind a fire suppression system. But a working knowledge of these principles will help safety educators illustrate a point and support a safety message. Educator’s Tip When answering a question about fire science or prevention devices, try to deliver an answer that meets the needs of the audience. An employee asking if all sprinkler heads go off at once during a fire does not need to know about all the technology and mechanical principles of the entire system; a simple explanation that each head is triggered by heat as the fire progresses will suffice. As the saying goes, “Tell me what time it is, not how to build the watch.” The general public may have misconceptions about the costs, liabilities, maintenance, or inconveniences of suppression and detection systems or the standards imposed by codes. Fire and life safety educators can alleviate these concerns and assist both the fire department and the public by tactfully explaining the basic operation of systems and the rationale behind fire codes and standards. The overriding message to all audiences is that all fire prevention measures are in place for the safety and protection of their lives and property. Fire Behavior What Is Fire? Fire is burning or combustion, which is a chemical chain reaction that includes a selfsustaining rapid oxidation of a fuel accompanied by the release of heat and light. Older fire science theories used the fire triangle to explain this reaction. The three sides of the triangle are oxygen, heat, and fuel. These elements must be in the correct proportions to burn. For example, a gasoline motor can be too rich, with too much fuel mixture; or too lean, with not enough fuel mixture. Every room has fuel to burn and oxygen. However, if the proper proportions were not necessary for a fire to start, lighting a match would ignite the entire room. Oxygen is a gas that makes up 21 percent of the earth’ s atmosphere. It is an important element in the combustion process. Heat is energy and can be chemical, mechanical, electrical, or nuclear in origin. Fuel is the material being burned in the combustion process. It is a form of matter that can be found as a solid, liquid, or gas. To stop a reaction, or put out a fire, one of these three elements must be removed. The stop, drop, and roll procedure and putting a lid on a grease fire smother the flames by taking away the oxygen; fire fighters put out fires by taking away the heat when they cool a fire with water; and unplugging an electrical appliance changes the fire from a Class C to a Class A or B fire, interrupting a continuous current of electrical heat energy from feeding the fire. Today’s concept of the fire triangle is the fire tetrahedron. The fire tetrahedron includes a fourth element, the molecular chain reaction, which allows for a selfsustaining chemical reaction and flame propagation. Scientists have discovered that particular chemicals introduced to the burning process can interrupt and stop the reaction. None of these chemicals actually removes the oxygen, heat, or fuel, but they do interrupt the chemical reaction, thus extinguishing the fire. Consider a wastebasket of newspapers (fuel and oxygen). Adding hot charcoals (more fuel) results in a fire. A dry chemical fire extinguisher will put the fire out, but there are still newspapers, ample oxygen, and hot coals present. If one were to mix up the waste basket, it is possible the fire would reignite, because the dry chemical coating has been disturbed. A multipurpose A-B-C fire extinguisher is effective because it interrupts the chemical reaction of a fire. In simplest terms, a fire begins when enough heat and fuel are brought together in the presence of oxygen, which is always present in the atmosphere. When these come together in the right combination, a chain reaction occurs and sustains the fire FIGURE 2-1. FIGURE 2-1 The fire triangle (A) and the fire tetrahedron (B). © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Educator’s Tip When presenting information to the general public, it is best to reference the fire triangle model rather than the fire tetrahedron model. Keep it simple for better understanding. Fire Growth If fire and life safety educators are in the business of preventing fires through education, then understanding how fires grow and how they spread is critical to the ability to provide explanations for the reasons underlying behavioral messages. As a fire develops, it gives off various by-products that contribute to the growth of the fire. Aside from direct contact with a flame, fires begin when the heat given off by a fire is transferred to other materials and begins heating them. This is known as an exothermic reaction, a chemical reaction that releases energy by light or heat. Three forms of heat transfer are conduction, convection, and radiation. In most fires, all three forms of heat transfer are present. Conduction is the transfer of heat through solid objects, liquids, and gases. Certain substances that are denser in nature serve as better conductors than their more porous counterparts. For example, metal and concrete absorb, retain, and conduct heat better than wood. Wood is more likely to ignite at the point where heat comes in contact with it. Have you ever stepped barefoot on concrete on a hot summer’s day only to frantically hop over to cool grass as the skin on your feet burned? Young children have learned the same painful lesson when they slide down the hot surface of a metal slide at the playground. A metal doorknob might be very hot to the touch compared with a wooden door if fire is raging on the other side in the hallway. The practice of feeling the door, not the doorknob, when preparing to escape a room during a fire illustrates the importance of knowing how this principle applies to safety lessons. Think About It A 1982 study by Burton Clark, a professor at the National Fire Academy, demonstrated that a metal door knob located in the middle of the door is actually often cooler than a door knob in another area of the door. Educators need to be aware of this fact, and continue to promote feeling the door before exiting, without putting emphasis on information about touching the door knob. Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of gases and liquids. The hot gases given off by fire are lighter than air. As they move upward, they heat any materials they contact. When these superheated gases reach a ceiling or vertical barrier, they spread horizontally and drop back down. Stairwells, elevator shafts, and atriums can become dangerous as the heat of a fire finds its way to these areas. Convection occurs in liquids in much the same way. In covered containers where evaporation into the atmosphere is not allowed to take place, the energy of the heated liquid builds pressure and can cause an explosion. Educators teach the public to get low, below the smoke and heat, when fires occur. This safety behavior is in response to the conditions created by convection. Radiation is the transfer of heat through invisible waves of light. Fire produces infrared light waves that contain electromagnetic energy. If these light waves are concentrated enough, the electromagnetic forces can actually travel through air and make contact with distant objects and cause ignition. The most common example of radiant heat is that of the sun heating the earth through millions of miles in space. Radiant heat transfer has been the cause of many fires. It is radiant heat that can transfer the fire to an adjacent building, creating an exposure fire. Fire Stages As a fire grows, it transitions through specific stages, each posing a unique and dangerous situation. These four stages have been identified as incipient, growth, fully developed, and decay FIGURE 2-2. FIGURE 2-2 The four stages of fire: A) incipient, B) growth, C) fully developed, and D) decay. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. During the first stage of the burning process, the incipient stage (also known as the ignition stage), a form of energy transfer, usually heat, generates gas from a fuel source so the fuel is able to mix with the air. Fire fighters know that “things” do not burn. What actually happens is something heats and releases gases, the gases form a mixture, and it is this mixture in the air that can burn. At this point, the heat has not spread to other substances nearby, and the oxygen content of the air has not been significantly reduced. As soon as the fuel, in the form of gas, and the oxygen are in the right mixture, they will ignite. The ignition stage of the fire is when fuel, oxygen, and heat come together in a sustained chemical reaction. When the materials reach their ignition temperature, the lowest temperature that will give off gases of an ignitable mixture that can selfignite and sustain burning, a fire is started. During this phase of the fire, a flame is present and is usually very small and limited in area. Although the heat generally comes from an outside source, such as a spark or small flame, if a material is able to heat to the point of ignition because of an internal heat source, it is called spontaneous combustion or spontaneous heating. Consider something placed in an oven with the temperature slowly being raised. When the object begins to burn, that temperature is known as the ignition point. It is the point when outside heat is no longer necessary for the material to sustain combustion. The growth stage is exactly what the name implies—the growth of a fire from the point of ignition as other combustibles heat up, giving off flammable gases, and igniting and spreading a chain reaction to other flammables. The speed of the growth of the fire during this phase depends on several factors, including the oxygen supply, the amount and type of available fuel, the size of the room or structure, and the amount of insulation containing the heat transfer. Flashover is the transition between the growth phase and the fully developed stage. It is the point at which all contents of a room reach their ignition temperatures and quickly change to a fully developed fire. It is usually precipitated by a room that can no longer contain the heat and reflects it back from the walls and ceiling back to the room. The temperature of all unburned contents in the room is rapidly elevated and all of the combustible products burst into flame at once. When all contents within the perimeter of a structure are burning, the fire is considered to be in the fully developed stage. An outside fire reaches the fully developed stage when all combustibles within the fire’s reach are burning. The speed and extent of a fire are greatly impacted by the amount of air supplied to the fire during this phase. Oxygen is consumed rapidly during this stage. During both the growth and fully developed stages of fire, the products of combustion, including smoke, carbon monoxide (CO), heat, hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen chloride, and benzene, are given off and can be life threatening to victims and fire fighters. Smoke is defined as the product of incomplete combustion or decomposition heating (pyrolysis) and includes an aggregate of solids, liquids, and gases suspended in the thermal plume. Pyrolysis can actually lower the ignition temperature of a product. Over the course of time, a fireplace that has repeatedly heated up to high temperatures, if installed too close to a combustible wood structure, will cause a fire. The surrounding wood is repeatedly heated and cooled. This heating and cooling lowers the ignition temperature of the wood, and at some point, the usual safe fire will now ignite the wood surrounding it. Consider how the Santa Ana winds and dry fuel conditions contribute to the rapid growth of California wildfires. These are dry and warm, often hot, winds that blow from the desert. As temperatures rise, the relative humidity drops, and the air becomes even drier. The fast, hot winds cause the vegetation to dry out, increasing the danger of fire. Once the fires start, the winds fan the flames and quicken the spread. A fire of this nature is known as a conflagration, commonly defined as a large and destructive fire that jumps natural barriers. Last, when all fuel has been consumed and there are no longer any materials to burn, the fire begins to weaken. The fire finally extinguishes itself. This is known as the decay stage. The glowing combustion, or smoldering, observed during this stage of a fire continues until all the fuel is exhausted or until the fuel drops below its ignition temperature. A word of caution about this quiet stage of a fire: be aware that the introduction of additional air can cause enough burning to reignite a fire. Educator’s Tip Ask scouts and other students to explain why it is so important to make sure fires are completely extinguished before leaving a campground. Encourage them to factor in the components of the fire triangle in their explanation. Another unique fire event happens less frequently but is a real and explosive fire phenomenon that poses a very dangerous situation when the conditions are right for its occurrence. Backdraft is a sudden and explosive ignition of pressurized, superheated, and oxygen-deprived gases within an enclosed space when oxygen is reintroduced. If a fire is burning in a room and uses all the available oxygen within that room, the combustion process ceases, but the fuel gases and smoke remain at high temperatures. When a window or door is opened, this introduction of oxygen quickly can lead to rapid fire development. Signs that a room is ready to backdraft include yellowish-brown or yellowish-grey smoke, under pressure, seeping from cracks and wall seams, and possibly black-stained windows that are bowed outward. Sometimes heavy, dark smoke “puffs” in and out of any openings in the room. Emerging Studies in Fire Growth Stages Over the past 15 years, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and Underwriters Laboratories (UL) have conducted controlled fire scenarios in specially constructed laboratories and in actual houses. Many factors that contribute to fire growth have changed in recent years. Household furnishings are increasingly constructed of petroleum-based products; homes tend to be larger and feature opendesign layouts, energy-efficient windows and other components, and lightweight construction techniques. Because of these changes in residential environments, today’s fires release energy faster and reach their flashover potential sooner. The tightly sealed compartments created by the energy-efficient features also create a ventilation-limited environment. These findings have changed the way fire science engineers view the four stages of fire growth. Although the ignition, growth, fully developed and decay stages remain, it has been identified that, in newer home environments, there is a break in the traditional continuum between the growth and fully developed stages. As the oxygen becomes depleted in these airtight environments, the fire begins the decay stage after the growth stage. When ventilation begins or when any other form of air is introduced, the fire quickly escalates to the fully developed stage, often reaching flashover Figures 2-3 and 2-4. FIGURE 2-3 A traditional fire growth curve with a fuel-limited fire. Courtesy of NIST. FIGURE 2-4 Illustration of a ventilation-limited fire, which often occurs in houses with lightweight construction and petroleum-based contents. Courtesy of NIST. The results of these studies have begun to change how fire fighters think about ventilation and suppression techniques. The research is ongoing and will continue to change as new test results unfold. Safety educators need to be aware of new advances in these areas because it impacts the messages we are delivering. It is already evident that the faster the growth of residential fires, the less time residents have to escape. Educators must emphasize this information as they promote the value of installing smoke alarms and residential sprinklers, practicing home fire escape plans, and the value of closed doors when a fire occurs. Fire Classification A fire class is designated based on the type of fuel that is burning. The type of fuel determines the type of extinguishment to be used on the fire. If an incorrect method of extinguishment is used, the fire could accelerate or create even more dangerous conditions. Traditionally, the fire service has identified four classes of fires, but a fifth has been added in recent years. A Class A fire involves ordinary combustibles such as paper, cloth, wood, plastics, and rubber. These fires can be extinguished with water, water-based agents or foam, and multipurpose dry chemicals. Although water is the most common extinguishing agent for Class A fires, multipurpose A-B-C dry chemical fire extinguishers are readily available in most public occupancies as required by building and fire codes. Teach adults to develop the habit of knowing the locations of extinguishers in the workplace and other places of assembly. Encourage them to learn the proper use of an extinguisher for small fires only. Emphasize that only those trained and physically capable should attempt to use extinguishers. The more important message is to leave immediately when a fire breaks out. The most common type of extinguishment the public will associate with fire departments is that of using water on structure fires because the fuel for these fires is primarily composed of ordinary combustibles. A Class B fire involves flammable and combustible liquids, gases, and greases. Gasoline, cooking oils, alcohol, propane, and other oils are commonly used products in everyday life that can cause serious fires and burn injuries. A flash point is the minimum temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable mixture at the surface and “flash,” but is not sufficient to sustain combustion. A flammable liquid is a liquid having a flash point below 100°F, such as gasoline. A combustible liquid is a liquid having a flash point at or above 100°F, such as diesel fuel. Liquid fires result when the liquid is converted to a gas or vapor upon being heated. At the right temperature and mixture with air, the vaporized liquid will ignite when a spark or flame is introduced. Multipurpose dry chemical extinguishers, carbon dioxide (CO2) extinguishers, and foam are used to put out these fires. The most practical reminder for Class B fires is not to attempt extinguishment with water, which can actually make the fire worse by spreading the burning liquid instead of extinguishing it. A BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion) results when a liquid in a vessel is heated to the point it boils, expands, and its vapors can no longer be contained by the vessel. The resultant pressure exerted on the interior of the vessel, often weakened by an exterior fire, causes a violent explosion as the vapor and liquid are released. Fragments of the container can rocket thousands of feet, in the case of train cars, causing explosions and serious injury FIGURE 2-5. FIGURE 2-5 Twenty-pound cylinders, commonly found in residential settings, can explode with considerable force if involved in fire. Fragments of the container can rocket several hundred feet, causing explosions and serious injury. © tab62/Shutterstock. A Class C fire involves energized electrical equipment. Because water is an electrical conductor, water-based agents can never be used on electrical fires. The key to extinguishing Class C fires is to disconnect the source of electricity. When this is done, the fire takes on the characteristics and class of the remaining fuel source. For example, if a toaster is on fire, unplugging the unit will take away the source of energy feeding the fire. At that point, the fuel of the remaining fire is that of the toaster’s components, usually ordinary combustibles. Again, the use of a multipurpose class A-B-C is recommended. A Class D fire involves combustible metals and alloys such as magnesium, sodium, lithium, and potassium. These metals were usually found primarily in factories and industrial areas, but now also exist in some lawn mowers and wheels and transmission components for automobiles. The general public will not be as familiar with or as likely to encounter these types of fires in their homes. If people work in an environment where these products are present, it is important that employees are trained in how to respond to fires in their facility. The use of water or water based agents on Class D fires will cause the fire to react violently. Class D dry powder extinguishers work best on these types of fires. Dry chemical extinguishers used on class A, B, and C fires should not be confused with dry powder extinguishers. The local fire department should be aware of the existence of these special hazards in their response districts. A Class K fire attained recognition as a separate class in 1998 and involves hightemperature combustible cooking fuels such as vegetable or animal oils and fats. In the past, fire fighters used Class B extinguishing agents on these fires with limited success. Newer Class K agents are considered wet chemicals, composed of waterbased solutions containing potassium in combination with other agents. Although Class K agents are usually found in fixed systems in commercial or industrial cooking areas, portable Class K extinguishers are also available TABLE 2-1. TABLE 2-1 Classification of Fires and Extinguishing Agents Fire Description Examples Extinguishing Agent Common Wood, paper, cloth, plastic, Water, dry chemical, combustibles rubber foam, some halon Flammable or Gasoline, oil, grease, LPG, CO2, dry chemical, combustible liquids alcohol, petroleum-based halon, foam Class A B paints and stains C Energized electrical Energized class A materials CO2, dry chemical, equipment such as household appliances halon Remove source or class B materials heated by of electricity electricity D K Combustible Magnesium, sodium, metals potassium, lithium, titanium Cooking appliances Deep fat fryers using with combustible vegetable and animal fats and media oils © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Dry powder Wet chemical The History of Fire Prevention and Code Development Fire prevention bureaus and safety educators are partners working hand in hand with emergency responders to protect communities before a fire starts. Even the best response from their suppression partners cannot surpass the positive effects of successful efforts to prevent a fire from happening in the first place. With that in mind, safety educators who understand some history of the fire prevention branch of the fire service will have a better appreciation for the struggles of code development, adoption, and protection systems. Fire Prevention History Fire prevention efforts are often achieved through the enactment of codes. In the simplest terms, a code is a systematically arranged law, rule, or regulation that tells people what they can and cannot do and when and where they can do those things. The first known fire prevention code dates to about 1772 BC. The Code of Hammurabi is a well-preserved Babylonian law code of ancient Iraq, formerly Mesopotamia. It is one of the oldest deciphered writings of significant length in the world. The sixth Babylonian king, Hammurabi, enacted the code, and partial copies exist on a human-sized stone and various clay tablets. The code consists of 282 laws, with scaled punishments. Many of these laws dealt with matters of contract and their resultant penalties for noncompliance, just like the fire codes of today. In about 24 BC, the Roman Emperor Augustus formed the first municipal fire department, the Corps of Vigiles.1 The members performed both fire patrol and fire extinguishment duties. Slaves were assigned to the Familia Publica and acted as a night watch and firefighting companies. Municipal officials, similar to today’s fire marshals, determined the causes and origins of fires. Those found guilty of accidental fires were subject to corporal punishment, and “incendiaries,” or arsonists, faced the prefect of the city for prosecution. As early as 1066, William the Conqueror understood the value of taking proactive measures to prevent fires and delivered a decree in England that all home fires were to be extinguished every evening at a time signaled by the ringing of a bell. Following this effort, English cities continued their work to prevent fires as they passed ordinances in the 1500s regulating the businesses of candle makers and bakers, prohibiting wooden chimneys and thatched roofs, and mandating brick or stone firewalls. Homes were to be made of stone, slate, and tile. The Great Fire of London occurred in 1666. Although this fire was responsible for burning 13,200 homes, 87 churches, Saint Paul’s Cathedral, 20 warehouses, and 100,000 boats and barges, it took another two years before Parliament created the London Building Act and more than 100 years after that before commissioners were appointed to enforce those regulations in 1774!2 Across the sea in the United States, prevention strategies and concepts for using more fire resistive building materials began to develop as a reaction to several significant fires. In response to nine serious fires in Boston, Massachusetts, before the American Revolution (1775–1783), the Boston general court ordered that the construction of all buildings be of brick or stone with slate or tile roofs. Sadly, that law was never enforced. A century later, one of the most devastating and well-known fires in the United States took place in Chicago, Illinois, in October of 1871. More than 300 people were killed, 17,500 buildings were destroyed, and more than 100,000 people were left homeless. Within one month after the fire, the city’s next mayor ran on a platform to keep Chicago fireproof and free from ever experiencing such a horrific fire again. Less than three years later, the National Board of Fire Underwriters performed an investigation and reported that conditions were worse than before the fire; fire wardens had never enforced the regulations. The city was given three months to comply with regulations or all insurance policies in the city would be canceled. Not wanting to lose essential insurance coverage, business owners began pressuring the city to comply. With only one week before the deadline, the city of Chicago conceded and began to rectify the unsafe conditions. The power of the dollar proved to be the bottom line in getting compliance to safety mandates TABLE 2-2. TABLE 2-2 Early Fire Prevention Regulations: A Brief History England 1066: All home fires are to be extinguished at the ringing of a bell.1189: Stone, slate, and tile houses are recognized as safer from fires.1500s: Businesses of candle makers and bakers regulated—no wooden chimneys and thatched roofs; brick or stone firewalls mandated.1698: Building height limited to five stories.1763: Piercing of fire walls prohibited. Salem, Massachusetts 1663: Annual chimney cleaning required. Boston, Massachusetts 1700s: Boston General Court orders all buildings to be constructed of brick or stone with slate or tile roofs. This order was never enforced. Reading, New York 1807: No fireworks for children. New York, New York 1860: Fire stairs and fire escapes required. Columbus, Ohio 1897: Fire companies start performing fire inspections. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Efforts at reducing fires through the creation of fire safety codes, organization of fire department inspection programs, and advancements in fire safety technology continued globally throughout the early twentieth century. In the United States, some progressive fire departments had fire companies involved in performing fire inspections as early as the late 1800s. The Nation Looks at Fire Prevention Attempts to call attention to the importance of fire prevention on a national level soon followed. The Fire Marshal’s Association of North America called for the first Fire Prevention Day observation in 1911. In 1913, the First American National Fire Prevention Convention was held in Philadelphia. The first National Fire Prevention Day proclamation was issued by President Woodrow Wilson in 1920, followed by an official proclamation of the first Fire Prevention Week in 1922 by President Warren Harding. During World War II, fire prevention was a priority in the nation’s civil defense programs. In June 1940, the executives of the nation’s fire insurance companies organized the Insurance Committee for the Protection of American Industrial Plants. One year later, in June 1941, the committee established the National Bureau for Industrial Protection in Washington whose first efforts were coordinated with the Federal Bureau of Investigation to head off sabotage by arson and other security issues. Months later, responsibilities for security were transferred to the war and navy departments. They called on the National Bureau to develop regulations for storage of materials and equipment, and the National Bureau of Fire Underwriters assigned almost all of its field staff to assist. This bureau was eventually responsible for conducting 65,000 inspections and providing more than 3,000 reports covering materials storage. President Truman recognized the valuable service the organization had provided for the nation, and in January 1947, his administration distributed a press release announcing the Presidential Conference on Fire Prevention. The conference was attended by representatives of all 48 states’ governors, business and industry, academia, and the fire service. This initial effort spawned the development of fire prevention committees set up by 34 of the governors and state conferences by 18 of the states. A further review of history reveals that the government and the fire service have long understood the need for coordinated and unified work in the area of fire prevention. In 1966, a report titled “Wingspread Conference on Fire Service Administration, Education and Research: Statement of National Significance to the United States” became a landmark initiative that called for the establishment of a national commission on fire prevention and control. By 1968, the Fire Research Safety Act established the National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control. The 24member panel, appointed by President Richard Nixon, transmitted its report, “American Burning,” to the President on May 4, 1973. This document, with its 90 recommendations, is one of the most pivotal and noteworthy documents in fire service history, elevating and highlighting the importance of prevention in the fire service FIGURE 2-6. FIGURE 2-6 Landmark documents in fire prevention history—“America Burning” and “America Burning Revisited.” Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Fourteen years after “America Burning” was submitted to the president, members of Congress, officials from the U.S. Fire Administration and the National Fire Academy, along with several of the participants who worked on the original report, met for three days, from November 30 through December 2, 1987, to revisit the U.S. fire problem and evaluate the nation’s progress since its first submission. Their report was titled “America Burning Revisited.” The director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) recommissioned “America Burning” in 1999 to again critique each of the original 90 recommendations in terms of accomplishments, successes, partial successes, and shortcomings and to form a picture of the nation’s progress in the areas of fire prevention and protection since the original report of 1973. This study and report was titled “America at Risk.” All three reports can be obtained in PDF format at www.usfa.fema.gov. The Beginnings of Organizing for Code Compliance History had proven time and again that prevention efforts in terms of regulating building conditions would save lives and property, but it had also proven that without any governing bodies to oversee standardization and enforcement, compliance was not likely to follow. In the private sector, the Manufacturers’ Mutual Fire Insurance Company, later to become Factory Mutual, was formed in 1835. Members of this mutual were required to be inspected annually, originally by company officers. Facilities that did not pass inspection had their insurance coverage cancelled. The growth, development and further merging of Factory Mutual organizations through the years led to the formation of FM Global in 1998, the twenty-fourth largest insurance organization in the United States. FM Global also develops and distributes training programs to federal, state, and local fire training organizations. In 1866, the National Board of Fire Underwriters was formed. Along with regulating uniform insurance rates, one of this organization’s mission objectives was to repress incendiarism and arson. It was this organization’s work that served as the foundation for many of today’s fire service and construction codes, municipal water supply and alarm systems, fire apparatus, and fire insurance rating systems. The National Board of Fire Underwriters is responsible for the creation of some of the most reputable and enduring fire safety entities today, such as The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), which was formed in 1896 to promote uniformity in fire protection standards. The Board is also credited with developing the National Electrical Code® in 1896; Underwriters Laboratories (UL; originally the Underwriters’ Electrical Bureau), incorporated in 1903; and the National Building Code of 1905. The National Building Code was eventually absorbed by the Insurance Services Office, Inc. (ISO). Today many jurisdictions rely mainly on the ISO rating for municipal grading of the fire protection in the community, not for code development. Of special interest to fire and life safety educators, the National Board of Fire Underwriters produced a 91-page booklet for children in 1918, Safeguarding the Home Against Fire, which it provided free of charge to more than 2 million schoolchildren in an effort to educate families about the value of fire prevention practices FIGURE 2-7. This publication compared the “fire waste” of the United States with that of European countries.3 Although the numbers have changed over the years, the United States is still lagging far behind other countries with its fire record. The idea of teaching children to help educate families about safety is not a new concept. In general, fire departments and fire prevention bureaus became involved in fire prevention education in the early twentieth century. In 1942, the National Board, in conjunction with the NFPA, Boy Scouts of America, Girl Scouts of America, National Fire Waste Council, and U.S. Department of Agriculture, developed and packaged a 350-page text titled Fire Prevention Education, which included a program for schools and the community.4 FIGURE 2-7 The National Board of Fire Underwriters produced a booklet for children in 1918, Safeguarding the Home Against Fire, which it provided free of charge to more than 2 million schoolchildren in an effort to educate families about the value of fire prevention practices. Note ISO has recognized and awarded points for both fire prevention and fire and life safety education efforts since their 2013 update, one more indication that the value of educating the public in preventing fires is gaining recognition as an important area of the fire service. Think About It In 1973, “America Burning” made 90 recommendations to improve the state of fire safety for the nation. Chapter 15, “Fire Safety Education,” included recommendations 63 through 68, which proposed inclusion of fire safety in the schools, teacher training in fire safety education, development and standardization of educational materials and programs, accreditation standards, and financial penalties for schools not providing fire safety education. In 1987, “America Burning Revisited” reviewed each of the 90 recommendations in terms of accomplishments or lack thereof. You are encouraged to review these six recommendations and consider how much progress has been made since 1973. Over time, other agencies have been established to develop, facilitate, and oversee conditions for the safety of their specific populations and areas of concern. The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), formerly the Federal Housing Administration, has made positive contributions to fire prevention since 1934 as it maintains its Minimum Property Standards (MPS) by ensuring safety in properties purchased with federally backed mortgages. The National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC) was formed in 1965. Its members include the Bureau of Land Management, Bureau of Indian Affairs, U.S. Forest Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, National Weather Service, Office of Aircraft Services, and National Association of State Foresters. All of these agencies are also members of the National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG), which was created in 1976 by the secretaries of the Interior and Agriculture to develop and standardize practices among the agencies. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) was created in 1971 when President Nixon signed the Occupational Safety and Health Act. OSHA’s mission is workplace safety. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) was created by Congress in 1972. This independent agency develops standards, performs testing, educates the public, and recalls unsafe products. Educator’s Tip Safety educators can access standards, product recalls, and current recommended safety practices through the CPSC. Before addressing an audience on a particular topic, visit this agency’s website at www.cpsc.gov to research the most current information as it relates to your topic. Additionally, a good resource is the NFPA Journal, which provides a section listing recent fires in certain types of occupancies. This provides a valuable service and relevant connection for your audience, helping them realize the same incident can happen to them. Another organization that contributed to the nation’s fire prevention programs was the National Fire Prevention and Control Administration created by the Federal Fire Prevention Control Act of 1974. In 1979, it was renamed the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA) and became part of FEMA. In 2002, FEMA became part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Security with the Directorate of Emergency Preparedness and Response. The USFA continues to concentrate its efforts on public education, training for fire and emergency response personnel, fire safety technology, testing and research, and the collection, analysis, and dissemination of pertinent data. Of particular significance for fire and life safety educators is the USFA’s Fire Prevention and Public Education section at usfa.fema.gov, which provides a valuable list of available resources and programs for educators to build and improve education programs. The concern over the increasing threat and intensity of wildland fires has generated the need for the fire service and public agencies to come together to protect wildlandurban interface communities. Wildland/Urban Interface (WUI) communities are those with residential areas near natural areas. The International Code Council (ICC) annually publishes the International Wildland-Urban Interface Code. The NFPA has also researched and developed codes to assist in reducing the effects of these fires. Educators working in these areas are encouraged to review the February, 2012 FEMA publication, Your Role in Fire-Adapted Communities—How the fire service, local officials and the public can work together. The recommendation for the public, local officials, homeowners associations, and other stakeholders to come together to address these fires is one more example of the Five Es of prevention working together to reduce a community risk. Codes, Ordinances, and the Process As early as 1897, fire companies in Columbus, Ohio, were performing fire inspections. The Fire Department of New York (FDNY) Bureau of Fire Prevention was established in 1912, and by 1925, fire prevention bureaus were also operating within the fire departments of the larger cities of Chicago, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, Detroit, Providence, and Memphis. Regulations often covered hazards, including storage of explosives, gaslights, open burning, fire alarms, fire extinguishing equipment, exit signs, requirements for watchmen in hotels and hospitals, and fire service personnel in theaters during performances. Code development is often considered to be reactive, in that code changes have historically followed on the heels of serious and fatal fires. Communities enraged by the loss of life and property clamored for stringent rules that would create safer structures and conditions in public facilities. Fire officials reviewed the causes of fires and loss of life and passed laws to prevent conditions that would contribute to the reoccurrence of tragic fires. Investigation and prevention worked hand in hand. Laws were passed, but the passage of time erased the magnitude of landmark fires, and the inconvenience or cost of compliance caused property owners to turn their backs on the new mandates. In 1892, D. W. C. Skilton, president of the National Board of Fire Underwriters, encouraged the development of codes and standards to ensure profits for the insurance industry and reduce its risks by improving the fire safety conditions of its protected properties. The same year, an emergency meeting was held in New York when electricity was identified as the new hazard causing many serious fires. Out of this meeting came the formation of the National Board Electrical Code. Today this code is known as the National Electrical Code® (NFPA 70), which may still be the most widely used code in the United States. The National Board of Fire Underwriters developed the National Building Code and in 1905 distributed it free of charge to all cities with populations larger than 5000. This became the first model building code in the United States, and it served as the basis for model building codes in use today. The first model fire prevention code, the Suggested Fire Prevention Ordinance, was developed by the National Board of Fire Underwriters in 1930. It was renamed the National Fire Prevention Code in 1953. The National Board of Fire Underwriters, which had served as a progressive pioneer in promoting the development of codes and governing bodies, was later absorbed by the ISO. By the 1920s, a system of regional codes had evolved. Among the more commonly referenced codes were the Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA), Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI), and International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO). Many regions of the country used one of these codes, a combination of two or more of the codes, or state- developed codes. In 1994 the International Code Council (ICC) was established as an umbrella organization consisting of representatives of the BOCA, OCBO, and SBCCI to develop a set of model codes for the United States. On January 21, 2003, the three organizations consolidated and created an association whose codes are now used in forty-five states. The International Fire Code Council (IFCC) was established by the ICC to represent the common interests of the fire service and the ICC. This organization developed the International Fire Code (IFC), which references several codes and standards. A standard is a rule for measuring or a model to be followed, showing how to do something or what materials to be used. In general, a standard provides what needs to be done, and a code describes how it is to be done. When these laws are arranged according to a system, they are codified. A model code is a system of rules, guidelines, methods, and regulations developed and accepted through consensus by private not-for-profit organizations with an interest and expertise in that area and made available to governments to formally accept and put into use within their jurisdiction. The process of formally accepting the code and setting it into action is known as adoption. Codes can be adopted by ordinance, which is a law of an authorized subdivision of a state, such as a county, city, or town. The authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) is an organization, office, or individual responsible for enforcing the requirements of a code or standards, or for approving equipment, materials, an installation, or a procedure. Try It—It Works! It is not necessary to know all of the codes, but it is helpful to be familiar with which codes contain the most useful background information for subject areas directly related to education topics and where to find them. Locate the latest edition of your jurisdiction’s fire code. Find out which codes cover extinguishers, fire alarm systems, fire suppression systems, and storage. Codes are adopted by two basic methods. Adoption by reference means the legislation states that a certain code and specific edition will be enforced within the jurisdiction. The entire code is not printed within the legal document but is referenced for referral. Adoption by transcription means the model code is republished as an ordinance, and a license must be purchased to do so. Codes can be adopted as a state minimum code and amended locally or as a state mini-maxi code, which means there can be no local amendments. Educators may hear of other types of codes as they work with fire prevention bureaus. Following are some basic code types and an explanation of their function and purpose: A specification code is a code that specifies a type of construction or materials to be used. A performance code is a code that assigns an objective to be met and establishes criteria for determining compliance. A technical code is a code designed to regulate technical processes such as construction installation of electrical, mechanical, and plumbing systems; regulation of hazardous industrial processes; and building electrical, mechanical, plumbing, and property maintenance codes. Clearly, the nation’s codes have evolved as lessons were learned from disastrous fires in the past, as organizations merged to improve the efficacy of code adoption and compliance, and as economic and political pressures influenced the level of tolerance for the codes. Events of the future will continue to dictate when and how our current codes are modified and adopted. For the present, fire departments typically operate with a system of codes adopted by local authorities, reviewed by fire department plan reviewers, and inspected by fire departments doing their best to enforce compliance for the safety of our communities and our fire fighters. The fire and life safety educator should be aware of the codes used by local jurisdiction. This knowledge will be helpful when answering questions from the public FIGURE 2-8. FIGURE 2-8 Fire departments typically operate with a system of codes adopted by local authorities. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip Find out what codes your jurisdiction has adopted and ask to be informed of any significant updates or revisions. These changes could affect the messages you deliver to the public, especially when working with local businesses. NFPA 101®, the Life Safety Code® The NFPA produces more than 300 codes, standards, and recommended practices, ranging from portable fire extinguishers to complex fire alarm systems. But the NFPA 101®, the Life Safety Code®, addresses occupant safety in buildings with regard to the establishment and maintenance of exits. The focus of this code is to ensure that people get out of a building quickly and safely. As fire and life safety educators, it is our job to effect change in human behavior to improve the safety of building tenants. A working knowledge of this code will help educators provide additional information germane to evacuation procedures, characteristics and limitations of building occupants, and the importance of mandated construction features. The Life Safety Code® came about as a result of the Triangle Shirtwaist fire. This fire occurred in a New York garment factory in 1911. There were 146 fatalities, most of them young women who were migrant workers. Conditions in the building were unsafe for workers. Up until this time, the codes were primarily concerned with the protection of property, not the safe evacuation of the occupants. Frances Perkins was outside the Asch Building when the fire occurred and was witness to the many victims jumping to their deaths in the streets below. In 1913, Ms. Perkins was a guest speaker at the NFPA’s annual meeting and called for the NFPA to champion the cause of life safety from fires. Her words did not fall on deaf ears; by 1916, the NFPA established a committee to study life safety and published a widely distributed pamphlet, Outside Stairs for Fire Exits. In 1927, the Building Exits Code was published, later renamed the Life Safety Code® FIGURE 2-9. FIGURE 2-9 The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire led to the development of the Life Safety Code.® Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. The Life Safety Code® categorizes both new and existing buildings into occupancy types based on their use, the characteristics of occupants, and the processes taking place within. It then establishes requirements for the building, occupants, and processes. The physical characteristics and limitations of the occupants and the state of the building influence the level of requirements. For example, a daycare facility housing preschool children (who are less able to protect themselves) will have more stringent requirements than a fully sprinkled office building that is primarily home to able-bodied adults. Familiarization with this code is an essential element of the fire and life safety educator’s toolbox. Recent history demonstrates that the fire prevention community wasted little time in recognizing the value of developing wildland urban interface codes, both nationally and at the state level. The Rancho Santa Fe Fire Protection District is already a prevention success story. Because of their adoption of codes that enabled subdivisions to be built safer from the start, these communities escaped the Witch Creek Fire unscathed in 2007. Code Compliance through Changing Human Behavior At this point, you may be wondering why we have spent so much time discussing fire prevention and the evolution of fire codes. As an educator, will you really be involved in inspections, plan review, and enforcing codes? On paper, no—unless you wear all these hats in your department. Should you look for code violations and perform inspections when you show up to present a fire and life safety program? Definitely not—unless you want to make sure you are never asked back for a return engagement. But you can certainly point out behavior changes that will keep the occupants safer, and providing a gentle reminder that these are required by code may help encourage your audience to make those changes. Of course, if you see flagrant violations that put occupants in danger, they must be handled immediately either by you or another department member charged with fire prevention enforcement. Occupancy Model building and fire codes and NFPA 101 classify buildings into 10 general classifications. They are based on the characteristics and abilities of the occupants for self-preservation, the level of hazard of the processes and activities, and the types and quantities of materials within TABLE 2-3. Readers are encouraged to familiarize themselves with the various occupancy groups as detailed in the codes, especially when presenting programs that might be affected by the classification of the facility. TABLE 2-3 Summary of Use and Occupancy Classification Based on the 2012 International Fire Code Occupancy/Building Type Examples or Descriptions (not a complete list) Group A Assembly(A-1 – Theaters, television studios, banquet halls, A-5) nightclubs, restaurants, bars and taverns, auditoriums, bowling alleys, courtrooms, dance halls, funeral parlors, gyms, libraries, museums, passenger terminals, arenas, lecture halls, stadiums. Group B Business Banks, outpatient clinics, civic administration, educational occupancies for students above 12th grade, motor vehicle showrooms, professional services. Group E Educational Schools (K–12th grade), daycare facilities for more than five children over 2½ years. Group F Factory and Moderate and low-hazard assembling, Industrial(F-1 disassembling, fabricating, finishing, and F-2) manufacturing, packaging, repair or processing operations not involving significant fire hazard. Group H High-hazard(H-1 Use of buildings and structures that involves – H-5) manufacturing, processing, generation or storage of materials that constitute a physical or health hazard in excess of quantities allowed in control areas excess of permissible amounts listed in fire and building codes. Group I Institutional Residential board and care, some assisted occupancies(I-1 living, halfway houses, group homes, alcohol – I-4) and drug treatment centers, convalescent homes, hospitals, nursing homes, sanitariums, mental hospitals and detoxification facilities, child care facilities for Data from International Code Council. 2012 International Fire Code. Occupancy/Building Type Examples or Descriptions (not a complete list) children under 2½ years, prisons, jails, corrections facilities. Group M Mercantile Department stores, drug stores, retail or wholesale stores. Group R Residential(R-1 Hotels, motels, apartments, dormitories and – R-4) fraternities, boarding houses, assisted living facilities with over 16 residents. Group S Group U Storage(S-1 and Moderate and low-hazard storage that is not S-2) classified as a hazardous occupancy. Utility and Buildings of an accessory character and Miscellaneous miscellaneous structures not classified in any specific occupancy, such as barns, aircraft hangars, private garages, stables, tanks, towers. Data from International Code Council. 2012 International Fire Code. Any or all of these types of use groups will benefit from information from fire and life safety educators. Whether information is disseminated through letters to property managers, face-to-face presentations, or onsite safety fairs, it should include notes about some of the hazards most likely to occur within that type of occupancy. There are many types of occupancies identified in the codes. We will discuss two of these groups in more detail in this section. Some of the most devastating fires in history have occurred in Group A: Assembly occupancies because of the large number of people involved in evacuation. These are areas where safety educators can make a positive impact with their messages. Restaurants, nightclubs, auditoriums, and arenas present real challenges when the population is transient and unfamiliar with all exits. People tend to try to exit a structure from the same door they entered even if that exit is on the opposite end of the building! Loud music, overcrowding, alcohol, and blocked or locked exits can all compromise an efficient evacuation and cause a loss of life. Because the attending population is transient, it is advisable to work to train property owners, managers, and employees so they can facilitate an efficient and safe evacuation. Some cases in the code will require the presence of crowd managers who have been trained in overseeing and controlling the safety of large crowds. Another high risk occupancy group is Group E: Education. These occupancies include educational use for kindergarten through 12th grade and daycare for children 2½ years and older. A fire in a school has the potential to escalate and cause a tragic loss of young lives. Inspectors can make sure codes are followed in terms of the safety of the building, but safety educators can have a positive effect on life safety behaviors by proactively interfacing with the school administration. School administrators are very familiar with their clientele—parents, teachers, and students —but most do not have the training to understand the nuances of fire and human behavior during emergency evacuations. Skilled fire safety educators will find ways to work with all schools in their jurisdictions to create awareness and provide training that will prepare all school personnel to take care of their occupants before the fire department arrives FIGURE 2-10. FIGURE 2-10 An easy-to-use reference for procedures to be placed in each classroom by a local school district. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Try It—It Works! Approach the local school administration and request an annual meeting with the local police and fire departments to review school emergency procedures. Find out what your state requirements are for the number of drills required during each academic year. Consider what information you will include in your presentation. What other avenues can you use to get the information to staff members? Storage Storage facilities are a separate occupancy concern. However, storage is a problem and a fire hazard in most other occupancies as well. Have you ever noticed that no matter how many closets and drawers you add in your home, they are soon filled and overflowing? So, too, is storage a problem in commercial and industrial facilities. Think of most residential and commercial properties—outdated computer monitors, boxes of computer paper, cardboard boxes, wooden pallets, piles of newspapers, clothing, toys, and the list goes on. People do not understand that an accumulation of “stuff” constitutes additional fire load, blocks exits and pathways, and presents tripping hazards. Educators can help lay persons understand the potential danger this poor housekeeping habit presents to civilians and fire fighters by including these points in presentations and printed material. Use “before and after” photos to illustrate the point and draw comparisons. Poor storage habits also compromise the effectiveness of a sprinkler head. Explain that sprinkler heads are designed to cover a specific square foot area in a particular spray pattern. Storage too close to the heads prevents the water from reaching those designated areas. Typically, storage should be maintained at a height at least 18 in. (45.2 cm) below a sprinkler head. Some special systems call for a 36-in (.9 m) clearance. For warehouses that hire part-time and seasonal help, it is difficult to maintain this standard. Educators can suggest the management paint a red line around the perimeter of the room as a visual reminder to keep storage below that line Figures 2-11 and 2-12. Sprinkler heads are discussed in more detail later in this chapter. FIGURE 2-11 Improper storage practices can compromise the effectiveness of sprinkler protection. Courtesy of Jon Nisja. FIGURE 2-12 Encourage facility managers to paint a stripe around the walls 18 in. (45.2 cm) from the ceiling as a visual reminder for storage requirements. Courtesy of Wally Olewinski. Means of Egress “Those who do not learn from history are destined to repeat it.” Some of the most catastrophic fires in history in terms of large loss of life were because of a compromised means of egress. A means of egress is made up of three components —the exit access, which is the point from anywhere in the building to an exit; the exit, a rated assembly that provides a protected path to the exit discharge; and the exit discharge, the portion of the means of egress between the exterior exit door and the public way. Codes provide specifications for the number of exits required based on the number of people that will potentially occupy the space. The number of people is based on square footage per person, depending on use and occupancy. Even if the required number of exits is available, it does not mean that people will use them the way they were intended. Some managers lock exit doors for security reasons, the exit access is used as a storage area, the exit discharge is blocked from the outside, or occupants are unaware of their existence and head for the door they used to enter the building. Explain that bars and unapproved security bars on emergency escape windows pose a serious hazard to the public and to fire fighters. During presentations, ask employees if they know where the closest stairwell is to their workspace; train restaurant, hotel, and retail employees to become familiar with all exits and to be ready to direct visitors to the closest exit during an emergency— and talk with management about the importance of keeping both sides of the exit door clear at all times Figures 2-13 and 2-14. FIGURE 2-13 The three parts of the means of egress. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. FIGURE 2-14 Remind property owners that the exterior of the means of egress must be clear to prevent people from being trapped inside. © Chip Somodevilla/Getty Images News/Getty. Remind employees that the codes require the following: All exits are to be clear and free from any obstructions at all times. Exits shall be identified and well lit. Doors must open in the direction of travel. Educator’s Tip A true story is a powerful educational tool. When trying to impress upon employees the importance of a clear means of egress, begin with a short account of one of the tragic fires in our history that was caused, in large part, by blocked exits. In the Cocoanut Grove fire, Triangle Shirtwaist fire, Iroquois Theater fire, and more recently, the Station nightclub fire, overcrowding was a common hazard and easily could have been corrected through a change in human behavior. Visit a school during a winter holiday program and you will not be surprised to find the gymnasium filled with parents crowding the aisles, cameras on tripods, and baby strollers blocking aisles. Most likely, exit doors will be blocked by additional rows of chairs or a piano. Who wants to be the villain, turning loving parents and grandparents away after they have traveled to see the big production? Safety educators, along with fire prevention personnel, can help prevent a dangerous situation. Discuss the potential for this problem at a meeting earlier in the academic year and suggest solutions. Think About It What suggestions could fire and life safety educators make to churches, schools, and businesses that face seasonal overcrowding? Consider the time of day, the days of the week, or the times of the year that create the worst case scenarios, and determine the best methods of message delivery. Holidays The example discussed in the previous Educator’s Tip dealt with a holiday school program. Aside from overcrowding, holidays present the potential for many other fire hazards unique to their traditions and associated paraphernalia. The Fourth of July, for instance, brings with it the sale and use of fireworks. Holidays can be the source of overcrowding in store aisles as merchants stock up on more merchandise and displays than their shelves can hold. Churches and other places of worship also experience overcrowding and sometimes use candles during religious holidays. Many communities have strong traditions of celebrating local sporting events, Cinco de Mayo, Halloween, Fat Tuesday, and New Year’s Eve. Provisions for People with Disabilities The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 was signed into law on July 26, 1990, by President George H. W. Bush and later amended with changes becoming effective January 1, 2009. This civil rights law prohibits, under certain circumstances, discrimination based on disability. Disability is defined as “a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits a major life activity.” Most structures built or remodeled since 1990 meet the requirements of this act, providing accessibility for persons with disabilities. NFPA defines accessibility as the degree to which a product, device, service, or environment is available to as many people as possible. Accessibility enables people with disabilities to fully participate, use a product or device, and receive information. Accessibility might require alternative formats or assistive technologies. However, places built or remodeled before this time may have inadequate provisions for those who are not ambulatory or those who do not have the cognitive abilities to exit a structure during an emergency. Some circumstances allow for a defend-in-place strategy or shelter-in-place strategy allowing occupants to remain in the structure in a protected area until the fire department can assist them in evacuating if residents are completely unable to navigate and evacuate the building on their own and if the facility is protected. Fire and life safety educators need to work with the fire prevention bureau to become aware of these situations in their communities. When preparing materials or presentations, it is important to include a discussion regarding plans for those who will need assistance. Types of Hazards Occasionally, circumstances beyond the norm create additional hazards that must be addressed tactfully yet safely. A fire hazard is a condition that encourages a fire to start or increases the extent or severity of a fire. The local school board funds a fullblown circus tent, complete with animals, acrobats, and trailers and anticipates a “standing room only” crowd; the local car wash wants to hold a Halloween haunted house within its confines, including floor to ceiling decorations and actors jumping out at unsuspecting drivers as they roll across the belts; the church youth group plans to host a carnival featuring a life-size maze for children. The fire prevention division of a fire department should handle these situations before the safety educator gets involved. The reality is that not all organizations apply for permits or ask permission before eagerly moving forward with their plans. Educators who are able to work well with the public can assist fire prevention bureaus by providing information understandable to the owners for their own safety in addition to the cold, hard facts of a code. Several types of hazards are commonplace in many communities, each compromising the safety of occupants. A common fire hazard is a hazard that is prevalent in most occupancies and increase the chances of a fire starting. These hazards include overcrowded storage conditions, blocked exits, and compromised means of egress. A personal fire hazard is a common hazard that is caused by the unsafe acts of individuals. This is where the educator can create safer conditions by changing habits and behaviors. Misuse of candles, extension cords, and auxiliary heating have caused many serious fires. All of these can be attributed to the unsafe, perhaps uninformed acts of people. A target fire hazard is a property where there is great potential for large loss of life or property loss if a fire erupts. These occupancies include schools, hospitals, nursing homes, theaters, lumberyards, and shopping centers. A special fire hazard is the result of a particular process or operation conducted in an occupancy. Certain industrial, manufacturing, commercial or storage facilities present these hazards due to the type of contents, use of flammable liquids, dust, aerosols, and their associated processes. Think About It You have been asked to present information about high-rise safety and evacuation procedures. The 10-story building, which was erected in 1950, is equipped with a fire alarm system, but it is without sprinkler protection. What advice do you give to management for employees and visitors who are nonambulatory? Whom would you discuss this dilemma with in coming to your solutions? What resources would you use to find answers? Home Inspections National statistics have shown that most fire fatalities happen in residential structures. Codes are set up to allow inspectors the right to inspect public areas, not private ones. The one place we most need to inspect is the one place we are not allowed unless invited. Once invited into a home, educators need to be aware that they do not have any code authority. It is a private domain. Inform the resident that violations will not be cited nor will citations be issued. The goal is to identify any concerns and to help the occupants understand the importance of changing the unsafe situation for the safety of their family. Inspectors who have home inspection programs are often invited into homes by the very families that are already safety conscious and have very few unsafe conditions. Fire and life safety educators can work with inspectors to advertise, promote, and encourage all families to perform their own home safety inspections. Even better, a trained fire inspector invited into a residence will notice unsafe conditions that an untrained eye will not detect. Educators can make home surveys available through the local newspaper or downloadable on the Internet or by referring citizens to national online organizations where they can learn about home safety and download a survey from their site. NFPA offers a home inspection form which can be downloaded from their website. Vision 20/20 provides home safety visit guidelines. Both are solid models that educators can employ when adding home visits to department services. Educator’s Tip Create a home fire safety checklist and survey for your department to distribute. Include your department logo and a brief message from the fire chief to personalize it and emphasize the importance of performing this quick task. Make forms available in newsletters, at the grocery store, through the schools, and at other community centers. Ask the public to turn in their completed forms and create a large thermometer sign outside the fire station(s) to publicly track the number of safe homes emerging throughout the community. Voice of Experience Occasionally in my career as a public safety educator, I would be called into a factory to talk to all three shifts—7 a.m., 2 p.m., and 3:30 p.m.—about fire safety lessons or their fire escape plan. Typically, these workers were not happy to be there. They might have been unhappy with their company; they might think it’s unfair that they had to be there when they had things to do; or they might think that their boss was the real safety problem. This was one of the hardest groups for me to talk to. The key, I found, was to convince them that they needed to hear what I was saying, and that I was just there to help. I found that first of all, I needed to treat them like they were friends, and not talk down to them. I also found that it helped me to research past emergency calls at the location, and get to know their building and their setup—that meant going into the plant early and inspecting their safety plan to see what concerns I had. By conducting a walkthrough with their safety manager, I could identify hazards in the building. I was then able to put together a lecture that tied in their hazards with the information I wanted to teach. As I conducted the class, I’d explain about the hazards of using flammable liquids, and say “… just like the toluene you use in your adhesives division. That chemical has a flash point of 40 degrees Fahrenheit, nasty stuff. If you worked here in October of 1991, I don’t have to convince you that it can start a fire.” Using words and examples that they understand convinces them you know what you’re talking about. During that walkthrough, maybe I might see some flagrant violation of fire codes—like a worker moving flammable liquid without having static grounding. I might say something to the safety person at the factory, but if they blow it off, I can bring it up in my talk, and tell them about a fire at a different location that was started by the igniting of a static spark. That means I get their attention—they think, “He’s not blasting me for being stupid. He’s telling us what actually can happen and how we should be careful.” —Don Zimmerman, Lieutenant, Mentor Fire Department, OH Fire Protection Systems Fire protection systems include automatic sprinklers, fire detectors, and smoke alarm and removal systems that activate either automatically or manually. These systems are either automatic or passive. Automatic implies there is no human intervention needed for the system to operate, such as fire sprinklers. Passive systems require human intervention, such as activating a fire alarm pull station. Originally, these systems were installed in buildings to comply with insurance company requirements or to qualify for reduced insurance premiums. Their effectiveness in reducing property loss and protecting lives, in combination with more stringent building codes, has made them a valuable asset and a necessity for protecting fire fighter and civilian lives. Fire and life safety educators can assist their departments by promoting the installation, maintenance, and testing of these systems and devices in their communities. It is part of the educator’s job to inform the public about the level of protection in their facilities and how they are expected to respond to a system activation. Fire Alarm and Detection Systems Fire alarm systems are used to detect fires, respond to a manual activation of a fire alarm device, monitor signals from other devices to alert building occupants, close doors, return elevators to the ground floor, turn fans on or off, and send a signal alerting offsite authorities so they can respond to the situation. Fire departments view this notification of a fire condition exactly the same as that from a 911 call and respond accordingly. This message should be conveyed to the public. If the fire department responds as though there is a real situation, shouldn’t you? NFPA 72, the National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code covers the requirements for pull stations, smoke and heat detectors, and fire sprinkler monitoring devices. Among other things, the code covers installation, design, inspection, testing, application, and maintenance requirements along with information about components, hardware, types of systems, calculations, and power requirements. An initiation device is connected to a fire alarm system. It may sense the presence of heat or smoke, detect a sprinkler activation, or a triggered manual activation and sends a signal to the control panel. Examples of initiation devices are heat and smoke detectors, manual pull stations, and sprinkler pressure or flow switches. These are sometimes referred to as detection devices. It is their activation that begins the chain of events sending a signal through the alarm system to a fire alarm control panel (FACP), where it is then directed to the notification device, which then displays audio or visual signals (or both) to provide a stimuli to alert building occupants of a potential or real fire. These devices include bells, horns, voice recordings, speakers, chimes, buzzers, sirens, strobe lights, or other types of lamps, and combinations that provide audible, tactile, or visible outputs. Special adaptations to these devices can be made for people with vision and hearing impairments. Reactions to this alerting system should be immediate and efficient. Unfortunately, many people respond with complacency or ignore the signal completely until others begin to move toward exits or until they first smell or see smoke or fire. Educators must continue to reinforce the message that any activation of a fire alarm system is to be taken seriously and acted upon immediately. Before instructing tenants in evacuation procedures for high-rise buildings or other large facilities, find out whether the building’s alarm system includes an emergency voice/alarm communications system (EVACS). This communications system is part of a fire alarm system that allows for manual or automatic live or prerecorded voice information (or both), alarm signals, and other signals to the entire building or to select areas. A voice override system allows responding fire fighters or other trained personnel to activate and speak into a dedicated microphone from the fire command center and suppress the automated message in order to give verbal instructions. If a horn or siren is sounding, the fire fighter’s voice interrupts this signal to give occupants more specific directions. Most occupants are not exposed to this type of notification during evacuation drills. They should be informed that it is important to listen for any changes in the usual cadence of a fire alarm and the importance of paying close attention to additional information given by the fire department. Try It—It Works! If you have high-rise buildings in your community, ask to assist with drills by presenting a staff workshop a few weeks before the drill. Use the voice override capability during a drill and test the response of the occupants to fire department instructions. It is better to test this reaction during a drill than to assume people will respond correctly during a true emergency. Pull Stations (Manual Fire Alarm Boxes) A fire alarm system can be activated manually, usually through the use of a pull station, or manual fire alarm box. Unfortunately, many people are unaware of the existence or location of such devices, or they are reluctant to pull them. Years of training during their years as students in school have taught them to stay away from these things! This is true of teachers, too. When conducting a fire drill, ask a teacher to locate the nearest pull station and activate it. The results will be interesting. Teach occupants that most pull stations are located within 5 ft (1.5 m) of building exit doors. In some buildings, the pull stations send a local alarm only, but in others, the pull station is connected to the alarm system and activates a signal that is immediately sent to alert the fire department to respond. The educator can and should include instructions about where to look for pull stations, how to use them, and that a followup call to the fire department is helpful for transmitting additional information FIGURE 2-15. FIGURE 2-15 Provide instructions about where to look for pull stations and how to use them. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Heat Detectors A heat detector operates by detecting the heat of a fire at a fixed temperature or by sensing a specified rate of temperature rise. Although heat detectors are one of the oldest and most reliable devices used to detect a fire problem, they are not typically recognized as life safety devices because they can be slower to react than other detectors, such as smoke detectors. Think of a heat detector as a sprinkler head without water. It would activate at about the same time, but it offers no protection. Two of the most common types of heat detectors are the rate-of-rise heat detector and the fixed temperature heat detector. The rate-of-rise device measures temperature increases above a predetermined rate. The device uses a diaphragm with a small hole that acts as a relief valve for slow temperature increases. When a fast temperature increase occurs, usually between 12°F and 15°F per minute, the diaphragm is pushed toward a contact point, and the alarm is activated. The fixed temperature heat detector is designed to activate when a sensing element reaches a predetermined temperature Figuress 2-16 and 2-17. FIGURE 2-16 Rate-of-rise heat detector. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. FIGURE 2-17 Fixed temperature heat detector. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Smoke Detectors and Smoke Alarms Smoke detectors detect smoke and alert building occupants to the harmful effects of fire. Because they operate faster than heat detectors and provide early warnings, they are considered life safety devices. These devices can be hard wired, battery operated, or a combination of hardwiring with a battery backup. Historically, residential installations consisted of stand-alone battery-operated units. Codes for new construction now call for residential alarm systems to be hard wired with a battery back-up. Smoke detectors and alarms work on one of two basic principles, ionization or photoelectric. Educator’s Tip Educators should use correct terminology when interacting with the public. Note that a smoke detector is a device connected to a fire alarm system. A smoke alarm is the single station device that is installed in homes and not connected to any system. All written and verbal communication about residential safety should refer to smoke alarms, not detectors. An ionization smoke detector/alarm is the most common type of smoke detector and has been installed in most homes and multi-family dwellings since the early 1980s. These detectors work by using a small amount of a radioactive material that electrically charges air particles to produce a measurable current in the sensing chamber. When smoke enters the chamber, the flow of ions to the electrode changes and the alarm is activated. Ionization devices are inexpensive and quick to react to small smoke particles from flaming fires. They can detect invisible smoke in the form of fire gases. Because of their sensitivity, they may give a false alarm if they are improperly placed in areas right outside hot, steamy showers or too near the kitchen stove. Consumers should be advised that maintenance includes dusting, blowing, or vacuuming to rid the unit of dust and spiders. A “chirping” detector is asking for its low battery to be changed. If families follow the recommended practice of changing smoke alarm batteries twice a year, their smoke alarms may never need to “chirp.” Ten-year lithium batteries are recommended FIGURE 2-18. FIGURE 2-18 Ionization smoke alarm. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. A photoelectric smoke detector/alarm operates by using a light source aimed at a light sensor within the sensing chamber to initiate an alarm when the light source reflects or obscures smoke particles. Photoelectric detectors work by two types of technology, a light-obscuration detector and a light-scattering detector. Photoelectric detectors are activated by visible smoke and are appropriate for areas where smoke may develop but dissipate visually, such as in cooking areas and where fuel-powered equipment is in use. Particles given off by rapidly developing flaming fires are smaller and do not refract as much light. Therefore, photoelectric smoke alarms have been found more effective for smoldering fires. Because photoelectric detectors respond more quickly to larger smoke particles, they cause fewer false alarms if used in areas subject to changes in humidity and atmospheric pressure FIGURE 2-19. FIGURE 2-19 Light obscuration and light-scattering photoelectric smoke alarms. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Combination ionization and photoelectric alarms are available FIGURE 2-20. The NFPA Educational Messages Advisory Committee currently recommends using both ionization and photoelectric alarms and placing them in the most appropriate setting or using a combination alarm (photoelectric and ionization) for residential settings. Preliminary evidence from recent studies suggests that the reaction time of the combination units is delayed compared with the reaction time of either of the other single technology units. The studies and debate regarding the advantage of one technology over the other continues. TABLE 2-4 lists smoke alarm recommendations and talking points. TABLE 2-4 Comparison of Ionization and Photoelectric Smoke Alarms* Ionization Smoke Alarms Photoelectric Smoke Alarms Use a small amount of radioactive Detect smoke based on how it affects a material to ionize air in a sensing projected light beam. The light-scattering chamber, allowing current to flow type is more common. Smoke entering between two charged plates. Smoke the chamber scatters the light to the entering the chamber reduces the sensor. When sufficient light is reflected current flow and causes the detector to into the sensor, it goes into alarm. go into alarm. Considerably faster response to Somewhat better response to small smoldering fires than ionization. particles from flaming fires than Less likely to produce nuisance alarms photoelectric. Can detect invisible during cooking and in areas subject to smoke in the form of fire gases. changes in humidity and atmosphere May give a false alarm if improperly pressure. placed too close to the kitchen stove or Less common than ionization alarms. hot, steamy bathrooms. Somewhat more expensive than More common than photoelectric ionization alarms. alarms. Inexpensive. *When properly installed and maintained, both types of smoke alarms are effective for detecting fires and alerting occupants early enough for them to escape safely. It is recommended that home owners have both types of smoke alarms. FIGURE 2-20 Combination ionization and photoelectric smoke alarm. Courtesy of Kidde Fire Safety. Gas Detectors and Flame Detectors Gas-sensing detectors detect toxic gases resulting from combustion, such as carbon monoxide (CO), and flammable gases capable of combustion, such as propane and butane. They are designed to detect the presence of gases before they reach fatal or explosive levels. These detectors may be installed and interconnected to sound a local or general alarm, shut down the gas source, or turn on ventilation equipment. Flame detectors respond to ultraviolet (UV), infrared (IR), or a combination of both types of light waves. They are extremely sensitive and fast responding. These types of detectors are found primarily in hazardous areas such as jet hangers or chemical facilities where even one small ember could quickly result in an explosion or a fast, high-temperature fire. Carbon Monoxide Detectors Carbon monoxide (CO) is an invisible, odorless gas that comes from burning fossil fuels such as gasoline, wood, coal, propane, oil, and methane. When these fuels burn incompletely, CO is produced. Appliances and vehicles such as fuel fired furnaces, gas water heaters, gas stoves, gas dryers, fireplaces and woodstoves, automobiles, gas and charcoal grills, lawnmowers, snowmobiles, and other yard equipment can produce this deadly gas if damaged or misused. CO detectors measure the concentration of CO in the air. Most CO detectors provide an early warning alarm as an intermittent beep when low levels of CO are detected. Many also have an LED display that indicates the level of CO in parts per million (ppm). Concentrations of CO between 0 and 30 ppm can often occur in normal, everyday conditions, but 0 is always the desired level. Educators can take the message of “change your clock, change your battery” during time changes and extend that to include CO detectors. In some states, CO detectors are required in homes by law. Check to see what your jurisdiction requires. Combination smoke and CO detectors are available. TABLE 2-5 lists important information and talking points regarding CO and CO detectors. TABLE 2-5 Carbon Monoxide: Frequently Asked Questions What is carbon monoxide? Carbon monoxide (CO) is a deadly colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. It cannot be seen, tasted, or smelled, and it can kill a person before he or she knows it is there. CO is the number one cause of poisoning. It is produced by the incomplete burning of various fuels, including wood, coal, charcoal, oil, kerosene, propane, and natural gas. Why is CO so dangerous? CO binds 200 times more strongly than oxygen (O2) to hemoglobin in the blood, displacing the oxygen that the cells need to function. When CO accumulates in the blood, it displaces enough oxygen in the system to result in brain damage or death. What are typical sources of CO? This by-product of combustion is present whenever fuel is burned. It is produced by common home appliances such as gas or oil furnaces, gas refrigerators, gas clothes dryers, gas ranges, gas water heaters or space heaters, fireplaces, charcoal grills, and wood-burning stoves. Automobiles and gas-powered lawn mowers can produce fumes containing CO and enter a home through walls or doorways if an engine is left running in an attached garage. Exposure to CO is especially dangerous outdoors after wildland fires. What are the symptoms of CO poisoning? At levels of 70 ppm and above, symptoms may become noticeable and may include headache, fatigue, and nausea. Dizziness and shortness of breath may also be present. Because these symptoms are similar to symptoms of the flu, they might initially be ignored. If one or more occupants begins to present with the same symptoms, CO poisoning should be suspected.High levels or sustained CO concentrations above 150 to 200 ppm result in more severe symptoms, including mental confusion, vomiting, loss of muscular coordination, loss of consciousness, and ultimately death. A “cherry red” color of the face as a symptom of CO poisoning is a myth. This symptom shows up only after concentrations are so high that there is little that can be done to help the patient. How can CO poisoning be prevented? Check fireplaces for closed, blocked, or bent flues, soot, and debris. Check the clothes dryer vent opening outside the house for lint. Have a professional check the furnaces for leaks and blockages. Make sure all gas or kerosene space heaters are vented. Do not idle a car in an attached garage. Do not use any gasoline-powered engine in an enclosed space. Do not use an oven to heat a home. Make sure all homes have a working CO detector. Follow manufacturer’s instructions for installation and placement. What should you do if you experience symptoms of CO poisoning? Get outside immediately and do not reenter the premises. Call 911. Automatic Sprinkler Systems The first automatic sprinkler systems were installed in mill properties from about 1850 to 1880. These crude systems were composed of perforated pipes and supply valves that had to be manually activated in event of a fire. The entire system discharged upon activation and covered the entire area with water. In 1878, the first automatic sprinklers were installed. Frederick Grinnell of the General Fire Extinguisher Company was the leader in improving and refining these first automatic systems. NFPA 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, was first printed in 1896 and continues to be the standard for sprinklers and their installation to this day. The standard has evolved into four NFPA standards to accommodate the situational needs of different sprinkler systems: NFPA 13 is the standard for Installation of Sprinkler Systems. NFPA 13D is the standard for Installation of Sprinkler Systems in One and Two Family Dwellings and Manufactured Homes. NFPA 13R is the standard for Installation of Sprinkler Systems in Low-Rise Residential Occupancies. NFPA 25 is the standard for Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Water-Based Fire Protection Systems. Properly maintained automatic fire sprinkler systems have proven to be extremely effective in protecting both property and people by activating and suppressing fires as early as the incipient stages. A system basically operates by a network of underground and overhead pipes with sprinkler heads connected to the overhead piping at specified intervals. A sprinkler head is a spray device that distributes water over a limited area at a flow rate (density) determined by the commodity being protected, and designed to reduce the heat from a fire to limit and control the growth of the fire beyond early stages of development. Ordinary heads are designed to operate when the device itself is heated to approximately 165°F. Some sprinkler heads are designed to activate at higher temperatures based on the application and environment. Others will operate at a lower temperature, such as in a single family home. Sprinkler heads can be mounted at or near the ceiling level or on the walls near the ceiling level as sidewall heads. In general, heat from a fire rises to the ceiling where a sprinkler head, at a particular temperature, fails and discharges water onto the fire. A fusible element within the sprinkler head melts or bursts, depending on the type of head, and at a fixed temperature releases the levers, which hold a cap on the pipe. The cap pops out and the water flows, striking the deflector and spraying in the pattern designed for that area FIGURE 2-21.Systems are engineered to various specifications based on occupancy, processes, type of areas to be covered, and weather conditions. Most sprinkler systems are found in commercial structures. We will discuss residential sprinklers in a separate section. FIGURE 2-21 Sprinkler head closed and operating. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Think About It Refer to Table 2-4 for information about two types of smoke alarms. How will you summarize this information when the public asks, “Which kind of smoke alarm is best for my home?” The simplest sprinkler system in design and operation is the wet pipe sprinkler system. A wet pipe sprinkler system has automatic sprinklers attached to pipes charged with water and under pressure at all times. They are installed where indoor temperatures can be maintained at or above 40°F. Below that temperature there is the danger of freezing pipes. Wet systems are the least expensive, most frequently installed, easiest to maintain and modify, and most reliable of the systems. Water flow is immediate. An early suppression fast response (ESFR) sprinkler is a type of wet system designed to protect pallet and rack storage up to 35 feet through the application of increased flow densities. These systems put out as much as five times as much water as a standard sprinkler. In areas subject to freezing, such as unheated warehouses, parking garages, loading docks, and factories, a dry pipe sprinkler system is installed. A dry pipe system is an automatic sprinkler system that operates with air or nitrogen under constant pressure in the pipes instead of water, which would freeze in cold weather. When a sprinkler head is fused by heat, the air is discharged, allowing a dry pipe valve clapper to open, releasing water into the system when the air pressure drops sufficiently below the pressure of the supply water. These systems are more complex in design and slower to get water onto a fire but are a necessity for protecting areas prone to freezing temperatures. Three other types of automatic fire sprinkler systems are used less commonly in particular situations. A preaction sprinkler system is similar to a dry sprinkler system and is used in areas such as computer operation centers, telecommunication centers, freezers, libraries, museums, and places housing valuable and irreplaceable items where water damage to property is of paramount concern. Activation of the system is connected to detection equipment and requires a fire detector to activate first and an automatic fire sprinkler head to operate to flow water. A deluge sprinkler system is similar to a preaction system in that they both require a fire detector activation or manual station release to open the system. The system is designed to protect areas that could have a fast-spreading fire that could engulf an entire area. They feature open heads (no fusible elements), dry piping, and a deluge valve that controls the supply of water or foam solution to all heads in the area, providing coverage of the entire area all at once. Deluge systems are typically found in use for petroleum-handling facilities, aircraft hangars, some manufacturing facilities, and hazardous materials storage areas. It is important to be familiar with the basics of alarm and suppression systems when discussing the characteristics of a building’s safety with property managers, tenants, and other occupants. Residential Sprinkler Systems A residential fire sprinkler system is a type of automatic fire sprinkler system equipped with fast response automatic sprinkler heads specifically designed for low heat release and low water pressures. The first standard on residential sprinklers was developed in 1975. Although the technology behind the system is similar to that of commercial systems, the primary difference is that all the components of the system are smaller. Smaller piping is effective because less water is necessary to support the total required water demand placed on these systems. The piping materials are not steel, but CPVC (chlorinated polyvinyl chloride) and copper, and the sprinkler heads have thinner heat-sensitive elements that rapidly collect heat for faster activation. These systems are also more affordable. Most are wet systems. The driving principle behind the design of these systems is for life safety compared with that of property protection in commercial installations. The goals of this design are to prevent flashover in the room of origin and to improve the occupants’ chances for escape. Another difference between residential sprinkler systems and commercial installations is that residential systems are not required in every room of the home. Small bathrooms, closets, and pantries are among areas not requiring coverage. NFPA 13D provides more information on the specifics of this provision. Residential sprinkler systems have been the subject of many heated discussions between fire departments and local and state government in recent years. The American home is the least inspected and least protected of any occupancy class and is a hotbed of controversy when it comes to codes requiring residential sprinkler systems. There is a fine line between the right to privacy and mandating that homes are protected by ordinances requiring residential sprinkler systems. Each year more communities adopt ordinances requiring sprinklers in new home construction. Even with mandatory sprinkler requirements, residents need to be reminded that this technology does not take the place of working smoke alarms, escape planning, and recommended fire prevention practices. Fire and life safety educators can be instrumental in dispelling the myths and mysteries surrounding residential sprinkler fire protection. The importance of residential fire sprinkler systems should also be linked to the improved safety they provide for fire fighters attempting to fight home fires. But it is wise to first find out the status of this issue in your community. Have plenty of resources regarding costs, maintenance, and insurance rates. Work closely with the fire chief, who most likely has his or her finger on the pulse of the political climate when it comes to the sensitivity of this topic TABLE 2-6. For more information about this topic, refer to the Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition at www.homefiresprinkler.org. TABLE 2-6 Residential Sprinklers: “Facts and Fallacies”* Fallacy Fact “Water damage from a Water damage from a sprinkler system is much less severe sprinkler system will be than the damage caused by water from firefighting hoses. more extensive than Residential sprinklers release 8 to 24 gallons of water per damage from a fire.” minute compared with 50 to 125 gallons per minute released by a firehose.Water damage is far less severe than the destruction from smoke, heat, and fire. “Sprinkler heads are Sprinklers come in a variety of styles, models, and designer ugly.” colors. They can be mounted flush with the ceiling. Do you notice the smoke alarm on your ceiling anymore? “If my smoke alarm goes No. Sprinkler heads are activated by heat (usually off, will it activate the temperatures over 165°F). Smoke alarms sound a warning sprinkler head?” only. “If one sprinkler head Most residential fires are controlled by the activation of only goes off, they all go off.” one head. Each head is individually activated as it is triggered by heat. “I have smoke alarms. Smoke alarms are very important and save lives by providing They provide enough early warning for occupants to evacuate the structure. They do protection from fire.” not extinguish a growing fire or help protect those who have difficulty escaping on their own. Sprinklers can extinguish a fire even if no one is home when the fire breaks out. “What about false Research has demonstrated that only 1 in 16 million heads activations?” ever activates by accident. “Sprinklers are There has never been a multiple loss of life in a fully designated to protect sprinklered building. Property losses are 85 percent less in property but are not sprinklered residences. A combination of early warning effective for saving systems and residential sprinklers is recommended. lives.” *For more detailed information about the information in this table, refer to Residential Sprinkler Myths and Facts at www.usfa.gov. Modified from US Fire Administration, April 15, 2009 Fallacy Fact “The cost of residential A sprinkler system costs 1 percent to 2 percent of the total sprinklers makes construction costs (national average), which is comparable to housing unaffordable for carpet upgrade, paving a stone driveway, or a whirlpool bath. first-time buyers.” In some communities, sprinklered homes are selling faster than those without. “Why target new It is true that there are more fires in older buildings because construction of homes? older buildings make up a larger portion of the country’s New buildings are safer buildings. But newer homes are far more susceptible to than older buildings.” serious damage from fire because of their webbed truss construction, vented soffits, and artificial composite material. “Fire sprinkler systems Laboratory testing and a 50-year installation and activation are not reliable.” history clearly show that fire sprinkler systems exceed a 95 percent “fail-safe” status. “Sprinklers are not There is no unique danger of freezing with sprinkler systems practical in cold that does not already exist with domestic water systems. climates. The pipes will Sidewall sprinkler piping is placed in the interior walls to freeze and cause water prevent exposure to the cold. Specially molded insulation is damage.” available for piping in unheated attics “Yearly testing and As with any other piece of mechanical equipment, sprinkler maintenance fees will be systems must be inspected, tested, and maintained for expensive.” reliability. “Insurance costs will go If you find that an insurance company wants to place a up because of fire surcharge on your policy because of a residential sprinkler sprinkler system system, compare your policy with those offered by other ruptures and leaks.” insurance companies. Many insurance companies value the reliability and effectiveness of fire sprinkler systems and will reduce policy premiums. *For more detailed information about the information in this table, refer to Residential Sprinkler Myths and Facts at www.usfa.gov. Modified from US Fire Administration, April 15, 2009 Educator’s Tip Before embarking on a residential fire sprinkler campaign, discuss the political climate surrounding this issue with the fire chief. “Timing is everything.” The fire chief may want to work on strategies for a timeline of events before moving forward. Many excellent campaign materials are available for the educator’s use FIGURE 2-22. FIGURE 2-22 Home fire sprinklers safety campaign. Courtesy of FEMA. www.usfa.fema.gov. Other Fire Suppression Systems and Agents Many other protective systems are in use today, ranging from simple hood and duct systems in commercial kitchens to sophisticated technologies designed to suppress an explosion in highly hazardous environments. It is important to be familiar with the more common systems and investigate the operation of any systems unique to their jurisdiction. You may have heard of wet and dry chemical systems, CO2, or fixed foam systems being used for specific applications where water from sprinklers would either cause a more dangerous situation or cause harm to items of value or expensive equipment. The point here is that the installation of a system will be required and approved through the plan review process, installed and inspected under the inspectors’ watch, and maintained on a schedule required by code. The educator factors into this process by providing training and safety information to commercial properties housing these installations. Include information about prevention measures ensuring the system never needs to activate, training for employees on how to manually activate the system when necessary, and protective measures to be taken after the system is activated. For example, anyone in a confined space where CO2 is discharged must leave immediately to avoid injury or death by asphyxiation. Portable Fire Extinguishers We have discussed fire alarm systems and commercial and residential sprinkler systems, from stand-alone residential smoke alarms to expansive deluge systems. Yet one of the most familiar suppression systems for public use is the portable fire extinguisher. As educators, it is important to have procedures and training available through the department for individuals and agencies requesting this information. Citizens can use fire extinguishers on small fires, such as waste paper basket fires, in the incipient stage until the fire department arrives but only if they have been properly trained. A fire extinguisher in the hands of untrained civilians can cause a delay in notification of the fire department or serious injuries that could have been prevented. Training should emphasize that extinguishers should only be used after the fire department is notified, and everyone has evacuated. Not all civilians are physically or emotionally capable of properly using an extinguisher in the face of a real fire even if they have been trained. NFPA 10, the Standard for Portable Fire Extinguishers, covers the installation requirements and guidelines for portable fire extinguishers. The standard was first recognized in 1921 and has been revised more than 35 times as technology and suppressing agents have evolved. The type of fire determines the type of suppression agent to be used in extinguishing that fire. At the beginning of this chapter, the types of fires were explained as Class A, common combustibles; Class B, flammable and combustible liquids; Class C, energized electrical equipment; Class D, combustible metals; and Class K, cooking appliances with combustible media. FIGURE 2-23 lists the extinguishing agent to be used on each type of fire. The type of suppression agent determines the extinguisher classification (Class A, B, C, D, or K). The same lettering system used to classify fires appears on the fire extinguisher to indicate the class of fire for which it should be used. Basically, the type of extinguishing agent should be matched to the fire hazard. The most common agents include water, foam, CO2, multipurpose A-B-C, wet chemical, or dry powder. Depending on the suppression agent, a different mechanism of operation will be used to discharge the product. Extinguishers are discharged by pump, stored pressure, or cartridge pressure mechanisms. Different types of extinguishers and applications are required by code based on the type of occupancy, ongoing processes, and equipment to be protected. Most extinguishers use the same agents used in fire sprinkler and fire suppression systems but in much smaller quantities. The most commonly required, installed, and used extinguisher today is the multipurpose A-B-C extinguisher because of its versatility. FIGURE 2-23 The most commonly required, installed, and used extinguisher today is the multipurpose A-B-C extinguisher because of its versatility. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. In commercial facilities, all extinguishers are required to have periodic inspection, testing, and maintenance, along with specifications for location and installation. Again, private residences are not subject to this type of scrutiny and do not benefit from the assurance that extinguishers are in operating condition. Most portable fire extinguishers operate following the same method of operation. The acronym PASS is the most commonly accepted method for teaching the use of extinguishers. The instructions for using PASS are printed and pictured on the labels of portable extinguishers. But of course, the time one is attempting to extinguish a fire is not the time to stop and read the instructions! The PASS method includes these simple steps: P: Pull the pin. The pin is held in place with a wire or plastic tie; a simple tug with a twist will remove the pin. A: Aim the nozzle. Aim at the base of the fire. Different extinguisher types require the operator to activate the extinguisher from varying distances—20 feet for pressurized water or foam, six to 10 feet for smaller dry chemical, and 10 to 15 feet for CO2. Remind audiences that the temperature of the CO2 as it is being released is extremely cold. Operators must be sure the aiming hand is on the handle, not on the horn, where the cold gas can freeze the skin, causing serious burns. Be careful of extinguishing a fire against a wall or in a corner; it all comes back at the operator. Outside, beware of the wind. S: Squeeze the handle. Continue to squeeze the handle long enough to cover the entire fire area with the agent. Too many short blasts can empty the extinguisher prematurely. S: Sweep the base of the fire. Keeping the nozzle aimed at the base of the fire, the operator carefully sweeps the nozzle back and forth, “pushing” the fire off from front to back until it is out. Once the fire is out, never turn around and walk away. Keep the extinguisher in the ready position, and back away from the fire in the event it reignites. Educator’s Tip When teaching the general public how to operate a fire extinguisher, emphasize that it is more effective to have multiple extinguishers used on a fire at one time, but using extinguishers one at a time is a waste of time. If the first extinguisher does not work, leave the building and let the fire department do its job! New Technology Awareness Fire and life safety educators who keep their ear to the ground regarding new fire safety technology will be more effective in answering questions for the general public. New products are advertised in magazines, in catalogues, and on television that promise to suppress fires, save lives, and slow the growth of fire when applied or installed. The public looks to the fire service as experts in answering their questions about the products’ reliability. When new products come on the market, be sure to research their credibility. Do they meet national standards? Have they been approved and endorsed by national fire safety and protection organizations? Ask colleagues, state fire marshal offices, and other trusted sources before promoting or condemning new products. Some products may provide the perfect safety solution for your community, but others may cause further harm by instilling a false sense of security, or worse, failing to provide the protection they promise in an actual fire. Wrap-Up Smoke:© Greg Henry/ShutterStock, Inc. Summary Points Fire and life safety educators need a foundation of information about fire science and fire prevention codes to be able to answer questions from the public. It has become apparent that even the best efforts to protect citizens from serious fires have been compromised by the improper acts of human beings, with reasons ranging from ignorance to carelessness and inconvenience to economic hardship. This is where educators can be valuable assets to the local fire department. It is important to work with the department’s fire prevention inspectors. The codes provide requirements for enforcement, but savvy educators can gain compliance by making real connections to the reasons for the codes in the first place and the advantages they have for the occupants. Educators should be aware of new construction, new residential developments, and new businesses moving to their jurisdiction. Participate on local committees where the fire department can influence prevention efforts and promote their participation at evacuation drills and emergency planning meetings. Safety educators are not limited to elementary classroom visits and business presentations. Sometimes the most effective results are gained by teaming up with fire department inspectors and playing the supporting fifth leg of the Five E’s of the prevention triangle—engineering, enforcement, and education. Educators who pay attention to emerging fire safety technology will be more effective in answering questions for the general public. The public looks to the fire service as experts in answering their questions about the products’ reliability. When new products come on the market, be sure to research their credibility. Key Terms Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) A civil rights law passed by Congress in 1990 prohibiting, under certain circumstances, discrimination based on disability. Adoption The process of formally accepting a code and setting it into action. Adoption by reference The instances in which legislation states that a certain code and specific edition will be enforced within the jurisdiction. Adoption by transcription The model code is republished as an ordinance and a license must be purchased to do so. Authority having jurisdiction (AHJ) An organization, office, or individual responsible for enforcing the requirements of a code or standards, or for approving equipment, materials, an installation, or a procedure. Backdraft A sudden and explosive ignition of pressurized, superheated, and oxygendeprived gases within an enclosed space when oxygen is reintroduced. Boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) When a liquid in a vessel is heated to the point it boils, expands, and can no longer be contained by the vessel. Class A fire A fire involving ordinary combustibles such as paper, cloth, wood, plastics, and rubber. Class B fire A fire involving flammable and combustible liquids, gases, and greases. Class C fire A fire involving energized electrical equipment. Class D fire A fire involving combustible metals and alloys such as magnesium, sodium, lithium, and potassium. Class K fire A fire involving high-temperature combustible cooking fuels such as vegetable or animal oils and fats. Code A systematically arranged law, rule, or regulation that tells people what they can and cannot do and when and where they can do those things. Codified Codes arranged according to a system. Combustible liquid A liquid with a flash point at or above 100°F. Common fire hazard Conditions prevalent in most occupancies that increase the chances of a fire starting. Conduction The transfer of heat through a solid object. Conflagration A large and destructive fire that jumps natural barriers. Convection The transfer of heat through air and liquid currents. Decay stage The point at which the supply of oxygen to a fire is depleted and the fire finally extinguishes itself. Defend–in-place strategy A plan for residents who are completely unable to navigate and evacuate a building on their own, to remain in the structure in a protected area until the fire department can assist them in evacuating. Deluge sprinkler system An automatic sprinkler system designed to protect areas that could have a fastspreading fire that could engulf an entire area. These systems feature open heads (no fusible elements), dry piping, and a deluge valve that controls the supply of water or foam solution to all heads in the area, providing coverage of the entire area all at once. Dry pipe sprinkler system An automatic sprinkler system that operates with air or nitrogen under constant pressure in the pipes instead of water, which would freeze in cold weather. These systems are installed in areas subject to freezing, such as unheated warehouses, parking garages, loading docks, commercial freezers, and factories. Early suppression fast response (ESFR) sprinkler A sprinkler system designed to protect pallet and rack storage up to 35 feet through the application of increased flow densities. Emergency voice alarm communications system (EVACS) A communications system that is part of a fire alarm system that allows manual or automatic live or prerecorded voice information, alarm signals, and other signals to be sent to the entire building or to select areas. Exit A rated assembly that provides a protected path to the exit discharge. Exit access The point from anywhere in the building to an exit. Exit discharge The portion of the means of egress between the exterior exit door and the public way. Exothermic reaction When the heat given off by a fire is transferred to other materials and begins heating them. A chemical reaction that releases energy by light or heat. Fire Burning or combustion, which is a chemical chain reaction that includes a selfsustaining rapid oxidation of a fuel accompanied by the release of heat and light. Fire alarm control panel (FACP) Receives the signal from the detection device and then directs the signal to the signaling devices. Fire hazard A condition that encourages a fire to start or increases the extent or severity of a fire. Fire tetrahedron Today’s concept of the fire triangle; it includes a fourth element, the molecular chain reaction, which allows for a self-sustaining chemical reaction and flame propagation. Fire triangle A fire science model used to explain the chemical reaction of fire. Flammable liquid A liquid having a flash point below 100°F. Flash point The minimum temperature at which a liquid gives off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable mixture at the surface but not sufficient to sustain combustion. Flashover The transition between the growth phase and the fully developed stage. It is the point when all contents of a room reach their ignition temperatures and quickly change to a fully developed fire. Fuel The material being burned in the combustion process. It is a form of matter that can be found as a solid, liquid, or gas. Fully developed stage The point at which the fire is consuming the maximum amount of fuel. Group A: Assembly Occupancies with large numbers of people such as restaurants, nightclubs, churches, auditoriums, and arenas. Group E: Education Occupancies including educational use for kindergarten through 12th grade and daycare for children 2½ years and older. Growth stage The growth of a fire from the point of ignition as other combustibles heat up, giving off flammable gases, and igniting and spreading a chain reaction to other flammables. Heat A form of energy, which can be chemical, mechanical, electrical, or nuclear in origin. Heat detector A device that detects the heat of a fire at a fixed temperature or by sensing a specified rate of temperature increase. Ignition temperature The lowest temperature that will give off gases of an ignitable mixture that can self-ignite and sustain burning. Incipient stage The first stage of the burning process during which a form of energy transfer, usually heat, generates gas from a fuel source so the fuel is able to mix with the air. This phase is also known as the ignition stage. Incipient stage The first stage of the burning process during which a form of energy transfer, usually heat, generates gas from a fuel source so the fuel is able to mix with the air. This phase is also known as the ignition stage. Initiation device A device such as a heat and smoke detector, manual pull station, or sprinkler pressure or flow switch that senses the presence of heat or smoke, sprinkler activation, or a triggered manual activation and sends a signal to the control panel. Ionization smoke detector/alarm The most common type of smoke detector/alarm, which works by using a small amount of a radioactive material that electrically charges air particles to produce a measurable current in the sensing chamber. Ionization devices are quick to react to small smoke particles from flaming fires. They can detect invisible smoke in the form of fire gases. Life Safety Code® Code that addresses occupant safety in buildings with regard to the establishment and maintenance of exit facilities. It categorizes both new and existing buildings into occupancy types based on their use, the characteristics of occupants, and the processes taking place within. It then establishes requirements for the building, occupants, and processes. Means of egress The entire exit path comprises all three components—the exit access, the exit, and the exit discharge. Mini-maxi code A code adopted as a state code that cannot be locally amended. Model code A system of rules, guidelines, methods, and regulations developed and accepted through consensus by private not-for-profit organizations with an interest and expertise in that area and made available to governments to formally accept and put into use within their jurisdiction. Notification device A bell, voice recording, buzzer, siren, strobe light, or other type of indicator that provides audible, tactile, or visible outputs to provide a stimuli to alert building occupants of a potential or real fire. Also another term for signaling device. Ordinance A law of an authorized subdivision of a state, such as a county, city, or town. Performance code A code that assigns an objective to be met and establishes criteria for determining compliance. Personal fire hazard A common hazard that is caused by the unsafe acts of individuals. Photoelectric smoke detector/alarm A smoke detector/alarm that operates by using a light source aimed at a light sensor within the sensing chamber to initiate an alarm when the light source reflects or obscures smoke particles. These devices are activated by visible smoke and are appropriate for areas where smoke may develop but dissipate visually, such as in cooking areas and where fuel-powered equipment is in use. Preaction sprinkler system An automatic sprinkler system similar to a dry sprinkler system used in areas such as computer operation centers, telecommunication centers, freezers, libraries, museums, and places housing valuable and irreplaceable items where water damage to property is of paramount concern. Activation of the system is connected to detection equipment and requires a fire detector to activate. Pull station A manual fire alarm box. Radiation The transfer of heat through invisible light waves. Residential fire sprinkler system A type of automatic fire sprinkler system equipped with fast response automatic sprinkler heads specifically designed for low heat release and low water pressures. Smoke The product of incomplete combustion or decomposition heating (pyrolysis) that includes an aggregate of solids, liquids, and gases suspended in the thermal plume. Special fire hazard Dangerous conditions that result from a particular process or operation conducted in an occupancy. Specification code A code that specifies a type of construction or materials to be used. Spontaneous combustion or spontaneous heating When a material is able to self-heat to the point of ignition because of an internal source of heat. Sprinkler head A spray device that distributes water over a limited area at a flow rate designed to reduce the heat from a fire to limit and control the growth of the fire beyond the early stages of development. Standard A rule for measuring or model to be followed, which specifies how to do something or what materials are to be used. Many NFPA standards are referenced as IFCC standards. Target fire hazard A property where there is great potential for large loss of life or property loss if a fire erupts. Technical code A code designed to regulate technical processes such as construction installation of electrical, mechanical, and plumbing systems; regulation of hazardous industrial processes; and building electrical, mechanical, plumbing, and property maintenance codes. Ventilation-limited A fire in an enclosed building that is restricted because there is insufficient oxygen available for the fire to burn as rapidly as it would with an unlimited supply of oxygen. Voice override system A function of an alarm system that allows responding fire fighters or other trained personnel to activate and speak into a dedicated microphone from the fire command center and suppress the automated message in order to give verbal instructions. Wet chemicals Class K agents composed of water-based solutions containing potassium in combination with other agents, usually found in fixed systems in commercial or industrial cooking areas. Wet pipe sprinkler system Automatic sprinklers attached to pipes charged with water and under pressure at all times. They are installed where indoor temperatures can be maintained at or above 40°F. Wildland/Urban Interface (WUI) Residential areas near natural areas. Review Questions 1. What are the four stages of fire? 2. Differentiate between the purpose of fire detection and fire suppression systems. List examples of each. 3. Summarize the pros and cons of residential sprinkler systems. State facts and fallacies that surround these systems. 4. Why is it important for safety educators to be informed about modern fire safety technology and new safety products available to consumers? 5. What information about fire prevention technology should the fire department include in discussions for elementary school children? Critical Thinking 1. Schools and churches are overcrowded during programs for the winter holidays. As a fire and life safety educator, how can you work with this situation proactively? 2. Adults in the community are asking about the difference between ionization and photoelectric smoke alarms for their homes. As the educator, what would you tell them? 3. If a fire fighter made this statement, “Promoting residential sprinkler systems will put us out of business,” how could a safety educator promoting residential sprinklers best educate that fire fighter? How do residential sprinklers factor into fire fighter safety? Think About It and Make It Better The local school district is complaining that the alarm system has been malfunctioning and causing a number of false alarms. It is during winter, and school personnel have begun to tell the students not to go outside until someone in the main office confirms that there is a real fire. Many parents have voiced complaints. The alarm company has been called but has not yet been able to correct the problem. As the fire and life safety educator, you already have a positive relationship with the school administration. How can you assist the school and the department with this problem? Who will you talk to at the department to make sure everyone is sending the same message? References 1. Diamantes, D. (2016). Principles of Fire Prevention, Third Edition. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. 2. Diamantes, D. (2016). 3. Diamantes, D. (2016). 4. Diamantes, D. (2016). Additional Resources 2012 International Fire Code®. Country Club Hills, IL: International Code Council, Inc. Campbell, C. A. and Feldstein, L. “America Burning Revisited.” Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), United States Fire Administration (USFA), 1987. International Association of Fire Chiefs,National Fire Protection Association. Fire Inspector: Principles and Practice, Revised First Edition. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2012. Diamantes, D. Principles of Fire Prevention, Third Edition. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2016. International Association of Fire Chiefs, National Fire Protection Association. Fundamentals of Fire Fighter Skills, Evidence-Based Practices, Enhanced Third Edition. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2017. Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition. Available at http://www.homefiresprinkler.org. Jones, M. A. Jr. Fire Protection Systems, Second Edition. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2015. Morris, Robert. Executive Director, Illinois Fire Inspectors Association, 2015. National Commission on Fire Prevention and Control, “America Burning,” Washington, DC: 2015. National Fire Protection Association. NFPA Ready Reference: Fire Safety in Assembly Occupancies. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2004. National Fire Protection Association. NFPA 101, Life Safety Code. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2015. International Association of Fire Chiefs and National Fire Protection Association. Evidence Based Practices for Strategic and Tactical Firefighting. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC, 2016. Tasso, Daniel Training/Safety Battalion Chief. Downers Grove Fire Department, 2016. CHAPTER 3: Fire Department Basics and the Fire and Life Safety Educator Paper: © silver-john/ShutterStock, Inc.; Chapter Opener Photo: © HOT SHOTS/Alamy. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the reasons a fire and life safety educator needs a basic understanding of fire department operations and daily routines. NFPA 4.1.1 (p. 65) Answer commonly asked questions about fire service traditions, history, and practices. (pp. 65–68) Determine the level of information the public needs to know about fire department personal protective equipment, tools, and vehicles. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 70–76) Recognize and dispel common myths the public has about the fire service and local department procedures. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 70–73) Discuss the role of emergency medical services in the fire service and the information necessary for the public to work effectively with this system. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 69–70) Discuss messages the public should receive regarding behaviors that would assist the department in more effectively providing service. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 74–76) Conduct fire station tours that provide important information and interesting activities appropriate for all age groups. NFPA 4.4.2(pp. 75–76) List important features of the local department beneficial for the local community to understand. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 72–73) Introduction Many people will never need to call the fire department for assistance. This means that most people will never meet a fire fighter and engage in conversation with a department member face to face. Many people will never step inside a firehouse, ride in an ambulance, or witness the operations of a fire company first hand. They will see engines and ambulances driving down the street and assume that the department is taking care of business and doing their job to keep the community safe. For most families, the fire fighters are always “the good guys,” always there to help. But for others, there is skepticism as they speculate about just what is going on behind the doors of their local firehouse or as they rely on rumors and hearsay for their information about the fire service. This situation can both help and harm the image and operations of the department. Because many people never experience the expertise of the local department unless they are directly involved in an emergency, their knowledge about the department and its members is limited. However, fire and life safety educators have the ability and the duty to reach as many facets of the community as possible with safety lessons. This obligation should include information about the history, operations, routines, struggles, and needs of the fire department. Safety educators become, in essence, the face of the department. It is their responsibility to anticipate what the public needs to know about the fire service both locally and universally. Fire Service Traditions and Symbols The fire service is rich with traditions, symbols, and folklore. Safety educators are often faced with questions about the history and meaning behind unique practices and surviving remnants of an intriguing profession. Incorporating some of these stories during station tours or educational presentations and connecting them to present day practices helps the audience appreciate the history of the fire service and better understand the evolution of current day practices. The Dalmatian Dalmatians were first introduced to the fire service about 300 years ago. Fire departments in Great Britain were among the first to use Dalmatians to clear the street of other dogs for pumpers and horse-drawn wagons carrying equipment. Benjamin Franklin is credited with integrating Dalmatians into the firehouse of the United States. He encouraged the acceptance of the firehouse dog just as he inspired the creation of fire departments in the new country. In the 1800s and early 1900s, fire pumpers were pulled by fast horses. It became popular for each group of fire fighters to keep a Dalmatian. These hard-working companions guarded the horses and ran alongside the pumper on the way to a fire. It was observed that Dalmatians formed an amazingly tight bond with horses. Not only did they clear the streets for the horses, but they also kept other dogs from scaring the horses. Horses are known to be afraid of fire, and Dalmatians served as a distraction and helped to calm them as they approached the scene of the fire. When the fire alarm sounded, the Dalmatians were the first out of the firehouse, barking in the streets to announce the approaching firemen’s coach. While the men battled a fire, the dogs guarded the equipment in the wagon. Although Dalmatians are no longer considered a necessity for firefighting, many fire fighters or fire departments own Dalmatians because of their strong tie to the fire service tradition, and often employ these dogs as part of education programs FIGURE 3-1. FIGURE 3-1 Dalmatians continue to be associated with fire fighters as faithful companions and are often used in fire safety demonstrations. © Bob Winsett/Photolibrary/Getty. The Fire Plug The fire hydrant, or “plug,” is connected to a large water main buried deep enough underground so the water does not freeze even on the coldest day of the year. The valve at the top of hydrant extends down to the water main. When fire fighters open the valve, water is allowed into the hydrant for their use. In warmer parts of the country, wet barrel hydrants are used that have water up to the valve and past the street level. This is why water shoots up in the air from a hydrant that has been run over in Southern California but nothing happens when a hydrant is run over in Wisconsin. Dating back to the early 1800s, the first water mains in cities and towns were hollowed-out logs. The tapered ends fit together end to end. Firemen dug down to the log, drilled a hole, and kept their engine tanks full with the water that came out of the drilled hole. When the fire was extinguished, they stopped up the hole with a wooden plug. In the mid-1800s, a New York fireman named George Smith invented the fire hydrant as we know it today, and the former system of replacing plugs was disbanded. Over time, the “plug” became synonymous with hydrants in many parts of the country. Educators can use this historical data when discussing fire hydrants and the importance of keeping them cleared of weeds, snow, and other obstructions. Cherry Pickers and Snorkels The terms ladder truck, snorkel, and cherry picker are often used interchangeably by lay persons. How did these terms come to be associated with firefighting equipment? In the 1950s, Chicago Fire Commissioner Robert J. Quinn was watching tree trimmers from the Chicago Parks Department as they used trucks with hydraulically operated elevating arms to lift the men in baskets high into the air. These were the same type of trucks used to pick fruit in the orchards. Commissioner Quinn began to think about the possibility of using this technology for firefighting and discussed the concept with his department’s chief engineer. They borrowed a park district truck and attached a hose and nozzle. It worked! They began working with Pitman Manufacturing Co. of Grandview, Missouri, to make the concept a reality. In September 1958, Pitman delivered a 50-ft (15.2-m) elevated platform that was outfitted with a 3½-inch hose with a 2-in. (5 cm) nozzle that could deliver 1200 gallons (4542.5 l) per minute. On October 18th of that same year at 1 am, the new truck was dispatched to a four-alarm fire at a lumberyard. Fire fighters were amazed at the effectiveness of their new equipment and the short work it made of their firefighting efforts. The news media nicknamed the new invention a “snorkel.” Commissioner Quinn soon became known as “Snorkel Bob” for bringing this new innovation to the fire service. Fire Boxes and Gamewells Although few remain today, many are familiar with pictures of the “red fire boxes” on street corners. How did they work? Where did the concept come from? In 1855, John Nelson Gamewell (1822–1896), a postmaster, bookseller, and amateur telegraph operator from Camden, South Carolina, attended a lecture by William F. Channing at the Smithsonian. Channing, a doctor and inventor, had patented the first Channing fire alarm telegraph system. Gamewell returned home, borrowed money, and bought the patents for the systems for the entire country. He founded the company whose name later became synonymous with fire alarm telegraphs and the “red fire boxes.” By 1861, the telegraph system was installed in five major U.S. cities. The Civil War came along and put a stop to this momentum. The end of the war found Gamewell impoverished. The U.S. government had sold all of his patents by auction from the steps of the Camden City Hall. Gamewell rebuilt the company with the help of John F. Kennard, who somehow, remarkably, replaced all of Gamewell’s patents for $80. James Gardiner, Gamewell’s brother-in-law, a clockmaker, joined the company and improved the mechanism of the system. By 1904, there were 764 systems and 37,739 fire boxes in the United States. Gamewell owned 95 percent of all fire telegraph systems. As other competing companies came along, Gamewell bought them out. The fire alarm telegraph system grew exponentially during the two decades after World War II. At the height of this growth, there existed an impressive 2000 operating fire alarm systems with approximately one-quarter of a million “red fire boxes” on street corners. The red boxes were commonly referred to as Gamewells. Use of the boxes to call in a fire was simple. People witnessing a fire would rush to the nearest fire alarm box on their street and pull the hook or turn a crank, and a telegraph signal was sent to an operator at the other end. The signal for that particular box indicated the street where assistance was needed. The operator would dispatch a fire company to that location. Because of the great number of false alarms, greater use of telephones, the 911 system, and the expense of maintaining the systems, the red boxes began to disappear from use over time FIGURE 3-2. FIGURE 3-2 Gamewell boxes are still in use in some parts of the country. © Beschi Mauro/Shutterstock. Fire Marks Fire marks were metal plates affixed to the outside of buildings. They bore the identity of the insurance company that covered the structure FIGURE 3-3. Aside from the name of the insurance company, the designs often reflected the insurance company’s location, history, or philosophy. For example, Mutual Assurance Company was the first to insure homes with nearby trees; the symbol on their mark was a large tree. If a building had burned down and had been rebuilt by the company, the new mark would be stamped with the word restored, indicating that the insurance company had covered the expense of rebuilding. FIGURE 3-3 Fire marks were originally symbols affixed to the front of a building designating the insurance company responsible for covering that fire. © Neil Holmes/Holmes Garden Photos/Alamy. Fire companies financed by the insurer would respond to only the buildings covered by their insurance company. If a building did not have a fire mark, it would be allowed to burn unless the owner quickly decided to pay a company to fight the fire. After a formal postal system was put in place in the mid-1800s and all buildings were assigned specific addresses, the fire marks no longer served a purpose. After this time, fire marks served only as promotional items. The Maltese Cross Many fire department badges and patches are designed around or within a Maltese cross. Although the Maltese cross has been incorporated by many organizations from rugby clubs and rifle regiments to military orders and state emblems, it has been closely aligned with the fire service for historical reasons. The emblem was originally the symbol of Amalfi, a small Italian republic of the eleventh century. The cross has eight points. These eight points are said to symbolize loyalty, piety, frankness, bravery, glory and honor, contempt of death, helpfulness toward the poor and the sick, and respect for the church. The cross was adopted and put into use by the early Knights of Malta. This order was a charitable, non-military organization of the 11th and 12th centuries that provided aid to sick and poor individuals and helped set up many hospitals. The Knights of Malta later took up arms and joined with the Knights of the Crusades in an effort to win back the Holy Land. The Knights of the Crusades wore large crimson capes over their suits of armor. The capes not only provided a uniform for a united front but also served as a weapon against fire, one of the newer weapons of war. When fellow troops were engulfed in fire, the Knights of Malta would approach on horseback, take off their capes, and use them to smother the flames on their fellow fire fighters. They were awarded a medal cross inscribed and decorated by their admirers. This coveted badge became the most honorable badge that could adorn a uniform. To this day, the Maltese cross in the fire service is a symbol of bravery, honor, loyalty, and defending the weak. St. Florian, Patron Saint of Fire Fighters Florian Von Cetum lived during the beginning of the fourth century. He was the highest-ranking officer in the Roman army. The group of men commanded by Florian were regular members of the Roman army who were assigned to the prestigious fire brigade. At the height of the Roman Empire, the fire brigade numbered approximately 7000 members. Florian wore a bright red crest atop his helmet so his men could easily recognize and follow him into the battle against the flames. While fighting fires, Florian and his men wore leather jackets, trousers, and boots. In parade dress, these men wore skirts of green, which signified the special talents of fire fighters. Conventional soldiers wore regulation red. Florian became a wise administrator and a great leader. He was recognized by the Roman emperor for his knowledge of law and government. During this time, Florian converted to Christianity. Although firefighting was the most hazardous of all duties of the Roman soldiers, Florian’s faith guided him to serve God and humankind. The Roman emperor, Diocletian, ordered that the empire must be “cleansed” of all Christians. However, because he was aware of Florian’s talents and reputation, he made an offer to Florian to “overlook” his Christianity if he agreed to offer public sacrifices to some of the favored Roman gods. Florian refused. Although this greatly angered Diocletian, he further offered Florian a governor’s position if he would perform the pagan rituals. Steadfastly, Florian refused and was whipped. Word of Florian’s trials spread, and a revolt began to grow. Diocletian issued a formal order to burn him at the stake, the common punishment for professed Christians of the day. Legend has it that as Florian stood on the pile of kindling erected to set him on fire, he challenged the soldiers to start the fire and said, “If you do, I will climb to heaven on the flames.” The soldiers tasked with lighting the fire could not get the kindling to light. Fearing for his own life if Rome heard of the execution’s failure, the governor then ordered Florian’s execution by drowning. They tied a millstone to his neck with a short rope and bound his hands and feet. But no one wanted to push him into the river; everyone respected Florian too much. Finally, a man ran out of the crowd and pushed the millstone into the river, thus ending Florian’s life. A beautiful church, the Church of St. Florian, was built at his place of burial. In later years, a monastery and museum named in his honor were constructed at the same site. All three structures are still in existence today and actively serve the world’s fire fighters. Florian was made a saint by Pope Lucius III and has become known as the patron saint of the fire service. Saint Florian’s feast day is May 4th FIGURE 3-4. FIGURE 3-4 Florian was made a saint by Pope Lucius III and has become known as the patron saint of the fire service. In some schools, children still study historic fire service tradition as part of their history curriculum. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Fire Service Responsibilities Today, it would be difficult to find a fire department that only fights fires. Most departments, no matter their size, are involved in several areas of rescue and prevention. Investigate the local department’s activities and call volume. Are they heavily involved in hazardous materials mitigation and training? Does the department have an active water rescue unit? Does the department have a Youth Firesetter Intervention program? Was there a recent save involving the technical rescue team? What unsafe practices have the investigators determined from their work on recent incidents? Is the training officer emphasizing new techniques for suppression companies that will affect the messages for high-rise evacuations or residential escape plans? Is fire and life safety education recognized as an integral responsibility for all members to reduce fire deaths in the community and line-of-duty fire fighter deaths? It should be obvious by now that safety educators can no longer rely solely on standard messages sent out from national agencies. Educators must continually scan the landscape of their own communities and departments to ensure they are educating their public about the information that will most likely affect safety and awareness in the future FIGURE 3-5. FIGURE 3-5 The public learns about hazardous materials operations and other gear worn by firefighters. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip For an educational and crowd-pleasing open house idea, include a “Fire Fighter Fashion Show.” Fire fighters model different uniforms and protective gear used in their job. Narrate the reasons and function of each ensemble. Children and adults learn about their community fire fighters from this demonstration. Emergency Medical Service As the number of fires has been reduced over the past 35 years, the ratio of emergency medical service (EMS) to fire calls has shifted to approximately 67 percent EMS calls compared to all other types calls combined. According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)’s 2014 report on U.S. fire services, medical aid calls have quadrupled since 1980.1 Therefore, it is becoming increasingly important for safety educators to include information about EMS procedures, equipment, and fire and injury prevention when planning programs and presentations. If the fire department is the first responder to most accidents, injuries, and emergent care situations, then it is also one of the best equipped agencies to understand the precipitating causes and prevention measures for such calls. As a safety educator, you should regularly gather this information from local, state, and national reports as a basis for designing injury prevention programs. If requesting access to records, be familiar with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) requirements and restrictions. This legislation ensures all medical records, medical billing, and patient records meet certain consistent standards with regard to documentation, handling, and privacy. Most people learn better by seeing and doing as they hear new information. Find out which EMS equipment your department allows citizens to examine. There will be some EMS equipment the department will not want the public to handle. Depending on the age group, demonstrations should include some of the following talking points: The emergency medical technicians (EMTs) or paramedics will almost always tell you what they are going to do before they begin any procedure. Children wonder if they will get a “shot.” Be honest with the answer, but assure children that many calls do not require giving a shot. Patients have the right to sign a refusal. Not all calls require transport to the hospital. Some residents may delay calling 911 because they do not want to bother the department. Do not wait for symptoms to go away on their own. Call without delay. It is best to be seen by medical professionals during the early stages of distress. Patients may be “packaged” on a board, with a cervical (“C”) collar for transport even if it seems unnecessary. Explain basic department protocol and that these procedures are followed as precautionary measures to keep the patient safe en route to the hospital. Explain the transport destination options for advanced life support (ALS) and basic life support (BLS) responses. In larger cities, there may be several different hospitals with specific treatment capabilities, such as a trauma center or a cardiac care unit. Patients sometimes request to be taken to the hospital where their doctors work. They need to understand when these requests can and cannot be honored and the reasons behind the medics’ decisions. Include injury prevention lessons in any discussions about medical calls. Go over early warning signs for emergencies such as cardiac arrest, stroke, seizures, and other precipitating conditions so the public begins to understand the need to call for help when early intervention will be most beneficial to them. If you are not familiar with these conditions, you should begin to work closely with department paramedics or take basic EMT classes to learn more about this important area of the fire service. Stress the importance of adhering to the doctor’s prescribed medication regimen. Older adults sometimes reduce their dosages to save money or because they begin to feel better and believe they can self-medicate. Remind older adults to take their prescribed medications or a complete list of their medications and dosages along to the hospital. Encourage the use of and find ways to distribute a personal system of record keeping for current medical records such as emergency contacts, medications, and medical history. The “file of life” or “vial of life” are good examples of such a system FIGURE 3-6. This is especially helpful for older adults and family members with chronic conditions to help facilitate early treatment on EMS calls. Some pharmacists donate plastic pill bottles to support a vial of life program. Promote taking classes in hands-only CPR and the use of AEDs. FIGURE 3-6 The File of Life contains current patient medical information to assist emergency medical crews when assessing patients. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Department Vehicles Local and regional fire patterns, along with department budgets, available personnel, and level of expertise and training, all influence the type of equipment each department decides to purchase and use. A company is a team of fire fighters with apparatus assigned to perform a specific function in a designated response area.2 For departments that use companies as a response unit, the company is typically designated as an engine, ladder, truck, squad, or rescue depending on the type of apparatus, equipment, and fire fighters on board. For more information about equipment specifications and capabilities for various types of firefighting apparatus, safety educators can refer to NFPA 1901. Investigate whether your department follows this standard. As spokespersons for their local fire departments, public educators are responsible for knowing which equipment their department uses, how it is staffed, and the equipment they can provide during emergencies to protect the community. It is wise to find out when new equipment is purchased, how it is funded, and the plans for its use. Some of the more commonly deployed fire companies are the engine company, truck company, rescue company, specialty or combination units, and EMS units. The engine company is organized to provide fire fighters who deliver water at the fire scene, deploy hose lines, and connect and extinguish fires in vehicles and structures. The engine company often uses an apparatus referred to as an engine or pumper. In some organizations, the engine company may also perform rescue or squad functions. The duties of the truck company or ladder company include forcible entry, search and rescue, ventilation, provision of ladders, securing of utilities, and overhaul functions at a fire scene. Aerial ladders, tower ladders, or snorkels may be used by these companies. The rescue company, also known as the squad or squad company, provides specially trained fire fighters and specialized rescue equipment at an incident scene. Aside from forcible entry and search and rescue operations, these companies also carry specialized tools to conduct vehicle extrication, confined space rescue, rope rescue, and other forms of technical rescue operations. In some parts of the country, rescues may refer to a transport ambulance and squads refer to paramedic treatment vehicles. Specialty or combination units provide specialized functions more specific to the needs of a particular region. Mobile water supply apparatus, wildland or brush fire response units, aircraft rescue and firefighting apparatus, light and air units, ventilation units, hazardous materials units, and mass casualty response units are all examples of units specially equipped to handle unique emergency situations. The personnel who operate on these units are specially trained3 FIGURE 3-7. FIGURE 3-7 Fire engines, trucks, and other vehicles have specific functions for emergencies. Some vehicles are classified as (A), pumpers or engines (B), aerial truck ladders, or (C), tower ladders, and each vehicle has individual, distinct advantages. © Rob Byron/Shutterstock. © Joy Brown/Shutterstock. © HOT SHOTS/Alamy. The Fire Department: Myths and Frequently Asked Questions The public does not understand many aspects and practices of the fire service. As a fire and life safety educator, you should be able to explain these procedures and incorporate them into presentations wherever possible. The Duties of Fire Fighters The public often questions what fire fighters and paramedics do when they are not responding to calls. Traditionally, the only image of a fire fighter is that of climbing ladders and extinguishing fires. Fire and life safety educators are in the position to help dispel misconceptions of the fire service. Whether a member of a career or volunteer department, you should become familiar with the number of hours required of department members for training, inspections, equipment checks, and other duties. Develop a ready list of specific things the department does when not responding to emergencies. Are they training for water rescue, conducting EMS drills, or performing live burn evolutions in towers? Are they attending school for investigations, testing equipment, conducting inspections, or visiting schools for fire and life safety education FIGURE 3-8? What else does the public need to know about the services their fire department is providing for them? FIGURE 3-8 Fire and life safety education in the classroom. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Payments and Refusals As a safety educator, you might not have any direct responsibilities for billing for department services, but you should be aware of the costs and procedures associated with the billing process. Once again, the person actually interfacing with the community needs to be able to answer basic questions about costs associated with ambulance billing, refusals, extinguisher drills, and any other services for which the department charges. At the very least, know the contact person, division, and phone number residents can call with such questions. Grocery Shopping and Other Daily Routines The general public may not understand many of the day-to-day routines of the fire service. Keep this in mind and incorporate easily understood messages and examples about these practices as part of your repertoire. Questions may range from, “Why do fire fighters spend a part of their day shopping for groceries?” to “Why does an engine respond with an ambulance on medical calls?” Learn the correct answers for your department and develop well-crafted answers the public will understand. When asked a question for which you are not prepared, tell the audience that you will find out the correct answer and get back to them. Cats in Trees and Other Services Provided Will the fire fighters come and get our cat down from the tree? Could you please come over and fill our swimming pool? Will the department fill the dunk tank for our church picnic? Will the department come to our house to visit with the kids for our child’s birthday party? Every department has different answers to these questions and other questions just like them. You should know the department policies for these types of requests and the reasons behind the policies. Positive public relations are increased by a greater awareness and understanding of department philosophy, procedures, time constraints, resources, and community demands. Response Times Department response times vary greatly across the country depending on the size of the department, response area, and type of department. Each year, revisit the current response times for the department. During presentations, break down the total average response time into segments of time so the response process is understandable for an audience FIGURE 3-9. This exercise is best used in conjunction with the timeline provided by the Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition (covered in the chapter Messages for Different Age Groups). FIGURE 3-9 Use a worksheet to break down realistic response time for the public. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Educator’s Tip Ask the audience to estimate how long each action takes during a fire response process. Once this is completed, explain the reality of each of the response times broken down the same way. Follow with a realistic timeline for a growing fire. Help the audience understand the discrepancy between their original estimates and the reality of the time it takes the department to arrive in the best of circumstances and how little time families have to escape a growing fire. Emphasize the benefits of smoke alarms, escape plans, and residential sprinklers. Driving The public might believe that fire department vehicles can run red lights and recklessly respond to emergencies. Emphasize the importance of fire fighters maintaining a safe speed en route to emergencies. Some towns have traffic light devices such as a 3M Opticom System™ or traffic signal preemption systems, which are encoded signal preemption devices that allow emergency vehicles to turn traffic signals green, providing them the right of way FIGURE 3-10. Educate the public to the fact that their town has these systems in place, how they help prevent accidents, and how drivers should react to them. These discussions can easily segue to the importance of drivers pulling over to the right for emergency vehicles. FIGURE 3-10 Systems that control traffic signals contain a receiver on the traffic light. © Thomas Winz/Lonely Planet Images/Getty. Job Requirements Be familiar with the requirements for employment with the department. High school students, parents, and community members are often interested in these job requirements. Because these standards vary from department to department, investigate what the local department requires and keep abreast of testing dates and other changes. Have this information available for telephone inquiries, presentations at job fairs, and community programs. Job Descriptions and Organizational Charts The general public may not understand the difference between the chief of the department and a battalion chief or between a lieutenant and a captain. Most departments are divided into two areas based on function. Operations or suppression is the side of the department that staffs the fire and EMS apparatus and responds to calls. These department members are often referred to as line personnel. The other side of the department is referred to as administration. The administrative staff includes the fire chief, deputy chiefs, office personnel, the training division, and the fire prevention bureau. The entire department operates through a chain of command. Members report directly to a specified staff member/officer, each level funneling to positions of greater authority and responsibility. The fire chief is the ultimate authority and bears responsibility for the actions of the entire department. Fire and life safety educators are often part of the fire prevention bureau; however, department educators may be line personnel or part- or full-time positions reporting to another division. Where does fire and life safety education fit in your organization structure? Does it appear on the organizational chart? There will be times when a better understanding of the organization will help the public understand various processes and operations. If the department does not have a current organizational chart and job descriptions in a reader-friendly format, request or prepare this information in a distributable form for easy reference and as part of a media packet, which is a packet of information about the department’s organizational structure, chief officers, contact information, station locations, and divisions. This information should also be listed on a department website, annual reports, or other forms of communication used by the department FIGURE 3-11. FIGURE 3-11 (A) The organizational structure for a medium to large fire department. (B) The organizational structure for a small fire department. Where does fire and life safety education show up on your department’s organizational structure? © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Educator’s Tip Develop and update a reference sheet with facts relating to commonly asked questions about your department, such as the following: How many square miles does the department protect? How many fire fighters, EMTs, and paramedics does the department employ? What is the average response time for the department? How many calls does the department respond to annually? Break down for Fire and EMS. What hospital(s) does the department transport patients to? What other services does the department provide (e.g., hazmat, water rescue, investigations)? How does billing work for department services? Who are the contacts and their telephone numbers? What do the fire fighters and paramedics do when they’re not responding to calls? What are the job requirements to get on the local fire department? What information is specific to your department? Helping Fire Fighters Help You There are several things the public can do to assist the fire department in making calls run more efficiently for both the department and the family who might need their assistance in an emergency. We will address those actions here. Making Addresses Visible It is important to teach the importance of visible residential and business addresses. Frame this information in the context of how it will help the first responders improve services to the public. Take note of residential and commercial addresses in the community. There will be a variety of forms, sizes, and shapes of illegible addresses, from house numbers written in cursive to those displayed as Roman numerals and from those hidden behind bushes to an address painted on a milk can on a porch. All of these examples can make it difficult to locate an address, adding time to emergency responses. Most jurisdictions have codes that outline the proper size and display of addresses. Obtain a copy of the local code and promote it in the local paper and at open houses, block parties, and older adult programs. The most effective buy-in for changing this behavior is to explain how difficult it is for an emergency responder to find a house in the middle of the night. Ask audience members to check whether they can easily see their own home addresses from the street at night. Pulling to the Right for Sirens and Lights Fire fighters and paramedics have been frustrated and angered by drivers coming to a complete stop right in front of them on the way to a call. Educating drivers about the importance of yielding the right of way to emergency responders is yet another responsibility of fire and life safety education programs. In addition to the more common methods of publicity, educators need to work with high school and private driver education programs FIGURE 3-12. FIGURE 3-12 A fire department vehicle displays a message to “Pull to the Right for Sirens and Lights” while on the road. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Calling 911 or the Local Emergency Number Even as of this writing, not all areas of the country have the 911 system in place. Whatever system a department uses for emergency dispatch, the following basic information can be delivered to the public: Never hesitate to call for assistance. Be sure to speak clearly to the dispatch operator. Do not hang up until the dispatcher says to do so. The dispatcher may have more instructions for the caller or the need to ask for more information. Educators need to explore the local and regional capabilities of calling 911 from cell phones. Improvements in the areas of calling and texting 911 are changing at a rapid pace. Many homes do not have landlines today. A 2014 report from the CDC reports that 41 percent of US households do not have landlines and rely on mobile-only service. The public will be depending on cell phones for placing emergency calls. Keeping Fire Hydrants Accessible Although fire service personnel understand the function of a fire hydrant, citizens may not know how fire hydrants work or why they exist. Some people never notice them, but others consider them to be an eyesore and bury them in the middle of flower beds or bushes. Worse yet, motorists park on the street directly in front of the hydrants. Some areas of the country have an even more difficult time when fire hydrants are covered in deep snow. Educators need to publicize and explain how important it is to keep hydrants accessible for fire service personnel. Be familiar with the local fire hydrant ordinance. Promote awareness through school programs, newsletters, and other forms of notification FIGURE 3-13. FIGURE 3-13 The importance of keeping hydrants clear can be taught to children at a young age through department programs. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Station Tours The public may be very interested in visiting the firehouse to see where fire fighters work and live and where apparatus is housed. Visits can be fun for both the visitors and the fire fighters, but several practices should be followed for a positive and worthwhile experience for everyone involved. Setting Up the Tour Have a standard procedure for station tours. This makes it easier for all staff and visitors. While setting up the date and time for the tour, find out the ages of the attendees and how many people will be in the group. Send this type of information to any department personnel who may be affected by a tour on that date. Be clear with the group leader as to what to expect if the fire fighters are called away while they are at the station. If off-duty personnel or volunteers are conducting tours, this will not be a problem. If on-duty personnel conduct the tours, the visitors need to understand what is expected of them when the tones activate. Educator’s Tip When arranging a station tour, the educator may want to give out the station telephone number and encourage the group leader to call just before the group leaves for the station to confirm that the fire fighters are in quarters. Safety for Station Tours Before tours arrive, check to make sure any areas the visitors will walk through are safe. Check for broken glass, slippery or wet floors, snow and ice on walkways, and tripping hazards. If areas of the floor are still wet when the group arrives, be sure to mention this to visitors and have signage to alert them to those areas. When preparing for a tour with small children, take a look at the entire area they will be visiting from their height. What looks inviting to climb in, on, and under? If the hazards cannot be removed, cordon them off with caution tape and be sure to instruct visitors to avoid them for their own safety. If visitors routinely take tours through the kitchen to see where the fire fighters cook, make sure safe practices are being followed to help reinforce the safety messages. Are the pot handles turned inward? Are combustibles kept an adequate distance from the stovetop? If a fire fighter is cooking at the time, take time to point out the fact that fire fighters use these safe practices. Some departments do not allow visitors in the living quarters. Discuss this practice with the department’s administration. Put Your Best Foot Forward Always greet the tour group at the front door. For some people, visiting the firehouse can be intimidating. If a friendly, neatly dressed fire fighter greets them on time at the door, it sets a better tone for the visit. Welcome everyone with a smile. If a training area or classroom is available at the station, take the group to this area first. This accomplishes two things immediately. The classroom atmosphere reminds everyone that they are not in a gym but that there are lessons to be learned. It is easier to keep the group’s attention without distractions in this area. Begin with an educational safety lesson appropriate for the age of the tour group. Have a Plan Just as with other educational presentations, age appropriate lesson plans should be designed for station tours. These should be written down and kept in a binder or on a computer at each station (if there is more than one station in the department). Encourage all fire fighters to follow the lesson plans when they give tours so they do not miss teaching important information. Keep separate lesson plans for scout tours, 4-H Clubs, or other special requests the department receives on a regular basis. These organizations often have badge requirements they can send ahead of time that can be incorporated into the tour outlines. Educator’s Tip If the department uses visual aids as teaching tools for the tours, such as videos, smoke alarms, carbon monoxide detectors, child-size sets of fire fighter gear, coloring books, or other handouts, these can be kept in large bins with the lesson plan binders at each station. Rather than sending the newest member of the department to conduct tours without any preparation, it works best to have the younger member accompany a more experienced fire fighter a few times to see how the department conducts its tours. The newer fire fighter can then handle a tour while being observed by an older member to make sure all the important points are being covered. After a few mentored sessions, the newer fire fighters can take over and add their own personality to the tour. Educator’s Tip If any portion of a tour takes place outside, always make sure the area is arranged so the visitors’ backs are to the sun. Voice of Experience Earlier in my career, I was asked to speak to a group of approximately 50 parents from a local grade school about fire safety. Believing I knew how to prepare for such a presentation, I inquired as to the number of adults attending, facilities, and available video equipment, prepared an outline, gathered appropriate handouts, put on a clean uniform, and headed out the door. Following 20 minutes of what I thought was a well-received presentation, I asked if there were any questions. After all, I had built in 5 to 10 minutes at the end of my planning for this important part of the discussion. Several people asked questions about the fire safety practices I had discussed, and that was a good sign. I was totally unprepared for what unfolded after that. A man raised his hand and asked why our department wasted taxpayers’ dollars by sending both an ambulance and engine for emergency medical service (EMS) calls. This opened the door for another attendee to question how the city could afford to pay the fire fighters for sitting around all day except when they responded to emergency calls. While I thought I knew the basic answers to these questions, I had not spent enough time as a public educator to know the best ways to field these questions and accusations. After allowing myself to be the target of their unfounded anger, I packed up quickly and left for home. From that point on, I was determined to get the word out to the public about the department’s procedures and operations in any way I could before misconceptions grew, and I made it my business to find out what the public didn’t understand and what I needed to know from all department divisions to be prepared with the answers. —Marsha Giesler, FLSE, Downers Grove Fire Department, IL Rules for Station Tours Go over the rules of the department at the very beginning of the tour so fire fighters do not find themselves in the uncomfortable position of disciplining children and adults. These ground rules should be part of the lesson plan and can be explained in a friendly and understandable manner. Emphasize the fact that this is where the fire fighters work, but it is also where they live. Tell children they should stay with their group; they should not wander off by themselves. It is not permissible to climb on apparatus unless they are first given permission by the fire fighters, and they are supervised. There will be some apparatus they will not be allowed to explore. If the group is large, be sure to get help from another fire fighter and divide the visitors into smaller groups. This will accomplish two things: participants will be able to see and hear better as they tour the station, and smaller groups are easier to control. It may be necessary to politely remind the adults to help supervise the children at various points during a visit. In Closing Gather the group together at the end of the tour rather than dismissing them without a formal conclusion. Thank everyone for visiting the firehouse, review the most important information, and ask if there are any questions. Of course, individual departments may have special touches to put on the tour, such as playing an educational and interactive game or taking a group picture and providing it for the leader of the group or displaying the photo on the wall of the firehouse for the year. Educator’s Tip To help improve future tours, develop a form or an online survey to send to the group leader after the tour as an evaluation tool. Personal Protective Equipment Fire fighters commonly don firefighting gear for school children and adults as part of station tours and at school visits and public events. These demonstrations are better appreciated when they are based on educational objectives and an appreciation for the characteristics of the audience. You should be able to explain the purpose, capabilities, limitations, and costs of the department’s personal protective equipment (PPE), the protective gear worn by fire fighters. Misconceptions perpetuated by the entertainment media may lead lay persons to believe that fire fighters can walk through fire, enter buildings with open jackets, and perform CPR while in the middle of a room full of flames. When describing a fire fighter’s gear to any age group, try to include all pieces of gear and equipment. This will help ensure a complete understanding of the need for the entire ensemble. Begin with the boots, turnout pants and suspenders, then move on to the turnout jacket, hood, helmet, gloves, and self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA), including the mask, in exactly the order they would be donned for a response to a call. Explain the reason each piece—the air tank, the mask, and the regulator—is necessary to fire fighters’ safety. Explaining the temperatures, physical demands, and structural safety issues fire fighters encounter in a fire is an important aspect of making PPE understandable for older children and adults. When demonstrating PPE, use clean items. If possible, maintain a designated set of gear that is used only for this purpose to avoid the spread of any contaminants. The following sections include guidelines and suggestions for working with various age groups when explaining PPE. Preschoolers The goal of this exercise is to allow children to meet fire fighters and become familiar and comfortable with them. Alleviate the “fear of the gear” so young children will not hide from fire fighters. This demonstration may be done in a classroom presentation or during a station tour. Here are some tips for conducting a demonstration for preschoolers: It is not necessary to go into the details of temperatures and structural safety issues with very young children. It is enough to explain that it is very hot in a fire and even fire fighters must wear special clothes to be able to help people. Allow young children to get to know a fire fighter first as a friendly community helper in Class B uniform, the daily work uniform of department personnel, before putting on the gear. Do not greet young children in full turnout gear, which includes the firefighting boots, pants, jacket, hood, gloves, and helmet, because it may be frightening for them. Remember that a scared child cannot learn. Attempt to put children at ease by squatting down or sitting at their eye level. If gear is kept in a bag, ask them to guess what might be inside. Have two children try to lift the bag to see how heavy it is. Then choose two children to come to the front of the group and unzip the gear bag to discover the contents. They can unveil the pieces and show them to their friends. Monitor this activity closely. If the gear is hanging on the wall, talk to the children about how important it is to hang it up so it is ready and the fire fighters know exactly where it is when they need it (“just like they hang their clothes up at home and at school!”) FIGURE 314. Make up a story about a person who needs help. Act out some of the things a fire fighter would do when the tones activate, putting on the gear during the narration of each action. Show each piece to the children and don the gear slowly to allow them to adjust to the transformation FIGURE 3-15. Allow children to help the fire fighter dress by choosing “helpers” one at a time to provide pieces of gear. As the child pulls out the hood, have some fun letting the children guess what it might be. Follow with an explanation of why it is important for fire fighters to wear it under the helmet. When donning the face piece for the SCBA, keep smiling. Go slowly! Humor can help. Be sure to get back down to their eye level when discussing this piece. Hold the mask up to the face, a few inches away, and ask if they can see the eyes and nose through the “window.” Remove it from the face so they can see it is still the friendly fire fighter. Ask if they are ready to see the mask worn the way it must be worn to keep fire fighters safe. Chances are there will be enough anticipation built up by now that they will be eager to see the fire fighter wear the mask. Realistic, child-size gear is available for purchase through fire service suppliers. Young children enjoy dressing up and playing make-believe. These sets of gear can be used during station tours or lent to preschool classes throughout the year. Be sure to remind children that only real fire fighters can wear their gear to fight fires, and that children’s gear is only for pretending to be fire fighters FIGURE 316. FIGURE 3-14 Children hang their clothes in their cubbies at school just as fire fighters do at the station. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 3-15 Allow children to adjust to the transformation from a fire fighter in Class B uniform to full turnout gear. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 3-16 Realistic, child-sized gear can be used during station tours, but be sure to remind children that only real fire fighters can wear their gear to fight fires. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Elementary School Students Depending on the maturity level of the children in the group, the general preschool format for demonstrating gear can be followed. It may not be necessary to include all the steps or to move quite as slowly as described above because the children are a little older and probably will not be quite as apprehensive. Continue to monitor the audience closely because all children mature at different rates and have had different life experiences that will affect their reaction to the information presented. The goal of the elementary school demonstration should also be to eliminate fear of the gear and to introduce some of the procedures fire fighters use while wearing the gear. Some children believe a fire fighter’s only job is to spray water on a fire. Review “get low and go” and reinforce this message by demonstrating that fire fighters must do the same even while wearing their gear. Some other tips for this age group are as follows: Educator’s Tip Programs such as Youth Firesetter Intervention or Car Seat Safety Inspections may be handled by other divisions of a department. Educators need to learn about these programs and investigate how they integrate with FLSE responsibilities. Introduce some of the basic tools used in the job of firefighting. Demonstrate the use of a Halligan tool in performing a search or prying open a door. Bring a pike pole and explain its use. Relate this demonstration to the importance of having a family escape plan and a family meeting place so they can get out of the house safely before fire fighters need to look for them and use these tools. Include a discussion of the personal alert safety system (PASS) device and explain the reason fire fighters need them. Prepare them for the loud noise and remain still to let them hear the screech. Discuss the purpose of teamwork in all fire fighters do. Draw an analogy to team sports and the buddy system when swimming. No matter what tools or equipment are demonstrated, be sure that the children understand that it is the fire fighter’s job to put out fires and to rescue people and pets. It is never the children’s job to put out fires, even though they are getting older. Upper Elementary Grades and Middle School Students The purpose of demonstrating the PPE for upper elementary and middle school children is to create an appreciation for the purpose of the gear in relation to the dangers of fire. Provide an explanation that carelessness and risk taking on their part can create a very dangerous situation for them and for fire fighters. Other demonstration suggestions for this age category are as follows: Allow a student to try on a set of clean gear and attempt to perform a simple physical task to gain an appreciation for the difficulty of working under conditions when the gear is necessary. Children should not be allowed to wear the helmet because of the risk of a neck injury. Some departments and schools are concerned about spreading head lice as well. Always check the department’s policy regarding allowing students to wear the gear. If possible, keep a clean set of gear designated specifically for education purposes. Make sure the task is simple enough that it does not create a safety hazard to the child or other children. It should be a short and simple exercise demanding just enough exertion and dexterity so the children can understand the clumsiness of the gear to appreciate the difficulty of performing the job under challenging conditions. If the department has a thermal imager, demonstrate this tool along with an explanation of how it works. Study the local school district’s middle school curriculum to see if there are subject areas in which this technology might be integrated with classroom lessons. Present facts about fire conditions, such as temperature, thickness and composition of smoke, falling objects, and flashover. This helps reinforce previously learned safety and fire science lessons. High School Students The purpose of demonstrating PPE for high school students is to create a better understanding of the career of a fire fighter. Discussions should include the consequences of risk taking; rapid spread of fire; and the students’ influence on family, friends, and the community. In addition, consider the following: This is a good opportunity to discuss the requirements for becoming a fire fighter, the physical demands of the job, training, opportunities for becoming a fire fighter, and cadet or Explorer programs. Include information about paramedic and EMT requirements and training. Discuss the fact that poor choices early in life can negatively affect eligibility and chances for this job later in their lives. Demonstrate the most commonly used tools necessary to do the job of firefighting. Allow students to safely participate in the demonstrations to reinforce the information. Provide instruction in the proper use of fire extinguishers. Before involving students in a demonstration, obtain permission from the department and the school. Have necessary waivers prepared and signed before the students participate. Adults and Older Adults The purpose of demonstrating the PPE for adults is to create an appreciation for the use of PPE, the conditions under which PPE must be used, the cost of outfitting personnel, and the limitations of PPE. Here are some considerations and tips for effectively demonstrating to adults: Adults need to know that even with gear on, fire fighters cannot walk through intense flames in a building to save family members and material possessions. The gear is not fireproof. Discuss the temperatures in a residential fire, fire safety practices at home, escape plans, residential sprinklers, and the types of training fire fighters need to perform the job. Have pamphlets or other handouts on these topics available to distribute during the visit. Discuss the ways adults can assist fire fighters during emergencies. They may have to learn how to do blanket drags in healthcare facilities or fire evacuations and disaster drills in schools or other places of employment. Adults are interested in learning how their tax dollars are spent. People may be unaware of the cost incurred by a department to completely outfit a fire fighter. The cost of various tools and vehicles can also be covered. Various regions of the country need to focus on tools, gear, and procedures specific to their practices and types of frequent calls FIGURE 3-17. Many great messages can be tied to other non-structural PPE, such as wildland gear, ice water rescue, hazmat, bike medics, and EMS gear. FIGURE 3-17 Older adults are interested in firehouse operations and have their own unique concerns. Provide hands-on experiences for them. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Wrap-Up © Greg Henry/ShutterStock, Inc. Summary Points Although it is not necessary to be an expert in all areas, safety educators should have a basic working knowledge of the entire department. This allows for the ability to answer questions for the public and provides a better understanding of how to help the department function better within the community. Educators must observe the landscape of their own communities and departments to ensure they are providing their public with the information that will most likely affect safety and awareness. People will have a greater appreciation for practicing fire safety and injury prevention after they are aware of the functions and divisions, strengths, and limitations of the fire department. The fire service has a history rich with traditions and customs. Safety educators will be asked about the origins of these legends and should be prepared to tell the stories behind them. Safety gear demonstrations are better appreciated when they are based on educational objectives and geared toward the audience type. Station tours are not simply “show and tell” events. Tours need to involve a systematic planning process and lesson plans for the purposes of safety, education, and effective public relations. Key Terms Advanced life support (ALS) A level of medical care that requires advanced procedures and skills on a patient involving invasive and noninvasive procedures, along with advanced medication administration. Basic life support (BLS) A level of basic medical care which is used for patients with life-threatening illness or injury until the patient can be given full medical care by more skilled personnel. Class B uniform The daily work uniform worn by department personnel. Halligan tool A 30-inch forged steel tool used primarily for prying. Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) Act that helps ensure that all medical records, medical billing, and patient records meet certain consistent standards with regard to documentation, handling, and privacy. Media packet A packet of information about the department’s organizational structure, chief officers, contact information, station locations, and divisions. Personal alert safety system (PASS) A device that emits a loud alert or warning that the wearer is motionless. Personal protective equipment (PPE) The gear fire fighters wear for protection while performing their job. Pike pole A tool with a 32-inch to 12-foot handle with a pike and hook on one end. Used for pulling ceilings or separating materials. Self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) Gear composed of an air tank, mask, and regulator. Thermal imager An instrument using infrared imaging and measurement to see and measure thermal energy emitted from an object or person. Often used by fire fighters to locate hot spots and victims. Traffic signal preemption system An encoded signal device emergency vehicles use to turn traffic signals green, providing them the right of way. Turnout gear Firefighting boots, pants, jacket, hood, gloves, and helmet. Review Questions 1. What are some common misconceptions the general public might have about fire service operations? 2. Why is it important to discuss EMS procedures and equipment along with firefighting gear and equipment? 3. List behaviors the general public can practice to help fire fighters and paramedics do their jobs. 4. List key points to be considered when developing station tour outlines for various age groups. 5. When demonstrating PPE to preschool children, what are some discussion points to be included? What are some behaviors to avoid? Critical Thinking 1. What current department codes or changes might affect the public’s understanding of the local department’s operations? How can you assist the fire department by incorporating information about these issues in presentations? 2. Think about the fire fighters in the department. Who would serve as good mentors for newer members as they learn to conduct station tours? 3. What is interesting or unique to the local fire station that might be of particular interest to the public during a tour? Does it house a piece of history, something made by a department member, a special award or memorial, a pet, or a tradition? How could they be incorporated as highlights to personalize a tour? Think About It and Make It Better Consider the following scenario for the local department. A class of first grade children is scheduled to visit the fire department as part of their “community helpers” unit. What questions could you ask the teacher when scheduling the tour to ensure a more successful visit? What additional messages or activities could you include in the normal tour outline to help fill their needs? If the children are the primary audience, what messages could you send home with them to reach the adults in the community as the secondary audience? What formats would be best for these messages? References 1. National Fire Protection Association. The U.S. Fire Service: Fire Department Calls. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2014. 2. International Association of Fire Chiefs, National Fire Protection Association. Fundamentals of Fire Fighter Skills, Evidence-Based Practices, Enhanced Third Edition. Burlington, MA. Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, 2017. 3. Ibid. Additional Resources Blumberg S. J. and Luke, J. V. “Wireless substitution: Early release of estimates form the National Health Interview Survey, JulyDecember 2013.” National Center for Health Statistics, July 2014. Available at http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhis.htm. Conway, F. W. Firefighting Lore. New Albany, IN: Squire Boone Village, 1993. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Fire in the United States 1995–2004, 14th ed. U.S. Washington, DC: Fire Administration/National Fire Data Center, 2007. International Association of Fire Chiefs, National Fire Protection Association. Fundamentals of Fire Fighter Skills, Evidence-Based Practices, Enhanced Third Edition. Burlington, MA. Jones & Bartlett Learning LLC, 2017. Gottschalk, J. Firefighting. New York: DK Publishing, 2002. Orsinger, T. A. The Firefighter’s Best Friend. Chicago: Lake Claremont Press, 2003. Treen, A. and Treen, E. The New Dalmatian: Coach Dog: Firehouse Dog. New York: Prentice Hall, 1992. CHAPTER 4: Learning Styles and Theories, Teaching Methods, and Strategies Paper: © silver–john/ShutterStock, Inc.; Chapter Opener Photo: © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the reasons fire and life safety educators benefit from a basic understanding of learning styles and types of learning when preparing to address an audience. (pp. 82–84) Differentiate between active and passive learning. NFPA 4.1.1 (p. 83) Identify the three domains of learning. NFPA 4.1.1 (p. 84) List the three basic learning styles and describe the characteristics of each. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 84–85) Discuss several learning preferences and types of teaching strategies to accommodate the needs of each preference. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 84–87) Identify Dr. Howard Gardner’s eight intelligences and how each one influences learning. (pp. 85–86) Summarize several conditions that may affect student and audience learning and discuss how educators can maximize teaching in these circumstances. NFPA 4.1.1, 4.4.3, 4.4.4 (pp. 86–88) Describe the tasks involved in teaching. (pp. 87–92) Compare teaching as a fire and life safety educator with teaching as a classroom teacher. (pp. 87–88) List various types of teaching methodologies and summarize the advantages and disadvantages of each. (pp. 92–100) Discuss components of a teaching session that ensures more effective teaching and learning. NFPA 4.4.3, 4.4.4 (pp. 88–90) Identify several teaching strategies that are effective for specific age groups, classroom settings, and instructional objectives. NFPA 4.4.3, 4.4.4 (pp. 92–100) Define teaching strategies such as wait time, teachable moment, and anticipatory set and how they positively affect a teaching situation. (pp. 89, 91) Summarize a list of teaching tips and practices and how they can be used by fire and life safety educators to improve teaching techniques. NFPA 4.4.3, 4.4.4 (pp. 103–105) Identify classroom management skills that help control the learning environment by getting participants on task and maximizing learning for all attendees. (pp. 100–101) Introduction All too often, discussions about teaching center on the instructor, the materials, and the teaching methods to be used, with little talk about the learners. But good teaching and learning will take place only if the characteristics and needs of the learners are taken into consideration before any planning or preparations are developed. Individuals learn in different ways, at different levels, at different rates, and for different reasons. Fire and life safety educators do not have the luxury of knowing each member of their audience, but an awareness that every person comes to an educational setting with different skills, needs, and aptitudes will help educators prepare information in a manner that will maximize their ability to reach the diverse needs of the greatest number of students. Active and Passive Learning “Learning is not a spectator sport. Students do not learn much just by sitting in class listening to teachers, memorizing repackaged assignments, and spitting out answers. They must talk about what they are learning, write about it, relate it to past experience, and apply it to their daily lives. They must make what they learn part of themselves.”1 Think about teaching and learning. What comes to mind first? Probably a scene where students are seated in rows, focused on an instructor, occasionally looking at a whiteboard or overhead presentation—boredom, fatigue, and apathy. Contrast this picture with a classroom where students and instructor are engaged equally, the teacher facilitating the work of the students who are working in groups and practicing a skill—energy, synergy, and excitement. Passive learning requires little involvement on the part of the student. Learners simply receive information by listening, watching, reading, or observing. The instructor disseminates information and is at the center of activity. Passive involvement leads to limited retention of knowledge by students. Unfortunately, this is the most common type of learning that takes place when visiting educators address a group. Constraints of limited time, money, and experience dictate a pattern of instructor-centered teaching that provides the least effective avenue for retention. A certain amount of passive learning must take place, but this is best when combined with more active methods. Active learning is anything students do more than simply receiving instruction and passively listening to a lecture or watching a movie. Students are required to participate by reading, writing, discussing, solving problems, and engaging in higherlevel thinking. Responsibility for learning is the responsibility of both the instructor and the student. Activities may include group discussion, questioning, brainstorming, problem solving, participation in demonstrations, or a variety of other hands-on techniques for involvement. Lessons involving active, student-centered learning take more planning and organization but are almost always worth the effort in the end. There are simple ways active learning experiences can be added to your repertoire without creating undue stress on budgets or time. Examples of these ideas will be presented throughout the text. Although ample evidence supports a preference for active learning for better attention and retention, it should be noted that everyone is an active learner at some times and a passive learner at other times. Active learners may prefer to work with others and apply or explain the information as soon as possible, but passive learners would prefer to think things through first or work alone. No one manifests the same preference 100 percent of the time. Edgar Dale’s Cone of Experience One of the earliest graphics representing the amount of retention based on the level of involvement during learning is the Edgar Dale Cone of Experience. Edgar Dale, a professor of education at Ohio State University, developed the model in 1946. It was published in his book, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching (3rd edition) in 1969 FIGURE 4-1. Over the years, people have taken liberties with his research by adding academically unsupported percentages to the original graphic, but even Dale’s original research supports the theory that the more active the involvement of the learner, the greater their retention of the subject matter. The least effective method, the top of the cone, involves learning from information presented solely through verbal symbols (i.e., listening to spoken words). The most effective method, the bottom of the cone, involves direct, purposeful learning experiences, such as handson or field experiences. FIGURE 4-1 Edgar Dale’s original Cone of Experience represents the amount of message retention based on the level of involvement of the learner. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. It follows, then, that moving from passive to more active learning and adjusting teaching methods and student activities along that spectrum will increase the level of retention for learners. If, as safety educators, we have only one opportunity to touch the lives of people in our communities, then keeping this information in mind when designing and adapting presentations will increase the possibility that our messages will be taken home rather than left at the door. Note The American Heart Association’s (AHA) CPR classes make effective use of this technique: graduating from passive to active learning. The Three Domains of Learning In 1956, Benjamin Bloom, an educational psychologist from the University of Chicago, identified three domains, or categories, of types of learning: cognitive (mental skills and knowledge), affective (feeling or emotion areas and attitudes), and psychomotor (manual or physical skills). Each of these domains is further broken down into subdivisions, moving from the simplest behavior to the most complex, with extensive work in the area of cognitive learning. Although there are many other systems, theories, and hierarchies that have been researched and published by the academic world, Bloom’s taxonomy continues to be one of the most easily understood and most widely applied in education today. For the purpose of this chapter, it is introduced as a reminder that learners come to all situations processing information through each of these domains. Some fire and life safety messages will best be taught by applying the knowledge through one domain or another or by appealing to all three domains at the same time for best message retention. Educator’s Tip “Get low and go under smoke” is a message that can be taught through all three domains for greater impression on the learner. Cognitive skills are required to understand that smoke and heat rise; therefore, occupants need to stay low under the smoke to escape safely. Psychomotor skills are required to practice the act of getting low enough to remain under the smoke. Affective skills are required to understand the “why” of learning how to escape from fires, including the emotional impact of not being able to escape; the realization that although people will be scared, they must remain calm; and the emotional trauma the disfiguration of burns brings to its victims. Learning through the Senses: Three Learning Styles Everyone takes in information through the senses—seeing, hearing, tasting, smelling, and touching. It follows then that this is also how we learn. Educators have long identified learning styles as preferred ways of learning and the way each learner concentrates, processes, absorbs, and retains new and different information.2 One of the most common ways to categorize learning styles is based on three of the senses, auditory, visual, and tactile or kinesthetic. Most people have an innate preference for learning by one of these styles over another, although everyone possesses a degree of each style depending on the subject matter and other extrinsic factors. Some lessons lend themselves more easily to one or more learning styles, but it is worthwhile to remember that the other learning styles need to be accommodated when possible by differentiating instruction. The motivation to learn is enhanced when students learn through their stronger learning styles. Educators should remember that the more modalities used to store information, the more pathways available to access the information in the future. It is not necessary to provide separate lessons for each modality nor a single lesson that includes activities catering to all modalities. Be careful when choosing materials and activities to support your lessons; too many visuals, activities, and active experiences in one session will clutter the message and confuse the learner. The information in this section should simply serve as awareness that all three styles exist and should be accommodated whenever possible. In auditory learning, people learn through listening. Educational settings have typically rewarded these types of learners by dominating the scene with lecture and listening. These learners learn best through the use of songs, active listening activities, stories, debates, discussions, talking things through, and listening to what others have to say. They interpret underlying meanings through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed, and other nuances. Visual learners learn by seeing. Graphic representations such as charts and graphs, photographs, slide shows, diagrams, animations, videos, and reading material are all favored by visual learners. Seeing the teacher’s body language and facial expressions helps these learners to fully understand the content of a lesson. These types of learners like to sit in a position where their view of the instruction is not obstructed. They often prefer to take detailed notes to help them absorb information. Many people are visual learners; keep this in mind when preparing materials to support a presentation. Try It—It Works! When using a DVD to teach a lesson, divide a piece of paper into four quadrants. Based on the most important points in the DVD, develop five questions and reproduce all five questions on each of the quadrants. Cut the paper into quarters. Before playing the DVD, distribute the questions and pencils. Discuss the upcoming messages in the DVD, and ask the participants to write down the answers to the questions as they are revealed. Have the audience look for particular items or events. This will help to keep their attention during the video, and ensure they are focusing on the main points. In tactile and kinesthetic learning, people learn by touching and doing. They benefit through moving, doing, touching, and whole-body movement. They learn best through a hands-on approach, including activities such as role play involvement, demonstrations, interviews, activities at a whiteboard, and actively exploring the physical surroundings. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods of time and may become distracted by a need to move around or engage in activities. One drawback for these learners is that it is usually necessary for them to learn auditorily or visually first before trying it out through their favored modality. Having said that, remember that everyone possesses a blend of learning styles, with a general preference for one over the other. It is not as if they are incapable of learning through the other styles. Try It—It Works! Fortunately for the fire service, many of the behaviors educators teach lend themselves to all three styles of learning. When visitors go to the firehouse for tours or presentations, they have the advantage of hearing the message, seeing equipment and visual aids, physically touching certain items in their surroundings, practicing physical skills, and walking from one piece of equipment to another. Keep these learning styles in mind when conducting tours; allow participants an enriched experience by using activities that accommodate all learning styles. The visit will be more enjoyable for everyone involved. In his article “Three Learning Styles… Four Steps to Reach Them,” Kevin Mixon presents a teaching sequence that accounts for all three types of learners when introducing new material to his music students. All learners benefit from the steps as the teaching sequence begins with introductory material (auditory), followed by a demonstration or other visual examples and finally a tactile or kinesthetic exercise to reinforce understanding and memory retrieval. In short, his sequence can be summed up by hear it, see it, show it, do it. Although he developed his sequence for music education, it serves as a good model for a teaching sequence in other subjects. TABLE 4-1 shows an adaptation of Mixon’s learning styles teaching sequence for safety educators. Using this strategy ensures that more of the methods encouraged by the Edgar Dale model are incorporated for better message retention. Many instructional strategies are available that lend themselves to enhanced learning for participants who fall into each of the three learning style categories. TABLE 4-1 Mixon’s Teaching Sequence 1. Hear It — Introduce and engage auditory learners through verbal instruction, class discussion, questioning techniques, or storytelling. 2. See It — Get the visual learners on board through pictures, graphs, drawings, graphic organizers, or movies/DVDs. 3. Show It — Engage both auditory and visual learners by introducing a demonstration along with narration and critical thinking questions. 4. Do It — Enrich the experience for tactile/kinesthetic learners’ benefit as audience participants practice skills through bodily movements, writing, participating in demonstrations, role playing, and hands-on activities. Source: Data from Three Learning Styles . . . Four Steps to Reach Them, Kevin Mixon, Teaching Music; Feb 2004, Vol. 11 Issue 4, pp. 48–52. Try It—It Works! Tell a class of students the story of a serious residential fire (auditory). Bring in a few melted items for them to see (visual). Allow the students to touch the melted items and get a sense of the damage done to hard plastic items after only a few minutes of exposure. Then ask everyone to feel the skin on their face and describe how it feels (tactile and kinesthetic). Compare the two tactile experiences. This should help drive home the point that there is little time to gather personal items when a fire occurs. This activity is not recommended for very young children. Use discretion when deciding to present this lesson and talk to the classroom teacher first. Learning through Multiple Intelligences In 1983, the theory of multiple intelligences was introduced by Dr. Howard Gardner of Harvard University in Frames of Mind. Until that time, the traditional measure of intelligence was IQ testing. Dr. Gardner proposed seven different intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults. He later added an eighth. As with learning styles, most people have a combination of strengths and weaknesses among the intelligences. An awareness of this theory provides yet one more way for educators to understand the diversity of skills, interests, and aptitudes their audiences bring to a classroom. Educators familiar with the many preferences for taking in information can begin to identify and create richer, real-world activities that will stimulate learning and appeal to a greater number of participants. TABLE 42 provides an overview of Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences. TABLE 4-2 Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Intelligence Strengths Linguistic Ability to understand the meaning and order of, and use of, spoken and written communication. Logical- Ability to understand and use logic and numerical symbols and Mathematical complex logical operations. Musical Ability to understand and use such concepts as rhythm, pitch, melody, and harmony, and to create music. Spatial Ability to orient and manipulate three-dimensional space, ability to think in pictures. Bodily- Ability to coordinate physical movement and use one’s body in a skilled kinesthetic way, for self-expression or toward a goal. Naturalistic Ability to distinguish and categorize objects or phenomena in nature; ability to recognize cultural artifacts. Interpersonal Ability to understand and interact well with other people, an ability to perceive and understand other individual’s moods desires, and motivations. Intrapersonal Ability to understand and use one’s thoughts, feelings, preferences; an understanding of one’s own emotions. Existential Ability to contemplate phenomena or questions beyond sensory data, such as the infinite and infinitesimal. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Other Types of Learning The field of education is rich with research and data concerning learning and teaching theories. It is impossible and unnecessary to provide a complete review of these theories here. However, it is worth noting that many more theories about types of learning and how to accommodate their needs exist. For example, some people prefer to learn in a linear, sequential order; others prefer to learn more globally, in bigger chunks, grasping the bigger picture and backtracking to figure out how they pieced the information together. Some learners thrive on learning and memorizing facts and retrieving details from memory; others prefer innovation and abstract ideas. One way of learning is no better than another, but some people excel at particular types of classes because they are predisposed to learn in alignment with the course content and arrangement of instruction. Learning styles and preferences aside, it is important as an educator to provide an environment of authentic learning if the desired outcome is for the information to “hit home” and make an impact on students that will move them to action. Authentic learning “allows students to explore, discover, discuss, and meaningfully construct concepts and relationships in contexts that involve real-world problems and projects that are relevant and of interest to the learner.”3 This means that students must be engaged, examples center around real-life scenarios students can relate to, and demonstrations and assignments have meaning and center on authentic tasks. Just as all fire and life safety educators hope for their messages, authentic learning will produce students who form direct connections and take the information to the world beyond the classroom (e.g., their homes). They will use the key ideas in situations that demonstrate a deeper understanding and practical application. “When students begin to inquire about how the information impacts their own families, homes, and friends, you have evidence that authentic learning has taken place.”4 What Learning Styles and Domains Mean for Educators An awareness of learning domains, styles, and intelligences is important to understanding an audience. The principles of authentic learning are fundamental to making sure messages are internalized and practiced in everyday life. What else should you consider about your audience before you begin teaching? Other than generalizations about learning theories, how can you know more about the groups seated in front of you? Consider the following points and think about how they can be applied in your work with the public: Identification. Can the learners identify with you as their speaker? What do you have in common? Creating this connection at the beginning of a presentation will help make the subject more meaningful for the learners. Do you have children their age? Are you a member of the church where you are speaking? Did you both experience a similar situation recently? What else might you have in common to help make a connection? Relevance. Everyone learns more when the concepts are personally meaningful to them. Working through the affective domain helps to make the content of your presentation more meaningful to an audience. Parents will care about information that helps them keep their children safe; children will tune in if you are providing information that protects their pets and friends; teachers will engage more readily if your information can be integrated with their curriculum. Readiness to learn. Where is this group functioning cognitively? It is important that the information you disseminate is neither above nor below their ability to process and understand the concepts. Find out what they already know. What kinds of prior learning experiences has this group had in this subject? Work with a teacher ahead of time or ask a few simple questions at the beginning of a presentation to get a feel for the group’s knowledge, opinions, questions, or concerns about the topic FIGURE 4-2. Climate. In this context, climate refers to the social or emotional status of the audience. It is difficult to learn when distractions interfere with the ability to focus on new information. Audiences need either time or an interim activity to adjust to a new subject, speaker, or atmosphere. Consider these types of situations when planning your introductory material: Has an elementary class just returned from an exciting assembly, field trip, recess, or gym? Have some of the students in a middle school audience recently been counseled through your juvenile fire setter intervention program? Has the fire department recently been the subject of a hotly contested debate over the way a call was handled, making this a hostile audience? Do the members of an older adult audience hold the fire department in high esteem because of their association with members assisting them on medical calls? People learn best in an environment of high challenge and low threat. Find out as much as possible about your students in an effort to maximize this condition. Motivation to learn. The more learners are motivated to learn, the more they will retain. Provide goals, challenge, comfort, and confidence; pique their curiosity. Allow the learners to have some control over their environment and their activities. Include a bit of fiction and fantasy to which they can connect the real world at the conclusion of the class or session. Rewards and other incentives can be powerful motivators for young children to complete assignments that reinforce learning. After a fire. The timing of a presentation in coordination with a local fire can work for or against learning receptiveness. Many departments have found success by launching a neighborhood campaign immediately after a fire. While the devastation is fresh in the minds of neighbors, a town meeting can have a powerful impact as educators discuss how to prevent a recurrence from happening to others. On the other hand, capitalizing on a family’s loss in their own backyard can be considered thoughtless; be sure to use tact in handling this situation. It may be too soon to discuss a fire in any context if very young children were involved in the fire and are now members of the audience. Physical conditions. All age groups have difficulty learning if they are physically uncomfortable. Last-minute adjustments may have to be made if the room is overcrowded, the weather is uncooperative, or the presentation has been scheduled for an inconvenient time of day. Be cognizant of these conditions and do what you can to make the audience comfortable. Try changing the direction of the seating arrangement, moving to another room in the building, or shortening the presentation. Be flexible, if necessary, to accommodate the audience’s needs. Examples, analogies, and metaphors. The cold, hard facts are important, and objectives need to be simple, clear, and concise. But examples, analogies, and brief stories will help learners assimilate information and retain important information. Keep in mind that some examples and analogies used in talk around the fire station might not be appropriate and may be potentially misunderstood by the public. The melting pot. Very few audiences are composed of a single learning profile. Diverse cultural backgrounds, preconceived attitudes and opinions, a variety of life experiences, and a diversity of physical and cognitive levels may all be involved in and bringing their histories into a learning setting. Be aware that all participants must be able to interpret the meaning of your messages in a way that makes sense to each of them. Educators must understand the need to incorporate cultural competence in their lessons. FIGURE 4-2 Talk to teachers during the planning phase to ensure that messages and proposed teaching methods are age appropriate and culturally sensitive and to learn of any unique individual learner characteristics. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. What Is Teaching? The mediocre teacher tells. The good teacher explains. The superior teacher demonstrates. The great teacher inspires.—William A. Ward Teaching and learning go hand in hand. We’ve discussed the importance of understanding the characteristics of learners before beginning the process of teaching. We now turn our attention to teaching—methods, strategies, effective techniques and practices, and classroom management skills. The goals of teaching safety are to change behaviors and increase understanding. Ask any educator the question, “What is teaching?” and you will receive about as many answers as the number of people asked. For the sake of this text, teaching is defined by a summary of ideas from educators and experts in the field of education. Teaching is an art, a science, a passion, and—it can be fun. Effective teaching relies on oral, interpersonal, social, organizational, counseling, and improvisational skills. In the blink of an eye, the educator becomes coach, actor, counselor, confidant, mediator, cheerleader, or parent figure. Performed correctly, the job requires empathy, sympathy, objectivity, sensitivity, fairness, determination, perseverance, goal setting, long- and short-term planning, flexibility, a sense of humor, confidence, compassion, and discipline. Each teaching moment can be intrinsically rewarding, challenging, and uniquely satisfying. But these moments can also bring frustration, sadness, anger, concern, and some frightening realities that change our preconceived ideas. A teacher is a facilitator of learning, believing in learners and enabling learners to reach their full potential. There are no accurate words that can truly describe the essence and pure joy of teaching like the moment a teacher sees the “Ah-ha” in a student’s eyes in response to a flash of learning or arriving at a goal they achieved together. What Teaching Means for Life Safety Educators Classroom teachers have the benefit of getting to know every student in their class during the course of an academic year. This includes a knowledge of the friends, family, learning styles, and strengths and weaknesses of each pupil. This information allows the teacher to build lessons and enrichment activities for individual students and to design teaching methods and materials that cater to the composition of their class. Fire and life safety educators who walk into classrooms, adult audiences, assemblies, and other public speaking engagements do not have this edge. The sea of faces looking back at them may appear to be a very homogenous group; however, within the audience there may exist physical and cognitive disabilities, cultural differences, language barriers, or previous social and emotional experiences that predispose learners to feel fear, disgust, or elation in reaction to the speaker’s arrival. As with a working knowledge of learning characteristics, a foundation of basic information about educational methodologies will help you to accommodate a greater number of these differences and teach more effectively and enjoyably. Life Safety Educators’ Advantages As guest speakers, whether in a classroom or boardroom, fire and life safety educators have several advantages. For the most part, the general public views the fire service in a positive light. Safety educators are seen as ambassadors from an agency that provides assistance in times of need. They are regarded as experts in a field that has value and importance to every person’s life and to the community. Success is already built into teaching at a local school because the guest speaker is a novelty and a welcome departure from the same teacher students face every day. New information is presented by someone with real-life experiences who actually works in the profession. The examples, stories, and visual aids fire and life safety educators use are the “real thing.” As previously discussed in learning characteristics, students of all ages relate to the instructor and connect with the information when more than one learning domain and a variety of learning styles are called forth. Keeping this in mind, you have access to many resources that will help maximize teaching effectiveness. The Foundation of an Effective Teaching Session Think back to classes you have taken throughout your life, both as a child and as an adult. Why is it that some classes seemed to run smoothly and have a logical order to the presentation but others were “all over the place?” In the latter type of classes, you walked out of the room not knowing exactly what it was you were supposed to take away from the session. The difference was, most likely, because of the presentation skills, planning and organization, or the level of experience of the instructor. As a safety educator, you can learn these skills to provide instruction that works for your audiences. Many of the most important aspects of teaching take place long before stepping foot in a classroom. Theories, methods, and strategies for teaching abound in the world of education. All successful teaching follows some preplanned sequence of steps. Well-organized lessons enable students to focus on key ideas and concentrate on their relevance to their own lives. Random shotgun approaches confuse students and prevent the important progression of one idea to another. One of the most widely accepted and easily understood teaching models is the Hunter model. Madeline Hunter’s lesson plan is still effective today and can be used for all age groups. Hunter suggested various elements that when incorporated into lesson planning, provide effective instruction. The steps provide a useful structure but are not intended to be so structured that every step must occur in every lesson. The steps in Hunter’s model are practical and help instructors coach participants through learning and guide them toward achievement. Both novice and seasoned instructors can use the theory successfully as a foundation for teaching. The more experience educators gain, the more they will begin to individualize teaching and will be able to use the steps to conform to their unique style. TABLE 4-3 provides a summary of the Hunter model. TABLE 4-3 Teaching to an Objective: “The Madeline Hunter Model” 1. Define the Teaching Objectives 2. Standards and Expectations 3. Anticipatory Set/Hook 4. Teaching a. Input b. Modeling/Demonstration c. Direction Giving d. Check for Understanding 5. Guided Practice/Monitoring 6. Closure 7. Independent Practice Whether an educator is presenting a single stand-alone presentation or a series of lessons within a curriculum, the foundation for any format is always the objectives. In simplest terms, the objectives are precisely what the student should be able to do, understand, or care about as a result of the teaching. The objectives are the core of what the instructor hopes students take away from their time together. For example, if the fire department wants older adults to improve their safety by alleviating home clutter, setting up their homes to avoid tripping hazards, and developing safer cooking habits, these three behaviors become the objectives of the program. The objectives determine the methods, visuals, handouts, and messages that will become the components of teaching. Always start with the objectives—what you want the participants to be able to do, change, or understand. Students should know the standards and expectations of the instructor. Sometime near the beginning of a lesson, the instructor should provide an explanation of the type of lesson to be presented, procedures to be followed, and behavioral expectations related to the experience. What are students accountable for, and in what manner will it be demonstrated? As an example of setting expectations, an educator explaining evacuation procedures to representatives from tenant suites in a high-rise building might include an explanation at the beginning of the presentation emphasizing that the attendees at the session are the linking pin from the fire department to all other employees in the buildings. They will be expected to disseminate the information through e-mail, staff meetings, message boards, or other communication vehicles to ensure that everyone learns the fire department’s messages. You can’t catch the fish without first setting the hook! When an educator walks into a room, the students already have many things going through their minds, including events that took place before they arrived, anticipation of what the class will bring, and where they are going afterward. Some are sleepy, angry, moody, or otherwise distracted. They need to be able to sift through all of this and latch onto a “hook” that will make new information relevant. Hunter talked about the importance of an anticipatory set as a way of helping students attend to the relevant data of the upcoming instruction. Before charging forward with the lesson, set the stage for learning by asking participants to recall previous information or experiences, ask focusing questions, prepare an activity for predicting outcomes, or relate upcoming information to a story or analogy. An anticipatory set increases the likelihood that students will attend to the critical information. Earlier in this chapter, the idea of providing a list of questions before showing a DVD or highlighting points in an upcoming presentation the students should listen for will help keep them focused on the important points. Try It—It Works! When students come to the station for a tour, provide them with a colorful checklist of things to listen and look for during their visit as an anticipatory set. Questions on the list may include: How many exit signs did you see in the firehouse? Was there a telephone in the ambulance? Was there a smoke alarm close to the kitchen? This list can also serve as a review before they leave the station, and it will reveal the level of concentration that existed during the tour—another form of evaluation. Determine what is unique to your station that could be included on the scavenger hunt. The next step in the Hunter model is teaching or presentation. Many untrained educators jump directly to this step without first engaging the audience, which only makes the job of teaching more difficult. Within this step are four components: input, modeling, directions, and checking for understanding. Input is providing information the students need to gain the knowledge or skill through lecture, pictures, video, audio tape, charts, graphs, and so on. After the material has been presented, the instructor should model or demonstrate the skill or show an example of a finished product. It is important to allow students to participate in this phase of the process by drawing, labeling, summarizing, or practicing with the instructor. This can be accomplished by inviting one attendee to represent the class in front of the others to help demonstrate the new skills or knowledge. It is recommended that when giving directions, they should be broken down into steps, giving no more than three steps at a time (only one step at a time if the behavior is new). Be sure to give the directions visually as well as orally and do so just before the activity to avoid any extraneous information from interfering with learning. Before proceeding with the rest of the lesson, stop to check for understanding by asking questions or allowing time for participants to practice the newly learned material or skill. As students practice the skill, the instructor should walk around the room to determine the level of mastery and make sure any misconceptions are cleared up before moving on. The summary or closure to a learning session is sometimes neglected because instructors put all their effort into the front end of teaching. A solid closure activity is essential for several reasons: It will help organize the students’ learning, reinforcing major points; it clarifies key points, ties up loose ends, and eliminates fears, confusion, and frustration. Additionally, the instructor can again make connections between the importance of the information and the students’ lives. Depending on the nature of the closure activity, it may serve as an informal evaluation tool. Finally, the educator should provide an extension activity for independent practice, such as a home inspection checklist, home escape plan, interactive parent–child worksheets, individual worksheets, or an activity to test home smoke alarms. Although the Hunter model provides a logical and practical formula for presenting a lesson, the reader is encouraged to investigate other teaching models. All lesson plans will be designed to fit a particular timeframe. Within the lesson plan, each of the previously described elements will be assigned an approximate amount of time to be dedicated to that portion of the lesson. It is essential that these time increments are carefully constructed so the students and teachers have enough time during the class to complete all of the steps. The instructor will need to monitor the time throughout instruction to ensure the lesson is on track. Instructors may need to make adjustments to time allotments, content, visual aids, or room setup based on the composition of the class. The more proficient and experienced an instructor becomes, the more likely it is that he or she will feel comfortable trying various methods and combining the best of all strategies to develop an individual style. What else makes a teaching session effective? During the presentation, energize the group, move around the room, use visuals, and engage in active dialogue rather than delivering a scripted presentation. At this point, you may be envisioning a teacher riding a unicycle and spinning plates on his head while teaching a class. This is definitely not what you want to portray. In fact, an overenthusiastic instructor is most certainly destined to confuse and frustrate students by bombarding their senses with too much stimuli. Remember that visuals and props are meant to support a message; they are not the message. Are there other things successful educators do to facilitate effective teaching? Every educator has a unique bag of tricks, but some traits are consistent with teaching environments that ensure success. Before walking into a room, an educator must believe that everyone will contribute in some way during the session. Any distractions or frustrations the educator is experiencing must be left at the door. For the duration of the session, the focus should be on the participants. This will all make the job of teaching easier. Even if it seems that some attendees are disinterested or bored, the educator cannot feed into this attitude. For the sake of all others in attendance, the educator must avoid downplaying the material or devaluing the mission of the lesson. If the audience senses that the instructor believes the information is silly or unimportant, there is little chance for buy-in on the participants’ part. If the educator belittles the material, the rest of the group will soon follow. Other teaching techniques for success include: Have a backup plan. Projectors break, students are unpredictable, a room may be reassigned, or the weather may not cooperate. Having a plan B is essential. Build time into the schedule for questions and answers. This is often where the greatest learning takes place for both the teacher and the students. Set the stage for questions. Encourage everyone to ask questions but announce any topics that are off limits for this particular session. At various intervals, let the group know how many questions you will you take before moving on. Advise the participants that if you do not have the answers to their questions, you will be happy to get back to them after doing some investigating. Build in success for students. Begin with easier questions and tasks to build confidence. Most people will be more willing to take a risk during the class if they have already experienced some success and acceptance. Build from the simple to more complex. Understand the system in which you are presenting. What are their time constraints? Does the building policy require that you sign in upon arrival? Are there particular titles that should be used when addressing various individuals? Will you need a translator, an amplifier, or someone to use sign language so everyone in the group benefits? Is particular language inappropriate in this situation? Do your homework, assess the class, and read the room. Educator’s Tip When visiting a school, be aware of the rules posted for students and follow the rules yourself as a good role model. For example, if students are not allowed to chew gum in school, neither should the instructor. If students are not allowed to sit on desks or countertops, neither should you. Be observant and respectful. You can’t move forward until you look back. One last—but very important—step in teaching is reflection. Reflection is a conscious and purposeful self-observation and mental process of thinking, reasoning, and examining thoughts and feelings. Everyone is busy, and it is common to complete one task and move right on to the next without looking back. Good teaching means taking a close look at what worked and what did not seem to go smoothly. We need to evaluate the learning, but we also need to evaluate the teaching to improve for the next time. If, upon reflection, you realize that you went over the allotted time, everyone left the take-home exercises in the room, or only a small percentage of attendees participated in the exercise during the practice session, then the lesson needs to be revisited and adjusted for the future. On the same note, what were the successes? What worked well? Remember those techniques and make sure to incorporate them in future presentations. Voice of Experience Before my career as a public safety educator, I was an elementary teacher at a Montessori School—a school that follows the methods of Dr. Maria Montessori and offers a hands-on and active approach to learning. I try to incorporate these methods into what I do now because life safety education is so important that I want to do my absolute best to reach everyone. One example of something hands-on I do is the “Hot Things Burn” lesson I conduct with preschoolers to help them identify which items are safe to touch and which aren’t. I know kids at this age are easily distracted and their minds and bodies are moving so quickly that I have only a small window of opportunity to catch them with the message that in fact, hot things burn. I start out by sitting down on the floor, to get down at the children’s eye level. This works better than standing over them, because then they can more easily identify with me. Then I define my space, laying out a solid color bath towel or small rug in front of me. I have a collection of items for this lesson including: candy, a book, a stuffed animal, a saucepan, a curling iron, a match book, long fireplace matches, a candle, and a few different lighters, including novelty lighters. I prefer to bring the actual items rather than pictures. I spread the items out across the towel or the rug and I ask that everyone enjoy it with their eyes and not their hands. Then I ask them to identify “What’s hot and what’s not?” by taking turns and placing a blue or red construction paper circle beside an object—I ask them to put the blue next to items that are safe to touch and red next to those that could be hot. I do not let them “touch” the objects because I am trying to instill in them the behavior of “do not touch hot things.” I always speak positively to the students even if they put the wrong color circle beside an object and talk them through until they make a correct choice. If they put a red circle beside the teddy bear, I ask them why they think the teddy bear is hot. They may answer with something like; “… because it was left out in the sun.” Then I can talk a little about the fact that it wouldn’t burn you like an iron or toaster or candle. I end the lesson by teaching them a song I made up called “Hot Things Burn,” to the tune of “Hot Cross Buns,” which keeps them entertained but also repeats the message. Preschool children love to sing and they need to move, so teaching them a simple song to a tune they already know and giving them some simple motions to put with it increases the chance that they will remember the lesson. The “active” lessons I have given the children have been popular. On return visits, children will ask for repeated lessons or to sing songs we’ve learned before. It is a good feeling to know that I am doing something the children actually “like” to do, and it is an even greater reward to know how important these messages will be to these children. —Maria Bostian, Public Safety Educator, Kannapolis Fire Department, NC What Do Good Teachers Do? What sets a good instructor apart from a mediocre one? Resources, methods, and data are easily accessible to everyone these days. Yet there are those who seem to have an innate ability to impart that knowledge; others struggle to get through a short teaching session. There is certainly an element of truth to the idea that some people are naturally good teachers. But it is possible for anyone to improve his or her teaching abilities. Observe effective teachers and you will notice similarities that can be added to your arsenal of teaching tricks. One of the first things a good instructor will do is to establish connections and build a rapport with students. These instructors rarely dig right into the course content without first setting the stage for learning. This can be as simple as asking questions to learn about the members of the group, or engaging everyone in an activity that literally gets them up and on their feet to build the energy in the room. The level of activity should depend on the characteristics of both the audience and the content of the lesson. Build on this momentum by relating the material to the student’s lifestyle throughout the lesson; material will be learned and retained more easily. In an effort to relate to the audience, first bridge the gap between theory and practice by immersing oneself in the field. Talk to and consult with practitioners, visit with older adults, liaison with other cultural communities, and involve individuals with disabilities in planning the messages for their community. It is always the objectives that drive the lesson. Good instructors will keep the objectives in mind and avoid cluttering the students’ minds by rambling onto irrelevant topics and stories. However, there is a balance between maintaining the original flow of a lesson plan and being able to adjust to circumstances that call for flexibility and the ability to deviate from the schedule. There will be times that educators are confronted with teachable moments when students are interested to learn and ask pointed questions. At these times, instructors must seize the moment in quick response to the need of a learner; the student is ready to learn. Examples and stories are a part of effective teaching but only if they are relevant to the topic. As much as possible, integrate information about current events and relate local stories to those happening more globally. Good teachers continually monitor the material and time during a lesson to ensure the objectives will be met and the agreed-upon schedule is honored. At the same time, the audience must be monitored for boredom, restlessness, fatigue, and comprehension. Build periodic breaks into longer sessions or shift plans to rearrange components of the presentation if it makes sense to do so. Continually assess the group by scanning their faces, asking questions, and observing their body language. Educator’s Tip Scan the audience and watch their facial expressions. If an individual has a puzzled or conflicted expression, stop and ask a question to clarify the issue. An educator who was teaching preschoolers to stay away from matches, lighters, and gasoline noticed that a very young girl had a worried look on her face. When asked if there was a problem, she explained that her mom put Vaseline® on her lips every morning before school. She had obviously confused the term gasoline with Vaseline®. If the educator had not been watching the children’s faces closely, she would have missed this cue and sent home a very confused student. Successful instructors model their messages during presentations through anecdotes or examples or by physically demonstrating the actions to be taken. They prompt students to walk through the examples with them through a series of questions. The best questions to get students to use higher-order thinking are those that require more than a “yes” or “no” answer. For example, instead of asking older adults, “Do you think it is okay to leave food cooking for a few minutes when you go to another room?” it would be better to ask, “What kinds of things could happen if someone left food cooking on the stove while they left the room, even for a few minutes?” After introducing new material, the instructor will use the information in a scenario and coach the participants by asking, “What is the next step?” “Where do we go now?” “Who could I ask to help me?” or “What else could I use, or where else could I look?” These are the types of questions that allow the audience to feel they are participants rather than observers. Experienced teachers also allow wait time when asking questions. Wait time is the period of silence that follows a teacher’s question before students’ responses. If teachers allow at least 3-5 seconds after their questions, the number of volunteers will increase, and the length and correctness of the answers will improve. It takes practice for new educators to become comfortable with this skill, but it will seem perfectly natural to the audience. When a teacher calls on a student who has raised his or her hand, it is important to allow wait time for a response before moving onto another student to provide the answer. The first student may be surprised that he or she was actually called on or may need a moment to form a response. Respect the student’s need to use this time to provide an acceptable answer. Wait time also shows the audience that the instructor wants thoughtful participation and is willing to allow students to respond in their own time. At the end of the initial wait time, the instructor can also repeat the question, rephrase the question, simplify the question, break the question down into its component parts, or make the question more specific. After the question has been answered, a discussion affirming the application of the answer should follow. Immediate application of the information helps make the information more meaningful. Students of all ages respond well to instructors who provide sincere positive reinforcement. Insightful teachers accomplish this reinforcement by nodding, smiling, using affirmative language, and pausing to acknowledge appropriate contributions. All good teachers provide an atmosphere of acceptance, trust, and a level of comfort for participation. Taking this a step further, teachers can use incentives to promote continued application of the desired behaviors. Fire and life safety educators often distribute items such as plastic helmets, pencils, erasers, coloring books, key chains, coffee mugs, pot holders, or other rewards along with their presentations. Rather than handing these out at the time of the presentation, give them to the teacher or other gatekeeper and ask that the items be handed out upon receipt of a follow-up activity requiring practicing the skill or lesson taught. For example, the teacher can give children coloring books after they return the home inspection they performed with their parents. Try It—It Works! As an incentive for families to complete and practice home escape plans, fire departments can offer a ride to school on the fire truck. All students receive a home escape planning grid and entry form. After collecting the plans, the educator can choose a winner and make arrangements for the big ride. Include breakfast at the station with the fire fighters and encourage the principal to allow all students to wait outside for the arrival of the winner to make it more eventful. Including the teacher as a passenger on the truck will increase the chances the project will become a homework assignment! Talk to the fire chief and the school administration to see what your jurisdiction requires in terms of legal waivers or other concerns. If this incentive is not possible, invite the winner to act as “Fire Chief of the Day,” provide a pizza party for the class, or talk to the teacher about other appropriate rewards FIGURE 4-3. FIGURE 4-3 As an incentive for families to complete home escape plans, fire departments can offer a ride to school on the fire truck for the student and the teacher (A). With proper modeling by the instructor, students can understand the concept of mapping out an escape map in a “bird’s-eye” view (B). Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Of course, all instructors have their own teaching personalities and characteristics, and these will become more refined with practice. Memorable instructors work the room by moving around, maintaining an upbeat and animated delivery, and capitalizing on interpersonal communication with each person in the room. A sense of humor, used appropriately, is an asset for anyone working with the public. But it should be mentioned that if humor does not come naturally to the presenter, it can backfire. It is always best to be yourself and use your natural talents and strengths. Students will sense a lack of sincerity and be put off by anything disingenuous. Much has been said about the value of play for young learners, but adept presenters know that adults can learn through active involvement with other people and materials as well. This, too, takes practice and skill to use the right techniques and activities. Adults should not view their participation as gimmicky or as a waste of time, but rather as an enjoyable and meaningful way to learn. Whether the instructor’s style is humorous, caring, nurturing, enthusiastic, task oriented, or easygoing, the effect on the participants will be successful if the instructor is sincere, responsive, and respectful—no matter who is in the audience. Teaching Methods and Strategies The best teaching includes a variety of methods, often referred to as strategies, used to meet the diverse needs of the learners. The decision to use one strategy over another should depend on the time available, number of students, objectives of the lesson, type of information to be presented, availability of materials and resources, domains and levels of learning, and personal preferences of the instructor. Most teachers tend to teach in the ways that they themselves learn best. It takes a knack to select an instructional method that best fits both the instructor’s teaching style and the lesson situation. Often, one teaching method will naturally flow into another, all within the same lesson. Experienced teachers have the skills to make this process seamless and productive for students without overloading their ability to process information. There is no one “right” method for teaching, but certain criteria specific to each style help the teacher make the best choice possible for the learners. We will discuss some of the more common teaching strategies in this chapter in terms of their advantages and disadvantages as well as some tips for implementing each. Lectures A lecture is probably the most common form of education. It allows the educator to deliver and clarify a large amount of information to a group in a short amount of time. Factual material can be presented in a direct, logical manner and can stimulate thinking for participants to later take action. Preparation is done by an individual and can be repeated on a routine basis for each new group of learners. To be most effective, the instructor needs a clear introduction and summary, content must be organized, and time should be limited. An expert can draw on his or her experience to influence and inspire an audience; however, it is still necessary for a speaker to have proficient oral communication skills to maximize the benefits of this type of teaching. This method can cause learners to become bored and easily distracted because the communication is one way and the audience is inactive. Learning is difficult to gauge without any learner engagement. Instructors using this method are advised to provide examples, anecdotes, and visual aids as support material. Lectures with Discussion Characteristics of this method are very similar to straight lecture. However, this method allows for more active learning on the part of the audience as they are encouraged to ask questions or make suggestions at the end of the lecture or at various points throughout the presentation. The participants are allowed a chance to challenge and clarify information and pool ideas and experiences. An instructor planning to combine lecture with discussion must build enough time into the program for the discussion and still accommodate the material to be presented. Disadvantages of this type of method are that it can be difficult to control, the quality of the questions may take the group off task, and some participants may dominate the group and the time. Be sure to have backup questions or materials to fill the allotted time in the event the group does not have any questions. Think about any difficult questions that might arise and prepare answers before the presentation. It is also advisable to hand out note cards and pens at the beginning of the session so participants can write down their questions during the presentation. These will serve as helpful reminders, especially if the lecture contains many facts or many involved steps to a skill. To provide anonymity for those who may be intimidated to ask questions, the note cards can be collected and read aloud and answered by the presenter at the conclusion. Panels of Experts A panel of experts is a way to disseminate information, similar to a lecture, but it allows several experts to present different opinions and viewpoints. It usually provokes a better discussion than a single person delivering the entire presentation. The change of speaker helps keep the audience’s attention. Panel discussions are an often overlooked but effective methods of presentation. It may be difficult to coordinate the schedules of several speakers. Allow enough planning time to contact and confirm the availability of panel members. The subject matter may not always be in a logical order when using several speakers, but the coordinator of the panel can minimize this problem by reviewing the speaking points of each speaker and arranging the speaking order accordingly. When planning to use this method of presentation, be sure to provide a facilitator to introduce the members, moderate, and summarize. Remember that not all experts make good speakers; it is advisable to meet with them before the presentation to inform them about the audience, topic sensitivities, and system policies. Try It—It Works! Present a “Home Alone” program covering safety issues to families who are considering allowing young people to stay at home alone without adult supervision. A panel of experts composed of a fire fighter, paramedic, police officer, and member of the social services will provide parents with a forum where they can receive information and ask questions of the experts when contemplating leaving their children home alone for the first time (see the form in Appendix B). Discussion A discussion format is different than a lecture and discussion format in that learners are as much a part of the presentation as the instructor. In fact, the instructor’s role shifts to that of facilitator. A true discussion creates an exchange of ideas to provide two-way communication throughout the session, allowing everyone to participate. The educator speaks directly to the learners, asking questions or making comments and waiting for a response, or groups of learners can discuss views with each other. This method is very useful when trying to engage the affective domain and when working with concepts, ideas, and feelings. The participants can express themselves and learn from each other. This method deals less with facts, although the facts may be presented in the beginning as a reference for discussion. Discussion groups are effective in combination with or after a demonstration or film presentation. This method, although very productive, is not recommended for groups larger than 20. Even in smaller groups, some participants may withdraw, not feeling comfortable enough to participate. Other group members may dominate discussions or become overbearing when voicing their opinions. It takes careful planning on the part of the facilitator to prevent these bumps in the road. When planning to use this method, be sure to design questions that evoke critical thinking and a sense of cooperation. Be clear that all ideas will be entertained and that no idea or suggestion will be considered incorrect. The facilitator should allow time for a well-constructed summary that includes information gathered during the session. Small Discussion Groups Small discussion groups offer some of the same advantages as the larger group discussion, but they may provide for even more engagement and interaction. Some people feel more comfortable in smaller groups and will become more verbal. Each member will have more opportunities to participate, which will generate more viewpoints. To ensure that each person is engaged and contributing, assign roles such as reporter, scribe, timekeeper, and organizer. Sometimes these roles will be taken by participants and need not be assigned; other times, the instructor will need to be aware of the group dynamics and assign the roles. When handled correctly, the small group discussion method facilitates active learning and can create energy conducive to learning in the room. Groups that develop their own synergy are capable of a heightened level of problem solving and creativity. Small group discussions lend themselves well to the method of guided discovery wherein participants are coached as they work to come up with solutions to problems on their own. Problem solving is an important element of learning; participants in the experience are more likely to remember the solutions when they were involved in the process of discovery. However, it takes a skilled facilitator to keep several small groups focused and on task. There is a tendency for the groups to get sidetracked and run out of time before the objectives are met. Planning a session with small group discussions requires preparing specific, well-crafted tasks or questions for the groups to address. The make-up of the groups must be considered. Will the instructor assign groups or allow members to form their own groups? It will also be important to build in time before, during the group time, and afterward for reporting and summarizing. The facilitator should stroll around the room to make sure groups are focusing on the problems yet allowing for an atmosphere of fun and creativity. The clock will be ticking, so occasional reminders to the groups will keep them cognizant of the amount of time they have left to finish their work. Demonstrations The purpose of a demonstration is to transmit the big picture to a group in a short period of time. This method is more instructor-centered than student-centered, but it is useful for teaching skills or situations that are difficult to fully explain through a verbal description alone. By seeing a task performed, learners are more aware of what materials are needed, they will remember the steps in the process, and they will be able to observe the final outcome. Demonstrations generally take more preparation and usually need to be supported by audiovisual materials or other equipment, but the benefits will be well worth the effort for the participants. Field trips, tours, and simulations are all variations of the demonstration method. Instructors using demonstrations should make sure all students are in a position where they can see and hear. Decide how many students and how much room and equipment will be needed. To hold the audience’s attention, demonstrations should not exceed 20 minutes. It is important to practice and time the demonstration before presenting it to an audience. Without an actual run-through, presenters are often surprised that their planned demonstration takes far less or much longer than they anticipated. Either situation can be perceived as unprofessional, especially if the instructor does not have backup materials to fill the gap. Handouts with pictures or written instructions and information serve to support and clarify the demonstration for the audience. The fire service has many opportunities to present demonstrations of interest to the public. Extrications, side-by-side room comparisons demonstrating the effectiveness of residential sprinklers, rappelling, and station tours are just a few of the commonly used exhibitions the public enjoys. Personnel need to remember that although visitors are intrigued by what they see, educational objectives should be at the core of the presentations. The objectives will provide the reasons for giving the presentation in the first place and dictate the arrangement of the information from beginning to end FIGURE 4-4. FIGURE 4-4 Demonstrations of the effectiveness of residential sprinklers are one of the commonly used exhibitions the public enjoys. All safety precautions must be taken to prevent injury to personnel and to the public. Additional fire fighters in full SCBA and turnout gear are positioned to the left of the audience. Courtesy of Don Wilson. Questioning One of the best ways to evoke a response from an audience is by asking good questions. Socrates knew that he was able to get students to think more critically by challenging them with questions rather than relying solely on a direct lecture approach. Generally, questioning is used in conjunction with other methods. The learner becomes more actively involved and begins to think at a higher level. Questions and their responses also allow a teacher to evaluate the learners’ level of understanding and make adjustments immediately. Instructors should be aware that there is an art to using questions to produce the greatest learning. Poorly crafted questions limit the success of using this method. The give and take of a questioning session will also take more time than a straight lecture TABLE 4-4. TABLE 4-4 Questioning Techniques Type of Purpose and Strength Question Factual Soliciting simple, straightforward answers based on facts, observation or awareness. Answers are usually right or wrong. Example: How often should smoke alarms be tested? Convergent Looking for answers that fall within a very finite range of acceptable accuracy. The student can make some inferences based on personal awareness or other forms of information. Utilizes organizing, planning, sequencing, and structuring skills. Example: If you were home alone with a parent who was seriously injured after a fall, how would you handle the situation? What would you do first? Divergent Requiring students to explore different avenues and create many different variations and alternatives and scenarios based on existing knowledge as a springboard. Students may arrive at answers through intuition, imagination, inference, projection, or conjecture. May not be a right or wrong answer. Higher-level cognitive thinking is more necessary than for factual or convergent questions. Divergent questioning lends itself to better discussions and engagement. Hypothetical questions provide interesting discussions and may become essential questions for a lesson. Example: The number of fires in the southeast area of the city has increased even though fire fighters have increased their efforts to educate the public. Why do you think the outreach efforts are not working? Evaluative Asking for more sophisticated levels of cognitive and/or emotional judgment. Students will combine multiple logical and/or affective thinking processes, or comparative perspectives, to synthesize information for conclusions. Example: What are the similarities and differences between the education programs offered to the community last fiscal year and those offered this year? Combination A blend of any of the question types above. Example: If you were asked to prepare a list of objectives for a sixth-grade class about fire safety, what five messages would you consider, in order of importance, and why? © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Following are several tips to keep in mind when using questioning as a method of instruction: Ask challenging, open questions when working with older children or adults. This means avoid phrasing questions that are closed or require straightforward factual answers unless you are only checking for retention. Questions that begin with who, when, or where and yes-or-no questions do not require learners to think as critically as when they are asked questions that begin with why, how, what if, should, or could. For example, an instructor might ask a group of students if they should be testing smoke alarms every month. The answer is simply “yes” and could be answered with almost no thought at all. It would be better if the instructor asked, “What could happen if people did not test their smoke alarms monthly?” More than one answer exists, and the feedback will generate further discussion. Closed questions, or those requiring a specific answer, will work best in the classroom with elementary students to help keep them focused. Ask uncluttered questions. Questions with many subquestions or interspersed with background information can confuse students because it becomes unclear as to what is being asked of them. Make sure the questions are crafted at a level the students are prepared to understand. Ask if the question is clear and write questions down where they can be seen by everyone, if possible. Ask the teacher to review the questions in advance of the presentation to verify that students understand the vocabulary and concepts. Role Playing Role playing brings students into a lesson and encourages them to become part of the learning and teaching. The instructor and the student take on roles to act out situations, providing for more active learning than direct teaching methods and a more interesting way to present material. For a brief time, the classroom becomes a stage where an audience member is given an opportunity to practice newly introduced knowledge or skills. The instructor is able to introduce problem situations more dramatically and observe students’ reactions. The students can explore alternative solutions, and the teacher can see how the material plays out in a fairly realistic scenario. This method is particularly effective with very young children. The experience can be rewarding because learners retain more by observing members of their own groups. However, be aware of some of the pitfalls of using this approach. It is difficult to use in large groups. Older children and some adults may be too selfconscious to fully engage in the activity. Not everyone wants to be the center of attention. This method is not recommended in middle school settings. Middle school students’ level of self-consciousness is already elevated, and if one student begins to joke around, the value of the entire exercise will be lost. If the scenarios are not carefully crafted and monitored, role play can drag on, causing classmates to become restless or bored. To prepare for successful role-playing experiences, define the problem situation and roles clearly, give clear instructions, watch the time, and plan for correcting incorrect responses as they occur FIGURE 4-5. FIGURE 4-5 Student and teacher role-play what to do when a grill starter or lighter is found, reinforcing the previously taught message and allowing instructors to check for the students’ understanding. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Peer and Cross-Age Tutoring Peer tutoring occurs when both participants are the same age or grade level, sometimes called “kids teaching kids.” Cross-age tutoring refers to situations in which the tutor is older than the tutee. Both approaches use one child instructing another in material for which they are considered the “expert.” This method takes additional planning, a supportive environment, and follow-up to provide feedback on the accuracy of the information presented by the new “experts.” Peer tutoring works because the participants may speak a more similar language with each other than in an instructor–student relationship and the students feels freer to express opinions, ask questions, and risk untested solutions. This approach provides many positive benefits for both the tutor and the tutee in all three domains of learning; however, it is difficult to use this method as part of instruction if you have only one opportunity to meet with a group of students. But you can make use of this teaching method as a follow-up activity. For example, if you present a safety lesson to a group of sixthgrade students, they can be encouraged to seek out younger family members or students in a lower grade to teach the material to as a follow-up project. Educator’s Tip When using role playing with an audience with which you are unfamiliar, ask the teacher, scoutmaster, or other supervisor to help you choose someone to be a part of your scenario. The teacher will have a good idea about who will be appropriate for the activity. For example, you can ask a group of students if anyone would like to volunteer for an activity. When several students raise their hands, look to the teacher to indicate who might be a good choice. It is also appropriate to talk to the teachers before beginning the class to explain how you would like to run the exercise, and they can choose a class member ahead of time to prepare them. Try It—It Works! Ask older children to write a letter to a younger student explaining the importance of practicing a particular safety behavior. A modification of this method is to have children take on the role of “expert” and write a similar letter to an older adult about keeping themselves safe. Cross-generational experiences benefit both the tutor and tutee. Ask a classroom teacher which writing elements should be included in the assignment. This activity will cause the student to give more thought to the information presented and will support the teacher’s efforts to improve the students’ writing skills. Storytelling Everyone loves a story! For all age ranges, anecdotes or stories are instrumental in drawing pictures to begin a lesson. Told correctly, stories can be an effective hook, reeling in the audience to the world of the speaker. The storyteller must ensure the tale is relevant to the lesson content and interesting to the audience. Tell a story in which all audience members are in the story. Using imagery, walk them through to generate a mental picture. For example, begin with, “Imagine it was the middle of the night. It was very dark, and everyone in your family was sound asleep. Picture all of the rooms, all of your family members and pets. Where are they right now?” If you are animated and believable, the method will set the stage for learning. But if the story is too long or irrelevant or if the stories are overused during a presentation, this method will fail. Keep the lesson objectives in mind when choosing and preparing a story for presentation. Instructors should avoid telling too many stories during one presentation; use these stories sparingly to maintain interest. Effective storytelling is an art and should be practiced before using it in a presentation. Another version of storytelling is a read-aloud. Many children’s books are available today about fire fighters, fire trucks, Dalmatians, and visits to the fire station. Reading a story to children is a good starting point to teaching safety behaviors. Brainstorming Brainstorming is a fast-paced activity in which group members arrive at answers or solutions by bringing ideas to the table for discussion and resolution. Learning flourishes when the audience members are active learners sharing in a spirit of cooperation. Full participation is encouraged because all ideas are welcomed and recorded. One idea often sparks a series of questions, new ideas, and dynamic creativity. The activity draws on the entire group’s knowledge and experience. Again, the instructor becomes a facilitator or coach, and learning is student-centered. Instructors new to using this technique may find that participants have difficulty getting “off the ground” or that the activity can easily become unfocused and chaotic; therefore, actual brainstorming sessions should be around 5 to 7 minutes long. Sessions must be well facilitated to avoid criticism and discussions going off on tangents. Facilitators need to carefully select and focus the issues and prepare ideas for stimulating the groups that are slow to get the main idea. Most importantly, brainstorming sessions require the instructors to prepare guidelines and objectives and make them clear to the participants. Instructors must also be ready to intervene if the groups get bogged down. It will always help the “brainstormers” to have guidelines posted on a flip chart or whiteboard as a reference to center their thinking. Flip charts for each group are also helpful for groups to record their ideas as they evolve. Following are some rules for brainstorming: Educator’s Tip When addressing a group of older adults for a safety presentation, ask if anyone in the group has ever needed or knows of anyone who needed the services of the fire department. Most likely, several will indicate that they have experienced a positive encounter with the fire department. Follow this question by telling two stories of calls—one that went well because of the correct actions of older adults and the other that was less successful because of the inappropriate actions of older adults. Then ask the audience to tell you what the characters in the stories did that was right and what went wrong. This will lay the foundation for a discussion about the behaviors older adults can change to make their lives safer. Try It—It Works! Construct a library shelf unit that resembles a fire station or fire engine. Supply the unit with children’s books and DVDs about fire safety, injury prevention, and other fire department-related topics. Offer to serve as a guest reader at the local library and teach safety during the same visit. The unit can also be kept at the fire station and used for the same program FIGURE 4-6. FIGURE 4-6 A library shelf unit that resembles a fire station or fire engine. Courtesy of Mokena Fire Department. 1. Define the problem and set directions. 2. Encourage participation from everyone. All ideas are valuable. All ideas become the property of the group, not a particular individual. 3. Build on the ideas put forth by others. Use the word “yes” instead of “but” when responding to another idea. Piggyback on ideas rather than discounting them. 4. Suspend judgment. Not everyone is comfortable with brainstorming. Work to take away barriers and inhibitions. 5. Encourage outside the box thinking. Be creative. No idea is too absurd; it could lead to other possibilities. Wild and exaggerated ideas are good! 6. Go for quantity, not quality. Reality checks and fine tuning will come later. 7. Record and display ideas. Be complete in writing down ideas; use more than one word so the intent is not forgotten. Post-it® notes and flip charts work well. 8. When the session is finished, circle 20 percent of the most workable or interesting ideas. Think in terms of the 80/20 rule: look for 20 percent of the ideas which will accomplish 80 percent of the desired results. 9. Watch the clock. Start and finish on time. Encourage a brisk pace to maximize investment in the process. 10. Have fun! Keep the atmosphere light; it increases creativity. Educator’s Tip The K-W-L (what I know, what I want to know, and what I learned) is a predictive approach to learning, but it can easily be incorporated into a strategy for discussion formats. Provide a form such as that shown in FIGURE 4-7 to each member of the group. Lead students through brainstorming on the topic. The instructor can participate as a contributor of relevant questions. Ask each person to fill in the sections within the “K” and “W” boxes with what they already know or believe about the topic and what more they would like to know about it. Show a video or give a brief presentation. After the presentation, have the group see which questions were answered by the information provided (these can be written down in the L column). FIGURE 4-7 The K-W-L is a predictive approach to learning. It can easily be incorporated into a strategy for discussion. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Multimedia Tools DVDs, PowerPoint™ and Prezi™ presentations, and audio tapes are all examples of multimedia presentation tools. Technology today has provided easy accessibility to this entertaining method of raising issues and teaching. Using multimedia tools to present material will keep a group’s attention, stimulate discussion, and appeal to all learning styles FIGURE 4-8. These tools can be professionally developed and give presentations a polished look. DVDs and slides cannot stand alone. To derive the fullest benefit from this medium, instructors need to prepare an accurate and interesting introduction and follow up with a discussion or activity. Using an anticipatory set will help the audience focus on important points because there may be issues included in the electronic version that are extraneous to the objectives of the presentation. Structure follow-up discussions to avoid losing sight of the main information the instructor wants retained by the students. Familiarize yourself with your equipment and allow time for setup and take down. It is wise to visit the room in which the presentation will take place to ensure the room setup will support the needs of the speaker and components of the multimedia. Be aware that children and adults have become accustomed to using realistic and sophisticated multimedia in their daily lives. If your support materials are too far out of date, it may be best not to use them at all. FIGURE 4-8 Using multimedia to present material will keep a group’s attention, stimulate discussion, and appeal to people with all learning styles. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Experiential Learning Hands-on, experiential learning is one of the most dynamic ways to deliver information. Whenever it is possible and practicable to use this method, instructors should try to make it part of their presentations and lesson planning. These opportunities may be highly directed or a free-form opportunity for learners to be creative and progress at their own pace. Hands-on learning allows students to manipulate, examine, experience, challenge, and test their environment and new information. Planning and executing information delivery takes more time, materials, and a variety of facilities, but this is the best method for message retention and comprehension. Visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learners all benefit from this technique. The group size, number of volunteers, time, and available materials will determine the amount of hands-on experiences offered. The number and types of hands-on learning activities are limited only by the creativity of the instructor, but all hands-on activities must meet the following criteria: A connection to the learning objectives Age appropriateness Simple and clear directions Focused and purposeful steps Free of extraneous information This teaching method provides enjoyable learning for the instructor and the students. It also allows the instructors or facilitators to observe their students putting newly acquired knowledge to work FIGURE 4-9. They can assess the accuracy and level of comprehension on the spot and provide guidance for improvement or immediate positive reinforcement. FIGURE 4-9 Middle school students benefit from hands-on experiential learning during a CPR class. The instructor observes and coaches the newly learned skills. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Puppets, Magic, and Props Skits, clowns, puppets, magic, and props…the words themselves conjure up images of fun, silliness, interaction, and entertainment. There’s certainly nothing wrong with a little entertainment to educate an audience. People are receptive, relaxed, and ready to learn when enjoying a production. The fire service has long used clowning and puppetry to teach safety—and it works! However, departments that deliver these programs will be quick to tell you that their shows take a lot of work and planning. What the captive audience sees in the end is the elaborate manifestation of a basic lesson plan. Again, the educators begin with the objectives; what do they want their audience to learn from their production? Using learning objectives as the premise, creative and talented educators begin brainstorming about stories, settings, props, and dialogue that will help them deliver safety messages. Educators must remind themselves that even though these teaching methods are entertaining, their primary responsibility is to educate the audience. When performers call members of the audience up to the stage to become part of the show, the interest and excitement is heightened, and the learning becomes more active. Clowning can be done alone, with puppets, or with an entire clown alley. A clown alley is a group of clowns that routinely works together, each having a particular personality and function in the group. Educator’s Tip Experiential learning is the one of the best teaching methods to engage learners for best message retention. Whenever possible, offer a hands-on experience even when using other teaching methods. For example, when teaching middle school students about first aid techniques, bring supplies to the classroom and allow them time to break into pairs to practice bandaging, splinting, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and Heimlich techniques. Specific techniques of clowning and puppetry make delivery successful. It is advisable to attend classes and learn the basics of these art forms before spending time and money on props and materials. Basic knowledge of the tricks of the trade will give educators more confidence and prevent mistakes that will hinder the success of their presentations FIGURE 4-10. Educators should also be aware that not all children or adults are happy to be in the presence of clowns. After clowns and characters are suited up and ready to go, they need to approach their young audiences carefully to avoid frightening them. Remember, scared children cannot learn. FIGURE 4-10 Specific techniques of puppetry make delivery successful. Basic knowledge of the tricks of the trade will give the educator confidence and prevent mistakes that will hinder the success of the presentation. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Educators who might be thinking about using these methods to educate the public should keep in mind that it is a very time-consuming process on the day of the event. Make-up for clowns, the setup for puppet stages, and packing and transportation of props and equipment take the greater part of a day. When scheduling these shows, it is best to block out the entire day. Fairs, Open Houses, and Community Events Children and adults are drawn to open houses and events featuring fire service demonstrations, apparatus, and equipment. You can capitalize on this phenomenon by using these events to teach the public about fire and injury prevention. Contrary to some beliefs, open houses and fairs are not simply designed to entertain the masses and serve as public relations tools. Although they accomplish those things as well, these venues provide opportunities for the public to learn in an enjoyable, interactive, and hands-on atmosphere. As with all other teaching methods, objectives and safety messages should drive the planning of activities and events. If families tour the station, what do you want them to learn as they do so? For unstructured tours, are there static displays that provide interactive components such as questions to be answered? Are exhibitors seated at tables handing out brochures or do they have an activity through which their visitors can actively engage? Any display with small doors that open, removable and replaceable pieces, objects to manipulate, computers, tablets, or writing surfaces welcoming interaction will be far more interesting than literature alone FIGURE 4-11. Educators facilitating interaction at these stations are encouraged to include some form of an evaluation tool to ensure that learning is taking place. Review various teaching methods and incorporate them into your repertoire to make learning more engaging. Appendix B contains a list of 40 instructional methods to consider. FIGURE 4-11 Interactive station with fire fighter and a doctor’s window made of foam board. Students choose a first aid question and ask the “doctor” if their solution is correct. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Classroom Management One of the most difficult aspects of a teacher’s job is classroom management. Often invited as a guest speaker, classroom management is not necessarily the responsibility of safety educators. Ideally, the classroom teacher, moderator, or audience leader will take care of this task. Unfortunately, there may be times when audience members become restless, inattentive, or even unruly but no one steps up to help keep things manageable. In these cases, it is up to the instructor to create and maintain a cooperative environment. This atmosphere will help all audience members learn better and provide a more enjoyable experience for the students and the instructor. The first step to effective classroom management is good planning and prevention. Make sure the material presented will match the level of student abilities. Plan to keep the lesson moving with less lecture and more active participation. If children— and some adults—are not busy learning, they will find something else to do. The more they are engaged, the less they will exhibit signs of boredom and fatigue, such as fidgeting or talking. Take time to check on the arrangement of the room to avoid frustration for both the students and the instructor. Make sure all audience members will be able to see and hear the instructor and that the instructor can see all members of the audience. Plan to arrive early and begin on time. Adults with busy schedules will appreciate this professionalism and will not be distracted worrying about finishing up on time. Many disruptive behaviors can be prevented by setting clear and specific expectations at the beginning of a session. This can range from a brief discussion of guidelines for acceptable behavior with children to an explanation of various topics that will and will not be discussed with a group of adults. If the instructor’s limits are clear, there will be less temptation to test the system. Try It—It Works! Use a “passport” as an incentive for attendees to visit each “port” at the next open house or fair. Develop a realistic-looking passport featuring ports and corresponding safety lessons on each page. Every page of the passport is dedicated to one of the identified community risks with questions addressing the objectives for that intervention. Children keep their passport with them as they visit different “ports” to participate in hands-on learning experiences with professionals from partnering agencies teaching those behaviors. For example, when the children visit “Bikes Peak,” they will learn bicycle safety from the police department representative through a short bicycle obstacle course. When they finish at that port, they will receive a stamp in the passport before moving on to the next port, which will highlight another identified risk and the learning objectives. When the passport is fully stamped, indicating that all safety topics have been explored, the child can show the passport to the “Captain” and receive a reward. Passports will work just as well if they are printed on one piece of paper and the learner receives a stamp next to the name of each port FIGURE 4-12. FIGURE 4-12 A “Passport to Safety” provides an interactive way for children to learn several fire and life safety messages and to interact with safety professionals (A). When the children visit “Bikes Peak,” they will learn bicycle safety from the police department representative through a short bicycle obstacle course. When they finish at that port, they will receive a stamp (B). Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. When the instructor sets the desired tone for learning, it will be easier to maintain that tenor throughout the session. Used wisely and naturally, humor will make everyone more comfortable and bridge the gap between the instructor and students. However, it cannot be forced. Positive reinforcement for any act or response increases the likelihood of that behavior occurring again, but make sure any praise is genuine. Avoid putting individuals on the spot; this will make others apprehensive throughout the remainder of the presentation. Rather than paying attention to the information, others will be concerned that they will be the next ones on the “hot seat.” Even the most experienced instructors will run into unpleasant or uncomfortable situations that necessitate more than good material and positive reinforcement. Each instructor will develop tricks and techniques that work best for his or her personality. Following are strategies that will assist educators when difficult behaviors threaten to disrupt learning: Casually move toward students who are talking or disturbing others. Stand in close proximity to them while teaching. This sends a clear message to stop what they are doing and that you are watching them. If necessary, make eye contact with them as you continue to address the rest of the group. Call on someone else in the group who is sitting nearby; this will keep the discussion and attention focused in the problem area of the group. These nonverbal signals send strong messages and allow the instructor to continue teaching without interruption. If a group becomes excited or talkative—often the case with very young children who are thrilled to have a visitor in their classroom—it is easy to quiet things down. Simply change from sitting to standing, from talking to whispering, from speaking quickly to speaking very slowly. These subtle changes will clue them in to something new happening, and they will stop talking to see why the speaker is shifting gears. Any of these approaches works better than “shushing” them or trying to talk over the noise. Move around and circulate among the participants. If the group realizes that the instructor may be standing next to any one of them during a presentation, it keeps them on their toes and creates more interest during lectures and discussions. For students who seem to be rambling on and wandering off on tangents, refocus them by restating the relevant points or by directing questions to the entire group that are back on the subject. Subtle body language can be used to alert the participant that you are ready to move on; begin writing on a whiteboard, pick up your next visual aid, start to distribute materials, or turn your body toward another audience member. If none of these strategies is effective, the instructor can simply pause. Stop and wait for the group to quiet down. This sometimes indicates that the instructor is frustrated and may change the tone for the remainder of the presentation, but it is still a technique worth using before other more harsh verbal methods are used. Some audiences show up with a hostile individual in their midst. These group members may display disrespectful or grandstanding behaviors. It is important to remain calm and polite, keeping your temper in check. Do not let the situation get out of hand; handle it immediately. Some behaviors cannot be ignored. If you anticipate sensitive subjects that could evoke these types of behaviors, explain at the beginning of the presentation that you will be happy to talk about such matters privately or that those matters should be directed to another person or agency. Clarifying this at the beginning of a session allows an instructor to calmly remind any antagonists that the subject had already been taken off the agenda and will not be addressed. Some attendees will not be satisfied with this answer and will continue to badger a speaker. In these cases, it may be necessary to take a firm stance regarding the purpose of the session and state that anyone who does not wish to work from that agenda will be better served by leaving and contacting the speaker at a later time. Learning Activities Graphic Organizers One method of helping participants to organize their thinking as they follow a presentation, especially in situations when they become more active learners, is to provide graphic organizers. A graphic organizer is a way of using symbols, grids, arrows, and other nonlinguistic representations to organize relationships. These tools also help the instructor stay on track and visualize the steps the learners will follow. They aid in classifying ideas, organizing thoughts, creating interest, and communicating more effectively. Among other advantages, these tools are useful aids in problem solving, decision making, brainstorming, and comparing and contrasting. Educators can make use of graphic organizers by providing them to students to fill out after a lecture, during discussion or brainstorming sessions, or as independent practice exercises to take home. The K-W-L example presented earlier is an example of a graphic organizer. Other helpful graphic organizers include Venn diagrams FIGURE 4-13, which aid students in comparing and contrasting and finding similarities and differences; sequencing charts FIGURE 4-14, which help students sort events and place them in logical sequential order; descriptive pattern organizers FIGURE 4-15, which are used to generate and represent facts about specific persons, places, things, and events; and cause-and-effect pattern organizers FIGURE 4-16, which are used to organize information into a causal network leading to a specific outcome or into a sequence of steps leading to a specific product.5 FIGURE 4-13 Venn diagram for compare and contrast objectives. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. FIGURE 4-14 A sequencing chart helps students organize their thoughts and break down behaviors into a proper order. It allows instructors to see whether students understand a process. For example, do they place getting out of a home before calling 911? © Jones & Bartlett Learning. FIGURE 4-15 A descriptive pattern organizer, sometimes called a web, allows students and instructors to brainstorm many facts about one topic and provides a good foundation for discussion. Data from Marzano, 2001. FIGURE 4-16 Cause and effect graphic organizers provide students with a clear way of thinking about the many consequences one single act could cause, or conversely, the many acts that might lead up to a serious effect. Data from Marzano, 2001. Sum-Up Writing Parents often ask their children, “What did you learn in school today?” to which the answer is a flat, “Nothing.” Educators want their messages to get home to the guardians. Sum-ups are short paragraphs or fill-in-the-blanks that capture the main ideas of a presentation. They serve several purposes. If the sum-up is returned to the instructor, the sum-up will serve as an evaluation tool to discover whether or not the main points made their way to the learners. If the sum-ups are taken home and handed off to other family members, they serve the purpose of teaching a secondary audience. Sum-ups can be used with both children and adults FIGURE 4-17. FIGURE 4-17 A child’s sum-up activity can be used to review a lesson, evaluate comprehension, or forward the message to a secondary audience (A). An adult’s sum-up activity can be used to evaluate the lesson’s impact, correct misunderstandings, and improve the program for the future (B). Games, Charts, Surveys, and Checklists Visit any one of many fire service websites, and you will find downloadable home escape plan grids, word searches, crossword puzzles, surveys, checklists, and games to reinforce safe behaviors. These support materials are all educational, but they are best used in conjunction with other teaching methods. Their primary purpose is not to teach but to reinforce and clarify the messages obtained through other avenues. These tools allow people to think for themselves and apply information. They also provide accountability so the instructor’s suggested actions are carried out after the session is finished. Provide a master or make copies for the audience to work through after a presentation; reproduce a graph and use it during the presentation to pique the audience’s interest. If possible, begin work on the project while the instructor is present to clear up questions. For example, when presenting the importance of building a home emergency disaster kit, the instructor can incorporate the checklist as a visual in an overhead presentation and begin working with the audience to discuss items they already have at home, answer questions about why some items are included in the checklist, and generate discussion about what else they can think of that might need to be in the kit for the needs of local families. Participants have a higher probability of actually using supporting materials if they are introduced to them during an instructional setting. Try It—It Works! Using a flip chart, prepare a large graphic organizer before teaching, such as a descriptive pattern organizer. Show a video or discuss a safety topic and then solicit feedback from the audience to fill in the graphic. The instructor can fill in the graphic as it is discussed or participants can come forward to handle this task. When the graphic is completed, it can be used to launch further discussion about prevention efforts that could positively impact each area of concern. Graphic organizers are more interesting to look at than lists. Ideas to Enhance Teaching and Learning Successful fire and life safety educators are creative, energetic people. Designing your own educational materials, methods, exercises, and props is half the fun of teaching. But remember, these are the icing on the cake; real, solid teaching must take place before any of the extras will have the desired effect. Talk to others in the field of fire and life safety education and share your ideas. The fire service has come a long way since the 1970s and 1980s when resources for and communication among educators were limited. Following are just a few ideas that will help to reinforce safety messages after they have been taught, some of which will be appropriate for specific age groups, and others which will be useful for all ages: Safety mailbox. Purchase a realistic outdoor mailbox. Paint the name of the fire department and the department logo on the outside of the mailbox. Bring the prop along to a presentation. Provide cards and encourage participants to drop a note in the box as they leave with a question or a comment. If there are questions, it is important to get back to the group or the individual in a timely manner. Use of this prop will help when time does not allow for answering all questions. It can also serve as an informal evaluation. Children enjoy this activity. Allow participants to use the activity anonymously if they choose to do so. Laminated flip-chart paper. Not all venues have whiteboards or smartboards. Laminate a few pieces of 24 in. by 36 in. flip chart paper. Bring masking tape and dry erase markers to a presentation. Tape the laminated sheets to a vertical surface, making sure it is safe to do so without peeling the paint off the wall, or affix them to an easel and use the paper as a writing surface. For diagrams used consistently in various presentations, first draw or write on the paper before laminating. When the dry erase marks are later removed, the original graph, floor plan, or other graphic organizer will remain ready for the next use. Prizes. Reinforce participants’ involvement with certificates, coupons, or other incentives. Even adults like to receive giveaways. Make sure there is a connection between the handout and the lesson content. All handouts should be checked for safety and age-appropriateness. Unless the incentives are to be used during the presentation, it is best to hand them out at the end of the session. Incentives used as reminders or rewards for taking action or doing safety homework are cues to action, and are often effective in encouraging children to make changes in behavior or taking messages home. Games. Use a game at the end of a session to find out how much the audience learned about the topic. For example, divide a room of older adults into two groups. Ask questions about the topic. The first person to raise his or her hand and answer the question correctly receives a prize immediately after delivering the correct answer. Continue for 6 to 10 questions and tally the score for each side. The level of participation will most likely increase as the prizes are awarded. This game can also be used as an ice breaker at the beginning of a session to assess how much the audience already knows about the topic. Packaging. Rather than bringing a brown cardboard box to a presentation, put materials and visual aids in something interesting such as a colorful backpack, an oddly shaped box, or a big toolbox. Anything that causes the audience to wonder what is in the container or that causes them to think something interesting is about to happen will generate added interest right from the start. Set the container in a place visible to the audience so it will continue to keep their attention right up until you are ready to produce the items. Wrap-Up © Greg Henry/ShutterStock, Inc. Summary Points Education is a reciprocal process. Teachers and students, presenters and audiences, and instructors and classes are the components. The process of learning is most important, yet the learner is often the forgotten component in the equation. Before embarking on the rigors of planning materials, methods, and the content of teaching, it is important to understand and give serious thought to the general characteristics of learners. Traditional teaching methods will still be necessary, but understanding your learners will make the planning process easier and the actual lesson more enjoyable for both the learners and the instructor. Although ample evidence supports a preference for active learning for better attention and retention, it should be noted that everyone is an active learner at some times and a passive learner at other times. Members of the fire service and those speaking on their behalf are usually welcome visitors. Topics of fire safety and injury prevention may not cause great excitement and anticipation among those required to attend such sessions; however, instructors who have prepared and practiced, who have used a variety of teaching methods, and who understand how to keep an audience involved will find themselves enjoying the task itself and interacting with and engaging members of their community. Hands-on, experiential learning is one of the most dynamic ways to deliver information. Whenever it is possible and practicable to use this method, instructors should try to make it part of their presentations and lesson planning. Key Terms Active learning Learning that requires active involvement. Students are required to participate by reading, writing, discussing, solving problems, and engaging in higher level thinking. Affective domain Also referred to as the social and emotional domain, this domain focuses on social, emotional, and personality development. Anticipatory set Setting the stage for learning as a way of helping students attend to the relevant data of the upcoming instruction through methods such as recall, questioning, predicting, or stories. Auditory learning Learning by listening. Authentic learning Students meaningfully construct concepts and relationships in contexts that involve real-world problems and projects that are relevant and of interest to the learner. Cognitive domain Also referred to as the intellectual domain, this domain focuses on the mind, how it works, and the ability to think and reason. Cone of experience One of the earliest graphics representing the amount of retention based on the level of involvement during learning, developed in 1946 by Edgar Dale, a professor of education at Ohio State University. Cues to action Incentives used as reminders or rewards for taking action. Graphic organizer A visual way of using symbols, grids, arrows, and other nonlinguistic representations to organize relationships, classify ideas, organize thoughts, create interest, and communicate more effectively. Guided discovery Participants are coached by the instructor as they work to come up with solutions to problems on their own. Hunter model A widely accepted and easily understood teaching model that provides for a wellorganized lesson and enables students to focus on key ideas and concentrate on their relevance to their own lives. K-W-L A predictive approach to learning easily incorporated into a strategy for discussion formats that includes K (what I know), W (what I want to learn), and L (what I learned or achieved). Learning styles Preferred ways of learning; the way each learner concentrates, processes, absorbs, and retains new and different information. Modeling Demonstrating a skill or showing an example of a finished product. Multiple intelligences A theory of different intelligences in children and adults that accounts for a broader range of human learning potential. Objectives A statement that describes what a learner will be able to do after completing a unit of instruction. Passive learning Learning that requires little involvement on the part of the student. Learners receive information by listening, watching, reading, or observing. Psychomotor domain Manual or physical skills. Tactile and kinesthetic learning Learning by touching and doing. Teachable moment A situation during which the learner is particularly responsive to being taught or made aware of something. Visual learner A person who learns by seeing. Wait time The period of silence that follows a teacher’s question before students’ responses. Review Questions 1. Differentiate between types of learning and learning styles. 2. Describe active and passive learning. Which of these is usually preferable to include when teaching? 3. What are the three domains of learning? Which domain would you appeal to when trying to reach audiences with fire and injury prevention messages for their family members? 4. List various types of teaching methods. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each method. 5. What are some classroom management techniques an educator can use to maintain a better experience for an audience? Critical Thinking 1. The fire department has been requested to teach a pool safety class for lifeguards, including how to interact with department personnel once they arrive on the scene for an emergency medical services (EMS) call. How can you make the learning experience more authentic for the lifeguards? How can active learning be built into the program? What skills will be taught in the cognitive, psychomotor, and affective domains? 2. The fire chief wants to know why injury prevention should be addressed as part of the department’s education mission. Think about the chief as the learner. What learner characteristics will you need to consider? How can you meet him where he learns? 3. While talking with young students, you encounter a boy who knows the make and model of every one of your department’s vehicles, along with the name of every tool a fire fighter uses. In which of Gardner’s Intelligences do you think he shows a competency? Should this child be ignored, or can he be a valuable part of the learning experience for the entire group? How would you include him? Think About It and Make It Better A fire department is hosting an open house for the newly built fire station. The purpose of the event is to showcase the new facility, but as the fire and life safety educator, you have been asked to provide educational information about fire safety and injury prevention for the attendees of all ages. Along with tours, a dedication ceremony, and refreshments, there will be a 30-minute time allotment for a safety demonstration. What points should you consider before making plans for a demonstration? References 1. Chickering, A. W. and Gamson, Z. F. “Seven principles for good practice.” American Association for Higher Education Bulletin, No. 39 (March 1987):3–7. 2. Dunn, R. and Dunn, K. Teaching Elementary Students Through Their Individual Styles: Practical Approaches for Grades 3–6. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon, 1999. 3. Donovan, S., Bransford, J., and Pellegrino, J. Visible Knowledge Project, 2002. Available at http://crossroads.georgetown.edu. 4. Donovan, S., Bransford, J., and Pellegrino, J. (2002). 5. Marzano, R., Pickering, D., and Pollock, J. Classroom Instruction That Works. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2001. Additional Resources Felder, Richard M. and Solomon, Barbara A. Learning Styles and Strategies. Retrieved from http.www4.ncsu.edu, January 3, 2008. Heacox, D. Differentiating Instruction in the Regular Classroom. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing, Inc., 2002. Moran, S., Kornhaber, M., and Gardner, H. Orchestrating Multiple Intelligences. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2006. Marzano, R., Pickering, D. J. and Pollock, J. E. Classroom Instruction That Works. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 2001. CHAPTER 5: Age Group Characteristics Paper: © silver-john/ShutterStock, Inc.; Chapter Opener Photo: Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Explain the reasons an educator needs to understand developmental age group characteristics. NFPA 4.1.1 (p. 107) Define cognitive, affective, and physical areas of development. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 107–108) List basic characteristics of preschool children, elementary age children, adolescents, adults, and older adults in each of these domains. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 108–119) Explain how age group characteristics help determine the content, teaching methods, materials, and lesson planning for fire and life safety education. NFPA 4.4.1, 4.4.3 (pp. 108–119) Choose appropriate activities and materials and effective classroom management techniques for each age group. NFPA 4.4.1, 4.4.4 (pp. 108– 119) Recognize the needs of an audience based on the stage of development and age group characteristics. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 108–119) Introduction The fire service works with all age groups in a community. Although no two children or adults are the same, they do possess basic characteristics that follow a sequence of development unique to each age group. These age group characteristics can serve as guidelines for instruction to facilitate better learning. Understanding the stages of various age groups assists educators in meeting the needs of the audience as learners. Armed with this information, your job becomes much easier, pleasurable, and effective. It also allows the educator to plan more memorable, enjoyable, and understandable formats for delivery. You can enter the classroom, begin the station tour, or address the local businesses with more confidence and insight because you will better understand the expectations, abilities, limitations, and needs of those in attendance. Teaching to the appropriate level of readiness will help you take the learners from where they are at the present time to the next desired level of understanding. Without an awareness of the level of your intended audience’s readiness, you might provide information that is too simple or too advanced for their needs. Developing a working knowledge of age group characteristics will also assist the educator in choosing appropriate teaching methods, timelines for activities, and support materials and handouts. Have you ever walked away from a class thinking the teacher connected everything to something you cared about? That is because your instructor did an excellent job of considering and accommodating the needs of the age group characteristics. For the purpose of this chapter, age groups are broken down as preschoolers, elementary age children, adolescents, adults, and older adults. The age limits are not absolutes, but averages based on observed consistencies in development. They provide a standard and commonly accepted classification for studying age group development. As you read each section, keep in mind that these stages represent a general progression most children and adults pass through in a sequential order, although not necessarily at the same pace. These developmental theories are based on years of research by psychologists and developmental theorists. Many children and adults fit neatly into these descriptions, but it is important for educators to be able to recognize and accommodate those who deviate from these norms. Educators should also realize that a child or an adult may have achieved one level of maturity in one domain yet still be in an earlier stage of another domain. Domains of Development Child development is generally divided into three general areas: cognitive, affective, and physical-motor. These are sometimes easiest to think of in terms of the head, the heart, and the hands. The cognitive domain (also referred to as the intellectual domain) focuses on the mind, how it works, and the ability to think and reason. Depending on the age of the child, cognitive function might include abilities as simple as sorting by size and counting to more complex abilities such as understanding cause and effect, planning and organizing logically, developing strategies, or carrying out complex mathematical operations. The affective domain (also referred to as the social and emotional domain) focuses on social, emotional, and personality development. This domain includes feelings and an awareness of oneself and others, including (but not limited to) self-image, self-esteem, sympathy, empathy, compassion, fear, excitement, love, hate, anger, trust, and motivation. The physical domain (also referred to as the psychomotor domain) focuses on physical development. This domain includes abilities such as running, walking, crawling, climbing, throwing, balancing, writing, and drawing. It is further broken down into gross motor skills, involving primarily the large muscle groups needed for running, jumping, and climbing, and fine motor skills, involving more complex coordination and smaller muscles called upon for writing, drawing, and technical manipulations. Preschoolers Preschoolers are three-, four-, and early five-year-olds. They are a fascinating and energetic group. Because these children are not just “little adults,” they cannot be taught using the same techniques, timing, or expectations as their older counterparts. This is a period of rapid growth for all three domains, but methods and language too advanced for their readiness levels will result in frustration and disappointing results. Teaching to the appropriate level of readiness, sometimes referred to as the zone of proximal development (ZPD), will help you take the learners from where they are at the present time to the next desired level of understanding. The educator who can tap into the preschooler’s world is headed for a fun and rewarding experience. Developmental Characteristics Two behavioral theorists whose ideas have been very influential in explaining child development are Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky. Piaget is known for his work on the development of logical thought and sociomoral knowledge and behavior, and Vygotsky is known for his contributions to an understanding of how children learn to think and speak and the importance of adult and peer social interaction and their effect on a young child’s learning. Both theorists believe that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning, discovery, and development of new understandings. Since the early twentieth century, their work has helped educators classify behavior and guide developmental activities. Cognitively, preschoolers show a rapid growth in their language and intellectual capacity. Language is the medium by which children understand their world. They can begin to categorize things in term of opposites (hot vs. cold), extremes (tiny vs. huge), and desirable characteristics (safe vs. unsafe, good vs. bad); they can match things based on color, size, pattern, and class names. Preschoolers are considered to be egocentric, not because they are self-centered but because they believe everyone else sees the world in exactly the same way they do. Because they have a limited number of life experiences to draw upon, they relate new experiences to their existing knowledge and understanding. Sometimes they perceive reality in a distorted way that fits their present comprehension. For example, if a friendly fire fighter walks into a preschool classroom wearing a uniform, a young child may begin to cry for no apparent reason. Perhaps the only person the child has ever seen in a uniform is the police officer who issued a traffic ticket to his mother, visibly upsetting her. Because young children tend to generalize the specific to the general, their interpretation of this situation is that all people in uniforms do bad things. When a child takes in new information and fits it into a preconceived notion about objects or the world, this is called assimilation. When this does not work, the child is forced to change his or her existing conception of the world in order to interpret the experience correctly. Accommodation means adjusting to the new experience by revising the old plan to fit the new information. It is often the educator’s job to lead the child from assimilation to accommodation. In this case, the educator needs to teach the children that fire fighters wearing uniforms are there to help them and their families. Young children are very curious and eager to learn, and they do so through repetition, reinforcement, active involvement, and praise. Their understanding is commonly based on what they can see and observe. At this age, their reasoning is inconsistent, and their thoughts are often instinctive. Affectively, very young children are generally happy, active people. They enjoy their playmates and idolize their parents, teachers, and other adult role models and heroes. Their play often involves imitating adults, but they do not understand their actions FIGURE 5-1. Preschoolers continue to develop emotionally through play and acting things out. They are likely to have fears, often learned at home or in daycare situations. These fears can be very individualized and spring up without warning. Most preschoolers look forward to new experiences with great anticipation but are fearful or anxious about them at the same time. For example, children will look forward to a visit with Santa Claus at the mall for weeks, only to pull away and cry as their turn in line gets closer to the actual encounter. The best way to counter these situations is to prepare the child without causing undue excitement or fear. Move into the situation slowly and confidently, taking them along with you each step of the way. Very young children have short attention spans and are easily distracted. They love praise and want to be liked, but they can be argumentative at the same time. Be aware that it is normal for some preschool children to be less social and interactive than others. You may find a child sitting apart from the rest of the group, apparently in his own world. Even though he is not functioning at the same social level as his peers, he may understand all the information because he is functioning at an appropriate cognitive level. When introducing new and unfamiliar concepts, educators must monitor all of these traits playing out in front of them at once. Demonstrations of bunker gear or smoke alarms can be frightening for some young children. Take the time to bring them from things familiar in their world to the new information. It may be necessary to employ several different teaching strategies within one session to keep their attention. FIGURE 5-1 Play is a powerful learning tool for young children as they manipulate their environment and imitate adults. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Photographed by Glen E. Ellman. Physically, most preschoolers can run, jump, stand for a limited time on one foot, roll back and forth on the floor, go up and down stairs, march, stop, and turn. They are active and restless. Their fine motor skills are developing rapidly but are not as refined as their gross motor skills. They are beginning to draw, cut paper, build towers of blocks, roll cars on the floor, and participate in finger plays. They learn well by using their five senses. Activities that include touching, tasting, manipulating objects, finger plays, and listening to and making interesting sounds are excellent ways to engage preschoolers in learning and understanding new lessons. The use of onomatopoeia (using words that sound like the noises objects make) is a fun and creative way to enhance presentations for very young children. What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators Teaching preschoolers may take place at a fire station or a library, in a daycare or preschool setting, at an open house, or through a casual encounter on the street. Keeping the above characteristics in mind, the following suggestions will help educators and children as they work together: Educator’s Tip Some children like to dress up and may even have their own realistic junior firefighting gear. Others may have been allowed to use real fire hose to spray water during a special event. Reiterate that these are play or pretend activities and that their only job in the face of a real fire is to “get out, stay out!” The real fire fighters will put out fires. Gain children’s confidence and alleviate fear at the beginning of a lesson by moving slowly, physically getting down to their eye level by sitting on the floor with them or sitting in a chair, and speaking softly FIGURE 5-2. When using visual aids, set them up on a towel or small rug to define your area. Tell children that items in that area are not to be touched during the lesson. The small rug helps to visually clarify this instruction. Teach only one idea at a time and allow the children enough time to grasp the concept. Teach no more than three concepts per lesson and keep each one very simple. Incorporate reinforcement, repetition, and praise. When introducing a new concept or a new word, ask them to “repeat after me.” Check for understanding by asking questions at the end of the concept. See if they really “got it” or if they need further clarification. Just because young children can repeat the words, does not necessarily mean they can understand the words or perform the task. For example, many children can tell you that the emergency number is 911, but they cannot actually find the numbers on a telephone or carry out an emergency call. Teaching aids and a follow up by teachers or parents help instill the message FIGURE 5-3. Positive reinforcement is critical; anything you compliment them on is likely to happen again. Role playing, modeling, demonstration, puppets, songs, rhymes, and stories work well to reinforce a point. Anticipatory scenarios in which the children must guess what comes next, or what is in a bag or box help keep their interest. There are many uses for onomatopoeia; smoke alarms “beep,” fire engines have “siren noises,” severe weather involves “wind blowing,” and seatbelts “click.” Involve children in role play, make up a story in which they are the main characters, and develop ways for them to participate in the presentation. They enjoy dress-up and imitating adults FIGURE 5-4. Work with young children to help them understand the difference between fantasy and reality when it comes to emergency situations. Keep games and stories short. Give the children plenty of opportunity to move around. When children or any audience becomes restless, it is time to switch activities because learning is no longer taking place. A good way to get everyone back on track is to suddenly change the pitch or volume of speaking, move from standing to squatting, or ask them to all stand up and “touch the ceiling” or do another physical movement. Because they have short attention spans, they can be easily distracted, but for the same reason, a skillful educator can also bring them back to the next activity. A typical preschooler can attend to a lesson for approximately 10–15 minutes, but a lesson can be extended if the children are allowed to be active participants, the subject matter changes, a variety of teaching methods and activities are employed, and the educator constantly scans their little audience for cues that it is time for a change. Plan a quiet activity for the end of the lesson and conduct a short interactive review. Send educational materials home to the parents and caregivers. The adults in their lives are primarily responsible for keeping their preschoolers’ environment and activities safe. FIGURE 5-2 Gain children’s confidence and alleviate fear at the beginning of a lesson by physically getting down to their eye level and telling a story. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 5-3 Make sure young children can actually find the numbers as they would appear on a telephone to call 911 in emergencies. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 5-4 Children play make-believe in fire fighters’ gear. They need to understand that even if their gear looks just like a real fire fighter’s, it will not protect them from fire. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip Learning about age group characteristics is important in preparing effective lessons and programs. One of the best ways to ensure you are on target is to visit a classroom, observe lessons, and meet with teachers of that age group for insight into the students at that level within your community. Elementary School Students Elementary students generally range in age from 6 to 11 years old. This broad range can be broken down into lower elementary, or primary grades kindergarten through third; and upper elementary, or intermediate grades fourth through sixth. Even these breakdowns may vary from one school district to another. Find out how the local schools organize these age groups. Developmental Characteristics Cognitively, elementary school students are capable of basic math skills, they are becoming skilled readers, they have higher language and communication skills, and their attention spans are lengthening. These youngsters have a grasp of logical operations such as ordering, sequencing, and classification; they are better able to conceptualize and organize. They should be able to use certain resources independently, including navigating through the Internet with supervision. Children in this age range are able to understand cause and effect, and they attempt to make sense of more abstract material, such as time and money; however, remember that these children are often able to verbalize a concept without really understanding and grasping its applications. They are much more self-sufficient than in their earlier years. These improved levels of competency come with an increased level of curiosity and experimentation. Even younger elementary children are able to begin problem solving, and they enjoy putting their new information and skills into practice in the real world. When teaching this age group, involve problem-solving scenarios for them to consider. Asking for their input demonstrates respect for their ideas. Their answers to the problems will reveal their level of understanding. As they progress to the upper elementary grades, students have a preference for using “real” props and examples over toy representations. Puns, jokes, games with rules, challenges or competitions, mysteries, magic and the supernatural, outer space, and distant and faraway places are of interest to this age group. Consider revising a typical grade school format by introducing a few basic concepts, followed by a challenge or competition between two teams of students that involves finding the appropriate solutions to scenarios for safety. Educators should encourage students to share their ideas and acknowledge that there may be several appropriate solutions to a situation. This provides an inviting environment for learners to become more active participants. Any opportunity to use technology in conjunction with lessons will assist in engaging today’s students. Classrooms are home to many students who do not appear to be much different from one another. But within one classroom, an educator may encounter children who have learning disabilities, speech and language deficiencies, vision and hearing impairments, autism, or multiple needs. Discuss the class make-up with the classroom teacher before planning lessons. Ask for assistance to accommodate as many students’ needs as possible. Teachers are accustomed to creating differentiated learning strategies for their diverse classes. Educator’s Tip If you make visits to local schools, take time to look at the students’ artwork and written works in the hallway and classrooms. Ask yourself these questions: What are they learning about? What do they seem to care about? What is their level of competency? Are you teaching at that same level? Assess whether you can make logical connections to any of these topics in your lessons. Affectively, elementary children are on a fairly even keel, but the range of emotional response depends on each child’s maturity level and can vary widely in any classroom. They may demonstrate both negative and positive emotions. If emotions do erupt, the upset is usually short term. As they get older, exaggeration and sarcasm are frequently used to describe subtle meaning and nuances. Their developing self-esteem requires positive reinforcement. Although they take pride in being able to do things for themselves, children in this age group still need and want an adult’s presence and approval. They tend to compare themselves to certain adults and role models, mimicking mannerisms, hair styles, and clothing. During elementary school, children develop many friendships, and being someone’s “best friend” becomes increasingly important as they reach the upper elementary grades. The older students have a more realistic understanding of who they are and what they are capable of doing. Many, however, overestimate their ability to handle fire and other emergencies. Their horizons are expanding to include the world beyond their own families and neighborhoods. Some of the more difficult aspects of working with older elementary school students are the emergence of lying, stealing, experimentation, and risk taking, and the beginnings of a greater awareness of gender differences, along with peer pressure, name calling, and bullying. Consider how these characteristics might affect the way you present a lesson. Physically, grade school students’ growth is fairly steady. Their gross motor skills are now an important part of their ability to participate in competitions and team sports. They have greater control over their bodies, and they are interested in perfecting their gross motor skills. They can participate in games that call for more rules and strategies as they reach the upper elementary grades. Their fine motor skills show a marked improvement as they progress through the elementary grades; their hand– eye coordination continues to improve. Boys and girls enjoy using a wide variety of tools and utensils both at home and at school. As children investigate and challenge their expanding boundaries, new surroundings, and increased physical abilities, they will begin to experience more injuries. They are beginning to spend less time supervised by adults and more time on their own with friends. What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators Effective methods of instruction for this age group include: discussion; realistic and personal scenarios or stories; use of visual aids; realistic versus toy support materials; charts, maps, and simple graphs; role play; interviews; station tours; contests and games; problem solving; and active and engaged learning. Consider these other suggestions when working with elementary school students: Engage the affective as well as the cognitive domains of learning. Try to make the learning as relevant to students’ lives and the lives of their families as possible. More abstract thinking means these children can understand the need for home escape planning for their families and are capable of drawing a two-dimensional version of this plan. Be sure to demonstrate how to draw the map and relate it to real-life implementation first. They can understand the need to plan for the future and assist their families with creating plans and emergency kits for natural disasters FIGURE 5-5. Because elementary children value their friendships and understand that they are not supervised as much as when they were younger, educators can begin to introduce basic first aid for students to help each other or family members until an adult or the fire department arrives. The ability to understand cause and effect means that safety educators can discuss risk taking and the consequences of careless or uneducated behaviors. Educators can use the method of Socratic dialogue, a technique invented by the Greek philosopher Socrates in which the leader or a group member poses a question or dilemma, and the group members pool their thoughts and experience to seek an answer or solution. Ask children to think about and discuss “What if?” scenarios in areas of simple electrical safety, water, bicycle, poison, and fire and burn safety. Less talking and more discussing are important for this age group. Many children in upper elementary grades will be allowed to stay home alone. Encourage them to think about how they would handle various emergency situations if no adult was available or if the supervising adult was incapacitated. Teach them specifically how to deal with common emergencies and difficult decisions. It will be very beneficial to obtain a copy of the local school district’s curriculum handbook for the elementary grades. Most school districts post a version of their curriculum online. Are there areas of the curriculum where fire and life safety could be appropriately incorporated and connected to existing lessons? Information and projects provided by the fire department may help students fulfill their requirements. Elementary school-aged children make good messengers. At every opportunity, use an interaction with children as a way to reach their parents. Send home information for the adults along with any other material you may be giving the children. FIGURE 5-5 A teacher demonstrates how to draw and practice a home escape plan (A). Check for understanding as students practice the exercise on their own (B). Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip Whenever possible, integrate fire and life safety messages with the local and state school curriculum. These lessons will be more easily implemented and institutionalized. Voice of Experience After doing a risk assessment, I realized that my community had fire and life safety programs for very young children, for teenagers, and for adults, but didn’t have anything for middle schoolers. That 11- to 14-year-old age group was kind of the lost group. These are the “tweens”: they have a longer attention span and are able to participate in more activities than younger children, but they’re not old enough to drive or get jobs. They are beginning a stage in life where peer pressure is everywhere, and their decision-making abilities are in turmoil due to the stage of brain development at this age. During the summer, these kids needed something that would keep them out of trouble. Many children in this age group begin thinking about what careers interest them. Many think becoming a fire fighter or a cop is cool. I thought, how great if we could also get the message out about safety, while exposing these kids to careers in the fire services and law enforcement. So we decided to create the city of Naples Police and Fire Youth Academy, a week-long camp to teach safety primarily, but also discipline, responsibility and working as part of a team. We have a full day. The kids have to be there at 8 am for roll call; we explain right away what would happen if you called 911 and no one was there for work, that’s why they can’t be late. After that first day, we make them do pushups or sit-ups if they’re late—nothing excessive, but it gets the message across. (By the end of the first day, they’re encouraging others and their parents!) We’ll do some light calisthenics and then we’ll break the group in two. For example, one group might go to a CPR/first aid training while another might go to a block on water safety and rescue. Then they’ll switch. (Water safety is a big issue by the Gulf.) We understand that when kids get out of school for the summer, the last thing they want to do is sit in a classroom all day. So we try to have some kind of an educational portion followed by a hands-on activity for each session. By the time the week is over, they’ve practiced CPR on a mannequin or first aid on a fellow classmate; they’ve donned bunker gear, gone through a confined space maze, used a fire hose and used a fire extinguisher. The program has been really successful. Even though the kids are having fun they are learning. Many of the parents tell me they cannot believe how much the children have learned in a week. The registration is full within a week of being opened. —Pamela DeMeo, Fire Prevention Specialist, City of Naples Fire Department, FL Adolescents Adolescence is a time of dramatic cognitive, psychosocial, and physical change; each developmental area is interrelated with the others. This period of life is defined by two subgroups—(1) early adolescence, the middle school years (ages 10 to 14 years), and (2) older adolescence, the high school years (ages 15 to 18 years). A study of early adolescence reveals a tremendous diversity among the development, maturity levels, behaviors, and fluctuating self-esteem of each child. It is a time of new adventures, experimenting with rules, and striving for independence, yet it is also a time of great uncertainty. This age group deserves attention and special consideration. Although these individuals are no longer children, neither are they simply in a holding pattern awaiting adulthood. In general, adolescence brings with it struggles to balance pressures from home, school, and friends. Therefore, lessons and presentations for this age group must be carefully planned and executed to accommodate their many needs and concerns. Developmental Characteristics During early adolescence, children become much more cognitively mature, able to use deductive reasoning and rational and systematic thought processes. They can examine more complex issues, including politics, religion, morality, and ethics. Their grasp of space, time, and abstract concepts deepens and allows for more in-depth examination and discussion. As they work to define their belief system and goals for the future, they are able to consider themselves within a much larger framework and context than earlier in their lives. High school students have more experiences from which to base their thinking and decisions. It is common for them to begin questioning society’s norms and rules and reassessing their current values. Their world is expanding, bringing with it moral dilemmas, questions of boundary setting, and the need for relatable positive role models. Thinking at higher and more abstract levels is more developed than ever before. They are concerned with global concepts such as justice, history, politics, and patriotism, often developing idealistic views on specific topics. Some adolescents become more aware of careers and the need to plan for the future, but others prefer to put these decisions off until absolutely necessary. Even with the strides the adolescent makes in cognitive function, early twenty-first century research reveals that the teenage brain is far from finished; it is continuing to undergo dramatic transformations. The prefrontal cortex, a portion of the brain located directly behind the forehead in a region often referred to as the frontal lobes of the brain, is still developing.1 This area of the brain is in charge of executive functions such as planning, judgment, impulse control, anticipation of consequences, and emotional control. The prefrontal cortex tells a person to resist impulses, plan ahead, and think first before acting. It also helps people to understand their own emotions and the emotions of others. Newer research tells us that this area of the brain is the last to develop, a process that can take up to 25 years to complete. Consider research from Stanford University stating that “in addition to having an underdeveloped restraint system, the teenage brain generates more intense impulses than a child’s or an adult’s,”2 and it will make sense that teenagers lead the pack in risk-taking activities. As teens are increasingly in positions to make adult choices that range from staying home alone to driving a car, the decision-making part of the brain is not always in a position to help them think ahead and avoid the consequences of poor choices. Adolescents may feel the urge to do something irrational and impulsive and later report that they do not know why they did it, even though cognitively they did know better. They really do not know why they followed through with it, because there was no internal police to stop them from carrying out their urge FIGURE 5-6. FIGURE 5-6 Research tells us that this area of the brain is the last to develop, a process that can take up to 25 years to complete. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. The number of changes and challenges taking place in the affective domain of adolescents’ lives make them a unique population deserving of study. Early adolescence serves as an apprenticeship for learning to handle adult responsibilities and for thinking in new ways. Emotional extremes are caused by hormonal changes. Self-esteem and self-image are fragile, often causing children to feel self-conscious, misunderstood, and isolated. They have reached a new level of egocentrism, and are overly concerned that everyone notices everything about them, and many are very much concerned with their body and appearance. Their relationship with their peers is of prime importance; they truly care about the welfare and happiness of their friends and exhibit a growing dependence on each other. For many, this period is characterized by a preoccupation with seeking more mature relationships with members of both genders. The affective domain contributes to daredevil behaviors as teenagers attempt to hide their fears and doubts and win the approval of their peers. Educator’s Tip Demonstrations, small group work, and discussions engage adolescents in learning better than a lesson composed entirely of an instructor’s lecture FIGURE 5-7. FIGURE 5-7 Group projects and discussions engage adolescents in learning better than a lesson composed entirely of lecture. © Christopher Futcher/iStock/Getty. Older adolescents become more comfortable in their own skin. They begin to have an increased sense of self-worth. They continue to challenge parental advice and control as they test new boundaries. Most rebellion is in terms of dress, music, and hair, but in some cases, it can extend to drugs, crime, and other more serious experimentation. Physically, early adolescents are bombarded by hormones, causing sporadic growth spurts and maturing reproductive systems. Different parts of their body are growing at different rates. This sometimes causes them to be uncomfortable, restless, accident prone, and clumsy. Their learning environment needs to be comfortable FIGURE 5-8. The educator should not expect these students to be sitting in neat rows of chairs and desks. Their gross motor skills are highly developed, and for many, excelling at sports becomes very important to their self-esteem and social status. Their fine motor skills have become so sophisticated that many adolescents become accomplished artists, musicians, or mechanics. By the end of adolescence, they have almost reached their adult height. FIGURE 5-8 Adolescents’ learning environment needs to be comfortable. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. For many, high school becomes the great equalizer. Adolescents’ heads, hearts, and hands come together and begin to work in greater harmony with each other. What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators Lesson content, materials, and activities need to have relevance to adolescents’ dayto-day lives. Encourage the use of more highly developed cognitive skills to solve real-life problems. Self-assessment instruments, first-person case studies, and demonstrations are effective teaching methods at this level. Provide activities to reengage families. Here are some tips to consider when working with adolescents: Create vehicles for connecting new information to what is already known, thus helping adolescents feel more confident about their learning ability and their own experiences. Help them to understand why your information has meaning to them. Emphasize hands-on, cooperative learning activities and experiences, allowing students to move around the classroom to avoid long periods of passive work. Be very careful if planning to use role play with this age group. Since many are already self-conscious in front of others, placing them in role-playing situations can cause them to be uncomfortable. This will result in silliness or other actingout behaviors. Fire service personnel can provide positive role models, demonstrating respect and concern for the community, responsibility at home and school and in the community, and an appreciation for gender equity. Use multisensory experiences and a variety of review and reflection strategies when possible. Active and participative teaching strategies work best. Think, Pair, Share is an effective technique to use with this age group. After introducing a scenario, have each student pair up with a partner, discuss possible solutions, and ask for a few groups to report out to the larger group. This provides a more active learning environment with little disruption to the class setting. Students will be more willing to share their answers because they were not alone in arriving at the solutions. Talk through possibilities and options, asking: “What will happen if...?” Introduce critical thinking problems involving moral and ethical decision making. Allow students to reason logically, question, debate about, and engage in problemsolving regarding verbal statements and abstract issues. Ask that they hypothesize about the consequences of risk-taking behaviors. Include a discussion of basic coping skills for times when temptation knocks on their door. Try not to single out students. Many are trying very hard to be “invisible” while listening and participating. They do not like to have attention drawn to themselves, positive or negative. Allow children who are more withdrawn to participate in their own quiet way FIGURE 5-9. While positive reinforcement for sharing ideas and correct answers is encouraged, educators should use a limited dose of individual praise. Even though it is a positive reaction, the praise is still drawing attention to an individual student. React positively and move on. Diffuse any disrespect. Invite students to express opinions but do not get personally involved in heated discussions. Ignore rolling eyes, exaggerated sighs, and body language indicating boredom or displeasure as long as it does not disrupt other students’ learning. If a good sense of humor is a strength of the educator, it can be incorporated and should be allowed to happen naturally. But keep in mind that while a sense of humor can be an effective way to reach adolescents and unwilling adults, it can backfire if it is forced. This age group often has their own language and definition of what is funny. Avoid criticism and sarcasm; this includes tagging students with nicknames. It is not necessary to be their friend. Be a good role model, a sympathetic and caring listener, and an engaged instructor. They have expectations that this is who you are in their community. FIGURE 5-9 These adolescent students may look as if they are not paying attention to the instructor, but their body language can be deceiving. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip Set expectations at the beginning of the lesson, be concise, and provide structure and clear limits for group work, class discussions, and projects. Involve the students in evaluating their work. Adults Before addressing the characteristics of adults, it is helpful to look at what is meant by “adult.” Biologically, it could be when the body is physically able to reproduce, but that would be early adolescence. Legally, it might be when a person can vote or get a driver’s license. Socially, it might be recognized when a person takes on traditionally adult roles such as parenting or working and supporting oneself. Most importantly, it is psychologically, when a person becomes responsible for his or her own life, gaining a self-concept and self-directedness.3 The cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains continue to change and grow throughout adult life along multiple paths and multiple dimensions. For the purpose of this text, we will concern ourselves with adults as learners and effective strategies for teaching the adult. In 1926, Eduard C. Lindeman published The Meaning of Adult Education. His philosophy was that in adult education, the curriculum is built around the student’s needs and interests. Adults have special needs and requirements as learners. Individual differences among people increase with age; therefore, adult education must make optimal provisions for differences in style, time, place, and pace of learning. Because adults come to the table with lives rich in experiences, authoritative teaching and lecturing have little place in effective learning. Teachers and learners need to participate in two-way learning. The Andragogical Model The study of core adult learning principles that apply to all adult learning situations is called andragogy. The concept that adults and children learn differently was first introduced in the United States in the early 1970s by Malcolm Knowles. Knowles is credited as a pioneer in the field of andragogy. The six basic principles of andragogy are (1) the learner’s need to know, (2) the selfconcept of the learner, (3) prior experiences of the learner, (4) readiness to learn, (5) orientation to learning, and (6) motivation to learn, further explained here: The need to know. If adults know why they need to learn something before they undertake it, they will invest considerable energy to achieve that end. Sometimes the educator must induce that need for the learner by introducing a problem the adult did not know existed. The learner’s self-concept. Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions and resent someone else forcing their wills upon them. They are in charge and need to be self-directing in learning situations. The role of the learners’ experiences. Adults possess more and varied life experiences and previous education than children. They also arrive with more biases, habits, and preconceived ideas, so the educator must help adults discover what these are and help them open up to new ideas and techniques. They will have a wider range of differences. New information must somehow be anchored to the learner’s goals, experience, previous knowledge, values, beliefs, sociocultural factors, and the bigger picture. Teaching and learning strategies need to be individualized. Readiness to learn. Many adults enjoy learning for the sake of learning. However, many seek information and instruction only when they experience a need to know or do something to perform more effectively or when it meets an immediate life need. Learning must focus on issues that directly concern adults and have a direct benefit for their lives. Again, it may become the educator’s job to induce this readiness, introducing a problem or potential problem the adult did not know existed. It may be necessary to capitalize on the teachable moment, a situation during which the learner is particularly responsive to being taught or made aware of something4 in their lives, without capitalizing on tragedy or sensitive issues. Orientation to learning. Adults learn best when skills, values, and attitudes are presented in the context of their application to real-life situations. It must become real and useful to them. Information that is simply memorized and unrelated to their everyday lives will quickly be forgotten. Motivation. Most adults are motivated to grow and learn, but they are often blocked by the inaccessibility of opportunities or resources, time constraints, programs that do not follow the principles of adult learning, or their negative selfconcept as student. A properly designed and executed program will help to overcome these obstacles. Educator’s Tip The best time for adults to learn is when what is being taught is immediately useful to the learner. Characteristics of Adult Learning We can easily get caught up in how to teach, but it is important in adult education to think more about how adults learn. We can derive our theories of teaching from what we know about theories of adult learning. Adults need to be able to anticipate how they will use their learning and new knowledge, and they expect performance improvement and immediate utility as a result of their participation. They want success, value, and enjoyment in a collaborative, respectful, mutual, and informal atmosphere. Older learners still like positive reinforcement, but it must be genuine. They function best in an environment of respect, open-mindedness, tolerance, and compassion. Although adults may be motivated by learning that leads to promotion, more money, or a bonus, their most powerful motivators are internal. As better active than passive learners, adults thrive on stimulating, thought-provoking activities during which they are allowed to collaborate, discuss, question, and even disagree with each other FIGURE 5-10. They are drawn in by life-centered learning, using their own reflections and personal insight. They need to be as much a part of the learning environment as the educator. Think about a positive class experience when you were engaged in the learning because your ideas and comments became part of the learning process. FIGURE 5-10 Adults need to be as much a part of the learning process as the educator. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Barriers to Adult Learning Because adults can be emotionally attached to many of their beliefs, knowledge, value systems, and world views that were developed over many years, they may reject new information or explain it away even when they are faced with irrefutable information that contradicts these long-held beliefs. In these cases, it is best to let the learners construct and arrive at new knowledge rather than trying to teach it to them. As with change in organizations, adults must first unfreeze their own perspective, engage in the steps toward change, and finally refreeze the new behavior.5 Adults have many responsibilities to balance against the demands of learning and the requirements of new knowledge and practices. Additionally, adults may have a lack of time, money, confidence, interest, information about opportunities to learn, scheduling problems, or the logistics of child care and transportation. The educator must emphasize the reasons for participating in programs, recommended practices, and find ways to decrease any barriers to the best of his or her ability. Educator’s Tip Successful coaching and facilitating requires more planning, structure, and constant assessment than a straight lecture format to ensure the class is working toward the goals and objectives of the session. Try It—It Works! Using pictures of recent incidents in the community over the past year, create a slide show. Invite adults to a presentation titled “Why Do Bad Fires Happen to Good People?” Ask fire fighters who were on the call to assist by giving an overview of what they encountered when they arrived on the scene. Go over what could have prevented each fire. Follow with a group discussion about how to prevent these types of fires and how to get the word out to the community in the future. Ask them to help the fire department. What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators Educating adults is a challenge because of the additional work necessary to present a program that best facilitates learning. The educator’s role is changed from that of a “teacher” or “transmitter” to that of a “coach” or “facilitator,” increasingly becoming a participant rather than an authority figure. In this role, it is important to share feelings but not make judgments. This takes practice, patience, and tolerance! It is the instructor’s job to set the mood and tone in which learning is to take place. The atmosphere should reflect a respectful, positive, trusting, friendly, and open attitude, keeping in mind that people learn best under low to moderate stress. It is helpful to use thoughtful, open-ended questioning techniques that personally involve and allow adults to use their experiences. Challenge participants to grapple with the kind of ill-defined problems they encounter in everyday life. Because adults need control over their learning environment, collaborative, small team, and group work give them an opportunity to influence the direction their learning takes. Combine these methods with other teaching strategies that include feedback, guided practice, modeling, reinforcement, and some repetition. Creativity and novelty, in combination with proven, successful teaching techniques, are generally rewarding. Identify, organize, and maximize available resources ahead of time and make them available to anyone who shows an interest. Become a flexible resource to be used by the group as a counselor, advisor, or person with experience in the field with offers to continue that support in the future. Adults will more easily understand how they will use their learning when the instructor clearly states expectations, goals, and objectives at the outset and strives to elicit personal goals from the group. From that point forward, it is the instructor’s responsibility to develop meaningful paths for the learners to arrive at the final objectives, making connections to similar material within a logical framework or pattern in their lives. Most importantly, remain alert to feelings adults bring with them to any learning environment, some deep and strong. Challenge preconceived notions, attitudes, and beliefs, but always demonstrate respect. Ensure that all content and activities are relevant and sensitive to the learners’ cultural backgrounds and make an effort to accept intellectual content and emotional attitudes. Consider these additional tips for working effectively with the adult population: Seize the moment. If a community has recently experienced several fire-related incidents or other emergent issues, get information to that population as soon as possible while it is still of primary importance in their lives. Research shows we have a 3-6 month window for these teachable moments to be effective. Be sensitive to using individuals’ names to assign blame. Try to accommodate the busy schedules and other responsibilities of adults. To connect with an adult audience, educators may need to “piggyback” on an existing meeting or community event, such as a store opening, a church meeting, or an existing hospital program. A good educator of adults will tolerate and invite discussion, including differences of opinion. Remain humble and respect the skills of each member of an adult audience. Know your limitations and admit whether you are an expert in the field or a messenger. Encourage learners to contribute their experiences and use them as resources. As a participant, you can ask, “Where can we go from here?” “How can we prevent this in the future?” “How can our department help in other ways?” or “Is there something we can all begin to work on together?” Set up the room for group discussions, simulation exercises, problem-solving activities, and more collaborative learning rather than rows of chairs lined up facing a podium. Be prepared for the adults who come to a presentation ready for a lecture from an expert and little participation on their part. Honor and accommodate their wishes, as well. Involve adults in the evaluation process through reflection, discussion, and developing a plan to see if there will be behavior changes as a result of the learning experience. Older Adults Gerontology is the study of the social, psychological, and biological aspects of aging. W. Andrew Anchenbaum, a historian who studies perceptions of aging, contends that “older people are more diverse than any other age group.”6 Their health, temperaments, financial situations, and levels of engagement with life, among other characteristics, are all over the board. For the purpose of most discussions, 65 years old is considered the chronological threshold for consideration as an older adult. According to the CDC (2013) more than 44 million Americans are presently 65 years old and older, and more than 30 million more expected to join them in the next decade. Older adults represent a segment of the population not to be ignored. The age range and characteristics of older adults has expanded to the extent that some experts in the health field now further compartmentalize older adults as the “new old” (ages 65 to 72 years old), the “old” (72 to 85 years old), and the “old old” (85 years old and older). The 85 years and older age group is increasing faster than any other age group. Jim Gilmartin, owner of Coming of Age, Inc. is quick to point out, “We need to be careful not to categorize older adults only by their chronological age. Age is not the guiding factor in marketing to older adults. Rather, we should be concerned with their life stage” FigureS 5-11 and 5-12. Many older adults are maintaining a high degree of youthfulness in their health, appearance, energy, activity level, and outlook on life. Data from the U.S. Census Bureau (April 2014) show that the infamous “Baby Boomers,” those born between 1946 and 1964, are a respectable 76.4 million strong in the United States today. This generation alone has an enormous influence on American society, and they are certainly changing views about what it means to grow old. Contrary to society’s view of old age, depression and social isolation are not normal for older Americans; living happily and productively and maintaining close relationships with family and friends are more the norm for today’s older adults. FIGURE 5-11 Many older adults are maintaining a high degree of youthfulness in their health, appearance, energy, activity level, and outlook on life. Courtesy of Pattie Pearson. FIGURE 5-12 Most older adults successfully adjust to the challenges of aging. In general, the life satisfaction among older adults is good, if not better, than any other age group. © Blend Images/Shutterstock. Developmental Characteristics Older adults do experience physical, cognitive, and psychological age-related changes. With advancing age, these changes present certain challenges that must be realized, accepted, and accommodated for them to continue to live safe, productive, and useful lives. Cognitive Characteristics Older adults should not be looked upon as cognitively impaired. Generally, with aging, there is a slowing of the speed with which information is encoded, stored, received, and retrieved. There may also be some memory loss, difficulty memorizing strands of numbers and processing numerical information, and a decline in wordfinding ability. It is more challenging to recall details presented in unfamiliar settings; however, if there is a decline in some cognitive functioning, it is not usually severe enough to cause problems in daily living. Wisdom and creativity most often continue to the very end of life. Many older adults are capable of prospering in their careers and contributing significantly to society. For adults older than 65 years old, 5 percent to 7 percent have dementia, the irreversible deterioration of intellectual ability accompanied by emotional disturbance, and at least 30 percent of those over 85 years old have some form of the condition. The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer’s disease, a progressive disease that leaves a victim unable to form new memories and is marked by the loss of other mental functions, such as the ability to recall newly learned information and disorientation. In 2015 the Alzheimer’s Association of America estimates that as many as 5.1 million Americans may have Alzheimer’s disease. The incidence of the disease is rising in line with the aging population. Physical Characteristics There are certain undeniable physical changes that eventually accompany aging. Many of these changes are related to aging senses. Sensory losses occur gradually and make it increasingly difficult for older adults to adjust to new environments. This is why older adults tend to memorize their environment. They prefer to take similar routes when driving and order familiar items from menus; habits and routines make their lives more comfortable. The sense of sight provides visual clues about the environment. Older adults may move more slowly, not because of limited mobility but because vision problems mean they need to study their surroundings more carefully as they navigate. It becomes more difficult to see in dim light. Nearsightedness and farsightedness are vision problems many members of the general public must deal with even as children. Older adults are also challenged by conditions such as macular degeneration, a medical condition in which the center of the inner lining of the eye atrophies or thins, often resulting in a loss of central vision, and glaucoma, a group of eye diseases that damage the optic nerve, often causing a loss of peripheral vision. Hearing impairment is usually moderate or mild but it is widespread, and the severity increases with aging. The ear canal actually shortens in older adults, earwax packs in, and the ear drum is less flexible, causing sound to drop off because there is less vibration. High-frequency hearing loss is most common. Nerve endings in the feet and hands begin to die off with age. There is a diminished sensation to pain, and the ability to send messages of hot and cold to the brain slow down. Because older adults have a reduced ability to sense and adjust to temperature change, they should dress for the weather conditions rather than how they feel at the moment. Their skin is actually thinner than that of the general population. They may report feeling chilly in rooms where others are quite comfortable. Responses to stimuli in the environment after they are detected through the senses are slower. Older adults often take several medications, which can have side effects causing drowsiness, dizziness, or confusion. They may experience varying degrees of arthritis, osteoporosis, hypertension, diabetes, and other chronic conditions. Others may use wheelchairs, canes, or walkers. In general, older adults move more slowly, become less agile, and lose a degree of mobility. The need for assistance with everyday activities increases with age. The American Psychological Association (APA) reports that up to 50 percent of those over 85 years old need personal assistance. Psychological Characteristics Most older adults successfully adjust to the challenges of aging. In general, the life satisfaction among older adults is good, if not better, than any other age group. As people age, they often become interested in civic engagement and in giving back to their communities and to organizations that provide emotional significance to them. They begin to think about leaving a legacy. This population, rich with life experiences, can be an asset to program development and growing a volunteer base, but their involvement needs to be meaningful, engaging, and purposeful. Many are looking to use their skills and experience in flexible work and service opportunities. According to the APA, religious affiliation is the most common form of organizational participation among older adults, with 50 percent reporting attending services weekly. The National Institute on Aging reports that more than 50 percent of those 85 years old and older still live in their own homes. But the housing needs of many seniors may change because of their physical limitations, a change in financial resources, a desire to be closer to family members, or the demands of keeping up a house. It is a time to begin downsizing their possessions for a move to a smaller space. In moving from a lifelong home to a smaller condominium or apartment, some adults find it very difficult to part with their things in an attempt to hang on to what they have left from their past life. This habit should be of concern to the fire service because it contributes negatively to both fires and falls. What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators As Baby Boomers become older adults, there will be a shift toward a different type of senior. Take notice of the increased level of independence and activity and improved healthy lifestyles and market accordingly. Consider the following suggestions when working with this population: Because older adults strive to maintain their independence as long as possible, show them that you can be a path to that independence. Falls are the leading cause of unintentional injuries for older adults. Discuss the use of grip bars, nonslip area rugs, and night lights. Encourage the adoption of universal design, homes that look like other homes but are easier to access. Universal design features can be installed for anyone at any age to be used now and adjusted for the future. For example, grip bars built into a bath are a safety design to keep young children, adults, and older adults from falling and slipping. These modifications are not only for older adults. Use printed material that provides high contrast so it is easier to read. Black print on white is easiest to read. Stay away from pastels as a background because older adults lose the ability to see these colors first. Aside from using at least a 12- or 14-point font, avoid using “curly” fonts; instead, use Arial or Times New Roman. Mix upper and lower case rather than printing everything in capital letters and double space the text. Avoid the use of glossy paper, which creates glare. When presenting to older adults, avoid standing in front of a window or light background. Be aware that adults with macular degeneration lose the center of their field of vision; you may need to sit to the side when conversing with them. Before addressing a group of older adults, reduce background noise as much as possible. To catch their attention, say their name or a group name such as “ladies.” Pronounce each word clearly, deliberately, and slowly. Use a lower voice register because many elderly people lose hearing in the high frequencies. Repeat important messages at various points in your presentation and distribute information with websites and phone numbers where additional information can be found. Show images of real people, not stock photos. Be authentic. Older adults have too many life experiences to buy anything else. A picture of a fire fighter carrying a child to safety is a powerful visual for older adults. Minimize the use of lecture instead, try weaving the message into stories. They will remember the information better if it is taught in the context of what matters most to them—children and grandchildren rather than bricks and mortar or dollars and cents. Older adults want emotional connections, not just a product or service. Images of family, children, and pets are powerful for this age group. The fire service is in a good position to make these connections for them. Baby Boomers are becoming grandparents of young children. Be sure to talk to this age group about babysitting safety and new injury prevention concerns, such as novelty lighters, car safety seats, and poison prevention. In 2014, Safe Kids Worldwide reported that 38 percent of the childhood ingestions seen by emergency rooms related to a prescription drug involved a grandparent’s medication. Older adults do not want to be inundated with facts and information. Instead, lead them to where they can find more information and contacts if they are interested. Identify the key influencers in the lives of older adults. These people could be adult children, group leaders at church, or physicians. With so many more adults staying in their own homes longer, educators need to find other people to help reach them with fire safety and injury prevention messages. Look into the possibility of intergenerational programs and activities. Grandchildren can be a powerful entrée into the lives of older adults. Investigate technology for different types of smoke alarms and home safety aids that will accommodate hearing loss, impaired mobility, and decreased visual acuity. Make this information available to older adults and encourage their use. Because older adults do not like being reminded about their diminished physical capabilities, discuss the improvements these devices make for anyone who might make use of them. Because older adults often tire more easily than the general population because of medication use or chronic illness, try to schedule presentations and appointments early in the day rather than in the evening. Straight-back chairs can be uncomfortable; comfortable chairs or a table and chair setup works best so they can rest by leaning forward on the table. Educator’s Tip If you are offered the use of a microphone to talk to a group of older adults, it is best to accept the offer and use the microphone rather than saying, “I have a very loud voice. No one has trouble hearing me.” If the group is accustomed to listening to speakers over a public address system, it will be easier for them to listen to the presentation. Wrap-Up Smoke:© Greg Henry/ShutterStock, Inc. Summary Points Fire and life safety educators must be able to reach and educate all demographics of the population. To do this effectively, educators need to be aware of the general characteristics of each age group in terms of cognitive, physical, and affective development. Although there is a great deal of overlap in the safety messages, techniques, and learning styles of all age groups, there are also specific differences that need to be addressed if educators are to be successful. A working knowledge of the characteristics of each age group will assist educators in selecting the appropriate message, method of teaching, and support materials. The rate of development, strength of a particular characteristic, and level of maturity among individuals within each age group can vary greatly, but most children and adults pass through the same sequence of development. Educators are better prepared and provide a more valuable service when they pay attention to the general characteristics of each stage of development. Characteristics of learners are also affected by cultural norms, physical or mental challenges, socioeconomic level, and other attributes. Educators must take these factors into consideration. Key Terms Accommodation Adjusting to a new experience by abandoning an old plan or revising it to fit the new information. Affective domain Also referred to as the social and emotional domain, this domain focuses on social, emotional, and personality development. Alzheimer’s disease A progressive disease that leaves a person unable to form new memories and is marked by the loss of other mental functions, such as the ability to recall newly learned information and disorientation. Andragogy The study of core adult learning principles that apply to all adult learning situations. Assimilation Taking in new information and fitting it into a preconceived notion about objects or the world. Cognitive domain Also referred to as the intellectual domain, this domain focuses on the mind, how it works, and the ability to think and reason. Dementia Irreversible deterioration of intellectual ability accompanied by emotional disturbance. Fine motor skills Physical skills involving complex coordination and smaller muscles called upon for activities such as writing, drawing, and technical manipulations. Gerontology The study of the social, psychological, and biological aspects of aging. Glaucoma The name for a group of eye diseases that damage the optic nerve, often causing a loss of peripheral vision. Gross motor skills Physical skills involving primarily the large muscle groups needed for activities such as running, jumping, and climbing. Macular degeneration A medical condition in which the center of the inner lining of the eye atrophies or thins, often resulting in a loss of central vision. Onomatopoeia Words that sound like the noises objects make. Physical domain The domain that focuses on physical development. Prefrontal cortex A portion of the brain located directly behind the forehead in a region often referred to as the frontal lobe. Socratic dialogue A teaching method invented by the Greek philosopher Socrates in which the leader or group member poses a question or dilemma and the group members pool their thoughts and experience to seek an answer or solution. Teachable moment A situation during which the learner is particularly responsive to being taught or made aware of something. Universal design Features that resemble those in other homes but that are designed to be easier to use and are adaptable to changing physical needs. Zone of proximal development (ZPD) The gap between what a child has already mastered and what he or she can achieve with the guidance of an experienced and capable assistant such as a teacher or peer at an appropriate level of readiness. Review Questions 1. What are some behaviors to avoid when first meeting preschool children? What are some activities that might keep their interest? 2. If you wanted to change the adult community’s attitude about an issue, what techniques might you use to get them to think more positively about that change? 3. Why do adolescents seem to engage in risk-taking behaviors more than other age groups? 4. What are some common misconceptions about older adults? 5. What organizations, activities, or meetings could the fire department merge with to reach an adult audience? Critical Thinking 1. Elementary school students are intrigued by realistic props and visual aids. Develop a list of support materials you can use when instructing this age group. Make sure they are safe, clean, and appropriate for the age group. 2. Think about your community. How could the fire department provide some intergenerational safety activities, other than an open house, that would benefit age groups at both ends of the spectrum? 3. Older adults are interested in volunteering and helping the local fire department. Knowing that their participation needs to be meaningful, how can the fire department use their services? How can you use their services in ways that do not insult their abilities and level of independence? Think About It and Make It Better A local apartment complex caters to older adults. In fact, no one under the age of 62 years is accepted as a tenant. It is not considered an assisted living facility, and there is no one onsite to deliver medical care or assist the tenants. Over the past 10 years, the demographics of the population show that most residents are in their late 70s to early 80s. The department is called frequently to assist patients who have fallen to help them back into bed or a chair. They often assist the same patients as many as three times in one day with no transport. This situation is becoming a burden on the department’s system. As the safety educator, how would you begin working toward a solution to this growing problem? Whom would you contact? Discuss a learning climate and activities that would be conducive to problem solving and a sense of shared responsibility. References 1. Strauch, B. The Primal Teen: What the New Discoveries About the Teenage Brain Tell Us About Our Kids. New York: Random House, 2003, p. 16. 2. Whitten, L. “Uneven regional brain development contributes to adolescent risk-taking”. NIDA Notes, Vol. 21 No. 3 (April 2007): 8. 3. Knowles, M. S. The Adult Learner. Burlington, MA: Elsevier, 2005. 4. Havigurst, R. J. Human Development and Education. New York: McKay, 1953. 5. Lewin, K. Field Theory in Social Science. New York: Harper and Row, 1951. 6. Smith, O. J. Aging In America. New York: H. W. Wilson, 2000. Additional Resources Cantor, J. Delivering Instruction to Adult Learners. Toronto: Wall & Emerson, 2001. Charlesworth, R. Understanding Child Development. Clifton Park, NY: Thompson Delmar Learning, 2008. Kaminski, L. B. and Dornbos, K. L. Focus on Curriculum Design for Middle School Programs. East Lansing, MI: Michigan Association of Middle School Educators, 1991. Knowles, M. S. The Adult Learner. Burlington, MA: Elsevier, 2005. Pruitt, D. B. Your Adolescent: Emotional, Behavioral, and Cognitive Development from Early Adolescence through the Teen Years. New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 1999. Revenson, D. A Piaget Primer: How a Child Thinks. New York: Plume/Penguin, 1996. Strauch, B. The Primal Teen: What the New Discoveries About the Teenage Brain Tell Us About Our Kids. New York: Random House, 2003. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission. Grandparents! Prevent Your Grandchildren from Being Poisoned: Safety Alert! Available at http://www.cpsc.gov, n.d. CHAPTER 6: High-Risk Audiences and Behaviors Paper: © silver-john/ShutterStock, Inc.; Chapter Opener Photo: Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Identify populations at high risk from fire and injury. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 123– 124) Identify factors that place some populations at higher risk for fire or injury. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 123–124) Discuss the factors fire and life safety educators should consider when working with and addressing high-risk populations. NFPA 4.4.4 (pp. 124– 125) Identify individuals and organizations the local fire and life safety educator can call upon to help reduce risks in various populations. NFPA 4.2.4 (pp. 136–139) Identify Solutions 2000 and Beyond Solutions 2000 as resources for providing insight into risk reduction for high-risk populations. (pp. 123–124) Define accessibility. NFPA 4.1.1 (p. 125) Discuss methods and messages for addressing high-risk populations. NFPA 4.4.1 (pp. 124–139) Distinguish between correct and incorrect methods of working with highrisk populations. NFPA 4.4.3, 4.4.4 (pp. 124–139) Introduction You may have heard the saying, “Fire does not discriminate.” This is true. Anyone has the potential to become the victim of a fire. The same theory can be applied to the chances of becoming a victim of serious injury; however, research has proven that there are segments of the population that are more vulnerable to fire and injury than the population at large and that members of these groups have a disproportionately higher rate of morbidity and mortality. The abilities of these individuals to react and respond to an emergency in progress may be inhibited because of their unique characteristics. They may be unable to comprehend safety messages, physically negotiate the steps necessary to ensure their safety, or obtain the resources required to provide safe living conditions for themselves or their families. Those at highest risk are also those who are hardest to reach. The local educator should be aware that most communities today are likely to be home to any or all of these populations and that every effort must be made to identify who they are and where they exist. After that step is accomplished, it is essential for the educator to begin to learn about and communicate with these populations, research their needs and capabilities, and identify available resources for providing the information necessary to improve their safety. The community risk reduction process assists educators in assessing these needs and developing appropriate initiatives for their community. Who Is at Risk? In April 1999, the North American Coalition for Fire and Life Safety Education conducted a symposium in Washington, DC, to examine the fire safety challenges of those who, in the event of a fire, cannot take lifesaving actions in a timely manner. The at-risk groups studied by the experts were young children (younger than age 5 years), older adults (older than 65 years old), and people with disabilities. Disabilities were identified as people who are blind or have low vision, people who are deaf or hard of hearing, people with physical disabilities, and people who are developmentally disabled or have other cognitive disabilities. Cognitive and developmental disabilities refer to a person’s inability to process information. Disabilities can affect any population. The report, Solutions 2000, represents the symposium’s “solutions” and vision for “shared responsibilities” for future work to implement the recommendations. Again, in April 2001, the same coalition brought the experts together to address the recommended solutions from Solutions 2000. This symposium examined the current status of fire safety and made recommendations for improvements in the areas of early warning and detection, fixed fire suppression, and safe means of egress for the same high-risk populations in an effort to offer ways to resolve the challenges presented in Solutions 2000. This study was called Beyond Solutions 2000. Both of these reports can be downloaded from the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s website at www.usfa.dhs.gov. The demographics studied during these symposiums represent some of the same populations who are at higher risk for other injuries as well. Several other factors increase the risk level of a population segment, including sociocultural and economic status (poverty generally increases the risk of fire and injury), gender (males historically exhibit higher fire and injury morbidity and mortality rates), and cultural, language, and communications barriers. Social and cultural diversity are realities in most communities but to a greater extent in some areas. Changing family structures, peer influences, language diversity, and low literacy are all examples of social and cultural issues that must be considered when planning to address a population’s risk. A person’s vulnerability to risk can dramatically increase when several of the preceding factors apply to that one person. It is common to find that many of these high-risk groups overlap, with one condition predisposing its members to another condition, placing them at even higher risk. For example, a person with physical disabilities who is also living in substandard housing without any smoke or carbon monoxide alarms is at even greater risk than individuals facing either of these challenges independently of the other FIGURE 6-1. FIGURE 6-1 A person’s vulnerability to risk can dramatically increase when several risk factors overlap and apply to that one person. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. General Considerations for Working with Any HighRisk Group Each high-risk group possesses its own characteristics and needs, but there are a few universal rules that educators should remember when working with all populations. Consider the following guidelines: Avoid equating a person with their disability or their demographic. Everyone is a person first, and each person is unique. Each person is a son, a daughter, a parent, or a grandparent. People are represented in the workforce as teachers, doctors, city planners, and just about every other occupation imaginable. They are the young, the old, the rich, the poor, and members of all demographic groups. The educator would refer to “the man with a physical disability,” rather than “the handicapped man.” Yet many who are uneducated about working with the public still tend to describe these people by their medical descriptor or disability. Educators must remember that all members of this population are people first; they are not their diagnoses or their disabilities. As such, educators must remember to use People First Language, 1 a respectful language to use when referring to people with disabilities that puts the person before his or her disability and describes what a person has, not who a person is. No matter what high-risk group an educator is addressing, each person within the group is a person first and a member of his or her unique community second. People First Language allows educators to speak and write in an accurate manner about people who happen to have a disability. Avoid using politically correct labels as they change frequently. Avoid assumptions and generalizations. Within each demographic there are probably as many differences as there are members of the group. Making assumptions and generalizations about high-risk populations can be a dangerous strategy. Guessing which interventions will work among various groups of people may result in an inability to reach the audience effectively. Educators also run the risk of insulting their audience or embarrassing the department without first doing homework to learn about the needs, values, beliefs, and traditions of the group they are wishing to influence. Whenever addressing a high-risk population, members of that population should be included in planning and evaluating the program and its messages. Their involvement is critical to understanding the root problems and solutions for high risk groups and the obstacles to their safety. Including special educators in the planning and creation of materials is a good way of involving the local school system and narrowing the message to fit the demographic. These liaisons can also help bridge communication gaps and build trust between the educator and the target audiences. As Bill Scott of Abilities Unlimited, Inc. was known to say of working with members of the community of people with disabilities, “Nothing about us without us!” Fire and life safety messages to high-risk populations should be consistent with all safety messages but with emphasis on adaptable and alternative methodologies and much more information dedicated to planning and preparation. Education should occur without exclusive treatment that might single out the population as different or needy, as well as empowering the students by focusing on what they have control of in their lives. The importance of developing and maintaining safer environments to prevent fire and injuries from occurring in the first place should be stressed. Messages should include an awareness of technology, including the importance of working smoke and carbon monoxide alarms, residential sprinklers, childproof lighters, smart stoves, and automatic turn-off switches on space heaters and other heat-producing appliances. Provide a learning environment and information about products, devices, and services that are available to as many people as possible. Accessibility enables people with disabilities to fully participate, use a product or device, and receive information. This may require alternative formats or assistive technologies. All audiences need to be made aware of the risks. It is difficult to get people to embrace a change in behavior if they do not understand the fundamental problems and how they and their loved ones could be affected. People need to know that the risks are real and have the potential to happen in their own homes and backyards. They must also understand that there are realistic, practical, and affordable measures everyone can take to prevent serious fires or injuries. No one is powerless; each person has the power to make changes to control and improve their safety. Again, focusing on what people have control of promotes a problem-solving approach rather than a sense of futility. Educators should keep the above points in mind as they prepare to work with any high-risk population. Now let’s consider each of the groups that are at high risk for fire and injury as identified by national statistics. Young Children Each year, nearly 40,000 children ages 14 years and younger are injured by fires in the home. Unintentional injury is the top cause of death of children ages 1 to 14 years in the United States. These deaths are caused by unintentional injuries from motor vehicles, drowning, pedestrian hazards, fire and burns, bicycles, firearms, falls, and poisoning. This young segment of our communities becomes a high-risk group for many reasons. Children are too young to react appropriately, have little control over their environment, lack the ability to accurately perceive danger, and possess a limited ability to react both physically and cognitively. Children are curious and often determined to accomplish their goal without the ability to consider associated risks for falls, fire, burns, drowning, or other unintentional injury. Other risk factors for young children are poverty, frequent family household moves, single-parent households, child aggression, impulsivity and hyperactivity, bullying, and child abuse and neglect. Children often become victims of fire while they are asleep, living in a home without smoke alarms, or as a result of being left alone or engaging in playing with fire. Young children have thinner skin and sustain burns in less time and from less heat than adults, thus increasing their susceptibility to serious and life-threatening burn injury. They also have not learned to react to pain and do not pull away nearly as quickly as adults. The incidence of fire and burns is increased for children from low-income families. Those who live in substandard housing with no working smoke alarms or carbon monoxide alarms, alternative heating sources, and inadequate adult supervision because of economic constraints are also at high risk. Children in rural communities are identified as high risk, primarily because of longer response times by emergency personnel. Poverty is common to a number of rural areas, compounding this problem. Educators need to address young audiences to ensure they become familiar with fire service personnel and learn that even in their full gear, fire fighters are there to help. It will be imperative to address the secondary audiences who will ultimately have the responsibility for keeping young children safe. Caretakers will need to limit access to lighters, matches, knives, poisons, and other dangerous temptations. Young children are likely to hide in closets, under beds, or behind doors, and they need to be instructed in the proper ways to react to smoke, fire, and the sound of smoke alarms. Parents have a critical role in this instruction at home. Constant supervision must be stressed. Educators should promote and advocate for: Improvements in childhood environments, such as playgrounds and traffic calming. Speed bumps and radar speed signs will increase safety conditions on streets highly populated with children. Increased use of safety devices such as car seats, smoke alarms, childproof containers, stairway gates, and bicycle helmets. Studies have shown that young children often do not wake to the sound of smoke alarms. To see the online video about this study, search for “House Could Be Engulfed as Kids Sleep Through Smoke Alarms.” Homes should be equipped with several alarms near and in the sleeping areas to alert family members. This must be accompanied by home drills several times a year. The use of car seats, booster seats, and personal floatation devices (PFDs). Older Adults No one wants to be classified as old and unable to care for his or her own needs. Older adults want to remain independent and live in their own homes for as long as they are physically and cognitively able. They need to understand that safe living practices will improve their chances for sustaining independence by preventing fires, falls, and other unintentional injuries. They have the ability to help control the destiny of their safety when they understand the dangers of unsafe habits. There are unique challenges to delivering safety messages to older adults. Safety education may be routinely delivered to children today, but these efforts were not formally implemented until the 1950s. Think about it—older adults of today were well out of primary or secondary school by that time in our safety education history. Young children today may have better knowledge of fire safety practices than some older adults. In the chapter Age Group Characteristics, we discuss the importance of universal design for homes. The principle behind universal design is that safety features are built into all homes for all ages; they are not installed only for older adults and only after an injury. Although universal design provides safer living conditions for everyone, it is of particular benefit to older adults. Some of the safety features include smoke alarms, residential sprinkler systems, grab bars, handrails, nonslip rugs, and well-lighted hallways. Approximately 50 percent of individuals older than 70 years of age experience some form of disability. They may have diminished physical abilities, slower reactions, confusion, and weakness. The five senses become less acute, leading to impaired vision, hearing, and sense of touch. Older adults may take several medications at one time, which can cause drowsiness and impaired judgment. Adding further to the risks for this age group is the fact that many older adults live alone and below the poverty line. They become creatures of habit. The combination of these factors makes it less likely that they will update their living conditions or purchase new and safer appliances. Keeping up with cleaning, bill paying, and other housekeeping chores becomes more difficult. Of special concern for fire service personnel is the number of older adults who “hoard.” Hoarding is the acquisition of, and failure to use or discard, such a large number of possessions that it causes significant clutter and impairment to basic living activities such as mobility, cooking, cleaning, showering, or sleeping. These individuals tend to hold onto all items and purchase extra items they do not need, creating a dangerous fire load that can impede their ability to escape. Piles of newspapers, clothing, and other objects often block exits and access for fire department personnel attempting to help those in need. These residences also pose a significant danger to the safety of personnel engaged in firefighting FIGURE 6-2. Hoarding is a mental health issue with many contributing psychological causes. It can affect most age groups, but educators will see it more commonly among older adults. While the condition itself cannot be changed by education alone, the danger to safety and any applicable mitigation efforts should be emphasized. The best method for addressing hoarding is to create a task force comprised of educators, fire, police, and mental health professionals. FIGURE 6-2 In this example of hoarding, piles of debris block exits and access for fire department personnel attempting to help those in need. © Andrew Price/Rex Features/AP Photo. Older adults must be informed about their vulnerability to fire and injury in an atmosphere of respect and sincerity. Many older adults with physical disabilities continue to be vital and contributing members of the community. Care must be taken to preserve their dignity while at the same time encouraging them to take a realistic look at their risks and the steps they can take to prevent serious injury. The older population may be affected by many other disabilities discussed in this chapter. They should be made aware of the benefits of living on the first floor of an apartment or condominium building. Educators may be told that this message conflicts with security issues. Older adults are concerned about intruders’ access to their homes. Be prepared to discuss both sides of this issue to help members of this community make wise decisions and take necessary precautions. Older adults who must rely on space heaters as a source of heat should be encouraged to purchase those with automatic shut-off devices if tipped over. For those unable to afford a new model, be sure they are instructed in the proper use of these and other heatproducing appliances. Other simple practices can improve safety and lower their risks, such as keeping a telephone, flashlight, glasses, and walking aids near the bed; clearly labeling medications; installing night lights at the top and bottom of stairwells; and notifying the local dispatch center of any special needs so they can “flag” the 911 calls for emergency personnel. Provide information during presentations about where to purchase special smoke alarms and telephones that will assist those with hearing and vision impairments. Instruct older adults about the value of a “buddy system” or support system for checking on them on a regular basis and assisting with home chores that call for climbing ladders or negotiating slippery or high surfaces. Check with agencies in your jurisdiction who work specifically with older adults. With the “graying of America” in our aging population, many organizations now specialize in helping older adults to clear clutter from their homes, deliver meals, and assist with home chores. People with Disabilities According to a study published in 2015 by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 22%, or approximately one out of every five adults in the United States has a disability. Disabilities can be classified into five general categories of impairments: visual, hearing, speech, mobility, and cognitive. Many individuals have multiple disabilities. The community of those with disabilities is not homogeneous but rather presents a vast spectrum of abilities. There is no one generic safety solution that will work for every person with a disability. Any person can, and probably will, become affected with a disability at some point in his or her life. A “weekend warrior” who infrequently participates in strenuous activities and tears a ligament, a third grader who breaks a leg, and an older adult who experiences respiratory illness or poor vision are each experiencing a disability that affects their ability to perform daily tasks, including evacuation from an emergency situation. With the advent of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), passed by Congress in 1990, public facilities were required to not discriminate against people with disabilities. The 2010 revision of Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) updated areas of the original act. The ADA has provided significant inroads to improving safety for those with disabilities of all types, but there is still a long way to go, and fire and life safety educators can be valuable partners in this process. Educators need to look at individuals not only in terms of what they are unable to do but also in terms of what they are able to do. One of the most important contributions people with disabilities can make is to participate in community planning teams for safety education. Their insights into conditions that make evacuation difficult or impossible are invaluable when instituting safety measures and training for families, building managers, and neighborhood planning teams. According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)’s Emergency Evacuation Planning Guide for People with Disabilities, the four elements of information necessary for evacuation are notification (What is the emergency?), way-finding (Where is the way out?), use of way (Can I get out by myself or do I need help?), and assistance (What kind of assistance might I need?). Only by working directly with people who understand the difficulties dealing with these issues will the educator be able to effectively address any of these questions or specific structures TABLE 6-1. Education efforts must also include planning for natural disasters common to the area. TABLE 6-1 Emergency Evacuation Considerations for People with Disabilities What is the Where is the Can I get out What kind of emergency? way out? Can alone (or do I assistance Will I recognize I find the way need might I need? the out? assistance)? notification? Visual Yes, if the Only with Yes, in some Anything from Impairment emergency is training familiar no assistance environments to one-on-one apparent to the other senses help Hearing Yes, with Yes, with Yes – able to None, with Impairment assistive devices assistive evacuate alone proper devices Speech Yes Yes Impairment notification May not be able Pre-planning to call for help for potential emergencies Physical Low probability Low Depends on the Anything from Impairment of a problem probability of a environment no assistance problem and the to one-on-one disability help Cognitive May recognize Only with May be able to May need Impairment with training significant with a plan and guidance training and practice practice ADHD Low probability Low Low probability Low probability of a problem probability of a of a problem of a problem problem Autism May become too Only with May need help May require disregulated to significant to stay calm assistance identify the training and emergency practice, more Courtesy of Patti Cepeda, Behavioral Specialist. What is the Where is the Can I get out What kind of emergency? way out? Can alone (or do I assistance Will I recognize I find the way need might I need? the out? assistance)? notification? likely in a familiar setting Social, Low probability Low Low probability Low probability Emotional, of a problem probability of a of a problem of a problem and/or problem Behavioral Problems Courtesy of Patti Cepeda, Behavioral Specialist. Fire and life safety educators should also have a basic understanding of each of the conditions of disabilities to more effectively work toward their safer living in the local community. Following is a limited discussion regarding each of these disabilities. Educator’s Tip When presenting information about emergency planning for the families of people with disabilities, include reference to FEMA’s 2013 publication, Prepare for Emergencies Now. Information for People with Disabilities, at www.ready.gov/individuals-access-functional-needs. Visually Impaired Vision is the ability to process sight. Vision impairment can range from partial to total vision loss. Some people with a visual disability are able to distinguish light and dark, sharply contrasting colors, or large print, but cannot navigate in dimly lit spaces, read small or low-contrast print, or tolerate high glare. Yet by relying on the senses of touch and hearing and through the use of white canes and the assistance of a service animal, people with visual impairment can proceed with many normal daily activities. During an emergency, other senses on which visually impaired or blind people depend may be overwhelmed. Very loud alarms can be disorienting to individuals who rely on their ears to keep them oriented. High-decibel smoke alarms make it difficult for blind individuals to process audible clues and instructions effectively. Vision impairment is common to the older adult population with the onset of conditions such as glaucoma, cataracts, macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. Age, race, and economic standing also appear to play significant roles in progressive visual impairments. Minorities and low-income populations may have a higher incidence of vision problems and uncorrected sight because of inadequate medical care or lack of medical insurance. Fires and injuries are more likely to endanger those with vision impairment as they try to navigate in the world of the sighted without the ability to see tripping hazards and other visual cues, to clearly read labels on food and drug containers, or to avoid stepping in front of oncoming cars because of misjudging distance. They may accidently ignite fires or have the burners set too high on the stove. Visually impaired individuals may not be able to recognize the early stages of fire. Relatively few devices are available for improving the safety of blind or visually impaired persons. In daily life, they tend to memorize their environment, which allows them to depend on common paths of travel, counter height, and a dependable arrangement of furniture, telephones, and other necessities. But what happens when these individuals are in unfamiliar environments and they cannot see to escape or quickly find a second means of egress? The best chance for survival is to practice fire safety. Educators should stress the importance of improved signage to business and property managers, including Braille or tactile signage and large print. Although it is important to acknowledge their ability to help themselves, there are actions that can be taken by others that will assist visually impaired individuals. Someone in the immediate area can communicate where the exits are and possible obstacles. Educators can advocate the use of a “buddy system” and encourage the buddy to practice the plan with the person with visual impairment so they become accustomed to working together. The educator may choose to recommend the buddy system in the school environment. Teachers are responsible for all of their students but are likely to welcome extra hands in an emergency. Having another staff member assigned to assist, and practice that assistance during drills, may help everyone feel more confident during an emergency. Home and business owners must be sure there are at least two accessible horizontal exits and train all family members and personnel in their locations. Encourage the visually impaired to register with the local 911 center to “flag” their information in the system so it will be communicated immediately to emergency personnel during an emergency response. Facilities with sprinkler systems, audible fire alarms, and occupancy call systems in refuge areas will increase the level of safety and chances of survival for these individuals. As with all segments of the population, it is important to practice escape plans so they become automatic when needed. Those with visual impairments should be encouraged to practice their escape routes and all other emergency evacuation procedures several times a year. Any service animals should be included in training and practice. How can the educator reach this population with information necessary for their safety? Consider using the radio and television for public service announcements (PSAs) and audio books. As with all other populations, seek out caregivers and family members as secondary audiences and make sure they have the information they need to create the safest possible living arrangements and deliver important and appropriate safety messages. Talk to the local pharmacist about methods of accommodating visually impaired people by improving packaging or instructions for medications and preparing legible directions for administration of prescriptions. Offer home safety checks to the general public and make sure the word gets to those in the community with vision impairment. Educator’s Tip Work with a local pharmacy and ophthalmologist to help promote home safety checks for their clients and patients. Inquire about the possibility of leaving pamphlets or home safety checklists designed for those with visual impairments in their offices. If the fire department is promoting home safety checks for people with disabilities, they should try to find someone who understands the disability to assist with the survey. Deaf or Hard of Hearing Hearing is the ability to process sound. Hearing loss can be total, unilateral, or bilateral. The causes of hearing impairment may be biological or environmental. Environmental causes can include drugs, prolonged exposure to sound levels higher than 85 decibels, or infection. Hearing impairment is extremely common in the older adult population. Nearly 40 percent of those older than 65 years of age experience some degree of hearing loss. Hearing loss may lead to withdrawal, isolation, frustration, impatience, communication problems, and social maladjustment. However, many people with hearing impairments do not see themselves as impaired, and they place a great value on living independently. The use of American Sign Language (ASL) allows the deaf community to communicate efficiently with each other and those who understand the language. Poor lighting may adversely affect this form of communication. People with partial hearing may use a combination of speech reading and hearing aids, which amplify and clarify sound. Echo, reverberation, and extraneous background noise can distort hearing aid transmission. Talking louder does not always benefit those who are hard of hearing. Technology exists today that will alert deaf and hard of hearing individuals to home smoke alarm activation. These devices work through a three-part system: a smoke alarm, a receiver, and a strobe light or bed shaker. The smoke alarm should be placed by or in the bedrooms because most fires happen at night when people are asleep. Other smoke alarms should be installed on each level of a home FIGURE 63. Although the technology is available, it is costly, and low-income populations may not be able to afford these devices. Educators should find out about more about this technology, grants available for their purchase, and where to go in their area to acquire the units. Contact information should be kept in the educator’s files so it is available for distribution at presentations. FIGURE 6-3 Technology exists that will alert hearing-impaired individuals to home smoke alarm activation. These devices work through a three-part system: a smoke alarm, a receiver, and a strobe light or bed shaker. Courtesy of Lifetone Technology, Inc. What should safety educators be teaching and promoting to the hearing-impaired community? Messages for safety should be universal and aligned with all other fire and injury prevention messages. However, the importance of practicing escape plans and testing alarms must be emphasized. It is recommended that escape planning be practiced every three months. Teach individuals with hearing impairments to find the areas of refuge in their work environment and when visiting hotels or other unfamiliar venues. Encourage them to invest in technology that provides early warning for members of the deaf community if they will not be able to receive information from other home smoke alarms. Support their efforts to work with building management at their place of employment to comply with standards that mandate code compliance for occupant notification systems. Scrolling reader boards are becoming more available in educational, hotel, and business facilities. Investigate this technology and encourage its use for emergency notification. When working directly with members of this population, make sure to establish eye contact with them, not their interpreters. Use facial expressions and hand gestures as visual clues and offer pencil and paper as another way to communicate; write slowly as they watch you write. Check frequently to see if you have been correctly understood. Keep the information simple, in the present tense, and use basic vocabulary. Educator’s Tip Talk to the local school district to request assistance with getting safety messages home in the proper format to the families of children with hearing impairments. Include information about home smoke alarm technology and where the units can be obtained. Speech Impaired An often neglected segment of the high-risk population is individuals with speech impairments or those who are nonverbal. Speech impairments prevent a person from using technology or building features that require the ability to speak. Often, these individuals have speech impairments caused by another condition. Cognitive, emotional, and physical disabilities can all affect a person’s ability to speak. Strokes, autism, Down syndrome, and hearing impairments are just a few of the conditions that might also compromise a person’s ability to communicate orally with others. They may be able to see a fire but cannot communicate the problem or ask questions; they may be able to navigate stairwells and evacuate on their own but cannot alert others, and they cannot call out for help. Remember to include this disability in your repertoire of training tips for co-workers, management teams, fire inspectors, family members, and emergency responders. Of utmost importance is practicing drills often, including contingency plans in the event “plan A” will not be usable. Assign specific “buddies” who are familiar with the needs, habits, fears, disabilities, and abilities of those who are not able to communicate verbally. Identify any needs and gaps in the current process and work with those in management, co-workers, and family members to close these gaps by improving conditions before an emergency occurs. Encourage the implementation of clear and easily identified signage in hallways, areas of refuge, and other places that usually provide ambiguous signals for emergencies FIGURE 6-4. Consider contacting the local school system to find out what technologies they use within the district. Many schools are moving to tablet computers and other one-to-one devices that may already have options that will help with either education or emergency awareness. FIGURE 6-4 Encourage the posting of clear and easily identified signage in hallways, areas of refuge, and other places that usually provide ambiguous signals for emergencies. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Physically or Mobility Impaired Mobility refers to a person’s ability to move about. People with mobility disabilities may use canes, crutches, power-driven or manually operated wheelchairs, scooters, or service animals to assist them with daily living routines. Their disability can be a long-term, permanent condition, or it can be a temporary situation resulting in an inability to perform activities in the usually accustomed manner. The terms ambulatory and nonambulatory can be used when discussing a person’s ability to physically navigate on their own without assistance. Ambulatory refers to a person who is able to physically navigate on his or her own without assistance. Nonambulatory refers to a person unable to physically navigate on his or her own without assistance. Educators should be sensitive to the fact that a person may be ambulatory in one condition, but nonambulatory in other situations. For example, someone can be ambulatory with a ramp, but nonambulatory if trying to use the stairs. The term disability is most commonly associated with these types of conditions. Others who are considered to be mobility impaired are those with chronic respiratory and cardiac problems, those who are weak because of chronic illness, those who do not have full use of their hands or arms, and those who have conditions affecting their gait. Anyone who has difficulty walking or negotiating stairs, ramps, doors, latches, or any part of an emergency evacuation system will need special consideration when planning for their safety. Educators must be careful not to place everyone who has a disability in the same category. Each situation is unique, and there are varying degrees of each disability. Respect the independence, talents, and abilities of all members of this growing segment of the population. Be respectful of their privacy rights and be willing to spend individual time with them or their families and co-workers to devise a plan that will work for everyone. Remember that most people with mobility issues have at least average intelligence. While working with people with physical disabilities, keep Stephen Hawking in mind. He personifies the idea that physical disabilities do not equal intellectual handicaps. Considerations for safety include not only evacuation from fires but also disaster preparedness, disaster evacuation, and all areas of injury prevention. Whenever an educator is planning a community safety initiative, this high-risk population must be included as part of the planning process to ensure that messages address their needs. Educator’s Tip A young student in a wheelchair exhibiting many physical disabilities may be extremely bright but may be unable to express himself or participate by answering questions. Do not ignore this student or avoid making eye contact with him. Talk to the teacher before and after the session to find out what other ways you might be able to facilitate learning for this student. Often a student with special needs will have an aide assigned to him or her by the school. Communicating directly with the aide will provide you with an individualized perspective on the student. According to ADA mandates, provisions must now be made for ramps, wider access for wheelchairs, visual and hearing accommodations, and areas of rescue assistance in nonsprinklered structures. The intent of the act was to ensure that anyone with a disability has access to public venues. In reality, the act has achieved many of its goals in terms of allowing people into these areas, but the law also provides for their safer evacuation during an emergency, an area of concern that has often taken a backseat to the ability to access a facility. Fire service personnel are at least, if not more, concerned with the ability to evacuate a structure as they are with the ability for access. Educators can be a helpful link in this process as they work with people who are disabled, along with business owners, schools, caregivers, fire prevention bureaus, and suppression personnel, so everyone understands how they can contribute to a better system for evacuation. The following guidelines will help you as you begin your work to improve safety for those with physical disabilities: Work with employers, school districts, and other institutions to develop evacuation planning that accommodates all occupants. A disability evacuation plan (DEP) provides a questionnaire for individuals and their families to complete that will assist in understanding their needs, emergency contacts, and other pertinent information. Follow the planning process with training and frequent drills. Include anyone who has the potential of assisting or participating in the evacuation process in the drills. A comprehensive form is available by downloading the NFPA’s Emergency Evacuation Planning Guide for People with Disabilities at www.nfpa.org. Train fellow employees how to evacuate people with disabilities. They need to learn specific techniques for assisting their co-workers or students. Emphasize the use of areas of refuge in facilities where they are provided. Identify co-workers, teachers, and others who will be acting as buddies or caregivers in the event of an emergency. These individuals should have personal and contact information with them that will be useful to emergency personnel upon their arrival. Include emergency personnel in training and drills. Allow the people with disabilities to become familiar with department procedures and develop a comfortable relationship with the local fire and police department who will be assisting them. Fire department personnel and the person with a physical disability should practice together and actually use the stair chairs or other aids during drills. Develop signage directing those with disabilities to their specific evacuation routes for emergency evacuation. Daily circulation paths may not be the same routes as those used for evacuation routes, just as an accessible evacuation route for able-bodied persons is not necessarily the same for those with disabilities. Work with building management, building officials and the fire department to provide signs and symbols specific to these routes at easily identifiable locations. Train and drill with anyone who would need this information. Encourage individuals and their families to contact the local dispatch center to “flag” calls with information about their disability and where they will most likely reside in the building. Inform the public about the advantage to having residential lock boxes. Provide information about how they can be obtained and installed, and the cost of the units. Emphasize the need to maintain a safe environment first, followed by training in evacuation procedures, maintenance of notification systems and devices, and clear and accessible means of egress. Teach individuals with disabilities to work with family members to prepare disaster emergency kits. The message will be universal. People should include whatever they would need for three days if they did not have power or water or if they needed to leave their home. Some disaster kits may also include canes, batteries for hearing aids, medications, supplies for support animals, or other items particular to the individual’s needs. Encourage and recruit people with disabilities to serve with you as you plan educational programs and materials. Request their participation in presentations and home surveys. Provide alternate activities at community events for individuals with disabilities to ensure they can be active participants. Wherever possible, include everyone in all aspects of presentations and demonstrations FIGURE 6-5. FIGURE 6-5 Include people with disabilities in as many of the regular program activities as they are able to understand and enjoy. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip Make sure any necessary transportation issues or waivers are taken into consideration before inviting members of the public to assist with programs and presentations. Cognitively and Developmentally Impaired Cognitive impairments can be psychiatric, organic, or developmental disorders that affect cognitive or emotional functions to the extent that the capacity for judgment and reasoning is significantly diminished. The capacity to understand and process information presented and the ability to make reasoned decisions is compromised. Cognitive impairments can be caused by a wide range of conditions. Individuals who are cognitively impaired have traditionally been identified as educable mentally handicapped and trainable mentally handicapped. These terms may have been replaced by other descriptors in some areas depending on their state educational agencies or other special interest groups.2 Currently, you are likely to hear intellectual developmentally delayed, intellectually impaired, or cognitively impaired. Other types of developmental impairments impact the ability of the learner to understand the importance of safety messages and may interfere with their ability to protect themselves in dangerous situations. You will encounter people with mild to severe cognitive impairments in all communities, all ages, races, cultures, and educational settings. Patti Cepeda, a behavioral specialist, reminds us that, “What educators need to remember is showing respect for individuals’ abilities also increases the likelihood they will benefit from what we are trying to teach them. Keep in mind that once an adult begins to feel incapable or ‘stupid’, we have lost the chance to teach them. They shut down and can’t hear anything we say after that.” As an educator looks out over an audience, it may be apparent that there are some members who will not understand the message. Others, however, will blend in without exhibiting outward signs that they have a cognitive disability. And they will walk away from the learning experience without the ability to apply or process the information. In many of today’s educational settings, you will encounter the concept of least restrictive environment, which means schools must provide an educational setting for exceptional children and for the education of children with disabilities with nondisabled children whenever realistic and possible. It is the least restrictive setting in which the child with disabilities can function without difficulty. These children will be mainstreamed or placed into one or more general academic classes with the general school population in compliance with school inclusion policies. With 15 percent to 20 percent of the U.S. population exhibiting some form of learning disability, a disorder that affects people’s ability to interpret what they see and hear or to link information from different parts of the brain, it is likely that you will encounter these individuals in most presentations and interactions. Become familiar with this high-risk population and basic techniques for working with them and their families, teachers, and co-workers to achieve better learning outcomes. The following discussion identifies some of these disabilities and simple strategies to use when working with members of these populations. In a school setting, students who are cognitively impaired should be pointed out to the educator before a lesson begins. If this does not happen, the educator may need to inquire about this before the lesson begins. Some of these students are not obvious until the educator speaks with them or observes their work. These students have been or are being taught to comply with rules, so it is important to expect them to follow the guidelines set for everyone. Gentle reminders and thanking other students sitting near them for following directions are generally enough to guide their behavior back to normal. Once identified, it may be necessary to give students with learning disabilities preferential seating to keep them on task. Similarly, adults with cognitive disabilities in the workplace are being trained to adapt to workplace schedules, manners, and ethics. Although it may be tempting to cater to any outbursts or diverse behaviors, it is best to continue with the program and ignore these disruptions. In many such situations, a job coach or co-worker will assist with the situation. Consider the following when working with adults who have cognitive disabilities: It is not necessary to speak in a child-like manner to adults with cognitive disabilities, but it does help to speak clearly and use simple language. Provide time for them to talk. They enjoy engaging in discussions and will want to share in the presentation. Demonstrate and repeat. Repetition is a key to their learning. Ask them to demonstrate back to you. Use visual aids. Label any pictures with simple three- to four-letter words or numbers, large type, and straightforward fonts. The information must be appropriate to their level of understanding, but avoid distributing materials with pictures and stories geared to young preschool children. They may be offended by the examples for juveniles. Use incentives for cooperation and completion of assignments. Colorful trading cards, candy, and other tangible items will be well received and worth working for as rewards. When training adults with cognitive disabilities for evacuation procedures, use color coding for fire doors and exit ways, provide picture books with depictions of proper actions, encourage the use of buddy systems, and include job coaches in planning and training. Following is a brief discussion on a few other cognitive or developmental disorders. Attention-Deficit Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Students who were previously diagnosed with attention-deficit disorder (ADD) and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are now all identified as having ADHD, and more importantly, are in almost every classroom and fire department in the United States. These learning disabilities are not limited to children. ADD is a psychiatric classification for a combination of neurological, biochemical, social, and cognitive factors. It is used to describe individuals who exhibit poor attention, distractibility, and impulsivity and an inability to maintain attention for an extended time period. ADHD is a psychiatric classification used to describe individuals who exhibit poor attention, distractibility, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Hyperactivity is nonpurposeful excessive movement and the inability to sustain meaningful attention. It is no longer necessary to separate the two diagnoses, just be aware that some students will exhibit the hyperactive behaviors that make them “stand out.” ADHD sometimes co-occurs with learning disabilities but not always. If these students are expected to sit very still to participate, they are likely to miss all instruction and only remember to sit still. These students respond well to helping because it gives them a chance to move for an appropriate reason. If the educator has handouts or something to pass around, these students will get the job done. If there is more than one student with ADHD in the class, the educator will have to try to involve all of them. One good technique is to put the most “active” student in charge of something. Who knows, it may be the visiting educator who is the first to recognize that this student has special abilities or interests! Again, work with the teacher to learn about what works best in the classroom for these individuals. Educators should be aware that young children and adolescents with ADHD and ADD are often those who engage in fire-setting. It is difficult for them to stop before acting and to process “if, then” or “cause-and-effect” thinking. Following are suggestions for working with children and adults with ADD or ADHD: Reduce environmental stimuli. Avoid wordiness and limit the time of continuous instruction. Allow participants to move around as much as realistically possible. Educator’s Tip An excellent source of information and materials for teaching fire safety and working with adults with developmental disabilities is available through SEEDS Educational Services, Inc. at www.seedseducation.org. Educator’s Tip When confronted with overly active students in a classroom setting, give them a job to do. This will keep them busy and allow them the opportunity to learn. For example, ask them to help pass out question cards and other handouts or to hand educators visuals as they are requested. A discussion with the teacher before the learning session will identify students who may need to be given tasks to improve the situation for all learners. Behavioral and Emotional Disorders Students who are diagnosed with behavioral or emotional problems can have a wide range of issues. Emotionally disturbed students have difficulties that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors. Over a long period of time, the student is unable to build satisfactory relationships, may generally be unhappy, may develop physical symptoms or have fears associated with the school experience, or have inappropriate behaviors or feelings. They may have other disabilities as well. They can also be gifted. Many of these children may see a uniform of any kind and decide the speaker is someone they should not trust; yours could be the first friendly face in a uniform they meet! Don’t underestimate the power of developing a relationship with students who have behavioral difficulties. Many of these students will only perform for people they feel a connection to.3 Different methods will work with people who have different disorders, so it is important to get input from the teacher about how best to deal with various disorders. If a child is so disruptive that the educator cannot get through the lesson, it may be that the child is not ready for a large group activity. Because these students are at risk for impulsive and acting-out behaviors, they may very well be the target audience for the fire and life safety message. If they feel respected by the educator, then they will be more likely to respond positively TABLE 6-2. TABLE 6-2 Cognitive and Developmental Disorders Overview Behavior or Disorder What You May See What You Can Do Attention-deficit Restlessness, distractibility, Move them closer to you, give disorder (ADD) yelling out, inability to follow them a reason to move, allow Attention-deficit more than one or two steps them to hold something for you hyperactivity disorder in a direction (ADHD) Cognitive impairment Obvious lack of Reduce the number of new understanding when you things you expect them to pace your instruction at the master, provide visual reminders normal level that they will associate with what they are learning Autistic or other Little or no eye contact, Do not require eye contact, spectrum disorders repetitive motions or avoid touching them, provide noises, hand flapping, odd visual reminder of work, provide positioning of the head schedules Emotional disability or Refusal to follow even Ignore behaviors that do not behavioral disorder simple directions; rude, disrupt teaching, give positive defiant, disruptive feedback when they behaviors approximate the appropriate behavior Courtesy of Patti Cepeda, Behavioral Specialist. Autism Spectrum Disorder A 2010 report released by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention regarding the prevalence of autism, based on a sample of eight-year-old children, reported that the condition now affects one in every 68 children in the United States, and that the condition is growing at a rate of 10 percent to 17 percent each year. These statistics demonstrate that anyone working with the general public and with children in particular will surely encounter autism and needs a working knowledge of the condition. As these children are mainstreamed into classrooms across the country, there are growing concerns and mounting questions by the fire and life safety education community about how to most effectively teach to their needs. Therefore, we will discuss this condition so you will have a better understanding of these individuals when presenting school programs, conducting station tours, and having any other interactions with them and their families. Bear in mind that some children with autism will have supervision and assistance, and students with milder symptoms may be fully immersed with their peers. It is best practice to consult the teacher to be sure of the needs of each student. Autism is a complex neurobiological developmental disability that causes problems with social interaction and verbal and nonverbal communication. Symptoms usually start before age three years and can cause delays or problems in many different skills that develop from infancy to adulthood. Different people with autism can have very different symptoms. Students diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are very likely to have sensory problems. For many individuals with autism, eye contact is too much stimulation. Touching them can be a source of discomfort. Rocking and repetitive motion behaviors help them regulate their feelings. Healthcare providers think of autism as a “spectrum” disorder, a group of disorders with similar features. One person may have mild symptoms, and another may have serious symptoms. They both have an ASD. Because autism is a spectrum disorder the symptoms manifest in a wide range of ways. Individuals may have problems in areas of social interaction and communication but have normal intelligence and verbal skills. Individuals may also have an obsessive interest in a single topic or object to the extent that they ignore other objects, thoughts, or topics. They can be very literal with few filters for social cues and do not relate to others or their environment in the same way most people do. Remember that people with ASD depend on predictability in their environment to stay regulated. When faced with an emergency, especially in an unfamiliar environment, they are significantly less likely to remember what to do. Educators may still hear terms like pervasive developmental disorder or Asperger syndrome. These disorders were reclassified as autism spectrum disorder in the DSM-V, which was released in 2013. The DSM-V is the diagnostic manual that is widely used by mental health professionals. While the label has changed, the students profiles and needs have not. Students with this label have a wide range of abilities and preferences. Educator’s Tip While redefining ASD, the authors of the DSM-V created a new term for children who have difficulty communicating. The new term is social pragmatic communication disorder, and includes people who don’t follow the social norms of verbal and nonverbal communication. It may include poor eye contact, an inability to follow a conversation, and problems with humor, idioms, and metaphors. These students also have a wide range of abilities and preferences. It is important to remember that, while students with ASD may be able to give all of the correct answers to your questions, as well as be able to demonstrate an understanding of what to do in emergencies, it may not translate to a real emergency. People with ASD depend on predictability in their environment to stay regulated. When faced with an emergency, especially in an unfamiliar environment, they are significantly less likely to remember what to do. Consider the following suggestions for working with members of the ASD community: Simplify the environment. Multiple sensory experiences at one time can be overwhelming and stressful. Many individuals with ASD like to explore when they are in a new building. As much as possible, allow this before beginning a program or tour. The student’s aide may signal that the educator should begin without them while they walk around the area with their student. Other students in the group will probably be familiar with this routine and will be able to concentrate on the educator’s messages. Avoid using lights, sirens, and other sensory stimuli. If other group members will benefit from those sensory demonstrations, encourage an assistant to bring the students with autism to another area of the station where they will not be adversely affected. If possible, individualize learning experiences rather than using large group work. Communicate directly with the individual. Avoid using open-ended questions. It is better to use concrete language and give a direct command. Make sure there is only one voice at a time. If several people are talking at one time or if a discussion is paired with other noises, it will create a stressful and confusing situation. Pair pictures with simple words. Words can become useless background noise for those with ASD. Use pictures first and then add one or two important words to convey the meaning. Limit talking. Go on a word diet! Get the audience visually involved. Practice and repeat desired objectives. Avoid using words that rhyme to explain a concept. It will be too confusing for children with ASD. For example, the common message, “What’s hot, what’s not?” will not work with this population. The words sound too similar. It would be better to teach “What’s hot, what’s cold?” Begin with a picture of a common object that is very hot paired with a visual physical gesture such as pulling away quickly and shaking the head “no.” Then show a picture of something very cold paired with a shivering motion. Fluorescent lights and big, open spaces often trigger stressful episodes for people with autism. If you know that members of a group of visitors to the firehouse have autism, try to arrange a small room with natural light where they can be taken for a time to regroup if necessary. Educator’s Tip Many individuals who have ASD, although generally having an aversion to touch, do enjoy water. Ask caregivers for their advice first, but when conducting a station tour or other department visit, remember to allow these children to run their fingers through the water from the hose. It will provide a pleasurable experience for the students. Socioeconomic Factors Socioeconomic factors represent the relationship of social and economic conditions that contribute to the characteristics of a population segment. Socioeconomic factors contribute significantly to fire and injury incidence. Educators must be sensitive to the needs and concerns of different socioeconomic groups. No two communities are alike, and adjustments should be made for each target audience. Both inner-city, large community residents and those in rural, small community areas are at higher risk because of poverty. Those in economically depressed environments are faced with a lack of resources, homelessness, crowded housing conditions, unemployment, and limited education levels. Such conditions contribute to a higher use of alternate heating sources, minimal understanding of high-risk behaviors, the inability to purchase smoke alarms and sprinkler technologies, and poor health. Additionally, these same community members may be subject to other previously mentioned highrisk characteristics, compounding their inability to provide or access important safety measures. There are some defining characteristics of low-income families that are common to both urban and rural areas: Low-income families that lack “disposable income” represent households that are less likely to invest in safety devices such as smoke alarms, batteries, bicycle helmets, and car seats. Those on a limited budget have other needs competing for their available income and attention. It is likely that safety measures are not a priority. Low-income families are less likely to be able to afford quality and reliable daycare. Children may spend time unsupervised at home. Young children may even be the caregivers for other young children. Smoking is inversely proportional to income. Careless smoking is a major factor in fire death rates for low-income families. Low literacy may be a factor. The ability to process safety publications and information aimed at parents and other adults may be limited. Voice of Experience A few years ago, I got a request for a home fire safety presentation from a group of people with disabilities. I asked what kind of disabilities and they came back with the answer that they were a support group for amputees, a good number of whom were double amputees. Some had prosthetics; some [were] confined to wheelchairs. This presented unique challenges. How could I teach the normal messages—like “stop, drop, and roll” or “crawl safe under smoke”—to someone who has no legs? I researched every technical manual on fire safety I could get my hands on and leafed through everything I could find about fire evacuation. But the publications didn’t say a word about this situation. It became clear that I would need to create my own program. To do that, I reached out to other public and life safety educators through listservs I was on, and called organizations like NFPA and the Disabled American Veterans. I said, “This is my dilemma—what do you know about it?” I got a lot of suggestions. And in the end I was able to create a 40-minute presentation with PowerPoint. I covered things like keeping prosthetics or wheelchairs within easy reach, clearing obstacles to your means of egress, and getting rid of loose carpets that might be an impediment to your movement. I explained that as an amputee it’s difficult enough to navigate an exit of your home in a fire situation, and it can be complicated further if it’s dark, so it’s wise to have a flashlight on the bedside. I shared with them something an auto mechanic I knew had suggested: that someone with no legs might keep a mechanics’ creeper—the device they use to get under the cars—under their bed. If there is a fire, they can roll on top of it and pull themselves along the floor with their arms. I was also frank with them, saying “For you folks, your unique situation can make it difficult to escape a fire—more difficult that someone with normal mobility. So your best defense is not to have a fire in the first place.” And I spent a lot of time discussing fire prevention, particularly with regard to candles and cooking. The program went over quite well. I got a ton of questions, and I was invited back for a refresher course the next year. —Paul Reichenbach, Public Education Information Specialist, Office of the Pennsylvania State Fire Commissioner, PA Poverty poses fire and injury concerns for both inner city and rural families. However, neighborhood housing and population characteristics are very different in urban and rural areas and their fire incidence patterns and fire cause patterns differ as a result. In many urban areas, vacant and abandoned buildings will be used by homeless persons seeking shelter, especially in the winter months. They may light fires indoors to keep warm. Added to this risk is the possible influence of alcohol or the careless use of smoking materials. Crime rates are higher in low-income areas. Households are often protected by a system of barring access through doors and windows through the installation of iron grilles on windows and doors or other means, such as using furniture to block doors and passageways. Not only do these bars provide a fortress hindering emergency personnel in their attempts to reach anyone trapped, but they can also make escape impossible. Very young children, older adults, and people with physical and cognitive disabilities will be even more challenged in their attempts to evacuate safely. Educators may find that security issues in inner-city neighborhoods rank higher in importance than concerns about fire and injury safety. Living in old, poorly maintained housing units raises the risk of fire. Older heating, plumbing, and electrical systems need adequate maintenance to ensure their continued safe operation. Broken railings, poorly supported stairs and decks, and broken screens on windows contribute to falls and other injuries. Electrical wiring in older homes and apartments is not designed to support the use of modern appliances. Residents may try to compensate for the inadequacies by using extension cords and overloading circuits. Inadequate heating systems may drive inhabitants to use space heaters to keep warm in colder climates. Rural communities are those with populations under 2500. While the populations may be low- or high-income, there are some factors that are common in these areas, such as separation of individuals from each other and greater distance from one community to another. Rural communities often have less sophisticated equipment and training for the suppression forces, creating a challenge for educators trying to help improve the safety of these community members. Rural residential fires are most likely to be caused by heating equipment, including space heaters and woodstoves, chimneys, fireplaces, and open flames. When fires do occur in these residences, they often extend to the entire structure. A majority of rural residential fires occur in homes with no smoke alarms.4 The injury picture for children in some rural communities is somewhat unique in that children in these communities are often allowed to operate heavy machinery. In certain rural areas, children have easier access to guns; at the same time, their access to pediatric trauma centers and 911 centers is more limited. The word rural often brings to mind the picture of a quaint white farmhouse, a massive red barn, and acres of grassy fields. This is an accurate reflection in some areas of the country, but the United States is home to many nonfarm rural communities that represent a majority of the nation’s rural fire problem. The South has half the nation’s rural population and dominates the national rural fire problem. According to the NFPA, statistically the South dominates the total national rural fire picture. Other areas of high-risk rural population include migrant worker communities and Mexican border communities in the West. Poverty, poor housing conditions, language barriers, and cultural values and beliefs all contribute to the fire risk problem. What can fire and life safety educators do? The NFPA has already taken the lead by researching and developing information and programs specifically for these populations. It is up to the local fire and life safety educators to find out what is going on in their communities. Drill down to the root causes of the fire problems and injuries. Find community leaders and other personal links to help build bridges with community members and assist them to discover what needs to be done to make their lives safer. Use professionally created materials but do so with a face-to-face, personal touch, making the information usable and meaningful for those needing it most. Remember the basics of the community risk reduction process model: 1. Identify and prioritize the community problem to be addressed. 2. Identify root causes that contribute to the occurrence of leading fire risks. 3. Identify primary and secondary audiences to be included in the intervention strategy. 4. Work with community partners. 5. Determine an intervention strategy. Educators must look at the problems in socioeconomically underserved areas in terms of the entire neighborhood, each household, and finally the individual. Recommendations for improving safety in socioeconomic high-risk populations include: Multi-hazard surveys specific to the high-risk behaviors in the local area. Breakaway bars on windows and doors. Promoting engineering- and policy-oriented solutions. Working with parents to increase their awareness and change their perception of the level of risk their children face. Educating the local fire department about its role in preventing serious fire and injuries in the community. Encourage department programs to install smoke alarms and perform home surveys. Encouraging the local fire department to develop a community outreach program and establish relationships with community organizations and individuals. This will help to build a higher level of trust and may open avenues to better dialogue and a willingness to allow safety educators into homes. Culture Differences and Language Barriers Culture is the values, traditions, norms, customs, arts, history, folklore, and other institutions shared by a group of people. Culture shapes how people see their world and how they structure their community and family life. Cultural affiliation may determine a person’s values and attitudes. Race and ethnicity are often the most obvious components of a culture. Many other factors also shape a person’s values, ideas, attitudes, and experiences. Objective components of culture, such as clothing, food, and artifacts, are more readily understood and accepted by other cultures. However, subjective components of culture, such as values, ideals, attitudes, roles, and norms, often provide a basis for misunderstanding. Additionally, factors such as age, gender, sexual orientation, level of education, occupation, income, geographic locations, preferred language, and health status contribute to shaping a person’s attitudes and values. Acculturation is the process of integration of native and traditional values with the dominant culture’s values. A preference for the language of their country of origin would be considered a low level of acculturation. Most first-generation adult immigrants prefer to speak in their language of origin rather than English. Intergenerational transmission of cultural practices may be changed by exposure to other cultural ideas and experiences in multiethnic communities. In many multigenerational families, the children speak English and are responsible for teaching other family members. Younger students who do not speak English may be enrolled in English Language Learning (ELL) classes in the schools. These classes are sometimes referred to as English as a Second Language (ESL) classes. Fire and life safety educators and ELL or ESL teachers can positively affect the safety of these students and the safety of entire families by working together to provide safety education designed specifically for these children FIGURE 6-6. FIGURE 6-7 Safety educators and English language teachers can positively affect the safety of students and the safety of entire families by working together to provide safety education designed specifically for these children. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Some behavioral risk factors are deeply rooted in culture, and access to health care, safety information, perception of risk, and prevention technology are strongly affected by the compatibility or incompatibility between the cultural norms and recommended safety practices. The Western view of injuries is that they are preventable. But in some traditional cultures, the view of injuries is more fatalistic. Rather than relating injures to the environment, developmental stages, or behaviors, injuries and fires are believed to be caused by luck, fate, karma, or God’s will. Other cultural differences traditionally seen in these general areas may involve the following: The importance of the family and the community versus the individual. In the United States, emphasis is placed on the success and achievements of the individual. In other cultures, the family or community units are always at the heart of any effort. Family structure: nuclear versus extended. Formal education as a way of learning and standards of knowledge versus folklore, tradition, storytelling, or common sense. Role of religion and spirituality. Gender roles. Body language, gestures, personal interactions, and boundaries regarding personal space. The United States has become so culturally diverse that it would be impossible to provide a detailed description of each cultural community here. But it is important to understand that members of many different cultures may be imbedded in their communities and sitting among other audience members without any indication of their history, affiliation, or biases. The best way to communicate with people of any culture is to do your homework before ever approaching members of a culture that is unfamiliar to you. Ask questions of cultural community representatives to find out about gender roles, appropriate dress, gestures, holidays, customs, traditions, and daily living routines. If possible, ask a person who is a member of the target audience’s community to accompany you on your visits. This person may take on the primary role of the presenter, with the educator providing professional support. Again, it is important to avoid assumptions and generalizations. Recognize that diversity within cultures is as important as diversity among cultures. Always respect the customs of each culture and religion. Educator’s Tip Remember that learning the language is far easier than changing a value or belief system. These are the more deeply rooted factors that influence highrisk behavior. For example, a person who has learned to speak fluent English may not embrace all of Western culture’s values and habits. Their native belief system may still guide their beliefs and daily living routines. It is easy to make a mistake, even when all planning is well intentioned. Consider the following questions to understand why every culture presents an opportunity to learn about the “little things” that could make a big difference in communication. A wellmeaning person might commit a cross-cultural blunder and cause serious ramifications through a seemingly innocent remark or gesture. Did you know: That the word “stupid” is very offensive in the Latino community? If an educator said, “It is just stupid not to childproof a home,” it would be very insulting to the audience and be viewed the same as swearing. That members of some cultures will be reluctant to admit that they do not understand something they have just been taught? It would be disrespectful, indicating the teacher did not do a good job of explaining. In other cases, workers or parents may be embarrassed to admit their ignorance about the new information. Most likely, they will nod their heads in agreement and smile pleasantly in an effort not to bring attention to themselves. Rather than asking, “Do you understand?” because everyone will simply nod their heads in affirmation, it would be better to ask them to demonstrate the new skill or answer questions specific to the new material. This will allow the instructor to assess what learning actually took place and what other misunderstandings exist. In the area of fire and life safety, there is no margin for error when it comes to understanding the facts. That jumping over fires is part of a purification ritual before the start of the Iranian (or Persian) New Year? Building fires, even for religious purposes, is prohibited in some jurisdictions in the United States. That in some cultures, because the good of the community comes before the good of the individual, offering incentives or rewards to individuals for their good work will not be appreciated or accepted? These are just a few of many examples of communication mistakes that could create an uncomfortable situation or misunderstanding. Each culture and religion deserves the respect and honor you would want for your own customs and values. Find out how you can best communicate across cultural barriers. Engage with the local community by working collaboratively and directly with those who are affiliated with target audiences. Other reminders for educators working with diverse cultures include: Recognize that talking openly is not comfortable or “polite” in some cultures. Making eye contact is not acceptable in some cultures. In Western culture, lack of eye contact can be taken as less than truthful; however, in some cultures, making eye contact is considered “defiant behavior.” In some cultures, women are not allowed to make decisions about family or business matters. Educators may need to empower an entire community to effect change among their members. People in uniform, or those representing the government, may not be welcomed in some neighborhoods. There is a distrust of authority, and these people will be seen as a threat. It is important to develop a front line of communication with gatekeepers before working with these communities. Find out what channels of communication are used by people in various communities. How do they get their information? Use formal networks such as TV, radio, and print media catering to target audience languages, along with informal networks, such as neighborhood meetings, family members, and friends, to get messages to the intended audiences. Develop strategies to reduce the financial barriers to safety devices, increase educational efforts, and improve safety environments. Consult online sources through the American Red Cross, National Resource Center on Advancing Emergency Preparedness for Culturally Diverse Communities, and Sesame Street Workshop Emergency Preparedness Resources for Spanish Speaking Children for bilingual materials and for information regarding culturally diverse support materials. Literacy In the simplest terms, literacy is the ability to read and write. More formal definitions address conceptual literacy as an ability to use printed and written information to function in society to achieve goals, obtain knowledge, and attain potential and operational literacy as the levels of reading proficiency. Three types of literacy represent the use of the written word. Prose literacy is continuous text arranged in sentences and paragraphs, such as news stories and brochures. Document literacy is noncontinuous text, such as bus schedules, tables, maps, and food and drug labels. Quantitative literacy is used to identify and perform computations, such as checkbooks, order forms, and bank statements. Along with types of literacy, there are five literacy levels that identify the abilities to use reading skills in everyday life. More than 40 percent of the adult population has only basic or below basic quantitative skills. Levels I to V literacy skills are described as follows: Level 1 (below basic): Persons with very low skills, ranging from being nonliterate in English to being able to do only the most simple and concrete tasks such as signing forms. Persons at this level may not be able to determine the correct amount of medicine to administer to a child from information printed on the package. Level II (basic): Persons can deal only with material that is simple, clearly laid out, and in which the tasks involved are not too complex. These individuals may have coping skills to manage everyday literacy demands, such as using a TV guide and comparing prices. But it is difficult for them to meet new demands, such as learning new job skills. Level III (competent): Persons have the minimum skills for coping with the demands of everyday life and working in an advanced society. This level is roughly the skill level necessary to graduate from high school and fulfill college entry requirements. Individuals are capable of integrating several sources of information and solve more complex problems. Levels IV and V (proficient): Persons demonstrate higher level informationprocessing skills. There is a strong correlation between low-income communities and the prevalence of low literacy, which translates to high risk and many of the same challenges to their safety as other high-risk populations. The diversity of populations in most communities underscores the importance of addressing the issue of literacy. Many of the low-literacy population are older adults, a high-risk group already facing many other challenges to their safety. Adults with low literacy skills are at high risk from fire and injury for several reasons. They are unable to read and understand English language community safety messages. These messages include not only prevention messages but also product instructions, directions, and warnings. Historically, the assumption has been that by translating fire and injury prevention messages to the native language of those in non-English-speaking communities, their literacy needs had been addressed; however, it has become clear that some adults do not benefit from translated materials because they may not be literate in either language. Educator’s Tip Translating materials into another language is not enough. It is important to consider the level of literacy in both languages when preparing bilingual educational materials. It is a risky strategy to assume that written materials will be useful simply because they have been translated. It is not easy to identify some members of the low-literacy population. Many of them have become very skilled at adapting to living without the benefit of literacy skills and hiding their disability. They do not want to expose themselves and risk embarrassment or judgment, especially in their workplace. What This Means for Fire and Life Safety Educators Educators who are aware that members of the low-literacy community and target audiences walk among all others in daily life will remember to take this into consideration when preparing written materials, slides, public safety announcements, signage, and any other campaigns using the written word. Consider the following guidelines and reminders for the low-literacy community: Use highly illustrated, easy-to-read information, limiting the amount of text. Visual literacy is the ability to recognize and understand ideas conveyed through visible actions or images. Avoid using trifold brochures. One-page, linear text is better. Gray, horizontal bars assist readers in following text from left to right. Pair with literacy experts in the local community. If there is a predominant culture in the community, seek instruction in basic language skills for that culture. Train literacy experts in the basics of fire safety. Develop relationships with non–English-speaking community members to establish a level of trust that would allow fire and life safety educators into their homes. Develop a home smoke alarm installation program. Wrap-Up Smoke: © Greg Henry/ShutterStock, Inc. Summary Points The educator should be aware that most communities today are likely to be home to high-risk populations. Every effort must be made to identify who they are and where they exist. Each high-risk group possesses its own characteristics and needs, but there are a few universal rules to remember when working with all populations. Each culture and religion deserves the respect you would want for your own customs and values. It is important to determine how you can best communicate across cultural barriers. Engage with the local community by working collaboratively and directly with those who are affiliated with target audiences. Educators will encounter people with some form of disability in most walks of life today. It is the responsibility of educators to learn about the latest methods and technology available to assist this population to maintain and improve their own safety. Educators need to address young audiences to ensure they become familiar with fire service personnel and learn that even in their full gear, fire fighters are there to help. It is imperative to address the secondary audiences who will ultimately have the responsibility for keeping young children safe. First responders should be aware of any special accommodations a business, school, or other facility provides for the safety of their high risk populations. Areas of refuge, stair chairs, or other devices provided on-site should be employed and practiced during drills to mitigate any unforeseen challenges in their use. Fire and life safety educators must drill down to root problems, work with all segments of the community affected by and contributing to the welfare of these populations, and create bridges of understanding and trust between the fire department and those who can benefit from their expertise in safety. Key Terms Accessibility The degree to which a product, device, service, or environment is available to as many people as possible. It enables people with disabilities to fully participate, use a product or device, and receive information. Acculturation The process of integration of native and traditional values with the dominant culture’s values. Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) A civil rights law passed by Congress in 1990 prohibiting, under certain circumstances, discrimination based on disability. American Sign Language (ASL) Allows the deaf community to communicate efficiently with each other and those who understand the language. Ambulatory Being able to physically navigate on one’s own without assistance. Asperger syndrome A form of autism, in which a person has problems in areas of social interaction and communication but has normal intelligence and verbal skills. It is usually considered to be the mildest form of autism. Attention-deficit disorder (ADD) A psychiatric classification for a combination of neurological, biochemical, social, and cognitive factors. It is used to describe individuals who exhibit poor attention, distractibility, impulsivity, and an inability to maintain attention for an extended time period. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) A psychiatric classification used to describe individuals who exhibit poor attention, distractibility, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Autism A complex neurobiological developmental disability that causes problems with social interaction and verbal and nonverbal communication. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) A group of disorders with similar features, ranging from mild to more serious autistic symptoms. Disability evacuation plan (DEP) A questionnaire for individuals with disabilities and their families to complete that will assist in understanding their needs, emergency contacts, and other pertinent information to be followed by training and frequent drills. Document literacy Noncontinuous text, such as bus schedules, tables, maps, and food and drug labels. Hoarding The acquisition of, and failure to use or discard, such a large number of seemingly useless possessions that it causes significant clutter and impairment to basic living activities such as mobility, cooking, cleaning, showering, or sleeping. Learning disability A disorder that affects people’s ability to interpret what they see and hear or to link information from different parts of the brain. Least restrictive environment An educational setting for exceptional children and for the education of children with disabilities with nondisabled children whenever realistic and possible, which must be provided by schools. It is the least restrictive setting in which the child with disabilities can function without difficulty. Mainstreaming The process of placing a student with mild to moderate disabilities into one or more general academic classes. Nonambulatory Being unable to physically navigate on one’s own without assistance. People First Language A respectful language used to refer to people with disabilities that puts the person before their disability and describes what a person has, not who a person is. Pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) A broad term used to describe autism and several other autism spectrum disorders. Prose literacy Continuous text arranged in sentences and paragraphs, such as news stories and brochures. Quantitative literacy The ability to identify and perform computations, such as checkbooks, order forms, and bank statements. Visual literacy The ability to recognize and understand ideas conveyed through visible actions or images. Review Questions 1. List the groups of populations that are at higher risk for fire and injury. 2. What are some of the factors that cause these groups to be at high risk? 3. What considerations should a fire and life safety educator make before beginning a new initiative for a local high-risk population? 4. Identify some of the organizations and professionals educators can work with to ensure more successful education efforts for high-risk populations. 5. Summarize effective methods for addressing various high-risk audiences. Critical Thinking 1. What methods can educators use to break through cultural biases that could be responsible for creating unsafe practices without insulting or alienating the population? 2. Think about a segment of the population for which security issues are a primary concern. How can you promote safe practices that will allow for a balance between both security and fire safety? 3. Which of the high-risk populations are common to the local jurisdiction? After identifying them, what will be the first steps to work to improve their safety? Who else should be involved in this effort? Think About It and Make It Better A small geographic area of the local community is home to an area of low income, low literacy, and high crime. Many of the residences are home to multiple families. The residential fire rate is twice that of the rest of the community. Fire fighters report that most homes have no working smoke alarms. Police are not welcome in the neighborhood. Fire fighters are tolerated but only when responding to emergencies. As the educator, how can you begin to work with this population? Which organizations and individuals should you recruit to assist? What methods will you need to avoid? References 1. West Virginia Developmental Disabilities Council. People First—A Guide for Using People First Language. Available at http://wvddc.org/people_first.html, 2009. 2. Cepeda, P., Behavioral Specialist. Personal interview, December 4, 2009. 3. Cepeda, P., Behavioral Specialist. Personal interview, May 18, 2015. 4. Gamache, S., Hall, J. R., Jr., Ahrens, M., Penney, G., and Kirtley, E. “Rural fires.” NFPA Journal, (July/Aug. 2008): 69. Additional Resources Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Press Release, July 30, 2015. Available at http.//www.cdc.gov/media. Cepeda, P., Behavioral Specialist. Personal interview, May 18, 2015. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association, 2013. Dresser, N. Multicultural Manners (Rev. ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Preventing Fire Risk Based on Socioeconomic Factors: Rural and Urban Settings (Student Manual). Washington, DC: United States Fire Administration National Fire Academy, July 2003. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Public Fire Education Planning for Rural Communities: A Five-Step Process. Washington, DC: United States Fire Administration, 2007. Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State University. Fire Safety Solutions for People with Disabilities. Board of Regents at Oklahoma State University, 2007. National Fire Protection Association. NFPA Ready Reference: Fire Safety in High-Rise Buildings. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2003. National Fire Protection Association. Emergency Evacuation Planning Guide for People with Disabilities. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2007. National Resource Center on Advancing Emergency Preparedness for Culturally Diverse Communities. Available at http://diversitypreparedness.org. North American Coalition for Fire and Life Safety Education. Beyond Solutions 2000: 2001 Report. Washington, DC: North American Coalition for Fire and Life Safety Education, 2001. U.S. Department of Education. ICDR: Emergency Evacuation of People with Physical Disabilities From Buildings: 2004 Conference Proceedings. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education. Available at http://www.icdr.us/pubs/EP_Summary.pdf, 2005. CHAPTER 7: Messages for Different Age Groups Paper: © silver-john/ShutterStock, Inc.; Chapter Opener Photo: Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Differentiate among prevention, reaction, and preparation messages. (pp. 142–143) Identify appropriate fire and life safety messages for selected age groups. (pp. 143–164) Distinguish between primary and secondary audiences and the importance of providing appropriate fire and life safety messages for each of these groups. (p. 143) Develop a list of age-appropriate objectives for each content area of life safety messages. NFPA 4.4.1 (pp. 143–164) Identify resources and locate available information to support basic fire and life safety messages. NFPA 4.2.4, 4.3.1 (p. 165) Recognize and select additional safety messages based on risks and activities specific to the educator’s community. NFPA 4.2.4 (pp. 143–164) Understand how national and local fire and injury statistics help identify the safety messages public educators should be targeting. (p. 142) Introduction Enter fire safety or injury prevention in a search engine on the Internet, and you will be amazed at the number of resources available to safety educators. The amount of information is overwhelming. How does an educator begin to sort out which messages are most important? What is appropriate to teach to preschoolers? When are children ready to learn about electrical safety and first aid? Will adolescents be bored with lessons about suffocation and choking? What do young parents need to know to keep their new family safe? Are there universal messages, or are some messages more regionally applicable? The first step is to assess the local community risks. From there, the task of prioritizing the available wealth of information and determining basic messages can be a daunting task for beginning educators. This chapter provides an overview of important safety messages for specific age groups. With these age-appropriate topics in hand, you can easily find supporting statistics, lesson plans, and other data by referring to one of the many resources provided. National statistics capture data related to fire and unintentional injuries and can help provide guidelines for determining which messages are most important for specific age groups. The data regarding fire and injuries are influenced by race, education, socioeconomic levels, and family structure,1 variables that should always be taken into consideration when prioritizing local teaching objectives. It is important to examine and address the risks specific to your community in addition to nationally recognized high-risk behaviors. Perhaps the local area has dangerous railroad crossings, high levels of ATV or snowmobile activity, in-line skating parks, recreational boating, vacationing hazards such as outdoor camping, or high risk weather activity. Current issues of homeland security also need to be included. These factors should all influence the scope and priorities of local programs. Note NFPA’s Educational Messages Advisory Committee reviews fire safety education messages and provides recommendations for updating and revising messages. Educators can validate the content and current status of standardized messages by consulting this valuable resource at www.nfpa.org/education. Fire and life safety messages can be addressed in three general categories: prevention, reaction, and preparedness or persuasion. Prevention Messages How often have we heard someone say, “Accidents happen,” as if there is nothing that can be done about these unfortunate events? “Accidents” are not the result of random, uncontrollable factors. They are not just bad luck. And they do not have to be an inevitable part of life. If fire service personnel are the first to respond to injuries and fires, then they are also in a position to understand how and why the “accidents” happen in the first place. If it is predictable, it is preventable! With this in mind, safety educators can provide an invaluable service by drilling down to the root cause of the fires and injuries they witness and developing prevention messages from that knowledge base. For some departments, this may be primarily apartment and single-family residence fires; for others, it could be young children playing with matches; and for still others, it might be wildfires. Areas rich with lakes and backyard pools could be home to high call volumes of drowning or boating incidents. Communities with a high concentration of older adults might experience many calls for older adult falls. It is our job to learn from available data regarding calls and get to the public with our messages about how to prevent fire and injury before misfortunes strike. Prevention should be the core of message delivery. Reaction Messages Because we know that despite our best prevention efforts, fires and injuries do occur, it is also our job to provide reaction messages, which teach the correct reactions to emergency situations. If we repeat these messages so they become second nature, the desired reaction will more likely occur in the face of danger. The reaction message could be “stop, drop, and roll” when clothing catches on fire, to put a lid on a pan for a grease fire, or to perform cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) for a person who is not breathing. Traditionally, the fire service has done a very good job of teaching and reinforcing reaction messages. Although these are fundamental skills, it is important that these messages not become more important than preventing emergency situations in the first place. Preparedness Messages The third major area of educational messages is that of preparedness messages. Just as fire fighters, emergency medical technicians (EMTs), paramedics, and hospital emergency department (ED) staff must be prepared to respond to emergencies in terms of available equipment and supplies, training, and well-honed skills, so should the general public be prepared to handle everyday emergencies at their level. CPR cannot be performed successfully without proper training. The odds of escaping from a fire are decreased without family planning and practicing drills. Calling for help in a poisoning emergency takes additional precious minutes without immediately available emergency numbers. Finally, a family’s chances for survival during natural disasters will be diminished without the benefit of a well-thought-out plan and family survival kit. Audiences of all ages can learn some level of preparedness to help them and their families in times of emergency. In addition to general messages of prevention, reaction, and preparedness, holidays and seasonal activities present special concerns and risks because of their associated traditions, customs, and rituals. A comprehensive community risk reduction program will incorporate these messages throughout the year. For the purposes of this chapter, messages will be discussed in terms of age group need and appropriateness. You will find that these messages also need to reach beyond the immediate audience. Other family or community members are often in a position to influence the safety of a home or work environment to a greater extent than those receiving direct instruction. The primary audience is the group directly addressed by the educator. The secondary audience is composed of those who might have influence over the safety of the primary audience or can be influenced by the educator’s contact with the primary audience. For example, you may address a group of preschoolers, but it is equally important to send safety messages home to the children’s parents or caregivers, who have the responsibility of providing a safe environment for their young children. Consider all possible secondary audiences when planning messages for any age group. It may often be more important to educate the secondary audience than the more accessible primary audience. Messages for Preschoolers Preschoolers are active and curious. They observe their environment and enjoy imitating adult activities, yet they do not have the intellectual capacity to understand the potential dangers of their actions nor do they have the physical ability to escape from fires independently. These characteristics put them at great risk for injury. We know that injuries disproportionately occur to those who are least able to protect themselves. Historically, children under five and older adults have been at the greatest risk of fire death. According to the NFPA’s 2014 report by Marty Ahrens, Characteristics of Home Fire Victims, young children were at greater risk of home fire death in the past than they are today. The percentage of fatal home fire victims under five years of age fell from 18 percent in 1980 to 6 percent in 2011.1 This positive trend has been correlated in part to legislation for child-resistant lighters. Educators must continue to be vigilant about addressing this young population. Their young skin is thinner than adults’ skin, so they suffer deep burns more quickly than the rest of the population. The American Burn Association reports that scald burns account for roughly 75 percent of all burns in young children. Children younger than 5 years are also one of two age groups experiencing the highest rates of unintentional falls. Drowning is the leading cause of unintentional injury-related death among children ages 1 to 4 years and that nonfatal poisoning rates are highest among children younger than 5 years. The leading cause of unintentional injury deaths for children younger than 1 year of age is choking and suffocation. Although it may seem that very young children have little control over their well-being, there are several safety lessons they can be taught that they will be able to understand, practice, and remember. Because some lessons contain many behaviors, it may be best to spread them out over more than one session or provide information for teachers and parents to introduce after a visit from the safety educator. Appendix B includes a sample preschool lesson plan and accompanying parent letter to be sent home. Educator’s Tip When teaching young children, emphasize what they should do rather than what they should not do, and keep the message simple. Prevention Messages for Preschoolers Matches and lighters. If children find matches, lighters, or grill starters, they should “tell a grown-up when you find matches or lighters.” Do not pick up the matches to bring them to the grown-up, but show the grown-up where you found them and ask the grown-up to put the matches in a safe place FIGURE 7-1. An enjoyable activity for this age group requires the use of a very large, colorful tool box. Have a selection of adult tools and children’s toys in the tool box. After discussing “tell a grown-up,” tell the children that one of the fire fighters was using your tools and got the toys and tools all mixed up in the toolbox. Ask for their help sorting out the contents as you bring each tool and each toy out of the box and hold it up for the children to see. The children should not touch the items in the box. They will enjoy the anticipation of seeing what comes out of the toolbox next. As each item is revealed, ask the children to explain why it is a tool or a toy and who is allowed to use it. Bring out the matches, lighters, and grill starters at the end and ask if they are tools or toys. Make sure the lighters are empty and that the matches have been soaked in water to ensure that they are safe. Separate the items into two separate piles as the game continues so it is visually evident which items they should never touch. The message should become clear that matches are tools, not toys. Tools are only for grown-ups. Before leaving the session, check your supplies to make sure you have not left any of the “tools” behind. Stay away from hot things. Help young children discriminate between things that are hot and cold. Tell them that hot things can hurt. A good activity for this lesson is to ask the children to identify pictures of things that are dangerous because they are hot and those things that are safe to touch because they do not become hot. Once I’m buckled, I stay buckled! Teach children to remain buckled in their car seat when they are riding in the car. They should stay buckled until an adult tells them they can unbuckle. Have them snap their fingers or clap their hands and practice “Click, click, clicking” to reinforce the message. Very young children may not be able to snap their fingers, but they will still imitate the instructor and enjoy the activity. Ask a grown-up before taking any medicine. Young children are quick to put things in their mouths. Some medicines, cleaners, or other substances might look like candy or a fruit drink, so they need to learn that it is important to ask a grown-up before eating or drinking anything. They need to learn that some medicines can make them very sick if the medicine is for someone else or if they take more than the doctor prescribed. Eat carefully. Teach children not to run with food in their mouths or to stuff their mouths full of food. Explain that this can cause choking, a very dangerous situation. Stay away from pools, lakes, and other bodies of water unless supervised by a grown-up. Show pictures of various bodies and containers of water and ask the children if they think it is permissible for them to go near the water without a grown-up. Demonstrate a personal floatation device (PFD) and stress that children should always wear one in or around water, just as they always wear their seatbelt and bicycle helmet. Being careful not to frighten the children, discuss the potential dangers of water. Make up a story about one of the children playing near a pool or lake and help them role play what they should do if a responsible grown-up is not in sight FIGURE 7-2. Never touch a gun or bullets, even if grown-ups use them. Teach children to never touch guns and ammunition. Extend the lesson to instruct what to do if they come across a gun at someone else’s home and if a friend or an older child says they know how to use a gun. Use the opportunity to include a discussion of other items that could cause unintentional but serious injuries such as power tools. This lesson can be combined with the “tools versus toys” lesson. Remind young children that it is sometimes difficult to tell the difference between toys and the real object. FIGURE 7-1 Children role play finding matches and lighters. They should practice telling an adult and not touching the matches and lighters. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 7-2 Teach young children about safety around water and the importance of wearing a PFD. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Reaction Messages for Preschoolers Get out and stay out. Teach children that they have only one job when there is a fire—to get outside. When they are outside, they must not go back in the house for anything. Check for their understanding by asking if they can go back in the house for things they relate to and that might have an emotional attachment. Can you go back in for your toys? Can you go back in for your dog or cat or fish? Can you go back in for Mommy or Daddy? These last two questions may cause some children to be worried and sad. Follow up immediately by reassuring the children that it is the fire fighters who help pets and mommies and daddies. Know what a smoke alarm sounds like and what to do when it sounds. Teach young children what a smoke alarm sounds like and what their reaction should be when they hear that noise (get out and stay out!). Ask children what noise a smoke alarm makes. When they’re finished making the “Beeeeeep” sound, tell them you brought your smoke alarm along and you would like to test it. Some children may be afraid when you tell them you are planning to push the button on a smoke alarm. Prepare the children by asking them to cover their ears for the first time you test the alarm. Make this learning activity fun, and most of the students will be fine. Push the button long enough for them to hear the sound briefly. “Now that you’ve heard it, let’s test it again, this time with our hands in our laps and without covering our ears” FIGURE 7-3. Get low under smoke. Explain that smoke can make us sick. It likes to go up in the air, so we should get down low and crawl like we did when we were babies. When smoke goes up, we go down! and get low and go! are popular phrases to teach with this behavior FIGURE 7-4. Practice the family escape plan. Young children can and should be included in home escape drills. They are required to do so at schools and daycare centers. Encourage them to talk to family members about having a family fire drill. Send a letter home to parents explaining the importance of working on an escape plan while the lesson is still fresh in the minds of their children. Cool a burn and call for help. Young children can be taught that the best first aid for a burn is cool water. Find out if they know the difference between hot and cold water on a faucet. Teachers in preschools can put signs or stickers on the classroom sink to help children learn that “hot” is on the left and “cold” is on the right. Teach young children to enlist the help of an adult if they are burned. Stop, drop, and roll. When clothes catch on fire, the recommended practice is to stop where you are, drop to the ground, and roll back and forth until the fire goes out. Demonstrate the stop, drop, and roll technique for the children and remind them to cover their faces. Have the children demonstrate the skill in your presence so you can see that they have the right idea FIGURE 7-5. Take the time to correct any misconceptions. After teaching this concept, be sure to ask children what they should do if there is a fire somewhere else in the room. If they answer “stop, drop, and roll” to this question, it will be apparent that time needs to be spent clarifying the messages. As much as educators traditionally teach this message to preschoolers, keep in mind that it is really difficult for them to discriminate between different fire scenarios. Call 911 if someone needs help. Older preschoolers, ages four and five years, can be taught how and when to call 911 for emergencies if it is available in their area, including instructions to stay on the telephone until the operator tells them to hang up. Tell them to learn their home address. Educational apps are available for tablets and smartphones that will allow children to practice calling 911 FIGURE 7-6. Educator’s Tip Role play is an effective way to check for understanding with very young children. After teaching a lesson about matches and lighters, invite two children to come to the front of the group. Make up a story about the day they found lighters. Place the lighters on the floor in front of them as you monitor the children closely. What should they do? Who should they tell? Make sure they do not touch the lighters. FIGURE 7-3 Prepare young children for the sound of a smoke alarm by instructing them to cover their ears before the first test. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 7-4 Demonstrating the message, “Smoke goes up… so we should get down low and go.” Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 7-5 Observe children practicing their new skills to ensure they understand the concepts. © ZUMA Press, Inc./Alamy. FIGURE 7-6 A young student practices identifying 911 numbers. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip After teaching stop, drop, and roll and get out and stay out, make sure the children understand the correct reaction for each situation by asking very simple situational questions. It is common for young children to generalize one idea to cover all emergencies. They mistakenly believe they should stop, drop, and roll as a reaction to all fire situations. Put the emphasis on “Get out and stay out.” Educator’s Tip Classroom teachers can make learning home addresses a rewarding activity by dedicating bulletin board space for the following activity. Cut out red, 4-inch construction paper houses with a student’s name on each house. Pin the houses on the “Neighborhood Bulletin Board.” When a child can recite his home address and telephone number, his or her house is replaced or turned over to reveal a blue house. The goal is to have all houses on the board changed to blue by the end of the academic year. Preparedness Messages for Preschoolers Recognizing the fire fighter as a helper. When children understand what a fire fighter looks like fully dressed in firefighting gear, they will be better prepared to go to the fire fighter for help in a real emergency. Talking to mom and dad about safety. Ask preschoolers to talk to their parents and grandparents about their safety lessons. Children enjoy feeling important and acting as a helper to teach the adults in their families. Bicycle helmets. Children can begin to understand that wearing a bicycle helmet will help keep them from getting badly hurt if they fall off their bike. Show them pictures of prominent sports figures, actors, cartoon characters, and local role models riding and wearing helmets. Buckling up when traveling in the car. Kids belong in the back seat, not the front. Children need to develop the habit of wearing a seatbelt every time they get in the car, even for very short rides. This act will become a lifelong habit if learned and reinforced at an early age. It is much more difficult to influence children to practice safety habits when they are older if they were never required to do so at a young age. Families need smoke alarms. Even young children can be good teachers for their entire family when they understand the importance of smoke alarms. The “big nose” on the ceiling can sniff out a fire for them while they sleep. Secondary Audiences for Preschoolers Because young children are at the highest risk for most unintentional injuries, addressing secondary audiences for preschoolers is extremely important. Parents, grandparents, daycare providers, pediatricians, babysitters, and teachers can all help create a safer world for children. Young parents are busy. Deliver short and meaningful messages to them and provide resources where they can find additional information. Contact local pediatricians and seek their help in delivering safety messages during well-baby checks and school physicals. In many families, grandparents are the primary caregivers. Deliver messages that have been specifically developed for their use and accessibility. When sending letters home to this audience, be careful to use a more generic salutation than “Dear Mom and Dad.” “Dear Caregiver” may be more acceptable. More suggestions are as follows: Supervise, supervise, supervise! This message cannot be overstated. All too often, first responders hear a remorseful caregiver saying, “I only left her alone for a minute” or “If only I hadn’t been talking on the phone.” It only takes a moment for a child to run into the street, slip into the side of a pool, pull down a pot of boiling water, or ingest a foreign object. Provide a safe environment for children. What looks inviting to a curious young child? Parents can better “childproof” their homes if they tour their home from their child’s height. Parents should lock up all guns, tools, cleaning products, look-alike drugs and poisons, toy-like lighters, matches, and lighters. They should put away games with small pieces and other small objects that pose choking hazards. Make sure windows are locked. Create a “safe zone” of 3 ft (1 m) around the front of the stove, cook on the back burners, install anti-scald devices on faucets, cover outlets with safety caps, replace all damaged or frayed cords, and have ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs) or arc fault circuit interrupters (AFCIs) and covers installed at all outlets near water. Discuss the importance of product recalls for toys and other home products that could endanger the safety of family members. Encourage parents of young children to invite the local fire department to perform a home safety check. Many departments offer this service at no cost to their communities. Make it clear that these safety checks are not inspections resulting in violations or fines but rather a service to keep families safe. Depending on the demographics and cultures in your community, getting invited into private residences may be difficult. Seek help from another local person or agency trusted by these groups and families. Set a good example and walk the talk! Young children are very observant of adult behaviors. It will be easier to convince children to wear bike helmets and seatbelts if they see their parents and influential adults doing the same. Fire department, law enforcement, and EMS bike teams can serve as excellent role models. Be prepared for family emergencies. Families will fare better in emergencies if they are prepared by having home escape plans, emergency disaster kits, and first aid kits. Encourage adults to involve children when practicing these plans so they will be less frightened by the unusual activities during an emergency. Note You are encouraged to investigate NFPA 1452, Guide for Training Fire Service Personnel to Conduct Community Risk Reduction—a new resource for home safety checks. Educator’s Tip Partner with and encourage local pediatricians to use The American Academy of Pediatricians (AAP) TIPP® program, originally designed specifically for pediatricians to use as part of office visits. This educational program is for parents of newborn children through 12 years of age to help prevent common injuries from motor vehicles, drowning, firearms, falls, bicycle crashes, burns, poisoning, and choking. Valuable information is also available through the AAP-sponsored website www.healthychildren.org. Messages for Elementary-Aged Children Elementary-aged children are becoming more independent than preschoolers. They continue to be inquisitive and imaginative and enjoy imitating adults. They are eager to learn and anxious to please, and they enjoy trying out their new skills both physically and cognitively. As their boundaries for play and exploration expand, so do their opportunities to become injured. According to 2013 statistics from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), unintentional injuries are the leading cause of death for children between five and nine years old. The number one cause of unintentional injury deaths for children in this age group is motor vehicle accidents followed by unintentional drowning, and then fire and burn injuries. Unintentional poisonings claim their share of young lives as curious children investigate their environment by putting things in their mouths. Because of their faster metabolic rate, poison affects children more quickly and severely than adults. In the United States, children also experience more than 3 million sports and recreation-related concussions each year. As children progress through elementary school, they become increasingly capable of understanding the value of safety messages. They are able to execute more prevention, reaction, and preparedness skills for themselves and their families. However, most children still do not grasp how quickly a small fire escalates into a big fire, and they overestimate their ability to escape from or extinguish fires. Elementary school children make good messengers for fire departments attempting to get safety messages into the homes in their communities. A 2006 survey of fire chiefs across the country conducted by the Johns Hopkins Center for Injury Research and Policy revealed that approximately 80 percent of fire departments that conduct public education programs do so at the elementary school level. Gradeschool children are already grouped by developmental age and ready to learn in a school setting, making it easier to prepare ageappropriate lessons and address children in homogeneous groups. Prevention Messages for Elementary-Aged Children Matches and lighter safety. Teach children to tell an adult if they find matches or lighters. Discuss the proper action to be taken if they come across other children engaged in fire play, and reinforce their responsibility to report these activities to adults. Explain that they could be seriously hurt even if they are only spectators, so they should leave the area immediately. Electrical safety. Ask children to name things they are allowed to use without adult supervision that require electricity. Items on their lists may include microwave ovens, computers, video game players, hair dryers, DVD players, and more. Introduce definitions and examples of electrical conductors and insulators, ground fault circuit interrupters, watts, amperes, and safety tips regarding overloaded outlets and extension cords, dangling cords, frayed cords, and wires run under rugs. Include outdoor electrical safety in these discussions FIGURE 7-7. Home hazards. Begin by defining the word hazard. Ask the children if they have seen the warning for choking hazards on small toys. This will get them thinking about the definition of a hazard. Children can act as home safety inspectors by checking for electrical hazards, combustibles stored too close to heat sources, blocked exits, careless smokers, improper candle usage, and visible home addresses. Their inspection can extend to home injury hazards as well. They can be taught to look for nonslip rugs in bathrooms, handrails in stairwells, poisons, and other dangerous substances that might endanger family members. Provide incentives or rewards for children who report that a family member made a safe change at home because of the child’s inspection. Outdoor safety. Playing outside, bicycling, camping trips, in-line skating, swimming, and playground activities present many situations in which children need to be aware of hazards in their outdoor environment. Teach them what to do when they encounter a downed power wire, fire pits, severe weather, and unsafe conditions at playgrounds and parks. Falls. Discuss playground safety and the use of proper ladders and stools to obtain objects stored too high for them to reach. Discuss risk-taking behaviors and the possible short- and long-term results of these behaviors. Engage them in practicing these behaviors by telling a story about someone who was injured and asking how they could have prevented the injury from ever happening. Storytelling is an effective tool for engaging elementary students in learning. Burns. Ask a classroom of children if any of them have ever been burned. A majority of children will have experienced a minor burn at some point in their lives. Explain the most common causes of burns for children their age, especially scald burns. Talk about kitchen safety and the importance of cooking with the pot handles turned in and keeping combustibles away from the stovetop. Children are often fascinated with gasoline. Include information about the dangers of flammable materials, their proper storage, and the hidden dangers of invisible vapors. Along with this lesson, introduce superficial or first degree, partial-thickness or second degree, and full-thickness or third degree burns and the “cool a burn” procedure. Bicycle safety. This is a good age to emphasize the importance of wearing bicycle helmets, the use of hand signals, and the correct side of the street for cyclists. Summer youth and park district programs provide good venues for setting up bike rodeos. Point out that bike helmets used to be bulky, ugly, and uncomfortable. Today they are light and have air vents and cool designs. Use pictures of popular sports figures or celebrities wearing helmets during recreational activities. Don’t forget to wear your helmet, too FIGURE 7-8. Poisons. Ask students to help you generate a list of things they know to be poisonous. Add to this list by introducing other poisonous substances they are likely to encounter but may not have considered poisonous before your lesson. Provide them with information about cleaning products, medication safety, plants, and look-alike substances. Set up a table with substances that are both familiar and unfamiliar to the children; point to each item and ask the children if they think it is poisonous or safe. After you have revealed the answer for each item, put a sticker or colored card in front of each item to indicate its class. Discuss the information on some of the labels and draw attention to the recommended first aid measures for particular products. Choking. Because elementary school children are so active, they need to be reminded to sit down and slow down while eating. In very basic terms, discuss what actually happens physiologically when a person is choking and why it is so dangerous. Upper elementary school children can be taught the Heimlich maneuver or abdominal thrusts. Warn against participating in games such as “Chubby Bunny,” a challenge for children to see how many marshmallows they can fit in their mouth while still saying “chubby bunny,” and “the choking game,” a self-strangulation or strangulation by a friend to induce a short euphoric state. Talk about drawstring “hoodie” sweatshirts and warn against wearing long scarves around their necks while engaging in active play. Contact the curriculum director at the local school district and find out which grade level is studying human body systems as a unit in science. Discuss integrating this lesson with the respiratory system unit and incorporate terms such as epiglottis, esophagus, larynx, trachea, lungs, diaphragm, and stomach. Diagrams and models of the human body are effective visual aids for reinforcing the objectives of this lesson. Handguns, power tools, lawn mowers, and snow blowers. Children are sometimes assigned adult responsibilities and chores simply because they are physically able to accomplish the tasks, with little thought to their ability to handle the jobs safely. Teach the proper use of tools they will most likely use. For some, it will be lawn mowers; for others, it could be farm implements or snow blowers. Be observant as you drive down the streets and see what is going on in your neighborhood. Incorporate handgun safety with these lessons. Use the “What can I use when no one is home?” activity to get children and their parents thinking about this topic. Vehicle, pedestrian, and bus safety. The local schools or the school bus company may already be teaching bus safety, but the fire department can help to reinforce the information by reminding students not to cross behind buses and to remain seated while buses are moving. Vehicle safety includes the importance of all family members wearing seatbelts. Explain that fire fighters are required to wear seatbelts in the fire engine or ambulance, even when responding to emergencies. Teach children about back-up lights and sounds and directional signals, and what they mean for potential movement. Pedestrian safety should emphasize safety messages regarding crossing the street, not chasing balls into the street during outdoor games, and crossing only at crosswalks. FIGURE 7-7 Teachers can incorporate electrical safety messages into the science curriculum. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 7-8 Bicycle safety can be taught through bike rodeos in conjunction with park district and summer youth programs. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip Be very careful not to send mixed messages when discussing choking games. The games cannot be discussed in a way that makes them sound interesting or intriguing. Students should be discouraged from experimenting with any risk-taking games. Stories are available about children who died while participating in these games. Use these real-life examples carefully as supporting cases for the lesson. Educator’s Tip Provide two different colored pages, each with the same checklist of items, appliances, and sports equipment commonly used around the home or in daily life. Have children check off which items they think would be safe for them to use when no adult is home and which ones should only be used when an adult is home. Ask them to have their parents do the same with the matching checklist. After both pages are completed, the parents and children should compare their answers. Any differences in the answers will become important discussion points. Reaction Messages for Elementary-Aged Children Get low in smoke and stop, drop, and roll. Continue to reinforce these two messages and make clear the distinction between the situations that call for each technique. Call 911, poison control, or send a friend. Teach the proper use of 911 and emphasize to students that 911 should be activated first for all emergencies. Families should have the poison control number (888-222-1222) posted near the telephone as an additional resource until first responders arrive and discuss scenarios presenting poisoning emergencies when no adult is immediately available to assist. The poison control number is an easily memorized number that lends itself to a rap or song, making it easier to remember. Create a contest around this activity. Print a variety of emergency scenarios on pieces of paper. Have children choose a scenario and practice making the 911 call. This interaction will also allow the educator to evaluate how well the children understand the skills necessary for reporting an emergency call. Basic first aid. Elementary school children can be taught basic first aid, and they enjoy learning about a subject that has real and immediate relevance to their lives. Teach them what a first responder is and how they can help themselves, their friends, and their family by knowing how to react in a medical emergency. Explain that they might actually be the first responder in a chain of important events. Include lessons about scene safety, body substance isolation (BSI), “cool a burn,” the Heimlich maneuver, applying pressure to a deep cut, and immobilizing a suspected fracture or sprain. Emphasize that 911 should always be called first. Get out, stay out. Emphasize to children that they have one important job to do if there is a fire. That job is to get out and stay out. They should have home escape plans and know how to call 911, but their first and primary job is to get out. Reinforce the fact that they cannot go back in for anything, including pets. It is important to revisit this message for them so they understand that it is a difficult decision, but they must not risk their own lives to save their pets. Ask children what they would do if they walked into a room and saw a very small fire with a flame only a few inches in height. Many may respond by saying they would put it out because it is so small. This is the opportunity to discuss what the fire department thinks they should do which is to get out, stay out, and call 911. Fire drills, alarms in other places, and exits marked in other places. Explain that schools require fire drills, but families should always know how to exit any building they visit in case of fire. Make sure they understand that they should look up to find marked exits and stairwells. Ask students to list their five favorite places to visit (movie theater, store, library, restaurant, and so on). Challenge them to see if they can locate two ways out the next time they visit these places FIGURE 7-9. Kitchen safety. Discuss common causes of kitchen fires. Introduce the following behaviors: put a lid on grease fires; keep the door closed for microwave oven and oven fires. Elementary school children should not be instructed in the use of fire extinguishers. They are not old enough to judge the seriousness of a fire, and many are not physically capable of using an extinguisher efficiently. Encourage elementary school children to talk to their parents about the importance of having home fire extinguishers and learning how to use them. FIGURE 7-9 Students can practice finding exits in their school. Encourage them to do the same at places they frequent with their families. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip Write individual medical emergency scenarios on the backs of large paper Band-Aids® and put them in a toy doctor’s bag. Ask for a volunteer to be the “doctor for the day.” The volunteer should choose a Band-Aid from the bag and read the first aid scenario to the class. The “doctor” can try to answer the question about how to handle the scenario or can call on another classmate to provide the answer. Follow with a demonstration and explanation of the proper response. Educator’s Tip It is simple to set up a small kitchen stove for class demonstrations by turning a cardboard or wooden box upside down and drawing an oven door and burners on the side and bottom of the box. Several kitchen safety behaviors can be taught with this one visual aid. The box can be used to store and transport demonstration items. Educators might also draw a stovetop and oven door on felt-backed plastic fabric. This can be rolled up to take to schools or safety fairs. When placed on a table, it is a realistic, full-scale stove for demonstrations FIGURE 7-10. FIGURE 7-10 (A) A wooden box painted like a stove can be used to store visual aids and demonstrate kitchen safety when it is inverted. (B) A table drape becomes a realistic, life-size stove for demonstrations. Photo Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Stove Illustration Courtesy of Ashley Olenick. Preparedness Messages for Elementary-Aged Children Home emergency telephone list. Discuss the importance of families having an emergency telephone list in a place familiar to all family members. Poison control, family physician, relatives, hospital, and other important numbers should be included. Students can create a list for their families if one is not already in place. Home escape plan. Encourage students to discuss the importance of having a home escape plan, including a family meeting place, knowing two ways out of every room in the home, having escape ladders, and practicing the plan with their entire family. It may be easier for children to think of this as a “map” of their home rather than an escape “plan.” The NFPA uses the acronym EDITH (exit drills in the home) for this lesson FIGURE 7-11. Disaster and first aid kits. Help children understand the environmental disasters unique to their geographic area of the county. Check into the school social studies curriculum to learn which grade levels are studying characteristics of geographical areas of the country or the science curriculum for grade levels studying weather. Talk to those teachers about incorporating family preparedness as part of these lessons. Being careful not to scare the children, let them know how important it is for families to have emergency disaster plans and kits. Ask what items they think should be in their family emergency kit. Discuss the most important items and the reason for each being included. Provide a suggested list for them to take home to their parents. The American Red Cross and NFPA provide excellent resources for these checklists. Many schools in earthquake areas require students to have an emergency kit at school. This is an opportune time to create a relationship between home and school emergency planning. Bike and skate helmets, seatbelts, and PFDs. This message bears repeating for every age group (see preschool messages). Some fire departments partner with local ice cream or video stores and encourage fire fighters to distribute store coupons to children they observe wearing helmets. FIGURE 7-11 Students work on home escape maps in small groups. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Secondary Audiences for Elementary-Aged Children Parents, teachers, grandparents, coaches, church leaders, scout masters, youth advisors, and pediatricians represent secondary audiences for elementary school children. One example of the importance of getting a safety message to a secondary audience is a report from Safe Kids Worldwide that 38 percent of emergency room visits for childhood poisoning ingestions related to a prescription for a grandparent’s medication. Learn about the secondary home audiences in your community. What resources are available for reaching them? What languages do you need to accommodate? When addressing these audiences, honor their time; it is a scarce commodity. Supervise, supervise, supervise. Parents need to be reminded by public safety professionals that nothing takes the place of constant supervision when it comes to safety. However, if they cannot be home with their children, they should prepare their children for staying home alone. Encourage parents to discuss the proper reactions to emergency situations for those times no adult is home. Partner with the local police department to offer a class for students and their parents about security, first aid, and fire safety when children are home alone. Set a good example. Parents and grandparents can more easily elicit the desired safety behaviors in their children by taking proper safety measures themselves, such as testing smoke alarms, practicing home escape drills, wearing bicycle helmets and seatbelts, and swimming and boating responsibly. Provide working smoke alarms, carbon monoxide (CO) alarms, disaster and first aid kits, and emergency telephone lists at home. Inasmuch as we teach children about these practices, it is ultimately the adults’ responsibility for keeping their families prepared for emergencies! Continue to send messages and resources home to parents to help them understand the importance of making emergency preparations in advance for their families. Create a safe home environment. Lock up medications, cleaning solutions, and guns. Store flammable liquids, matches, and lighters properly. Prevent injuries. Remind parents that unintentional injuries can be prevented through some extra effort on their part. Encourage them to provide the right equipment for their children’s sports and recreational activities. Send information home to parents with product information, checklists, and resources for further information. They may not be aware that pool noodles and recreational floats are not substitutes for PFDs or that a simple action such as referring to medicine as candy can cause confusion and dangerous poisonings for their children. Do not assume that the adult public is aware of these potential dangers for their children. Prevent fire-setting. Recognize that children who engage in fire-setting should be referred to a local youth fire-setter intervention program. Educate parents and local schools about the advantages these programs provide for the entire community. Send a letter to school principals explaining the youth fire-setting problem and introducing them to the resources in your community. Include an explanation that, according to the fire code, all fires must be reported. Encourage them to refer any students manifesting these behaviors to a local or state program. Help them understand that these confidential programs are conducted by trained professionals and exist to help the entire family. Youth fire-setter intervention programs are not to be viewed as a threat but as an intervention and treatment for the child’s benefit, and that of the entire family. Educator’s Tip One way to tell what children would do in emergency situations is to play the “What if?” game. Parents describe possible emergency scenarios to their children and ask them what they would do under those conditions. These conversations should be conducted calmly and rationally so children are not frightened. The discussions that follow will help parents determine whether their children are responsible enough to be left home alone. Educator’s Tip Advise parents to restrict their children’s access to fire. It is not advisable to allow children to help light candles or build fires in fireplaces as entertaining activities. Messages for Adolescents Adolescents are risk takers and are heavily influenced by their peers, but they are also capable of abstract thinking and understanding the serious consequences of fire. Keep these characteristics in mind when presenting messages for this age group. In middle school and high school, students attend classes by subject area. This classroom organization can be used to the educator’s advantage by integrating fire and life safety messages with specific and appropriate curriculum areas such as life skills, health, physical education, language arts, and the sciences. Messages will have more impact when they are relevant, immediately usable, current, interactive, and to the point. Reports from the CDC indicate that unintentional injuries are the leading cause of death for the 10- to 24-year-old age group. Adolescents 13 years of age and older are in the highest at-risk group for gasoline and other flammable substance burns. Video documentation of gas being misused and played with by adolescents is prevalent on the Internet.2 Video-streaming site scenarios depicting teens experimenting with fire and daredevil activities are popular. More than 1 million sports-related injuries occur annually in the 10- to 17-year-old age group. The majority of people who die from unintentional poisoning are young and middle-age adults. Misuse of prescription drugs, often medicine intended for other family members, is a growing cause of death among teens today. Alcohol figures prominently as a related cause for dormitory fires, diving and boating accidents, and vehicle fatalities. According to the CDC, the use of alcohol was involved in up to 70 percent of adolescent and adult deaths associated with water recreation. Without question, it is important to make every effort to reach this high-risk age group with appropriate messages FIGURE 7-12. FIGURE 7-12 The dangers and consequences of alcohol consumption and boating should be addressed in adolescent injury prevention programs. © Allen J. Schaben/Los Angeles Times/Getty. Prevention Messages for Adolescents The power of fire and the realities of burns. By the teen years, adolescents know that fire is dangerous and burns are painful, but, unless they have had a personal experience, students do not have a genuine understanding of the devastating and long-term effects of fires. Work with a classroom teacher to develop connections between the objectives in his or her content area and the objectives of your lessons. The Society of Fire Protection Engineers and Discovery Education have developed The Chemistry of Fire, a 2007 program that can be used by high school chemistry teachers. To reinforce these concepts, testimonials and presentations from other students who have had a personal experience with a fire related incident or preventable injury provide powerful and believable messages. Realistic videos are available that can also help paint a memorable picture for students in these age groups as part of a presentation. On your own. Students enjoy an increased level of independence as they approach adulthood. Generate discussions that center on this freedom. Challenge students to think about what they really know about safety in terms of prevention for outdoor, kitchen, electrical, water safety, and childcare. Take pictures of fraternity or dorm rooms and off-campus apartments. Create a virtual tour and let students find examples of safe or unsafe behaviors as they take the tour. Alcohol and its frequent contribution to fires and injuries needs to be an integral part of these discussions. Distribute newspaper articles or direct them to online stories about fires or injuries that resulted from negligence or carelessness by people their age. Discuss what steps they could have taken to prevent the tragedies in these scenarios. Risk taking. Knowing that many adolescents are risk takers, provide realistic demonstrations, DVDs, reenactments, and personal stories. Follow any demonstration with meaningful discussions surrounding hypothetical or actual scenarios. Solicit honest feedback and suggestions from the audience to determine their level of understanding. Involve them in planning messages and programs for their peers FIGURE 7-13. Hazards and exits. Discuss places frequently attended by students and the crowded conditions they may face. Concerts, theaters, assemblies, bars, and sports arenas are just a few of the places with a high potential for overcrowding. The Station Nightclub Fire in Rhode Island and the E2 Nightclub tragedy in Chicago provide realistic examples. Articles and video footage are available to be used with these discussions. Boating and diving. It is important that this age group be educated about diving and spinal injuries and the high correlation between alcohol and boating fatalities. If your fire district is home to many lakes and water recreation activities, approach local schools to incorporate water safety as part of the health or physical education curriculum. Babysitting. Discuss supervision and caretaking responsibilities. Make students aware that they are being paid to take on all responsibilities of the parents in their absence. Remind students to keep children in their sight at all times to prevent injuries and fire play. Ask students if they would know how to escape with children in the home where they babysit. Would they know the exact street address? Could they perform CPR, the Heimlich maneuver, or basic first aid? Encourage all babysitters to become certified in these areas. Partner with the local police department and hospital to provide classes covering important topics for this program. Be sure to include problem solving, brainstorming, small group discussions, and hands-on activities with each lesson. Sports, ATVs, skateboarding, snowboarding, in-line skating, skitching, and snowmobiling. Talk with students about sports and recreational injuries that were caused by risk taking or improper prevention practices. Speak about the importance of warming up, wearing protective gear, hydrating, proper spotting, and following posted safety rules. Appeal to their affective domain by discussing how it would feel to be sidelined for the season or disfigured and disabled for life. Some adolescent “sports” are actually thrill-seeking activities. Monitor local fads and trends in your area and address these unsafe behaviors in your education programs. Partner with the local YMCA, park district, public pools, or other youth clubs to develop messages and meaningful programs. Falls. Discuss areas frequented by teens when they participate in outdoor sports and games. Remind them to keep an eye out for broken glass, tripping hazards, debris, and unsafe equipment. These discussions can be incorporated with sports and recreational activity lessons. Flammable liquids and homemade bombs. Inquisitive adolescents have been known to create homemade bombs, experiment with flammable liquids and aerosols, and test the limits of fire. They do not fear the results of these actions because they do not fully understand the dire consequences and because they often act without thinking. Again, realistic pictures, testimonials, demonstrations, and age-appropriate critical thinking activities are necessary to drive home the messages. The science of fire using the fire triangle is a good way to teach the dangers of fire, especially when two sides of the triangle are combined, such as when the flammable gases under pressure are expelled from an aerosol and combine with oxygen in the presence of heat. Students who experiment with fire or other types of incendiary devices are clearly candidates for youth fire-setter intervention programs. Distracted driving. The increased use of smartphones by adolescents has created its own dangerous phenomenon. Motor vehicle injuries and deaths have risen exponentially in correlation with texting and driving. Messages aimed at preventing these tragedies should include information about the time and distance it takes to bring a vehicle to a complete stop under normal conditions based on the speed at which one is traveling. Combine this data with the average time a person’s eyes are off the road while texting. Students should be able to draw their own conclusions about their vulnerability in these situations. Vehicle and bus safety. As students progress from middle school to high school, the emphasis in prevention messages will shift from bus safety to driving safety. Most students this age will have been learning bus safety for many years, but reminders from the professionals are necessary. Fire and life safety educators and police are the authorities in delivering messages about the consequences of irresponsible driving. Just as engineering, enforcement, and education work together to protect our young drivers, so should schools and police, fire, and medical professionals work together to reinforce the message of safe and defensive driving FIGURE 7-14. FIGURE 7-13 Involve young adult students in the planning stages of programs for their peers. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 7-14 Fire, police, and school officials work together to present a realistic mock prom drinking and driving presentation. © Stephanie Zollshan/The Berkshire Eagle/AP Photo. Educator’s Tip Work with math teachers to integrate lessons for students to learn to calculate square footage and occupancy requirements. Ask that they discuss the importance of these requirements as a connection to the students’ decision making in social situations and the affective domain of learning. Work with language arts teachers to involve students in writing persuasive papers on the importance of adhering to occupancy codes versus financial gain. This topic could be used for a mock trial in a social science class. Reaction Messages for Adolescents First aid. Middle school and high school students are capable of acting as first responders for medical emergencies until adult assistance arrives. The relevance of this information to their everyday lives makes it an interesting topic for students. Design first aid scenarios the students would most likely be involved in or witness in their lives. Provide hands-on activities, including demonstrations, questioning techniques, and group discussions for more effective lessons. Some scouting merit badges require first aid skills. Obtain a copy of the badge requirements as a guideline for presentations or station tours for these groups. Requirements can be found online at the scouting websites. Severe weather and natural disasters. Focusing again on the students’ increasing levels of independence, incorporate discussions about what students think they should do in situations when no adult help is available. How will they assist their younger siblings? Do they know where to go and the numbers of family contacts? Do they have emergency and family contact numbers programmed into their cell phones? Create an assignment for them to program emergency numbers into their phones. If cell phones do not work in these circumstances, what will they do and where will they go? Fire escape and fire extinguishers. Middle school students are capable of using fire extinguishers. Instill a sense of responsibility and a respect for the unpredictable nature of fire when teaching the use of fire extinguishers. Incorporate this training with scenarios for escaping from fire and critical thinking activities for alternative actions if a fire escalates. Find out your department’s age group recommendations for using fire extinguishers before presenting this skill to adolescents. Pull to the right for sirens and lights. Begin teaching this reaction message even before students begin driving. Encourage them to take the message home to their parents as well. Hearing this message from local fire and police creates a greater understanding of the reasons behind this rule. If possible, take video footage from behind the wheel of an emergency vehicle depicting what happens when a vehicle stops, pulls out, or slows down in front of a responding unit. Taking footage in your own community helps students make a connection between their driving habits and the impact it has on local emergencies and first responders. Have students sign a nonbinding contract with your department as a visual reminder of their commitment to your safety and that of community members. Sticky situations. Present “sticky situations” with all of the above reaction messages that could feasibly become reality. Use questioning techniques to generate discussion. These discussions will help educators understand which messages need further clarification. Preparedness Messages for Adolescents Home emergency and first aid kits. Students can help prepare home emergency and first aid kits. Information about this can be included with first aid lessons. Building home emergency kits is a good community service and scout project. Work with local organizations to promote this activity (see Appendix B for a first aid kit supply list). Babysitting kits. Encourage students of babysitting age to prepare their own emergency kits to bring with them to babysitting assignments. They can help develop a list of items necessary for their individual use. With your guidance, they can create a list of important phone numbers and a checklist to keep in the kit. Classes in CPR, first aid, and babysitting. Promote CPR, first aid, and babysitting classes for adolescents. See if these classes can be integrated with current school programs by researching the local school district’s curriculum. Partner with the police department and hospital to host classes at the local fire station or community center. Work through other community programs to “piggyback” on existing efforts. Driving (emergency kit for the car). Develop a list of items the fire and police departments believe to be essential for a motorist involved in a vehicle emergency. Distribute this list to local driver’s education programs and high schools. Parents often turn car keys over to their new drivers with little thought for providing such supplies and information. Residential sprinklers. Adolescents are not too young to be introduced to residential sprinkler technology. These are homeowners of the future and can begin to understand the importance of providing safe environments for their families. Provide a timeline for a typical residential fire and have students estimate when the fire department would arrive, how long it takes to get water on the fire, and the amount and type of damage that occurs up to that point. Present the same fire scenario and show when residential sprinklers would activate. Compare and contrast the results FIGURE 7-15. Older students can perform a cost-benefit analysis of building a home with or without sprinklers and the costs incurred from a typical residential fire. Use incentives to generate their participation, such as publication of their work in the local paper, a day as a ride-along, or an award at a local event. Sponsor a contest to write an article for the local paper or to create a video for the local cable television station promoting the use of residential sprinklers. The Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition (www.homefiresprinkler.org) is an excellent resource for information on this topic. FIGURE 7-15 Visual timelines representing the growth of a fire, realistic time for escape, and the spread of fire are useful tools for students to estimate and understand their ability to escape from fire. Courtesy of Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition. www.HomeFireSprinkler.org. Educator’s Tip Set up a realistic, age-appropriate, emergency situation titled “Walk with Me,” and have the students mentally walk through as you narrate. Develop “road blocks” throughout the scenario that will force students to stop, think more critically, and engage in problem solving about the appropriate steps to take at that juncture before they can move on to the next step. Secondary Audiences for Adolescents At this age, secondary audiences include parents, teachers, peers, school administrators, counselors, scout or school club leaders, church group advisors, employers, coaches, and friends. Can you think of others in your community? Teachers, counselors, and school administrators. This adult community knows their adolescent audience, but they do not know what safety educators know about fire and injury prevention. It is our job to open their eyes to the statistics for adolescent unintentional injuries, how they can be instrumental in getting the prevention message to students, and why we need to partner with them for the safety of their students. It is also our responsibility to find out how we can do so without placing a burden on their already limited time and crowded curriculum. Offer training for the teachers, school board, and administrators in your community at a time convenient for their schedules. Support your presentation with visuals and demonstrations. Follow with group discussions about how this community of adults can help your education efforts and how your programs and personnel can help with theirs. Through the use of statistics and demographic studies, demonstrate that their students and families at high risk for educational success are often the same students who are at high risk for fire-setting activities and for injuries and fire. Parents. Many school districts see a decrease in parent involvement as children get older. Therefore, it may be more difficult to reach these parents. Think about where you can access the parents of adolescents in your area. They may be attending their children’s sporting events or accompanying them on shopping trips. Are there church groups or other organizations that attract this secondary audience population? Partner with managers and leaders of those venues to co-present or sponsor the safety messages for adolescents. Coaches, scout leaders, and church group sponsors. Approach these influential leaders and discuss how you can work together to educate the young people they mentor. It may be necessary to educate this audience about your concerns in the same ways suggested for school personnel. Messages for Adults The greatest responsibility for fire and injury prevention lies with adults, yet they are often the hardest to reach. From the young parents of infants to business owners, school administrators, and apartment managers, this age group holds the real key to providing safe environments for their families and constituents. The responsibility for safety rests squarely on their shoulders. Fire service personnel understand how quickly fire grows and the necessary precautions to be taken to avoid fires and injuries. We must step back and understand that not all adults have this same background in fire science. As the number of fires decreases across the nation, so might the fear of and respect for fire’s devastating effects. We must continue to bring awareness to the adult population about the realities of fire and injuries and the steps they should take to prevent and prepare for tragedies. Prevention Messages for Adults The science and realities of fires and burns. Prevention messages and programs will have more impact if you first present information about the realities of how quickly fire grows, the temperatures it reaches; the smoke and toxic conditions it produces, and its devastating long-term financial, emotional, and physical effects. Create an awareness and appreciation for the place prevention plays in fighting fires before they begin. Citizens’ fire academies, open house demonstrations, community outreach efforts after a fire, and presentations scheduled for adult audiences are effective ways to educate the adult population. You may need to deliver your messages through the workplace, at public library evening programs, on grocery bags, during intermissions at the movie theater, or in a physician’s waiting room. Create an awareness of the effects alcohol use has on fire and injury incidence. Ben Evarts’ 2011 report to the NFPA states that alcohol was identified as a contributing factor in 12 percent of fire deaths. Alcohol use by caregivers contributes to the fire deaths of young children and others dependent on them. Statistics from the U.S. Coast Guard report, 2014 Recreational Boating Statistics, clearly identify alcohol as the leading primary contributing factor of deaths in recreational boating. Determine local fire and unintentional injury problems. Review department and local hospital Emergency Department statistics. Compare these numbers with national figures, which can be found through many online sources such as the websites of the CDC. Consider local demographics and any activities or circumstances unique to your area. For example, you may work in an area at high risk for wildland fires, flooding, tornados, hurricanes, earthquakes, drowning and boating incidents, or other regionspecific hazards. Present this information to your community to elevate an awareness of these issues and the need for taking preventive measures. Local stories, pictures, and statistics always create more powerful, relevant, and realistic messages. Unattended cooking. Cooking is the primary cause of residential fires, and unattended cooking is the leading cause of kitchen fires.3 Teach the importance of staying in the kitchen while cooking anything on the stovetop, keeping a “safe zone” at least 3 ft (1 m) in front of the stove to avoid burn injuries for children, cooking with pot handles turned in, and preventing hot grease fires. Remind adults that steam is hotter than boiling water. Smoking. With fires caused by smoking materials ranking as the leading cause of fire-related deaths,4 we need to continue teaching the adult audience about the importance of using large, deep ashtrays; not smoking in bed; dowsing cigarettes and matches in water; and disposing of cigarettes and matches in noncombustible containers. Inform adults about fire-safe cigarettes. Find out if your state has passed legislation mandating their use. Candles. In recent years, the fire service has seen a marked increase in the number of fires caused by candles because of a resurgence of their popularity. Candles should be placed in sturdy candle holders, on stable surfaces, and away from curtains and other combustible materials. They should never be left unattended. Before leaving the house or going to bed, check that all candles have been extinguished. Suggest that adults perform a “safety sweep” before retiring for the night. The sweep should include locking all doors and windows, turning off lights, and checking the stove, candles, and all ashtrays. Encourage the use of flameless candles. Technology and safety devices. Educate yourself about new technology which, if properly installed, can help prevent fires or the spread of fires. Consumers can now purchase items such as attractive flameless candles, stovetop burn prevention devices, antiscald devices for faucets, child-safety locks, GFCIs, AFCIs, and nonslip rugs and stools. In some areas of the country, state or local legislation has stepped in to ensure safe practices by mandating childproof lighters, smoke alarms, CO alarms, fire-safe cigarettes, and residential sprinklers. Find out what is mandated in your jurisdiction. Sports injuries and home repair projects. Among preventable adult injuries are sports and recreational injuries. Home projects that require the use of power tools, snow blowers, lawnmowers, ladders, and propane torches also contribute to a good share of the adult injury picture. Seek opportunities to remind adults to warm-up before participating in sports and to participate in strength training and flexibility exercises on a regular basis, to wear safety glasses when working with tools, and to read all instructions and warnings for appliances and tools before attempting home projects. Join forces with local gyms, health clubs, home stores, and hardware stores to promote these messages. EMS Week takes place during May of each year. Work with the local hospital and healthcare providers during this campaign to deliver your messages. Host an EMS open house and include adult injury prevention messages with other EMS topics. Room by room, inside and out. Adults can help prevent injuries for family members by performing a room-by-room, inside-andoutside inspection of their homes. Many checklists are available online through safety organizations. Provide a checklist for your community featuring your fire department logo and a department phone number for follow-up questions, and arrange for a home inspection provided by department members. Vision 20/20 provides excellent information and forms for home safety surveys which are easily downloadable at www.strategicfire.org. Encourage parents of very young children to perform a home inspection on their hands and knees to observe their home through the eyes of a child. Doing so will help them gain a better perspective of things children find tempting to climb on, put in their mouths, or use to otherwise hurt themselves. Work with the local hospital to distribute these checklists to new parents as they leave the hospital for the first time with their babies. Teach children, employees, and tenants what to do to prevent fires and injuries. Adults are in positions as parents, employers, supervisors, landlords, and managers to help others prevent fires and injuries. Provide them with the knowledge and resources to teach others in their charge. Talk to parents about prevention messages they should teach their children, such as telling an adult if they find matches and lighters, how to cross the street, and what the expectations are for safe cycling and the use of appliances around the home. The department can conduct in-service workshops, training sessions, or evacuation drills for the workplace. Purchase, download, or create your own prevention handout templates, which can be copied and inserted in employee newsletters and introductory informational packets for new residents or employees. Invite influential community adults to department events and demonstrations with a message for passing the information along to others. Scald burns. Scald prevention tips include an emphasis on bathroom and kitchen safety. Test bath water before putting a young child in the bath, set the home hot water heater to a temperature no higher than 120°F (49°C), and supervise young children at all times while they are taking a bath. Make an effort to get this information to parents of young children and those who care for older adults. These populations are at high risk for serious scald burns because their skin is thin and they are less able to react quickly and appropriately. Heating and electrical equipment. Many resources are available with helpful information about heating and electrical safety. Helpful and reproducible electrical safety checklists are available from Underwriters Laboratories at www.ul.com, the NFPA at www.nfpa.org, and the Electrical Safety Foundation International at www.esfi.org. Tailor this information to the needs of your community. Universal messages include keeping a 3-ft (1 m) minimum radius around electric space heaters, hot water heaters, and other heat-producing appliances; using alternatives to overloaded extension cords such as power strips; checking appliances for an independent testing laboratory stamp before purchase FIGURE 7-16; installing GFCIs in home outlets; and maintaining home heating systems through routine inspections and cleaning. Outdoor safety. Outdoor safety prevention messages include information about safe camping and safe use of propane and charcoal grills, turkey fryers, outdoor fireplaces, and flammable liquids and aerosol cans. Emphasize the need to be cognizant of weather conditions, nearby vegetation, debris, and proximity to other structures when cooking or building outdoor fires. Fire prevention messages in areas vulnerable to wildfires should include landscaping tips for protection from spreading fires. The Wildland Fire Management Section of the NFPA provides important information on this regionally significant fire concern. Visit www.firewise.org for wildfire landscaping and construction checklists. Fireworks. Fireworks are illegal in some states and cities. Investigate and publicize the laws for your state and community and work with the local police department to monitor the illegal use of fireworks in your area, especially during holidays. In regions where fireworks are legal and using them is a common practice by the general public, local departments may be limited to publicizing the dangers of fireworks along with providing information to prevent injury. Encourage residents to attend professional fireworks displays as a better alternative. Stories and videos depicting the serious nature of fireworks can be shown on local television stations during peak seasons. Poisons. Poisonous substances can be found in most homes, from household products and plants to insecticides and pesticides. Because many of these products will continue to show up in homes and businesses across the country, prevention efforts are best served by emphasizing their proper use, storage, and labeling. Parents with small children need to be particularly vigilant in their work to poison-proof their environment. Handguns. Remind adults who own handguns to keep them unloaded, locked, and out of the reach of children. Even parents who do not own guns need to teach their children how to react if they visit a home where guns are kept. Partner with local law enforcement agencies to ensure that a consistent and repetitive message is being delivered by both agencies. Falls. Unintentional injuries caused by falls are common to all age groups. Adults can prevent many injuries if they understand the importance of practicing precautionary acts when performing household chores. Injury prevention lessons and publications should incorporate messages about well-lit stairwells, sturdy handrails, nonslip bathmats and rugs, bathroom grab bars, and wiping up spills immediately. Emphasize the fact that these practices are not only for older adults. It is far better to use these safety habits and devices on a daily basis throughout life rather than as aids for a disability after experiencing an injury. Boating and recreational vehicles. Almost one-third of boating deaths or injuries are attributable to alcohol use, and the highest risk group for boating fatalities is adults ages 20 to 59 years old.5 It is more difficult to train and regulate boaters’ driving behaviors than automobile drivers’ because no license is required to operate boats. Communities with heavy boat traffic need to monitor lake activity and work with law enforcement officers who patrol the waters. Education efforts can be directed to boat owners through park district programs, libraries, mailings, and agencies that rent recreational watercraft. Suicide. Men of working age, 20 to 55, are at greatest risk for suicide. Veterans, fire fighters, nurses, police officers, and other partners face a high risk, too. The Carson J. Spencer Foundation (www.carsonjspencer.org) is one such organization providing messages and resources to reduce the risk of suicides. Educator’s Tip When using pictures of local people or places for public presentations and publications, be sure to obtain their written permission before using their images publicly. Educator’s Tip Creating local information brochures and other handouts is advantageous because these materials can be customized with local statistics and pictures of local venues with an emphasis on the most important messages for your community. FIGURE 7-16 Educate the public about the importance of checking products for the label of an independent testing laboratory before purchase. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Reaction Messages Escaping from fire. Adults need messages reinforcing the same concepts safety educators teach children about escaping from fire. Get low and go, feel the door, leave immediately, call 911 from outside the structure, leave pets and other items behind, close all doors on the way out of the building, and meet at the family meeting place are still important messages that bear repeating for all age groups. Remember the closest safe exit may not be the same door you use on a daily basis. “Get out and stay out” needs to be reinforced. Stories of adults who reentered a burning building to save a family member or personal items are all too prevalent. Close the door! Fire fighters know that many of the fires they responded to in their careers could have ended with better outcomes if residents had only closed the doors as they left the structure. Remind the public that a closed door will keep out dangerous smoke, heat and flames for a substantial amount of time until the fire department arrives. This will help save not only property, but possibly the lives of pets and family members who may be trapped in a room. Stop, drop, and roll. This practice is not only for children. Remind adults that this is a valid message and is an appropriate action for everyone to take if their clothes catch fire. Fighting fires. Discuss the correct reaction to a variety of fire situations. Teach adults how to use fire extinguishers for small fires, slide a lid over the top of a frying pan fire, keep the oven or microwave door closed for oven or microwave oven fires, and unplug small appliances before extinguishing an electrical fire. Just as important as teaching adults the right way to extinguish small home fires is teaching them what not to use on specific types of fires FIGURE 7-17. Performing CPR, the Heimlich maneuver, and basic first aid. Some adults give little thought to what they would do for a victim between the time they call 911 and the time the first responders arrive. Discuss the average local response time in your community and explain that whatever assistance adults are able to render in those first precious minutes could be critical to the survival of a victim. Reacting appropriately by performing CPR, the Heimlich maneuver, or other basic first aid measures could save the life of a loved one. If your department is not able to offer classes for these skills, take the time to develop a list of local classes for distribution to your community. In the absence of any available local classes, prepare a handout with basic first aid procedures for distribution to adult audiences. Kids misusing fire. Educate the community about the seriousness of children misusing fire. Statistics tell us that more than 7000 home structure fires per year are caused by fire-setting, causing annual averages of more than $170 million in property damage and hundreds of civilian injuries and deaths. Children are most often the victims of these fires. Inform the public that although many children show an interest or curiosity about fire between the ages of three and five years of age, child fire-setting is not normal, it is not “something all kids go through,” and it should be addressed, especially if it happens more than once. Adults should be concerned about this behavior and seek help from the professionals. Publicize Youth Firesetting Intervention programs and provide information about where to go and who to call, along with a clear message that all aspects of these programs are confidential. Calling 911. One of the easiest and most effective ways to react to an emergency is to call 911. If we promote the use of 911, then it is our responsibility to be aware of any changes that may affect the use of this system. Inform adults that, depending on their location, a call may not go directly to the local dispatcher. It may first go to the nearest cell tower and then to a public safety answering point (PSAP). Emphasize that it is critical for callers to know as much information as possible about their location because the PSAP may not be located in their area. Remind travelers to be aware of mile markers along the highway or other landmarks that will help identify their location more quickly. FIGURE 7-17 Teach adults how to use fire extinguishers for small fires only. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip When teaching adults how to extinguish various types of fires, remind them to activate the 911 system first and to leave the area immediately if the fire becomes too large for them to fight. Preparedness Messages Home safety checklist. Prepare a safe home by following a home safety checklist and attending to any noted deficiencies. Smoke alarms. The debate continues over ionization versus photoelectric smoke alarms for the home. The important message is that all homes need smoke alarms on every level of the home and in every sleeping area, they should be interconnected, and they should have 10-year batteries. Homes should have both photoelectric and ionization smoke alarms. Some of the newer interconnected smoke alarms are wireless and can be installed by the homeowner. Codes now require smoke alarms to be installed in every bedroom, and all smoke alarms should be tested monthly. Recommendations for placement and cleaning are provided in Appendix B. CO alarms. Compared with home smoke alarms, CO alarms are the new kids on the block. It is important to address the importance of these devices along with their messages about smoke alarms. Stress the fact that CO is colorless, odorless, and invisible, often referred to as the “silent killer.” Teach adults that headaches, nausea, and dizziness are the physical symptoms of CO poisoning that are experienced before a person loses consciousness. Individuals with cardiac and respiratory diseases are more seriously affected by this deadly gas. As with smoke alarms, CO alarms should be tested by a recognized independent laboratory, installed near all sleeping areas, and tested monthly. Teach adults to recognize the difference between the sound of a smoke alarm and a CO alarm. It is especially important to promote CO alarms during the winter months for homes in colder climates where families winterize their homes, providing little outdoor air exchange. Residential sprinklers. Whether residential sprinklers are mandated in your community, information about these property and lifesaving devices should be included in any comprehensive education program. The general public may have many questions and misconceptions about their installation, cost, maintenance, appearance, liabilities, and effectiveness. You can be an asset to the promotion of residential sprinklers for your community by familiarizing yourself with the facts and getting the word out to the community. Be aware that in some communities, the subject of residential sprinklers can be a politically sensitive issue. Communicate with the fire chief and local officials to make sure your message and format for delivery meet with their approval. People with disabilities. Arrangements for family members with disabilities should be in place and practiced before any emergency presents itself. Fire departments can be a valuable resource and comfort for families and businesses working to create emergency plans for these individuals. In these messages, include information about available technology, escape planning, and available community services for populations with disabilities. Family emergency planning. Home fire escape plans should include two ways out of every room in the home and a family meeting place and should be practiced twice a year by all family members. A complete emergency plan should also include preparations and practice for the family during severe weather patterns common to the area. Identify two meeting places—one near the home but a safe distance away and another at the home of a friend or relative in another part of town. Include a communication plan so each member of the family knows the designated contact person. This should be someone out of town who will not likely be affected by the local emergency conditions. All family members need to keep a list of important phone numbers they can call if they are separated from others in the family. Adults may inquire about “tot finder” stickers or other window decals identifying children’s rooms for fire fighters. In general, the fire service does not encourage the use of these stickers as a way to identify children’s bedrooms. If the family has moved or if the children happen to be in another room of the house, the sticker is useless. This practice can put fire fighters’ lives in danger as they search for a youngster who is not in the designated room. There are also concerns about advertising to strangers where children are in the house. Disaster preparedness and first aid kits. Although children will be learning the value of creating a home emergency kit, it is again the adults’ responsibility to initiate the project, purchase items, and see to its completion. Discuss the importance of building emergency kits for the car as well as the home. All kits should be inspected and updated several times a year to ensure that food products and medication have not expired, clothing fits, and emergency numbers are current FIGURE 7-18. Electrical safety. Provide information for adults regarding GFCIs and AFCIs and their monthly testing; information about purchasing only appliances that have the label of recognized testing laboratory marks such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Factory Mutual (FM), or the Canadian Standards Association (CSA); advice on having extra fuses with the correct amp rating for the circuit they protect on hand; and tips for the proper use of outdoor versus indoor electrical products. Outdoor safety. Messages for adults will include safe outdoor grilling practices; local codes regarding outdoor burning and outdoor fireplaces; camping safety; safety arrangements for backyard pools and playgrounds; and considerations for local precautions such as farm safety, railroad crossings, and frozen ponds and lakes. Reminders to keep tools, machines, and recreational vehicles in safe working condition will help prevent injuries. Those in areas subject to wildland fires near forests and in the mountains and rural areas need to emphasize creating a safety zone, an area that separates the home from combustible plants and vegetation and helps prevent direct and indirect sources of fire from threatening a home or property. Using the zone concept helps reduce available fuel close to the home. Homeowners should begin by landscaping a well-irrigated 30-ft (9 m) buffer zone around all sides of the home. The national multi-agency Firewise Communities program provides importance checklists and information to help adults prepare for these devastating fires. FIGURE 7-18 Prepare a home emergency kit and inspect and update it periodically. © Pixsooz/iStock/Getty. Educator’s Tip An excellent source of information for preparing a community for all types of hazards is Are You Ready? An In-Depth Guide to Citizen Preparedness, FEMA and Citizencorps. This resource is available at no cost through FEMA at www.ready.gov. Secondary Audiences Secondary audiences for adults are situation specific. Transient populations such as those visiting hotels, nightclubs, movie theaters, and shopping malls are difficult to reach; therefore, they are the secondary audiences for messages to hotel and restaurant staff; employees of retail, service, and business occupancies; and industrial management teams. Students are a secondary audience for administrators, teachers, coaches, and parents learning about school safety procedures; older adults are a secondary audience for adults who have caregiver responsibilities. Plan and prepare messages, presentations, materials, resources, and suggestions appropriate for the secondary audience that can be delivered to them by the primary adult audience. Older Adults Along with preschoolers, adults older than the age of 65 years are at highest risk for death from fires. Along with preschoolers, adults older than 70 are one of the two highest risk groups for injury from falls. Falls are the number one unintentional cause of death for this age group. Many fire departments have successfully made their way into group homes and senior communities with group presentations covering fire safety and falls prevention. Current demographic trends suggest that older adults are staying in their homes longer. The resulting social and physical isolation creates a difficult situation for safety educators attempting to reach this population with safety messages. It may take extra time, effort, and innovation, but reaching this age group should be a priority. On average, more than 1200 Americans older than 65 years die each year as a result of fire. Adults between 65 and 75 years of age have twice the national fire death rate of the national average, those between 75 and 85 years of age have more than three times the national average, and those older than 85 years have almost five times this rate. Each year, unintentional injuries kill approximately 30,000 older Americans. Careless smoking continues to be the leading cause of fire death for this age group and ranks second as a leading cause of fire injuries. Cooking is the third leading cause of fire deaths and the leading cause of fire-related injuries.6 According to the American Burn Association, scalds and electrical and chemical burns also result in serious injuries to older adults. Prevention Messages Falls. Fall prevention messages for older adults include information about nonslip area rugs, nonslip bathmats or adhesive sticky spots for the bottom of the tub, grab bars in bathrooms, nightlights at the top and bottom of stairwells, wearing sturdy shoes rather than bedroom slippers or slip-on shoes, avoiding clutter that could cause tripping, cleaning up grease spills immediately, and keeping walkers, canes, and shoes near the bed. Older adults should be reminded to have their vision tested regularly, discuss medicine interactions with their physicians, and remain as active as possible to maintain strength and balance. Some departments partner with local hospitals, visiting nursing associations, or other older adult organizations to perform in-home safety surveys. These surveys could include security information from the police department FIGURE 7-19. Cooking. Teach older adults to wear tight-fitting or short sleeves when cooking. Loose-fitting sleeves can easily catch fire. Remind them to turn off the burner if they need to leave the kitchen for even a short period of time. Food left burning on the stove is a common cause of fires for older adults. Explain that older adults’ skin is thinner than that of younger populations, so it takes less time and less heat for a serious burn to occur. Encourage them to use grease splatter screens when frying with grease or oil to avoid serious burns FIGURE 7-20. Smoking. Because careless smoking is the leading cause of fire deaths for older adults, this topic should be emphasized in all programs for seniors. Discuss the importance of using deep ashtrays and the dangers of smoking in bed and in comfortable, overstuffed chairs. Emphasize the increased potential for fire and the inability to escape if they are smoking while taking medications or drinking alcohol. Warn against smoking in the presence of oxygen. Ask your audience to consider the serious implications of these behaviors if they were babysitting for a grandchild or unable to move quickly enough to escape from their homes. Introduce fire-safe cigarettes and the technology behind them. Home design and home safety. Develop a home checklist specifically for seniors in your community that is based on local statistics and provide a list of local agencies and business that can provide assistance for repairs and installations. It may be possible to partner with some of these businesses to provide their services at a discount to the older population. Areas of concern for fire and falls prevention include the proper use of electrical appliances, extension cords, and the installation of GFCIs; keeping a safe distance between combustibles and heat sources; maintaining smoke alarms and CO alarms; engaging in proper housekeeping to keep exits and stairwells clear; checking the settings on hot water heaters to prevent burns; and ensuring that railings, stairs, and stepladders are secure. You may find that many older adults are “pack rats.” Explain an orderly living environment with minimal storage contributes to a reduced fire load, helps to maintain exits, and makes the fire fighters’ job less dangerous if they need to respond. Medication safety. Older adults may take several different medications. It is easy to get the dosages confused and difficult to keep track of the medication schedule. Some older adults report cutting their prescriptions in half to save money, or they might begin to skip their medication when they begin to feel better. Teach older adults about the dangers of these unhealthy practices and explain the potential for more serious problems. Suggest simple ideas that will make it easier to differentiate among many medications, such as marking the top of each container with a different color marker or sticker and creating an easy-to-read chart with a schedule for their daily medications. Prepare an easy-to-read handout with important points about medication safety that can be left with frequent users of the local EMS system. Know your limitations. Although educators must be sensitive to older adults’ need to retain independence, it is still essential for this population to realize their limitations. Functioning with realistic expectations and asking for assistance when it is the wise thing to do will save injuries and more serious restrictions and disabilities in the future. Family members, neighbors, and the buddy system. As older adults stay in their homes longer and begin to close themselves off from outside visitors and activities, they become more isolated from people who could assess their well-being. Encourage older adults to establish a network of family members, neighbors, and friends they contact or who check on their well-being with some regularity. If they do not have family or close neighbors in the area, they can reach out to each other for a daily well-being check on the telephone. FIGURE 7-19 Local police departments can join the fire department to perform in-home safety surveys. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 7-20 Teach older adults the importance of safe cooking habits, such as wearing tight-fitting or short sleeves when cooking. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Reaction Messages Leave or stay? Older adults need to hear a clear message from professionals about when to leave their homes in an emergency and when they should stay. Keep the message simple and easy to remember when differentiating between the importance of leaving home behind for fires, floods, and other natural disasters and staying as safely as possible for a tornado. Stop, drop, and roll. The “stop, drop, and roll” message may need to be modified for older adults. Many may be able to perform the procedure just as well as all other age groups, but for others, physical conditions can make this difficult. For those who cannot perform the stop, drop, and roll technique, teach the use of a blanket or towel to smother, not fan, the flames on their clothes. Cool a burn and other first aid. Myths still exist for some older adults regarding the proper treatment for burns. Teach them to cool a burn with tap water for 10 to 15 minutes. Present a first aid class for seniors. Invite older adults to the fire station, where they learn basic first aid techniques they can perform. This will give them more confidence to handle simple situations. After discussing basic procedures, group the participants with partners or in small groups. Give each group a written scenario that would be likely to happen to someone their age. Ask them to discuss the proper actions to be taken, what supplies they would need, and whether they think they would need to call 911 for assistance. After they have worked through their scenarios, ask one member of each group to report to the entire group. Critique their solutions and offer suggestions. This will give you a chance to see if they understood your message. You can even provide a small sample first aid kit for each group to use and see if they would know which items to use for specific scenarios. Call 911. Provide information about calling 911 from cell phones. Remind older adults to wait for the dial tone, remain on the line until the dispatcher tells them to hang up, and to give their location immediately. Some areas offer cell phones for seniors that are programmed only for 911 calls. Offer information for assistive devices that older adults can use if they have hearing impairments. Preparedness Messages Planning and practice. This is at least as important for older adults as it is for all other age groups. Because of diminished sensory acuity, the chance for confusion in an emergency is increased for this population. Help them develop fire escape and disaster plans and encourage them to practice the plans frequently so escape becomes automatic. Demonstrate how you would draw a plan and emphasize information about leaving pets and valuables behind and calling 911 from outside the home. File or vial of life. When older adults understand the value of having medical information readily available for first responders in an emergency, they will be more likely to be diligent in filling out the forms and making them accessible for the fire department and the police. Provide specific information about keeping forms updated and accurate for most beneficial results. Incorporate the “why and how” of using the “file of life” with any method of distribution. Older adults will want to know how it is going to benefit them if they are expected to put effort into regularly updating the information. Testing smoke alarms. As with all populations, older adults need to understand the importance of ensuring their smoke alarms are in good working condition. Because they are at higher risk of dying in a fire, this message is of primary importance. Testing smoke alarms can be a challenge for seniors. In an effort to prevent falls, encourage them to ask a family member or neighbor to test their alarms. If this is not practical, they can use a broom handle, but they should always be discouraged from climbing up on chairs and ladders. Many older adults have hearing loss. Promote the use of smoke alarms designed specifically for hearing impaired individuals and provide information about where these devices can be purchased. Handy numbers and neighbors. When discussing “file of life” or “vial of life,” include messages about other things older adults can do to facilitate their wellbeing in an emergency. Residential lock boxes provide a secure spot for a key with fire department access. Civic groups could provide these as a community service. Encourage them to keep 911 and poison control, neighbors, physicians, and other emergency contacts written in big, easy-to-read print near the telephone. Ask if their children have a copy of all their important contact numbers. There may come a time when family members need to call a physician from another location. If older adults live alone and have few family members to rely upon, offer information about emergency contact devices and services. Recommend the use of a medical alert service or belt-mounted cordless or cell phones in case of a fall. Discuss the importance of having large, well-lit house addresses so emergency personnel can find their residence quickly. Outline possible scenarios and ask what other options they can think of to ensure their well-being in the event of an emergency. Keepsakes and belongings. For some older adults who have downsized their homes, the few belongings they have chosen to keep are the only tangible memories of a long, meaningful life. It will be difficult for them to leave these things behind if they are forced to evacuate their homes. Discuss the value of purchasing portable security boxes or keeping the most precious and important items in a small container near an exit door FIGURE 7-21. Disaster planning. Understand that some older adults have survived two or three major wars, family crises, and untold hardships. Yet they have survived and are here today to tell us about these experiences. It can be difficult to sell disaster planning to these individuals. It remains the educator’s job to discuss the realities of disasters and the positive impact and peace of mind disaster planning brings to those who make preparations. Perhaps some older adults can add credibility to these presentations and informational formats by providing their own stories for incorporation into the program. Many older adults enjoy sharing their experiences. FIGURE 7-21 Security boxes help protect important papers and other valuable items in the event of a fire. Courtesy of James Werner Secondary Audiences Children, neighbors, physicians, friends, apartment, condominium and homeowners associations, churches, and visiting nurses are all secondary audiences helpful for getting safety information to seniors. Older adults who are truly concerned about their own safety will take the message to those who are in a position to help them create a safe environment. Voice of Experience In our area, we have an especially high level of fall injuries and fatalities among seniors. We looked at this population and learned that a lot of our older adults are isolated in rural areas. And so while going to senior centers with our messages of prevention was all well and good, we had a lot of adults who we weren’t reaching this way. The question was: Where to find them? One of the ideas I got by going to an NFPA conference was about reaching them through churches. Older members of a congregation have typically invested much of their lives in the church, both through time and monetary donations. At that conference, I also learned that having youth present to older people is an effective strategy. They tend to look on the youth as a way to build their church for the future, so they are usually interested in supporting youth activities. There was a church in the area that we had presented to in the past on several occasions. Over that time, we found them to be very focused on outreach and community activities. They also have a strong youth program. So I reached out to the pastor and parish nurse, who were receptive from the start. Along with a senior volunteer, I spent an evening training the youth. We went through the curriculum, but I shared several stories from my experiences on the fire ground to help them remember specific concepts, too. We also discussed some of the challenges of reaching out to older adults. The volunteer was particularly helpful in this regard, as she was in her 70s. The event was promoted within the church, through the bulletins and newsletter. And finally, the youth group made a presentation to a gathering of older adults. It was a success. The best part: We got a double bang, because we were also getting safety messages out to hard-to-reach high schoolers. —Lori Wirth, Community Education Officer, City of Madison Fire Department, WI Resources for Fire and Life Safety and Injury Prevention Programs Many agencies and organizations today provide statistics, age-appropriate lesson plans, and innovative teaching strategies for the previously described messages. Following is a list of resources and their contact information, which provide supporting information and background about the messages discussed in this chapter. After you have decided on the messages and age groups for your outreach efforts, investigate these resources for accurate and current information from respected professionals to support and enrich your lessons. This list is not meant to be all inclusive but rather is a list of reputable national organizations that will enable readers to further research the messages presented in this chapter. Take the age-appropriate messages you need and pull the “best of the best” from these resources to enhance a program that meets the needs of your community: American Academy of Pediatrics: http://www.healthychildren.org Dedicated to the health of all children, includes a safety and prevention section. American Burn Association (ABA): http://ameriburn.org Patient care education, research, and advocacy. American Red Cross: http://redcross.org Helping people prevent, prepare for, and respond to emergencies; first aid; CPR and automated external defibrillator (AED) classes; water safety and instruction. Burn Prevention Foundation: http://burnprevention.org Provides burn injury prevention education for those at greatest risk. Campus Firewatch: http://campus-firewatch.com A monthly electronic newsletter focusing on campus fire safety. Carson J. Spencer Foundation: http://www.carsonjspencer.org Works to prevent suicide using innovative methods to address root causes of suicide in schools, homes, and businesses. The foundation also assists those coping with the pain and grief resulting from the death by suicide of their family, friends, or co-workers. The Center for Campus Fire Safety: http://campusfiresafety.org Nonprofit organization devoted to reducing loss of life from fire at the nation’s college campuses. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): http://cdc.gov National organization that promotes health by preventing and controlling disease, injury, and disability; health and safety topics; national data and statistics regarding injury and disease. Children’s Safety Network: http://childrenssafetynetwork.org Resource center for child and adolescent injury and violence prevention. Citizen Corps: http://www.citizencorps.gov Provides opportunities for people across the country to participate in a range of measures to make their families, homes, and communities safer from threats of crime, terrorism, public health issues, and disasters of all kinds. Consumer Product Safety Commission: http://www.cpsc.gov Protects consumers and families from products that pose fire, electrical, chemical, or mechanical hazards or can injure children; includes information regarding what every public educator should know about smoke alarms. Electrical Safety Foundation International (ESFI): http://www.esfi.org Electrical safety information and education materials. Firewise Communities: http://firewise.org A multi-agency effort designed to reach beyond the fire service by involving homeowners, community leaders, planners, developers, and others in the effort to protect people, property, and natural resources from the risk of wildland fire before a fire starts. Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition: http://homefiresprinkler.org Home fire sprinkler protection educational materials and information. Juvenile Products Manufacturers Association (JPMA): http://jpma.org Promoting safe use and selection of baby products; guides parents and caregivers toward purchasing juvenile products that are built with safety in mind. National Association for Pupil Transportation: http://napt.org Bus safety information. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control (NCIPC): http://cdc.gov/injury A national program to reduce injury, death, and costs associated with injuries outside the workplace. National Education Center for Agriculture Safety: http://nsc.org/necas A division of the National Safety Council dedicated to preventing illness, injuries, and deaths among rural populations. National Emergency Number Association (NENA): http://nena.org 911 facts and education; information for professionals National Fire Protection Association (NFPA): http://www.nfpa.org Fire prevention and education data, educational materials and lesson plans for all ages, and research reports; national statistics; standards; information on fire-safe cigarettes, fireworks, and codes. National Highway Traffic Safety Association (NHTSA): http://www.nhtsa.gov Organization responsible for reducing deaths, injuries, and economic issues resulting from motor vehicle crashes. National Program for Playground Safety: http://www.uni.edu/playground Helping the public create safe and developmentally appropriate play environments for children; national resource for educational and research information about playground safety. National Rifle Association Headquarters: http://nrahq.org/safety/eddie Eddie Eagle program teaches preschool through third grade children steps to take if they find a gun. National Safe Boating Council (NSBC): http://safeboatingcouncil.org Information and education regarding safer recreational boating. National Volunteer Fire Council (NVFC): http://www.nvfc.org Information and resources specific to the nation’s volunteer fire and emergency services. Poison Prevention: http://poisonprevention.org Website established to provide public information about National Poison Prevention Week and prevention, and to promote safety from unintentional poisonings at home and in the community. SafeKids Worldwide: http://safekids.org International organization dedicated to preventing unintentional childhood injuries. Safe-T-Element™—Pioneering Tech.com: http://www.pioneeringtech.com Cooking system engineered to help prevent stovetop cooking fires before they start. Safesitter: http://safesitter.org National organization devoted to babysitting; teaches adolescents how to keep children safe while their parents are away. Shriners: http://www.shrinershq.org/Hospitals/Burn_Awareness Burn Awareness Week information and burn prevention information. Smokey Bear: http://www.smokeybear.com Official website of Smokey Bear, including information regarding wildfires. StoveTop FireStop: http://www.stovetopfirestop.com Automatic fire extinguisher that attaches magnetically under the vent hood over a stovetop. Underwriters Laboratories (UL): http://www.ul.com Nationally-recognized organization responsible for product testing and safety compliance. U.S. States Coast Guard (USCG): http://www.uscgboating.org One of the five armed forces of the United States and the only military organization within the Department of Homeland Security, safeguarding the nation’s maritime interests. U.S Fire Administration (USFA): http://www.usfa.dhs.gov Department of Homeland Security Federal Emergency Management Agency reducing loss of life from fire and related emergencies; provides programs, materials, data, and research regarding age-appropriate fire prevention and natural disaster programs. U.S. Forest Service: http://www.fs.fed.us An agency of the U.S. Department of Agriculture managing public lands in national forests and grasslands. Vision 20/20: http://www.strategicfire.org National strategies for fire loss prevention. Resources, research, and best practices. Youth Sports Safety Alliance: http://www.youthsportssafetyalliance.org National educational organization dedicated to reducing injuries that youth sustain in sports and fitness activities. Wrap-Up Smoke © Greg Henry/ShutterStock, Inc. Summary Points Many of the messages we begin teaching preschoolers are the same messages that spiral up through all age groups. The risks, strategies, depth of discussions, and levels of responsibility vary with each age group, but basic messages bear repeating with new emphasis for each age bracket. Some messages are very age specific and have the greatest effect if taught to the appropriate audience at the appropriate time in their lives. Today’s educators are fortunate to have many reliable statistics and affordable, expert references readily available. The messages in this chapter represent an overview of the most universal fire and injury prevention messages based on national statistics. They are most useful if used in conjunction with local fire and injury data. Key Terms Ampere Often shortened to amp, a unit of electric current or amount of electric charge per second. A measurement of the amount of electricity. Arc fault circuit interrupter (AFCI) A circuit breaker that shuts off electricity when it detects low, irregular currents indicating current leaking from the circuit, or an “arc fault.” Carbon monoxide (CO) A colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas produced from the partial combustion of carbon-containing compounds. Choking The mechanical obstruction of the flow of air from the environment into the lungs that prevents breathing. Combustible material A solid or liquid material that is capable of igniting and burning. Examples include wood and paper. Combustible liquids are those having a flash point at or above 100°F but below 200°F. Drowning Death resulting from suffocation within 24 hours after submersion in water or other liquid. Electrical conductor A medium through which electric current can flow freely. Most metals, water, and living things are examples of electrical conductors. Electrical insulator A medium through which electric current cannot flow freely. Glass, rubber, plastic, and wax are examples of electrical insulators. Fire-safe cigarette A cigarette with a reduced propensity to burn when left unattended. The technology cuts off the burning time before most cigarettes are able to ignite things such as furniture or bedding material. Flammable material A solid, liquid, or gas material capable of burning more easily than a combustible. Flammable liquids have a flash point below 100°F. Ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) A general-use device whose function is to interrupt the electric circuit to an electrical load if it is leaking outside the intended path and escaping to the ground. Hazard A situation that poses a level of threat to life, health, property, or the environment. Most hazards are dormant or potential, with only a theoretical risk of harm; however, when a hazard becomes “active,” it can create an emergency situation. Heimlich maneuver A procedure used for complete airway obstruction. It involves a rescuer standing behind a patient and using his or her hands to exert pressure on the bottom of the diaphragm. This compresses the lungs and exerts pressure on any object lodged in the trachea. Also known as abdominal thrusts. Personal floatation device (PFD) A life vest worn for safety in the water. Poison A substance that can cause damage, illness, or death to organisms, usually by chemical reaction or other activity. Preparedness message Information to teach the public what they can do to help their families practice, train, purchase, and organize plans and supplies for potential emergencies. Prevention message Information about safe practices that will help people avoid becoming victims of dangerous situations. Primary audience People addressed by and in the presence of a speaker. Public safety answering point (PSAP) A U.S. agency, typically county or city controlled, that is a physical location where emergency telephone calls are received and then routed to the proper emergency services. Reaction message Information teaching the correct respon-ses to emergency situations. Residential sprinkler A home fire sprinkler system operating off the household water main and using piping that is installed behind walls and ceilings in finished areas. Safety zone An area that separates the home from combustible plants and vegetation and helps prevent direct and indirect sources of fire from threatening a home or property. Secondary audience People benefitting from messages sent by a speaker or agency via the primary audience. Suffocation The stoppage of a sufficient supply of oxygen to the body arising from the inability to breathe normally. Toy-like lighter Also called novelty lighters, they look like toys or other gadgets and are not easily identifiable as lighters. Watt A measurement of the amount of work done by a certain amount of electrical current at a certain voltage. Review Questions 1. What are the differences among prevention, reaction, and preparedness messages? 2. List at least three prevention, three reaction, and three preparedness behaviors to be taught to preschoolers. For what injuries is this group at highest risk? 3. Who are secondary audiences for elementary school children, and what messages should be sent to these audiences? 4. What messages are unique to the adolescent audience? For what injury is this age group at highest risk? 5. Most fire departments target their programs for school-aged children. Why is it so important to reach the adult population with safety messages? Critical Thinking 1. You have been asked to give a presentation to a preschool class. Who is your secondary audience? How will you reach them? What messages will you provide for them? 2. A local pediatrician has come to the fire department for assistance. He would like to incorporate fire safety and injury prevention in his discussions with parents of 3- to 18-year-old students during school physical examinations. Provide the pediatrician with a list of 10 important questions and safety messages to discuss with parents. Where else can you direct him for information? 3. The local newspaper offers space for you to write a safety column once a month. Knowing this is a good way to reach the adult population in the community, develop a list of the 12 topics you will cover during the first year. Think About It and Make It Better The fire department currently has a fire and life safety program limited in scope and sequence. Once a year, two fire fighters address an assembly at local elementary schools. A progressive school superintendent would like to begin incorporating safety messages in the middle school health curriculum. He is aware of national programs but would like the local fire department to choose one of the programs and tailor it to include recent local incidents involving adolescents. The community has three railroad crossings, a new skate park, and snowmobile trails. You will be tasked with making a presentation to the school board about your proposed program. The superintendent would like this to include national and local injury data and your proposal for the messages to be taught at the middle school. The secondary audience will include parents, the park district, and middle school teachers. What steps will you take to ensure your presentation addresses the board’s needs? References 1. Ahrens, M. Characteristics of Home Fire Victims. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2014, p. vii. 2. Business Wire. Shriners Hospitals for Children Kicks Off Year-Long Campaign to Prevent Gasoline Burn Injuries. February 3–9, 2008. Available at http://www/shrinersshq.org/en/sitecore/content/Hospitals/News/KickOffCampaigntoPreventBurnInjuries.as sc_database=master. 3. Federal Emergency Management Agency. Behavioral Mitigation of Cooking Fires. Washington, DC: United States Fire Administration, 2007. 4. Ahrens, p. 26. 5. U.S. Coast Guard. 2006 Boating Statistics—Commandant Publication. Washington, DC: United States Coast Guard, July 2007. 6. Federal Emergency Management Agency. A Fire Safety Campaign for People 50-Plus. Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management Agency, 2004. Additional Resources Topical Fire Report Series. “Fire Risk to Older Adults in 2010.” Washington, DC: Federal Emergency Management Agency, August 2013, Volume 14, Issue 9. CHAPTER 8: Messages for Holidays, Special Circumstances, and Safety Campaigns Paper: © silver-john/ShutterStock, Inc.; Chapter Opener Photo: © Joseph Sohm/Shutterstock. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Identify seasonal fire and life safety messages and campaigns. NFPA 4.1.1, 4.4.1 (pp. 169–170) List important monthly campaigns that have relevance to your community. NFPA 4.4.1 (pp. 170–172) Conduct a program for school fire and emergency drills. NFPA 4.4.1, 4.4.2 (p. 174) Identify businesses and places of assembly in your community that need assistance with a fire safety plan. (pp. 174–175) Conduct a fire safety program for tenants of a high-rise building. NFPA 4.1.1 (pp. 172–173) Recognize successful national safety campaigns and use them for your community. NFPA 4.4.1 (pp. 176–177) Recognize and select additional safety messages based on risks and activities specific to your community. NFPA 4.2.4, 4.4.1 (pp. 172–177) Introduction Many fire prevention and safety messages are important to teach throughout the year and to all members of the community. Other messages are suitable for particular times of the year, unique to particular structures and facilities, or important for specific geographic areas. Holidays present their own set of risks and dangers attributable to ceremonies, celebrations, traditions, and decorations. High-rise buildings and schools challenge fire service educators with evacuation logistics and high-risk populations. Overcrowding in restaurants and places of assembly cater to a transient population, which may make it necessary for fire and life safety educators to redefine their target audiences. These are all situations that need to be considered and treated individually, aside from standard age group messages, to ensure that education efforts reach all venues and achieve the greatest results. Educators will benefit from national campaigns that have been developed by professional organizations and experts in their respective subjects. Research, marketing, and materials for these safety messages have been tested and improved through the years. An awareness of the history and purpose of the campaigns will help you understand the value of using these resources and promoting the appropriate campaigns for their communities. Holiday Messages and Campaigns Christmas, Chanukah, and Kwanzaa The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) reports that on average, 230 home structure fires began with Christmas trees each year between 2007 and 20111. Although these fires are not common, they are likely to be severe when they do happen. Electrical failures or malfunctions, holiday lights or other decorative lighting, and candles are common causes of fires during this season. Encourage residents to keep trees at least 3 ft (1 m) from sources of heat. If they purchase fresh trees, they should take them down as soon after the holidays as possible. They should buy lights and decorations with the label of a recognized testing laboratory and unplug lights before leaving home or going to sleep. All electrical safety precautions should be taken during this time of year with special attention to overloading circuits and the misuse of extension cords. A 2004 study by Stevens and Vajami, “Fall-Related Injuries During the Holiday Season,” reveals that an average of 5,800 victims of fall injuries related to holiday decorating were treated at hospital emergency departments2. Causes of injuries ranged from tripping over tree skirts to putting up outdoor decorations on rooftops. Include safety messages to prevent these injuries with other holiday information through social media, newsletters, PSAs, businesses, and other marketing efforts. Remind zealous decorators to use ladders to hang holiday lights and to be sure they are resting on level ground. Encourage them to make sure ladders reach at least 3 ft (1 m) above a roof’s edge when scaling a roof and to move the ladder to prevent overreaching. Hanukkah (Chanukah), also known as the Festival of Lights, is a floating Jewish holiday observed for eight nights, occurring from late November to late December. The festival is observed by the igniting of the eight lights on a special candelabrum— the menorah—one light on each night of the holiday. The lights can be candles or oil lamps. Because the reason for the lights is “illumination of the house without,” the menorah is set up at a prominent window or near the door leading outside so passers-by will see it and be reminded of the holiday’s miracle. Again, emphasize candle safety and prevention measures. Another holiday observed at this same time of year is Kwanzaa, a week-long festival from December 26 to January 1, that is celebrated primarily in the United States, honoring African American heritage. First celebrated in 1966, the seven days of the holiday feature activities such as a candle-lighting ritual with kinaras, the traditional candleholder symbolic of African American roots, drumming and musical selections, and pouring libations, culminating in a feast and gift giving. Emphasize candle safety awareness for families celebrating this holiday. Fourth of July The general public is quite unaware of the potential dangers of backyard fireworks. How often do we see a toddler running with a sparkler that was given to him by an adult, often one of his parents? The end of a sparkler reaches temperatures of 1800°F (982°C), yet they are unwittingly handed to children for their entertainment. The NFPA reports that in 2011, an estimated 17,800 fires were started by fireworks, resulting in an estimated 40 civilian injuries. Property damage directly related to fireworks totaled $32 million.3 In some states, all fireworks are illegal; others have banned all but sparklers and novelties. Some municipalities have outlawed any novelty that has to be lit. Other states continue to allowpromotion and sales of all types of pyrotechnics FIGURE 8-1. Investigate the laws in your state and municipality, then work to educate the public about the codes, enforcement, and physical dangers fireworks pose for their families, friends, and neighbors. Provide information about upcoming community fireworks displays and encourage people to attend and enjoy these displays conducted by licensed professionals. FIGURE 8-1 Fireworks are illegal in some states; others continue to allow promotion and sales of all types of pyrotechnics. Consumer fireworks are easily purchased at roadside stands and transported across state borders. © BigPileStock/Alamy. © Joseph Sohm/Shutterstock. During this time of the year, it is also appropriate to promote safe swimming and boating practices, playground safety, bicycle safety, and safe outdoor grilling and outdoor fireplace practices with your messages. Halloween We sometimes overlook the importance of getting the safety messages out to our communities about this popular kid-friendly holiday. Yet this one day poses so many potential hazards for children. Parents and caregivers need to be reminded to purchase fire-resistant costumes for their children, use flashlights as an alternative to candles wherever they have been used in the past, and keep decorations away from heat sources and paths of egress. Remind children to stop, drop, and roll if their clothing catches on fire. When we revisit injury statistics for children, we are reminded that motor vehicle accidents are the number one unintentional injury cause of death for children. Work with local law enforcement to reinforce both pedestrian and driver safety messages at this time of year. Halloween costumes should allow children a clear field of vision so they can see oncoming cars when crossing the street and to avoid tripping hazards. Some children collect their candy, unwrap it, and begin eating it en route to the next home. Talk to children about the choking dangers associated with running with food in their mouths. Parents should also check the candy their children have collected to remove anything that is unwrapped or with potential choking hazards. Monthly Safety Observances Monthly safety observances are designed to direct public attention to topics of universal concern. Associations and agencies pool resources to unify messages and advance the public’s awareness of safety topics, statistics, current research, prevention measures, and precautions to be taken. Educators can capitalize on these awareness campaigns by using the resources provided by the professionals and creating local proclamations, press releases, and programs to reinforce the messages. TABLE 8-1 is a calendar of monthly observances. It does not cover all monthly observances, but will direct you to reputable resources for promoting some of the most relevant safety campaigns. TABLE 8-1 Monthly Safety Campaigns Month Campaign Resource February National Burn Burn Prevention Foundation: Awareness Week www.burnprevention.org National Child American Burn Association: www.ameriburn.org Passenger Safety Shriners Hospitals for Children: Week www.burnawarenessweek.org Safe Kids Worldwide National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: www.nhtsa.gov Safe Kids Worldwide: www.safekids.org March National Poison Poison Prevention Week Council: Prevention Week (third www.poisonprevention.org week of March) Consumer Product Safety Commission: National Brain Injury www.cpsc.gov Awareness Month Brain Injury Association of America: www.biausa.org April National 9-1-1 National Emergency Number Association: Education Month www.nena.org National Youth Sports Safe Kids Worldwide:www.safekids.org Safety Month National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Alcohol Awareness Dependence, Inc.:www.ncadd.org Month Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Dig Safely Month Administration: www.phmsa.dot.go National Playground National Program for Playground Safety: Safety Week www.playgroundsafety.org National Distracted National Safety Council: www.nsc.org/ddmonth Driving Awareness Month May North American American Society of Safety Engineers: Occupational Safety www.asse.org/naosh and Health Week Electrical Safety Foundation International: (NAOSH) www.esfi.org National Electrical National Highway and Traffic Safety Safety Month Administration: www.nhtsa.gov Motorcycle Safety National Safe Boating Council (NSBC): Awareness Month www.safeboatingcouncil.com National Safe Boating American College of Emergency Physicians: Month Campaign Resource Week www.acep.org National Emergency National Highway and Traffic Safety Medical Services Week Administration: www.nhtsa.gov National Buckle Up Keep Kids Alive Drive 25: America Week www.keepkidsalivedrive25.org Keep Kids Alive – Drive 25 Day June National Safety Month National Safety Council:www.nsc.org National Fireworks Prevent Blindness America: Safety Month (June www.preventblindness.org and July) American Red Cross:www.redcross.org National CPR and AED Awareness Week July National Fireworks The National Council of Fireworks Safety: Safety Month (June www.fireworkssafety.org and July) August Eye Injury Prevention Prevent Blindness America: Month www.preventblindness.org Back to School Month National Safety Council: www.nsc.org/back2school September National Baby Safety Juvenile Products Manufacturers Month Association:www.jpma.org National Farm Safety & National Education Center for Agricultural Safety: Health Week www.nsc.org/necas National Preparedness U.S. Department of Homeland Security: Month www.ready.gov National Campus Fire Campus Firewatch: www.campus- Safety Month firewatch.com National Childhood Safe Kids Worldwide: www.safekids.org Injury Prevention Week National Highway Traffic Safety: www.nhtsa.gov National Child Passenger Safety Week Month Campaign Resource October National Fire National Fire Protection Association: Prevention Week www.firepreventionweek.org National School Bus National Association for Pupil Transportation: Safety Month www.napt.org National Teen Driver National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: Safety Week www.trafficsafetymarketing.gov/teens November Tie One On For Safety Mothers Against Drunk Driving: www.madd.org December National Drunk and The National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Drugged Driving Dependence: www.ncadd.org Prevention Month Prevent Blindness America Safe Toys and Gifts www.preventblindness.org Month Voice of Experience In 2007, shortly after I was hired by the Rancho Cucamonga Fire District as the Fire Marshal, the Fire Chief informed me that there were fireworks “going off all over town” every 4th of July and that this was not acceptable. This seemed strange to me because I was aware that Rancho Cucamonga had long since prohibited all fireworks. That ban was the result of a vote of the residents almost 20 years prior, not just an ordinance of the City Council. The Fire Chief gave me five years to produce measurable and observable results. I realized immediately that success would require a team effort, and quickly became acquainted with others who would prove to be invaluable in executing a good plan. I learned that Kelley Donaldson, the District’s Public Education Specialist at the time, had already made efforts to reduce fireworks by placing large banners throughout the city reminding residents that all fireworks are prohibited, which would be enforced by a $1,000 fine. She had also paid for local newspaper advertisements and had sent some postcards to various neighborhoods letting those residents know that fireworks are illegal. Cooperation and collaboration with the police department was obviously necessary and the police chief committed the officers to the effort that we requested. It was decided that enforcement teams of police officers and fire inspectors would patrol the city on the 4th of July, confiscate fireworks, and issue $1,000 fines. I learned that there was not an effective means of issuing the fines, but we were determined to work with what we had. One of the most unlikely partners was found in the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) department. GIS guru Solomon Nimako approached me and said that he could make a map that might be helpful. I had my doubts but I welcomed the assistance. Solomon came back with a “hot spot” map, something I had never before seen. It was incredible! Solomon’s map showed me at a glance where the high concentrations of fireworks usage were in the city—the hot spots. An important fact became immediately clear: we did not have fireworks going off all over town; there were “pockets” of illegal fireworks use. It didn’t take long for the framework of a plan to come to mind. We devised a multi-faceted, multi-department approach. We would use Solomon’s hot spot map to target our efforts. We would continue the use of Kelley’s banners and look for additional locations near our hot spot neighborhoods. We would expand the use of the postcards so that we had a wider distribution into the hot spot neighborhoods, and we would have an actual coordinated enforcement effort by partnering with our police department to patrol those same neighborhoods. The firefighters assisted by having engine companies drive through the neighborhoods prior to the holiday to let the residents know, subtly, that we were on fireworks patrol. The night of July 4, we opened the Emergency Operations Center to coordinate all reports of fireworks. We deployed the patrol teams with high hopes of success. At the end of the night, the results were disappointing. We had logged the highest ever number of fireworks complaints. We had confiscated a good amount of fireworks, and although the police department had issued a few citations that had small infraction fines, the fire district did not issue any $1,000 fines. As we debriefed, we were still convinced that the plan was a good one and we agreed to give it another try the following year. A few months later, I took an ordinance to the Fire Board that authorized us to use non-criminal, administrative citations for violations of the Fire Code, with a maximum fine set at $1,000. We finally had some teeth behind our advertised fireworks enforcement. In 2008, we executed the plan just as we did the previous year, with the difference being that the fire inspectors now had administrative citation books. The banners went up, the postcards went out, the crews drove through the neighborhoods prior to the holiday, and on the 4th, the patrol teams hit the streets. At the end of the night we had a 63% reduction in fireworks complaints! We still confiscated fireworks, the fire inspectors issued several of our newly approved $1,000 citations, and the police department issued criminal citations to those who had a lot of dangerous fireworks. The program and effort produced the results that we had hoped for and anticipated. In the ensuing years, we saw fireworks complaints continue to decline. Kelley moved from print and banner ads to outreach messaging through social media. Data indicates that the message is getting out effectively and to a rather wide audience. What Kelley and I didn’t realize at the time is that we had designed and implemented a community risk reduction program. —Robert Ball, Fire Marshal and Kelley Donaldson, Community Affairs Coordinator and Public Information Officer, Rancho Cucamonga Fire District, CA Audience-Specific Messages and Programs As with all community risk reduction programs, the first step to prioritizing messages is for educators to examine their district and determine which buildings and occupants are at the highest risk. Direct outreach efforts at the high-risk target facilities and populations rather than on easier, familiar programming. As examples of the types of planning and messaging that go into site-specific strategies, the following sections discuss high-rise buildings, schools, and places of assembly. Some districts will be challenged by the risks posed by assisted living facilities, hospitals, institutions, group homes, or industrial and manufacturing plants. It will be up to each community to ensure that proper planning and education of occupants take place where they will have the most impact and the greatest outcomes for those at highest risk. High-Rise Evacuation Not all communities are home to high-rise buildings, but for those that are, provide special messages for employees and residents in these structures. High-rise buildings are those buildings where the floor of an occupied story is greater than 75 ft (23 m) above the lowest level of fire department vehicle access.5 These structures present unique difficulties for occupants trying to escape and for fire departments attempting to extinguish a fire. Older high-rise buildings built before more restrictive fire prevention codes may have very little fire protection in terms of fire-resistant construction, sprinklers, or protected escape routes. Newer buildings are built to codes that require noncombustible materials for construction, sprinkler systems, fire command rooms, and other specialized systems. Even with these protective systems in place, the one element that can fail and compromise the safety provided by any device is human behavior. This is where the services of safety educators play a critical role. Familiarize yourself with the high-rise buildings in your community because the buildings will have varying levels of fire protection. The older the building and the less protection provided, the more important it is for the fire and life safety educator to develop a relationship with the property manager to work together to develop a fire prevention plan, an emergency action plan, and methods to educate occupants about the importance of both. High-rise occupants and management teams can be a transient population; therefore, it may be up to the fire department to ensure that policies are distributed and reviewed annually, along with training for staff. Learn about the fire prevention codes your department is currently using to understand what procedures and systems are required in your community. When presenting a working plan for training occupants of high-rise structures for evacuation, make sure it does not conflict with high-rise policies and procedures of the suppression companies for your department. Messages need to be delivered for residents, employees, staff, and visitors. It is best to make sure all building staff understand their responsibility to provide direction to others in the event of a fire or other emergency incident, especially if a building’s occupant population is made up of primarily visitors or an employee base with a high turnover rate. Training for evacuation procedures should include familiarization with the building and its basic systems and hazards, roles and responsibilities, messages to be taken to occupants, procedures for people with disabilities, and emergency evacuation drills observed by the fire department to test the effectiveness of evacuation procedures. An emergency action plan drill is “a training exercise by which Life Safety staff are familiarized with and/or practice the procedures for remaining-in-place, in-building relocation, partial evacuation, or total evacuation, in accordance with an Emergency Action Plan.” 6 Appendix B contains an outline for evacuation training. Plan training sessions to provide enough time before the drill for participants to disseminate the information to other occupants in their areas of responsibility. Drills can be conducted after the initial training on an announced or unannounced basis FIGURE 8-2. Some management teams prefer to announce the drill in an effort to accommodate the schedules of their tenants and residents. Others allow the department to conduct unannounced drills, which is a more accurate way to observe and critique the actions of the occupants. After the drill, it is advisable to discuss the results with the building manager to discuss observations and suggestions for improvement. Sending a follow-up letter helps to reinforce discussion points and recommendations. FIGURE 8-2 Employee evacuation training should include drills to check for compliance with and efficiency of proposed plans (A). Floor wardens check in with a point person for accountability, who then reports to responding fire department personnel (B). Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Messages for high-rise evacuation include the following: Understand the importance of fire prevention practices for high-rise buildings. Familiarize yourself with your building, including exits and stairwells, pull stations, fire extinguishers, the sound of the alarm, shut-down procedures, potential hazards, and exit routes. Know your building’s emergency action plan. You may be required to evacuate the building or your facility may require a staged evacuation in which case you will “remain in place,” remaining on your own floor, or be directed to evacuate to a different floor. Do not rush. An efficient, well-organized plan is far more important than speed in evacuating from a high-rise building. Provide specific evacuation instructions for those who have disabilities. Use a system of accountability by defining roles of drill coordinator, floor or area warden, stairway monitor, elevator monitor, aide to employees with disabilities, assembly area monitors or coordinators, communications liaison, and drill evaluator (which may be a fire department representative). Develop meeting places outside that are a safe distance away from the building and the area needed by responding fire department vehicles. Designate a specific person and his or her backup, who will report to the fire department upon their arrival. School Fire Drills and Crisis Reaction Planning In today’s world, the best way to develop a comprehensive school emergency reaction plan is to form a partnership composed of the entire school district and the police and fire departments. Each partner has its own language, culture, and valid considerations and concerns, and each of these affects the effectiveness of emergency procedures if not communicated to the others. Several months before the academic year begins, all stakeholders should meet to develop procedures and policies that will be communicated to teachers, students, and first responders. Many states have signed legislation specific to their state dictating the number and types of drills required for schools during an academic year. Check with your state fire marshal for guidance regarding your state’s requirements. The following four components help ensure a safer, more efficient, and comprehensive school crisis reaction plan. Establish Relationships between the Schools and Public Safety Agencies It is essential that school officials and first responders develop a task force that will become the heart of communication for the safety of the schools. While most school districts have a plan in place, it is recommended to establish a task force of safety professionals that collaborate with the school each year to discuss best practices. Task force members should include upper-level decision makers from the school district as well as fire and police personnel. The group needs to be open to expansion as needed to include additional members who can enhance productivity such as public relations personnel, grant writers, technology personnel, and those versed in working with students with disabilities and language barriers. Open Communications It is important for each agency to avoid using acronyms and jargon specific to their operations. Educate each other about procedures, organizational charts, and organizational culture issues. Members should also exchange contact information that might be necessary during an emergency. Numbering all school exterior doors on the inside and outside of the building in a clockwise direction assists first responders in communicating when they arrive on the scene. Radio communications should be set up and practiced among fire, police, and school personnel. Some schools are so large that fire department radios will not work in all areas of the building. Any school personnel who might become a link in this chain should receive training and practice with the radios. This could include administrative assistants, teachers, custodians, or volunteer staff. As part of the plan, consider countywide emergency alerting systems, parent notification, and public communication through local TV, radio, and print media as well as post-drill debriefing sessions. Develop Information Information developed by the safety task force will support school safety and crisis responses. These components should include protocols for fires, tornadoes and other natural disasters, lockdowns, bomb threats, bus accidents, missing children, medical and community emergencies, field trip accident procedures, staff quick reference plans, procedures for medically fragile students, substitute teacher checkin, emergency procedure drill evaluation checklists, student emergency information calling trees, emergency procedure manuals and quick checklists, floor plans, and site plans. Schools should institutionalize the practice of keeping an emergency folder by the classroom door for the teacher to access as the students exit the classroom. This folder would include a student attendance list, the red/green card, fragile student protocols, emergency contact numbers, and the school’s quick checklist. Provide Training and Practice Effective training and practice require a close working relationship among the school and first responders and offer opportunities for agencies to train together for a common cause. Training should be provided for school administrators by the fire and police departments and then for total school staff (including teachers, secretaries, substitute teachers, and maintenance staff) by the school administration and the fire and police departments. Provide parents with messages about safety issues at home and school and the school’s emergency policies. It is important for parents to understand that some circumstances will prohibit them from gaining immediate access to the school and their children. Public safety officials will make these determinations. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and automated external defibrillator (AED) training important components. Announced and unannounced drills throughout the academic year will ensure that all students, faculty, and first responders understand their roles in an emergency. Drills also highlight any gaps and potential problems that need to be addressed. Educator’s Tip One of the easiest accountability systems for school administrators during a school fire drill is for classroom teachers to hold up a laminated 8½ in. × 10 in. card with the green side facing outward, indicating that all students are present, and the red side of the card facing outward if a student is missing or injured. This makes it easy for the school administrator to quickly survey the status of the evacuation and provide an accountability report to the responding fire department. Teachers hold the cards high in the air and make sure they keep the cards facing forward until the administrator indicates through a predetermined signal that he or she has seen the cards. Educators can share this useful system with other occupancies in their jurisdictions as well. Places of Assembly Some of the most deadly fires in history occurred tragically in theaters, nightclubs, hotels, and other places of assembly. Fires such as Conway’s Theater, Brooklyn, New York (1876), 285 killed; the Iroquois Theater, Chicago, Illinois (1903), 602 killed; the Rhythm Club dance hall, Natchez, Mississippi (1940), 207 killed; the Cocoanut Grove night club, Boston, Massachusetts (1942), 492 killed; and the Beverly Hills Supper Club, Southgate, Kentucky (1977), 165 killed, are only a few of the notable fires that taught the fire service valuable lessons about human behavior, code development and enforcement, and the value of educating business owners and their employees. Yet even in recent history, 87 died at the Happy Land Social Club, Bronx, New York (1990) and 100 lives were lost at The Station fire in West Warwick, Rhode Island (2003). The fire service does not have the ability to inspect private residences but does have the right to inspect and enforce local and national fire prevention codes in public buildings. These codes help ensure a safer environment by requiring alarm systems and fire extinguishing systems and regulating storage arrangements, aisle and door widths, paths of ingress and egress, and building materials, among many other safety issues. However, these systems are not enough to guarantee everyone’s safety. Remembering that effective prevention measures include engineering, enforcement, and education. Safety educators should be involved in working with these occupancies, too. Causes of the fires have sometimes been intentional (arson) or have included smoking materials, heating, cooking, and electrical appliances such as airconditioning refrigeration units, or open flames. We have learned through a study of these fires that large loss of life has also been influenced by factors such as alcohol consumption, unfamiliarity with the structure and its emergency plan, failure to have an emergency plan, occupancy load, and characteristics and abilities of the occupants. Fire and life safety educators are in a position to form partnerships with management teams, facility owners, staff, and department inspectors to educate them about the importance of prevention practices, staff training, and code compliance. Many fire inspectors are well versed in codes and inspection techniques to ensure safe building systems and structures, but are not familiar with the messages and methods important to educating those who will influence compliance and evacuation procedures in the event of a fire or other emergency. Work closely with inspectors to make sure these messages are delivered. Fire inspectors schedule visits to most businesses anyway; why not provide them with safety educator training and materials specific to these occupancies to ensure a more complete fire prevention service? Messages for these occupancies include the following: Comply with prevention codes, make sure appliances and heating and electrical equipment has been tested by a recognized testing laboratory, follow recommendations for candle safety if they are allowed on table tops or purchase flameless candles for decoration, wipe up spills immediately to prevent falls, create a checklist for staff to inspect upon opening and at closing each business day, and enforce occupancy loads as required by the local fire prevention bureau. Emphasize that the first reaction of occupants should be to get out and stay out immediately. Call 9-1-1. For those facilities requesting instruction, provide fire extinguisher training for capable, designated employees, train all employees in evacuation procedures and be specific about roles and responsibilities, and familiarize all employees with building systems and locations of pull stations. Develop an emergency evacuation plan and post the plan throughout the facility, train all staff and review the plan with all new employees, hold announced and unannounced emergency evacuation drills, and comply with codes requiring system inspections and tests. Keep in mind that the occupants of most assembly occupancies are visitors to the facility and largely unfamiliar with the building. It is very important for safety educators to train the staff because they will be responsible for the safety of their patrons in those first important minutes of an emergency. Rural Communities The United States Census Bureau defines a rural community as one with a population less than 2500. A report from the USFA, The Rural Fire Problem in the United States, reveals that the fire death rate is 35 percent higher in rural areas than in nonrural areas. Several issues contribute to this national fire problem. Most of these areas are served by volunteer fire departments without the staffing, training, and equipment their urban counterparts depend on for education efforts and emergency response. Travel distances to the scene and resultant response times are higher, and the water supply is often inadequate. Poverty plagues many rural communities, which in turn contributes to unsafe living conditions, uneducated decisions, and a lack of smoke alarms and other safety technology. These same factors make the job of educating the public even more challenging. Fewer rural fire service personnel are trained in the development and delivery of fire and life safety messages. Getting the messages to homes and businesses is difficult because of greater distances between residents and a lack of organized local efforts and fire and injury data. The most effective ways to deliver safety educator messages may be door-to-door campaigns or through existing clubs, organizations, or other networks. Someone must work to create a need in the minds of the community for this education. If local residents and business owners perceive that there is no fire or injury problem, then no amount of effort will gain the attention it deserves. Residents must also trust the person delivering the messages. If this appears to be a problem, it will be necessary to work through a community leader or organization that already has the trust and respect of the community members. Schools, faith-based organizations, electrical cooperatives, service clubs, healthcare workers, or other established networks may be the best way to get the information into the hands of the target and secondary audiences. Nationally, the most common fire problems for rural areas have been identified, although they differ from region to region in the country. Open flames are the most common cause of outdoor fires. Portable heating equipment; flame extension to an entire structure; fixed area heaters such as wood stoves, chimneys, and fireplaces; and electrical and smoking fires are the most common causes of indoor fires in rural areas. Another contributing factor is that almost 75 percent of rural homes have no smoke alarms.7 It follows naturally that, along with prevention messages important for all populations, the following topics need more emphasis for rural populations (expanded information about some of these was addressed earlier in the text): Wildfire messaging Portable and fixed heating safety Woodstove and fireplace safety Smoking and fire-safe cigarettes Electrical safety Outdoor burning Visible street addresses Smoke alarms Evacuation planning, escape routes, blocked exits, inoperable doors and windows Multi-hazard surveys with follow-up for understanding and compliance An excellent source for information regarding the rural fire problem, specific messages, and suggestions for implementation is the USFA’s report, Mitigation of the Rural Fire Problem of 2007, which can be found at www.usfa.dhs.gov. National Campaigns Fire Prevention Week Fire Prevention Week was established to commemorate the Great Chicago Fire, which began on October 8 and continued into October 9, 1871. Fire Prevention Week is always celebrated the Sunday through Saturday of the week in which October 9th falls, the date the fire did most of its damage. According to the NFPA, this devastating fire killed more than 250 people, left 100,000 homeless, destroyed more than 17,400 structures, and burned more than 2000 acres. Although the Great Chicago Fire is the most famous fire of this date, another forest fire was taking place on the same day (October 8) in Peshtigo, Wisconsin, and was responsible for burning down 16 towns, killing 1152 people, and ruining 1.2 million acres. The devastation, destruction, and stories surrounding both of these fires caused a heightened awareness about fire safety. Initially, the anniversary of the Great Chicago Fire was celebrated with festivities because the city successfully rebuilt itself. In fact, Chicago earned the nickname “Second City” for rising from the ashes and reinventing itself through determination and resourcefulness. But on the 40th anniversary of the Great Chicago Fire, the Fire Marshals Association of North America (now known as the International Fire Marshals Association) decided the activities of the week should commemorate the fire by keeping the public informed about the importance of fire prevention. President Woodrow Wilson signed the first National Fire Prevention Day Proclamation in 1920; President Calvin Coolidge proclaimed the first National Fire Prevention Week October 4 to 10, 1922, and the president of the United States has signed a proclamation for this observance every year since 1925. It will serve educators well to remember that the intent of this observation is to promote fire prevention, not simply to host entertaining activities at the local fire station. If both missions can be accomplished together, everyone will learn more enjoyably and sustainably. National EMS Week In 1973, the House and Senate adopted legislation to fund the development of National EMS (emergency medical services). President Richard Nixon believed EMS was a state and local responsibility, so he vetoed this comprehensive bill. By a narrow margin, Congress was able to override the president’s veto. The president signed the Emergency Medical Services Systems Act of 1973 into law in November 1973. EMS experienced great strides in the 1970s, and President Gerald Ford signed the first official National Emergency Medical Services Week proclamation in 1974. Every year since then, National EMS Week has honored the contributions of EMS providers and provides an opportunity to promote the prevention of medical emergencies. Access EMS Week information and toolkits for promoting these activities during the month of May for your community. Smokey Bear Smokey’s full name is actually Smokey Bear. Many refer to him as Smokey the Bear, but this version of the popular mascot’s name only came about in 1952 when songwriters Steve Nelson and Jack Rollins had a hit song, “Smokey the Bear.” They said they added “the” to his name because it helped to keep the song’s rhythm. Smokey’s mission is to raise public awareness to protect American forests. He has been the nationally recognized mascot for the fire service for many years FIGURE 83. FIGURE 8-3 The Smokey Bear campaign has been recognized as one of the most powerful and longest-lasting public service messages. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. What is the history of this icon of fire prevention, and why has he been so popular for so many years? More than 100 years ago, in 1902, a standard General Land Office forest fire warning poster gave guidelines for keeping fires under control. In 1939, a popular poster featured a forest ranger that looked like Uncle Sam pointing to a forest fire and warned “Your Forest—Your Fault—Your Loss.” Even then, it was apparent that fires were not accidental but caused by people and preventable. On December 7, 1941, Pearl Harbor was attacked by Japanese planes. The following spring, a Japanese submarine surfaced and fired shells that exploded near an oil field close to the Los Padres National Forest in California. Protection of the forests on the Pacific Coast became a matter of national importance during World War II. With the help of the Wartime Advertising Council, The Forest Service organized the Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention (CFFP) program and created colorful posters, slogans, and catchy phrases and messages to persuade people to prevent forest fires and to help with the war. Walt Disney’s full length feature Bambi came out in 1944, and the studios allowed the CFFP to use the image for one year. Seeing that the use of an animal as a fire prevention symbol was successful, the organization set out to find another animal exclusively theirs to represent its program. A bear was chosen as the mascot. His name was inspired by “Smoky” Joe Martin, a New York City Fire Department hero of 1922. The first image was painted and released on August 9, 1944, by artist Albert Staehle and showed a bear pouring a bucket of water on a campfire. In 1947, “Only YOU Can Prevent Forest Fires” was first used as a slogan. Since these early beginnings, the Smokey Bear campaign has been recognized as one of the most powerful and longest-lasting public service messages. The power of this character’s influence is that his messages are simple, direct, easy to remember, and strong. Educators can learn from this symbolic creature and his creators when developing their own messages and promotions. Change Your Clock, Change Your Battery Another simple, direct, and easy-to-remember message is promoted through the “Change your clock, change your battery” campaign. It encourages people to develop the important habit of changing their smoke alarm and carbon monoxide detector batteries twice a year when they are changing clocks back to standard time and again when setting clocks forward for Daylight Savings Time. The initiative began in 1987 as a pilot program in St. Louis and Atlanta to try to create a positive impact on the number of home fire deaths in homes without working smoke alarms. Again, a successful and widely applied program was sustainable because of its simple, straightforward message. With the advent of requirements for interconnected smoke alarms and newer smoke alarms using 10 year lithium batteries, many may think it is not necessary to continue to deliver this message. However, the idea of keeping smoke alarms in good working condition and reminding the public to test the function of the alarms remains important. Perhaps it is time to begin to remind the public to “Change your clock, check your battery!” Fire is Everyone’s Fight Fire is Everyone’s Fight is a nationally recognized initiative based on social marketing research commissioned by the grassroots Vision 20/20 fire safety consortium with funding from an Assistance to Firefighters Grant from the Federal Emergency Management Agency. It is designed to unite the fire service and many other partnering organizations in a collaborative effort to reduce home fire injuries, deaths and property loss. It invites fire departments, safety advocates, community groups, schools, and others to rally behind a unifying theme. USFA and its partners communicate and reinforce key lessons across many proven fire safety and prevention initiatives and programs for safety educators to use and promote in their communities FIGURE 8-4. FIGURE 8-4 USFA and its partners communicate and reinforce lessons across many proven fire safety and prevention initiatives and programs for safety educators to promote in their communities. Courtesy of U.S. Fire Administration and FEMA. The use of this logo does not constitute endorsement by the U.S. Fire Administration or FEMA. Wrap-Up Smoke: © Greg Henry/ShutterStock, Inc. Summary Points Many large life-loss fires and serious injuries are the result of holiday traditions and celebrations. Safety educators need to be aware of these risks and plan to promote safety messages before and during these occasions. As with all community risk reduction programs, the first step to prioritizing messages is for educators to examine their district and determine which buildings and occupants are at the highest risk. Associations and agencies pool resources to unify messages and advance the public’s awareness of safety topics, statistics, current research, prevention measures, and precautions to be taken. Educators can capitalize on awareness campaigns by using the resources provided by the professionals and creating local proclamations, press releases, and programs to reinforce the messages. Educators must also be aware of the high-risk, low-probability situations that exist for high-rise buildings, schools, and places of assembly. The best way to prepare these facilities for emergencies is to develop emergency safety plans and programs that involve stakeholders and experts for their populations. Educators should direct outreach efforts at the high-risk target facilities and populations rather than on easier, familiar programming. Educators who avail themselves of national prevention campaigns and their tested information and materials. will be providing useful and professionally developed programs for their communities. As with all other messages, these messages will be most useful when used in conjunction with local fire and injury data. Key Terms Emergency action plan A plan of designated actions by employers, employees, and other building occupants to provide for their safety from fire and other emergencies Emergency action plan drill A training exercise by which fire and life safety staff are familiarized with and/or practice the procedures for remaining-in-place, in-building relocation, partial evacuation, or total evacuation, in accordance with an emergency action plan. Staged evacuation A system of building evacuation requiring occupants to “protect in place” on their floor or evacuate to a different floor in the structure. Review Questions 1. Name three resources that would be useful when promoting bicycle safety, drowning and boating safety, and burn awareness. What are some messages to be used in promoting safety for these risks? 2. Describe an efficient system of accountability for school evacuations. 3. Who would you approach to assist with beginning a comprehensive interagency school emergency plan? 4. List several types of facilities that pose a high-risk, low-probability situation for a community’s employees, students, or clients. 5. What steps would you include in preparing an emergency evacuation plan for a place of assembly or high-rise building? Critical Thinking 1. The local newspaper has requested that the fire department provide tips for Halloween safety. What messages will you include? What audiences will you appeal to? Where else can this be publicized in your community? 2. As an educator in a rural community, what messages will be most likely to help improve the safety of your residents? How can you reach them? Identify organizations specific to your community that have access to and credibility with this population. 3. The chief has asked you to promote EMS Month in May. Based on the most common calls for your EMS system, what messages are important to promote? What other agencies and professionals can you work with that share your mission? Where can you go for support materials and ideas? Think About It and Make It Better State statutes and local ordinances ban the use of any type of fireworks except sparklers and novelties for your community. It is obvious that many residents illegally purchase fireworks and use them in the weeks leading up to the Fourth of July. The local police department has stated that they are too busy to assist with curbing this activity. Are there any measures you can take to proactively limit the use of fireworks in the community? Who are the audiences? How can they be reached? Who else can assist in this effort? References 1. Hall, J. R., Jr. Home Christmas Tree and Holiday Light Fires. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2013. 2. Stevens, J. A., Div of Unintentional Injury Prevention; Vajani, M. Office of Statistics and Programming, National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, CDC, 2004. 3. Hall, J. R., Jr. Fireworks. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2013. 4. High-Rise Building Safety Advisory Committee. Guidelines to Developing Emergency Action Plans for All-Hazard Emergencies in High-Rise Office Buildings. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2013. 5. High-Rise Building Safety Advisory Committee. Guidelines to Developing Emergency Action Plans for All-Hazard Emergencies in High-Rise Office Buildings. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2013, p. 10. 6. Gamache, S., Hall, J. R. Jr., Ahrens, M., Penney, G., and Kirtley, E. Rural fires. NFPA Journal, July/Aug. 2008, p. 70. Additional Resources Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention. Smokey Bear Guidelines. 2004. Available at http://symbols.gov/smokey. Gaynor, J. P. Juvenile Firesetter Intervention Handbook. Emmitsburg, MD: U.S. Fire Administration, 2002. National Fire Protection Association. Resources for Holiday Firesafety and Fire Prevention Week. Available at http://www.nfpa.org. National Fire Protection Association. NFPA Ready Reference: Fire Safety in High-Rise Buildings. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2003. National Fire Protection Association. NFPA Ready Reference: Fire Safety in Assembly Occupancies. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2004. National Fire Protection Association. NFPA 101, Life Safety Code. Quincy, MA: National Fire Protection Association, 2006. Oregon Office of State Fire Marshal. Juvenile Firesetter Intervention Program. Available at http://www.oregon.gov/OSP/SFM. United States Fire Administration. Coffee Break Training – Fire Prevention and Public Education – Fire is Everyone’s Fight, September 18, 2013. CHAPTER 9: Professionalism and Presentations Paper: © silver-john/ShutterStock, Inc.; Chapter Opener Photo: © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Define professionalism. (p. 179) List attributes and personal characteristics of professionals. NFPA 4.1.1 (p. 180) Distinguish among the levels of NFPA 1035, Fire and Life Safety Educator I, II, and III. (p. 179) Discuss behaviors that compromise a professional image. (pp. 180–181) Identify qualities of educators who practice “doing the right thing” to represent their departments when working with the public. (p. 181) Address safety practices for all lessons, programs and demonstrations to ensure safety of participants and staff. NFPA 4.4.2 (p. 182) Describe professional writing practices. (pp. 184–185) Outline techniques for effective presentations. NFPA 4.4.3 (pp. 185–193) Document fire and life safety educational activities accurately. NFPA 4.2.1 (p. 184) Prepare activity reports. NFPA 4.2.2 (p. 182) Keep a work schedule that ensures all activities are recorded and completed according to plan. NFPA 4.2.3 (p. 184) Discuss factors important to working in positive teams, coalitions, and partnerships. NFPA 4.3.1 (pp. 193–195) Introduction Mention the word professionalism, and many people envision neatly dressed, organized, and efficient individuals. Their level of professionalism will be judged by the way they look, write, talk, act, and work. The word professionalism comes from the Latin word “professio,” meaning “a public declaration with the force of a promise.” This definition provides a literal foundation for the term profession. Professions are groups that declare in a public way that their members promise to demonstrate a certain level of competency, and society may discipline those who fail to do so. Lawyers must pass the bar, doctors must pass their boards, and teachers must obtain their teaching certificates. Professional qualifications are a declaration to the public that they are receiving care and service from individuals who have the training and skills to provide a standard level of competency. In 1977, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) published the Standard for Professional Qualifications for Fire Inspector, Fire Investigator, and Fire Prevention Education Officer, or NFPA 1031. In 1986, the Professional Qualifications Board of the Joint Council of National Fire Service Organizations called for a separate standard for fire prevention education officers. This paved the way for qualified civilians, such as certified teachers and other educators, to become certified as fire and life safety educators for the fire service. It was after these decisions were made that the NFPA Technical Committee on Public Fire Educator Professional Qualifications developed NFPA 1035, Standard for Professional Qualifications for Public Fire Educator, which was adopted in 1987. In 1993, the standard was renamed Standard for Professional Qualifications for Public Fire and Life Safety Educator, which reflects the paradigm shift from strictly fire safety education to allrisk education. NFPA 1035 sets minimum qualifications for three levels of public fire and life safety educators: Public Fire and Life Safety Educator I (FLSE I): The individual who has demonstrated the ability to coordinate and deliver existing educational programs and information. Public Fire and Life Safety Educator II (FLSE II): The individual who has demonstrated the ability to prepare educational programs and information to meet identified needs. Public Fire and Life Safety Educator III (FLSE III): The individual who has demonstrated the ability to create, administer, and evaluate educational programs and information. Ideally, fire departments across the country will someday require or at the very least strongly encourage their members to pursue these certifications as a way to ensure the public receives the degree of professionalism and level of fire and life safety education they need and deserve. Although some states have advanced the cause of this mission, others do not have the resources to mandate formal education and certification for their fire service members. Acknowledging that fire and life safety education is important, yet without the benefit of formal training in this field, many departments have been left to their own ingenuity to administer, prepare, and present safety information. Thankfully, user-friendly attributes of online resources have made more downloadable educational information, prepared programs, and materials available to safety educators over the past decade. As you avail yourself of the most current research, standard safety messages, and educational methods, you will become more proficient in your role. Additionally, an important aspect of the job is having a sound understanding of what professionalism looks like for the role of safety educator. True Professionalism Many professions impose a level of formally acknowledged competency or standards of professionalism that must be attained before members can practice their vocation or “hang a shingle.” However, that certification alone does not ensure true professionalism. We have all worked with certified professionals who did not demonstrate professionalism. True professionalism runs much deeper than a course of study and the resultant “piece of paper.” Think about someone you know who exemplifies the qualities of a professional. Aside from being neat and tidy, organized and prompt, other personal qualities and character traits should take center stage in your mind. The individuals you are considering may not even be “professionals” in the sense of holding a degree or title, but these individuals exemplify qualities that set them apart as professionals because of who they are, what they believe in, how they conduct themselves, and where they place their values. True professionals are commonly characterized by some of the following descriptors: accountable, competent, motivated, reliable, respectful, focused, responsible, fair, integrity, trust, character, empathy, honor, sense of duty, altruistic, compassionate, ethical, pursues excellence, and personal best. These are the individuals who work toward the greater good, keeping their mission in the foreground and delegating self-interests to the backseat. Granted, some of these qualities are innate for particular individuals, but many can be learned. People who exhibit true professionalism show a sincere interest in the individuals with whom they work and are concerned about their well-being. Their everyday conduct indicates an ability to deal with people by “walking a mile in the shoes” of others without judgment. These individuals reveal their healthy character through a sincere respect for the life experiences, values, cultural differences, ages, and gender of all those with whom they come in contact. They genuinely like people and find a sense of fulfillment when they can help others. They take as much time to honestly listen to people as they do presenting their own information. Fire and life safety educators have many opportunities to make a real difference in the lives of others when they consider the gestalt of their role for the department and embrace their ties with the community. The best educators believe in what they do. Their mission revolves around doing the right things for the right reasons, not simply for espoused values. Their moral compasses continually direct these educators down a path of excellence, strong moral character, and altruistic values. They take pride in their work; “just getting the job done” is an idea foreign to their work ethic. The passion, persistence, and sincerity they bring to their work allow for no compromises to their high standards. These are the fire service educators who have the courage to trudge past the rhetoric of naysayers doubting the effectiveness of fire and life safety education as a method of fighting fires and preventing injuries. Look closely for these passionate educators; they do not often arrive in a cloak of serious attitudes, pompous overtures, or overbearing pontification. Indeed, these professionals will most likely be the people in the room with higher emotional tones of energy, enthusiasm, and total engagement. The dedicated professionals enjoy their work, find it purposeful, and have fun while taking care of business. But do not let their fun-loving spirit fool you. These are also the individuals who understand the importance of following through on their promises and working with others to unearth their needs until every option to solve a problem has been exhausted. The Face of the Department As spokespersons for the department, educators may find themselves as a linking pin between the community and the department. As such, it is important for them to remember some key reminders for their interactions with the public. You only have one chance to make a first impression. The image portrayed by a safety educator reflects on the entire department. Whether the uniform for public speaking engagements is a polo shirt and cotton pants, a Class A or B uniform, or even a clown costume (yes, there are very clear rules for clowning professionalism and etiquette!), it should be clean, neat, and pressed. If an educator is presenting in civilian clothing, a good rule of thumb is to match the audience’s level of formality but not at their lowest denominator. For more formal presentations, civilian clothing should be one notch above the audience’s expected attire. A quick check in the mirror will ensure that bits and pieces of breakfast have not made their way onto front incisors or shirt lapels. Keep a supply of breath mints handy, and pop one in shortly before addressing an audience. Small children will have no problem letting an educator know that they “smell funny” or that “something smells bad!” Educator’s Tip When presenting to a demographic group different than the educator is accustomed to, it is best to ask about the dress code in advance. This may determine how formally or informally the educator is to dress. Regardless of the level of formality, the uniform should always be clean and neat. Remain objective. It is important to avoid editorializing and injecting personal opinions, especially if the educator is engaging in a topic that evokes strong feelings from audience members. When controversial subjects are a part of the educator’s subject matter, it is best to refrain from discussing emotional aspects of the subject; work with the facts. It may also be tempting to air some departmental dirty laundry. After all, the educator has a room full of captive audience members, and it can be tempting to take advantage of the situation. However, this is not the forum for discussing internal politics, policies, and “family feuds.” These types of discussions are never viewed as professional. Leave it at the door. Everyone has a bad day, and sometimes—beyond the educator’s control—that bad day will happen on the same day as a scheduled school visit, a local community function, or an important meeting. Professional educators know how to leave their bad day at the doorstep of the room before crossing the threshold to represent the department. A positive attitude will help to motivate others. Although the use of humor is often very effective and can diffuse uncomfortable and anxious situations, it must be exercised very carefully, tactfully, and only by those who have a knack for balancing humor with a sincere respect for the audience. Sarcasm, a particular form of humor, can erode learning and respect. It is not a recommended practice for an educator’s repertoire. Doing the Right Thing What does an educator need to remember before heading out the door to make a presentation or to meet with a work team? A notepad, lesson plan, visual aids, handouts, agenda, calendar, food for guests, and contact information may all come to mind. These tangible items are certainly important to getting the job done but just as important are the knowledge and the skills to “do the right thing.” It is important to make sure you have something to say and worth listening to if you expect others to give up valuable time to meet with you. Adhering to a schedule and arriving on time demonstrate respect for the audience. If you show up even a few minutes late, the implication is that your time is more important than anyone else who gave up their time to be present. Just as important, do not forget to leave on time. When you agree to speak for a specified length of time, it is only fair to the attendees and other speakers to honor that commitment. If there are more questions or if the group wishes that you stay for refreshments, they can make that request. Say what needs to be said and be done. Remember that the program or the meeting is not always finished just because the session has ended. If you make promises to follow up with additional information or commit to working on a project, delivering on these expectations and deadlines is essential to completing the objectives. It is also important to realize the limitations of your own competencies and stick to what you know. There is nothing wrong with admitting that some questions would be better answered by another expert. Offer to investigate the matter and get back to them with the information. Then, really do it! Educator’s Tip Thank-you notes are not only for gifts. Acknowledge an individual or an organization’s participation at a department event or their contribution to a work team’s effort in writing. Equally significant is a thank you to an organization after a speaking engagement. If an organization has given the educator an opportunity to speak with its members, a note of appreciation is appropriate and encouraged. As soon as you return from the class, send a thank-you note or e-mail to your contact. If appropriate, recommend other resources the group might find useful. The ability to compromise and adjust to last-minute changes is a fundamental skill to hone. It takes patience and flexibility to work with the public. Schedule changes, conflicts, communication gaps, and competing agendas can all alter a well-planned day. Educators who do not graciously accept change and conflict as an inevitable part of their job will not be perceived as professional partners. Professionals achieve more when they are effective communicators, not only as presenters for the public, but also within their own organization. Who does an educator need to communicate with at the department? In the community? No fire chief wants to be surprised to find out that a department member or spokesperson has been working on a project or presenting information in the community without his or her knowledge. Even if the feedback is positive, it reflects poorly on the department if no one is aware of the members’ activities. It is always best if the organization speaks with “one voice.” Educators must communicate both up and down the department chain of command to inform all members about program initiatives and the need for their support before launching a program. It is difficult to support what you do not understand. Be sure to find out what other department members need, what they see as community needs, and how new initiatives may impact their current work and goals. Realize that there are others, both internally and externally, who may have valuable perspectives on the issues. Value their opinions and suggestions and be sure to credit anyone who helps by sharing their ideas and materials. Educator’s Tip Those who share their ideas or expertise with an educator deserve to be credited as the originators and as contributors during presentations and in written material. Ethical educators do not take credit for the work of others or pass it off as their own. Professional Practices Aside from identifying the needs of the community and delivering programs and presentations, educators interact with the public on a daily basis. This section discusses general practices that will serve as helpful reminders for all professional educators. We will also address basic tenants of presentation and writing skills for educators. General Practices One of the most valuable guidelines for public educators is to first build a good, trusted rapport with community members, professional partners, primary and secondary audiences, and other department members. Listen and learn from them. Ask for their opinions and concerns. Model appropriate behaviors. Safety educators are in a high-profile position in their communities. It is not enough to be a respected community leader during a presentation. Our actions often speak the loudest when we do not know anyone is looking. For example, an educator who preaches the value of bicycle helmets but is seen riding a bike without wearing a helmet around the community has just lost much of her credibility. An educator who decries the act of parking in front of fire hydrants or in fire lanes but blatantly does so himself is not demonstrating professional behavior. Whenever possible, personalize interactions by using a person’s name or by remembering something special and specific about a previous conversation or encounter with the person or his or her organization. Keep a database of contact names and refer to it just before arriving at a presentation. In his book How to Win Friends and Influence People, Dale Carnegie says there is nothing more important to people than their own name. Avoid confrontations in public forums. If a community member feels the need to engage in hostile conversation, you can handle the situation by offering to discuss the matter at another time and place. Always remember that your words and actions are a reflection on the entire department. It is better to do a few things well than to take on so many projects that none of them can possibly deliver the professional quality the community deserves. Do not be lured by the most colorful, popular, and catchy educational packages on the market. These might not be the options that are most important for your population. Consider what is realistic to expect from the department and available resources. Evaluate all aspects of the program to ensure that all original objectives will be met during a presentation. If new information is added to a topic, make sure existing messages do not suffer. If there is not enough time to deliver both messages, reevaluate the value of each and make a decision to work with what is most important for the community. Don’t promise what you can’t deliver! Liability and Safety Liability is the legal responsibility and accountability for an act or process related to a program. It is the responsibility of the educator to ensure a safe environment for the public at all presentations and demonstrations. Check the outdoor and indoor areas of the structure if you are hosting an event. Are they well lit, free of tripping and falls hazards? Is equipment adequately prepared and cordoned off from inquisitive children? Have demonstrations been well rehearsed and appropriately positioned for safe viewing? Liability issues also include the proper use of legal contracts and waivers, and acquiring other permissions for using copyrighted materials. Work with the department’s legal advisors during the early stages of planning presentations, programs and initiatives to guarantee that this important aspect of the education process is not overlooked. The following factors should also be considered when ensuring a safe environment during presentations: There are enough personnel to support activities and control the anticipated number of participants. Have well-defined viewing areas to keep visitors at a safe distance at all times from any live burn activities such as fire extinguisher drills, side-by-side burn demonstrations, and extrication demonstrations. Weather conditions are appropriate for the demonstration or activity. A change in the weather may dictate that activities take place indoors. Age appropriate activities are planned to avoid overexertion, slips, falls, or other harmful injuries. Lessons and physical environments have been adapted for all age groups, attendees with disabilities, and other special circumstances to ensure their safety. Time Management One of the most challenging skills for educators is time management. New educators can be overwhelmed with so many options for programs, requests for presentations and tours, and ideas from other department members. It may be tempting to compete with other departments and attempt to add their initiatives to an already full schedule. How do successful educators juggle all the work they know must be accomplished with the demands of the public and tight deadlines? Referring to the following basic reminders will help you navigate through challenging and competing demands on your time: Prioritize. What are the goals and objectives of the risk reduction education program for your community? If a request matches the goals, it should be moved up the ladder and deserves consideration. If a request does not match any of the education program’s goals or objectives and if it does not fit in with the department’s mission, it can be moved to the bottom of the list. Plan weeks and months ahead. Safety educators cannot afford to operate with a day-to-day mindset. Successful educators are always working at least six months ahead of the current date. Whether it is through an electronic or hard copy, keep a calendar with you at all times and check it daily. All future program and presentation dates, along with holidays, school testing dates, department training, special events, and other commitments should be entered as soon as possible even if they are 12 months in the future. For long-term projects, estimate how long each task will take and plan backward from the event to find the date work on that task should begin. Establish realistic benchmarks for the progress of the project. Mark them down and stick to them by referring to them often. Consider all aspects of the presentation process when scheduling time. A 30minute presentation could easily consume two hours or more of an educator’s time, especially if it is a new program. A solid presentation will include research into the topic, research of the community and target audience, preparation and acquisition of materials and props, coordinating your schedule with the sponsoring organization, training department personnel who may be involved in the presentation, travel time, reorganizing materials after the presentation, recording information about the event, revising the program, and evaluation. Schedule administrative time into your schedule just as you would for meetings. Choose a system that works best for you. Perhaps it will be a particular afternoon every week or a certain hour each day that is blocked out for returning phone calls, checking e-mails, or putting time in on program development and research. It is easy to fall into the trap of canceling this time to accommodate other requests. Honor this time as you would any other commitment. Make an appointment with yourself and keep it! Return all phone calls and e-mails as soon as possible. If you know that returning phone calls the same day they are received is not usually possible, create a voice message stating how soon callers may expect a follow-up call. Assess all requests. Are people asking the department for education or for entertainment? Many valuable programs can offer both, but there may be some requests that are appropriate to turn down. How do the fire chief and the department view requests for birthday parties, store openings, community events, or other social engagements? These activities could be good opportunities for positive public relations or reaching a target audience with educational messages, but investigate the potential first and say yes only after serious consideration FIGURE 9-1. Some requests may not be realistic or a good use of department resources. Learn to say no. It is easy to get caught up in the positive response from the community after launching a few successful programs, but there may come a point when the demand becomes too great for the department’s resources. Develop a system for application deadlines, number of appointments per month or year, age limits for particular programs, time frames for station tours and presentations, or a total number of participants accepted per activity. Make it a written policy. This will make it easier to decide the right course of action, and the public will better understand and accept a denial of their request. Evaluate and reflect. As you add more programs to your schedule, it may become necessary to eliminate some older programs or ask for assistance from other department or coalition members. Just because a program is popular with the public does not mean it is the most valuable. Carefully consider the value of each program, not only the number of people reached, when deciding to scale back on program delivery. Do not discard an older program in favor of a newer one just because it has a more colorful delivery. Sometimes the simplest ideas are really the best. Invest in a book on time management! These experts have many tricks that are helpful to educators who are struggling to provide services to an entire community. FIGURE 9-1 Community events can be good opportunities for positive public relations and reaching a target audience with educational messages. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip Time is money. Some educators budget their time as they do their money. Consider how many hours are actually available for programs and prioritize and schedule accordingly. Educator’s Tip Be sure education remains at the core of all safety programs. Match the mission of the department to the event. Safety educators can become their own worst enemies if it is perceived that fun and entertainment are the only services they offer the public. Writing Educators depend on the written word to convey information clearly through correspondence, memos, proposals, news releases, lesson plans, and other documents. While most Level I FLSEs are primarily engaged in program delivery and presentations, there will be many occasions that require good writing skills. Level I may be tasked with creating their own handouts if resources are limited. If a first impression is to be made by the written word, then it must be professional. Some educators are very good writers; this is an asset to doing their job professionally. Others find writing to be a difficult skill. If you are not comfortable with your ability to write, take a basic writing course. The results will be well worth the effort and will benefit all areas of your professional life. At the very least, be sure to ask someone else to read your work before sending it out. Even good writers ask for a second reading to ensure that their writing accurately conveys what they mean to say. Following are some tips for more professional writing: Make your point. Put key messages at the top of the document. Let the reader know immediately what is most important. If someone is editing the work, the points at the beginning are more likely to stay intact. Tell a story. Paint a picture with words to draw the reader in. Use anecdotes. Stories with real people tend to be more memorable. Be brief. Subheadings, lists, and boldface words help the reader. Cut the clutter. Use precise verbs to avoid unnecessary adjectives. Avoid buzzwords, acronyms, and jargon. This is especially important for the fire service, which has a language of its own. The general public will not readily understand terms and expressions such as SCBA, suppression, or running hot. Vary sentence length. This practice keeps the writing more interesting. Using too many short sentences produces choppy copy. Using too many long sentences makes the writing hard to follow. Finish correspondence, proposals, and other pieces with a final push at the end to reinforce the original point. Take the reader by slight surprise yet sum things up just right. People read in a left-to-right zig-zag pattern. To make materials easier to read, arrange the flow of information in this pattern. When writing for older adults, remember to be precise, keep it short, use everyday language, and focus on action steps. Use high contrast and easy-toread fonts. Allow for white space on a page. White space is the empty space on a page that allows natural places for the eyes to relax from reading. Avoid wrapping the text around a graphic. Keep in mind that brochures and pamphlets may end up in the hands of people who are not literate. Use simple, easy-tounderstand graphics along with simple text to convey messages. Highlight every other line with a grey background. For those who struggle with the written word, information is easier to read when displayed in this format. Be careful when translating materials into a second language. Literal translations may carry a very different meaning when read by people of other cultures. Always ask someone who is fluent in the language to preview materials before distributing them to the community. Educator’s Tip Spell check and grammar check are excellent features of word processing programs, but they are no substitute for proofreading and editing. Always proofread your work or ask another person to check it for you. When work is to be shared with specific demographics, such as older adults, non-Englishspeaking communities, or teachers, ask a member of their community to read the work and provide feedback from their point of view. Record Keeping and Documentation You should document all presentations and activities. The information will be necessary for future budgeting, staffing, scheduling, grant writing, monthly and annual department reports, community risk reduction efforts, reporting out to community partners, and evaluation. Formats for these daily activity reports can range from paper and pencil to more sophisticated online programs. It doesn’t really matter what format is used, as long as all reports contain the same information, follow the same prescribed form, are consistent, and easily accessible by all members potentially needing the information. A fill-in-the blank form will expedite the administrative time spent on this activity. If the department utilizes a centralized electronic calendar, a brief description of appointments requiring attendance by other staff members should be entered to avoid schedule conflicts. These appointments might include station tours, block parties, car seat safety checks and other timespecific events. An activity report for the fire and life safety program will include daily log reports for individual educators that provide an overview of the day’s events. Elements of the report should include time spent on phone calls, scheduling appointments, internal and external meetings, research (including current events and news about the community), training received and training delivered, and evaluation. E-mail Etiquette There is etiquette to using e-mail. E-mail is easy and efficient to use and can take the place of two-way communication that requires immediate feedback, so people tend to take more risks when using it. The following prescriptions are important to achieving positive results when communicating via e-mail: Make messages concise and clear. People dislike long e-mails. Think about the last time you clicked on an e-mail and paragraphs of text popped up on the screen. Did you feel like reading it or saving it to read later? Screen loading, or writing very long messages, can annoy the recipients, especially if they are already busy. Stick to one or two points per e-mail. Limit “FYIs.” If you believe someone will benefit from the information, tell the reader at the beginning of the message why you think it would be of interest to him or her. Say what you need in the subject line. In some cases, you can put everything you need in the subject line. Make the intent of the message clear in the subject line. Begin longer e-mails with a brief note to the readers explaining what you want them to do. For example, “Please review this lesson plan and advise” or “Please check to see that I have not left any coalition members’ names off of this distribution list.” This will help the recipients focus their thoughts and save them time. Be careful when responding to e-mail. The sender of an e-mail often expects a timely response. Not responding may be interpreted as disinterest or rejection. Let others know how often you check your e-mail, whether you personally check it, or if it is a shared account read by others. Consider whether you need to “reply to all” or if a response to one person will suffice. If you want to reply to only one person on the e-mail thread, double-check to ensure that you are not responding to everyone. This will help avoid cluttering e-mail boxes with unnecessary information. It also helps avoid embarrassing situations! Watch your temper. Flaming refers to the insults, criticisms, and character assassinations people fling across e-mail. Patronizing statements, accusations, and backhanded compliments abound. The use of capitalization for an entire statement is considered yelling via e-mail. This is certainly not professional. Avoid chastising or delivering negative feedback via e-mail. For these conversations, face-to-face or telephone communication is always more appropriate. Fill in the recipient window last. Write a clear subject line. Complete the text and attachments of the body of the e-mail before filling out the recipient’s address. This practice will prevent the sender from accidently sending an e-mail without checking that it is written appropriately. Presentations Mark Twain is quoted as saying, “It usually takes more than three weeks to prepare a good impromptu speech.” The best presentations seem effortless, but they are really the results of a great deal of planning and preparation. Good presenters take the time to learn effective public speaking techniques and work with them to develop their own style, keeping what works best and discarding ideas that are not a good fit for their personality. As important as the message itself is the reality that what the educator knows may be less important than how well it is communicated. Given this reality and understanding the value of delivering fire and life safety messages to the public, educators cannot “wing it” or assume that they will be good speakers without practice. It has also been said that what audiences remember is based on 7 percent of what you say, 38 percent of the tone of the presentation, and 55 percent of the facial expressions of the presenter. Where to Begin Even the best and most seasoned educators follow a scripted outline for their presentations. It may appear effortless and conversational, but this is because they know their subject matter, have prepared, and have practiced. The basic format educators use is a lesson plan. A lesson is a component of a program in which the educator directly presents fire or life safety information to a group. It is the actionable component of the overall community risk reduction process for education, and the portion most used by Level I educators FIGURE 9-2. FIGURE 9-2 Components of a risk-reduction strategy for education. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Each presenter will have his or her own style, ideally, using methods that are most comfortable and appropriate for their delivery. All of them should be working from the same lesson plan so the information provided by the department is consistent. As long as each presenter teaches to the objectives of the lesson, the learning outcomes should be the same, resulting in a positive change in behavior. An objective provides the goal or purpose for the lesson and indicates the desired performance or level of achievement of the participant. Objectives will be itemized at the beginning of the lesson plan. Evaluation is based on the objectives. It is when objectives are measureable and specific that a program can be effectively evaluated. Voice of Experience Not long ago, we had an incident at one of our local, big hotels, where a small fire started on the stove in a saucepan. After it caught on fire, the cook picked it up and ran; he burned himself, spread the fire, and activated the sprinkler system, causing a big mess. It got me thinking: We need a way to educate the people working in restaurants, often immigrants put to work right away without being trained on safety. So I decided to come up with a presentation on reducing injuries and death in cooking. I have a good rapport with the local restaurant managers, so I got them all together and asked if I could teach their workers. As I was creating the speech, I did some research on restaurant setups, and what it involved to be a cook. I also recruited a Spanish-speaking fire fighter to help me translate for the workers. Once I had done that, I came up with a PowerPoint® presentation. For the presentation, I started out going over the reason we were even having the class and that it was going to be a learning experience for everyone. The first thing we did was go over general fire safety in the workplace (such as fire extinguisher use and placement, exit drills, hazards to look for, and what to do in an emergency). I explained why it’s important for every employee to know what to do in case of an emergency. I touched on why we don’t remove hot skillets or anything that is hot and has the potential of producing a flame and causing an injury to themselves or others—why we leave items on fire where they are and try to extinguish them there. To underscore the point, I showed a couple of slides from previous fires that have occurred in the commercial cooking environment. The last thing I taught was the importance of knowing how to activate the fire suppression systems within the cooking areas, and the importance of exiting the workplace and not going back in until cleared by the fire department. Having done so much research up front helped ensure an effective, professional presentation. And bringing in the managers helped to capture the crowd, because they were able to communicate to their workers the importance of this information. —Gary Cochran, Public Education Officer, Grapevine Fire Prevention Division, TX Elements of a good lesson plan will be flexible enough that any educator can teach from it and achieve the desired results. An evaluation of the program and content will provide similar outcomes because each educator knew exactly what was to be taught. Information in a lesson plan should include: topic, timeframe, target audience, objectives, necessary support materials, room setup, chronological order of presentation points, activities for application practice, closure or summary, independent practice, and evaluation. More information about writing lesson plans is provided in the chapter Educational Materials, Lessons, and Programs. Do Things the Right Way Professionals rely on a litany of helpful ideas and methods to make them adept at their craft. The longer they deliver presentations, the less they need to give much thought to each of the tips. Over time, the techniques become so intertwined with the speaker’s repertoire that they are second nature to planning a presentation TABLE 9-1. Some of the most helpful reminders to new educators for planning presentations include the ones listed below: TABLE 9-1 Presentation Pointers 1. Build credibility before the speech and continue to shore it up throughout. 2. Prove yourself to the audience; give them a reason to listen to you. 3. Establish a relationship with the audience. 4. Arrange points in chronological, cause–effect, problem–solution, or topical order. 5. Assemble all possible points; then group them in logical order. Can use sticky notes, webs, or concepts mapping. 6. Avoid information overload. Give the audience what they need, not everything you know. 7. Make sure all points correspond to the thesis statement or objectives. 8. It is not what you say, but how you say it (saying it confidently; delivery is important). 9. Stay within the timeframe. 10. Have at least two but no more than five main points in an average speech. 11. Investigate the audience. How do they learn best? What are their concerns, needs, and interests? 12. Develop a full-sentence outline to make sure everything is clear and worked through. 13. Have a logical sequence. Does one point segue to the next point? 14. Use a natural voice and full range, breathe, and be animated during delivery. 15. Use humor only if it feels natural. Never use humor to attack anyone. Any humor should relate to the points of the presentation. 16. Use precise, specific, clear language. 17. Suit the formality of the language to the audience and the occasion. 18. Avoid jargon, slang, and substandard use of language. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. 19. Use inclusive, respectful language. 20. Engage the audience by involving them. Allow the audience to be active participants. 21. Keep up the energy level through to the end. If the speaker loses steam, so will the audience. 22. Use appropriate visual aids that are not distracting. Practice using visual aids that are simple and clear. Keep eye contact with the audience as much as possible while using visual aids. 23. Use examples relevant to the audience. 24. Prepare a meaningful, impactful conclusion. Remind the audience how the information affects them. Leave them with a challenge or an appeal. Summarize the main points. 25. After the conclusion has been presented, avoid further talking points or additional information. 26. Remember primacy and recency – prepare a powerful introduction and powerful conclusion. Sometimes that’s all people come away with when the presentation is over. 27. Check to make sure the technology is available and compatible. Give yourself time to set it up. Tell the organizer what you might need ahead of time. 28. Make a conscious decision not to be judgmental or biased. 29. Make the decision to enjoy the time with the audience. 30. Relax! (This will come with experience.) Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Speakers are on the audience’s clock, not their own. Always finish early. It is better to have time left at the end than to run over allotted time frames. A talk should take 20 to 30 minutes. Did you know that 18 minutes is the ideal length of time for a presentation?1 People generally have a hard time sitting still longer than that. If the presentation includes interactive work for the learners, an hour is appropriate. Some novice speakers feel a need to fill the time, stretching their messages. Give the audience credit for being able to see this as a time-filler and a waste of their time. At least one day before the speaking engagement, confirm the meeting date, time, location, and contact person. The audience should never be a stranger to the speaker. Get to know about them through studying their history before the meeting, asking questions of others who are familiar with their characteristics, or arriving early to get a feel for their environment, personalities, and concerns. Arriving early allows the speaker to walk around and talk informally with people as they arrive. These casual encounters can occur in the hallways, during setup (audience members may even offer to help), or while getting a cup of coffee. You will have new friends sitting in your audience. Use all available channels to learn more about your audience. Make your vision their vision. Find some common ground that establishes a connection between the importance of the topic and things the audience hold dear in their lives. Engage with the audience on an emotional level. Storytelling breaks down barriers and takes the audience on a journey. Avoid interjecting too many stories, but a few strong stories will help to draw a better picture and lock in the messages. Practice, practice, practice. All speeches need to be prepared. Preparation does not mean that a presentation will sound rehearsed. The presenter will always have more confidence when fully prepared. Research your topic beyond the scope of the lesson plan so you are prepared with the most current and relevant information and the ability to answer questions more accurately. Watch the use of improper grammar, acronyms, and jargon. Any unfamiliar terms will create a greater distance between the speaker and the audience. If the speaker is not sure if the audience is already cognizant of some terms and does not want to insult them by giving an explanation, an acceptable way to frame descriptions and definitions is to say, “You may already be familiar with the term [new term], but for clarification, it is [description].” Avoid the temptation to say negative things such as “I know this isn’t an exciting topic,” “I realize you’d rather be doing something else tonight,” or “You probably wish you were at home watching football on TV right now.” The speaker may know very well that this is the case, but once it is said out loud, it reminds everyone “Yes, that’s exactly what I’d rather be doing! My wife dragged me here.” It is the speaker’s responsibility to make the topic interesting and meaningful for the audience, not to point out the insignificance of the information. Provide refreshments. Experienced presenters know that people connect around food and that it helps create a feeling of hospitality. If you are hosting a presentation, and if it has been included in the budget, offer light refreshments for your guests. Provide name tags or tent cards when practical. It is easier to address audience members by name rather than by pointing to them or saying things such as, “Yes, you in the red sweater.” When you use names, it sets the stage for more personal discussions and familiarity. If the group is small and the educator is good with remembering names, have the members introduce themselves at the beginning of the session and try to use their names throughout. Make eye contact with individuals in the audience. Rather than darting from person to person with eye contact throughout the presentation, it is better to look one person square in the eye and hold that contact for at least five seconds or for one complete thought before moving on. This technique also draws in the people sitting behind them. Have a conversation with the audience, not a presentation. Position yourself with the slides to your left. The audience’s eyes will naturally follow the speaker on their left to the slides on the right. Try not to talk too fast. A couple of seconds of silence during a speech makes only one person uncomfortable—the speaker. Allow important statements to be absorbed. Look for the “friendly faces in the crowd.” Those who are smiling, nodding, or demonstrating engaged body language become the speaker’s friends and yardsticks for success. Visually check in with these supportive individuals throughout the presentation as a way to monitor your progress. A friendly face helps to bolster a speaker’s confidence and indicates that things are moving along the right track. Whenever possible, use inclusive language. Saying “we” instead of “I” or “you” is a subtle way to bring the audience and the speaker into the same camp. When you use the second person pronoun, it can be mistaken for having an accusatory tone. For instance, the speaker will gain more favor by saying, “We all need to be preparing home disaster preparedness kits” instead of “You should prepare a home disaster preparedness kit.” Learn the skills of cross-cultural communication, including what gestures, words, and mannerisms could be offensive to people of other cultures. Talk to someone from that community to ensure that you do not offend the audience or embarrass the department. Show; don’t tell. Demonstrate and use visuals to support speaking points. Learn the value of a good story. Do not just deliver presentations; perform them. The effect of a presentation is often much more about how the speaker talks and looks than about what he or she says. Stick to the substance of the information and what you know regardless of how animated you are or how many support materials are part of the class. Do not spend too much time trying to find the right quote or the perfect story to draw your auditory pictures. Think twice about using jokes as an opener or to spice up the presentation. Although it is sometimes very appropriate to open with a humorous bit of factual information, be careful with this form of entertainment because it can be dangerous territory. If joke telling does not match the presenter’s personality, it will probably be obvious to the audience and fall short of the intended effect. Those who are adept at using humor and have found success with it in the past should certainly keep it in their arsenal, but they should keep it in the correct doses. Joke telling has no place in a serious discussion with an audience who has suffered a loss. Light humor may help ease tension, but sarcasm and jokes are inappropriate. The conclusion to a presentation is just as critical to the entire package as the introduction and the content. Do not end too abruptly; instead, let the audience down gently by summarizing, reframing, and challenging them to take action and make positive changes in their lives. A powerful close will leave the audience with something of value and bring it all directly back home to where the journey began. Having said this, the conclusion to a presentation should only take about one minute. Remember, “When you’re done, you’re done.” Try not to ramble on. Before leaving, outline the next steps that should be taken and let the audience know exactly how and where they can take their new skills and knowledge to make the most beneficial changes. Start strong and end strong. Finally, try to relax and enjoy giving the presentation. You’ve planned, prepared, and practiced. You deserve to feel good about what you’ve created. The audience will sense that you take pride in your work. If you are passionate about your presentation and enjoy working with your audience, they will sense this. The emotional contagion will result in a surprisingly enjoyable experience for you and the audience. This will come more naturally with more experience. Educator’s Tip When making speaking engagement arrangements, remember to ask what other programs might be taking place in an adjacent room. It is difficult to capture an audience’s attention with a serious program about burn injuries when the downbeat for an aerobics class is pounding away in the next room. It may be best to reschedule. A Roadmap for Presentations A familiar saying that provides a simple guideline for presentation formats is: “Tell them what you’re going to tell them. Tell them what you want to tell them. Tell them what you told them.” This mantra covers the basics, but there is more to it than this. Consider the following steps for delivering a presentation to avoid missing anything that should be included: 1. Introduce yourself. Keep it brief. Who are you? Don’t bore the audience with too many credentials. However, it may be necessary to mention your credentials to establish your credibility. This can also be accomplished at other places in the presentation where it will be appropriate to help establish a certain level of expertise. It is more important to give the audience information that will allow them to make a connection with the speaker. From this point forward, it is important to continue to develop a rapport with the audience. Speakers should foster a close, harmonious relationship characterized by mutual understanding, good communication, and trust. Take a moment to turn the tables and ask a few short questions to learn about the audience. This will assist in establishing a rapport with those in front of you. 2. Make announcements. (Depending on the circumstances, this may be the first step.) If announcements have not already been addressed by someone before you begin, there will be certain housekeeping items that need attention. For instance, where are the nearest exits and washrooms? How will breaks be scheduled? Has everyone turned off their cell phones and pagers? What are the expectations for participation during the class? 3. Provide an overview of the class or presentation. Let the audience know where they are going. Begin the presentation by standing in one spot, almost stationary, with no dancing around. This indicates that you are ready to get down to business and that you’re in command. More animated body language can come into play later. 4. Introduce a “hook” or anticipatory set to prepare the audience for learning and pique their interest in the topic. Remember that the most important parts of a presentation are the first 30 and the last 15 seconds. The Hunter Model for lesson planning can serve as an effective model to follow for most presentations. See Appendix B for a sample of this template. 5. Present the core message. It is more effective to cover two to three points completely rather than trying to pack too many messages into one lesson. Put the most important messages first. These messages will be defined by the objectives. 6. Provide a simple activity for the audience to exercise their new knowledge, even if on a small scale or as a preliminary activity that leads to independent practice. For example, audience members can work in pairs or small groups to begin generating lists of what areas of their homes need the most attention to improve falls hazards. A group of teachers at an in-service meeting can work together to brainstorm about how the information can be integrated with their current curriculum. These activities allow the instructor to assess the learning that has taken place to this point and provide active learning for the audience members. 7. Conclude with a strong culminating statement, challenge, or activity to reinforce all presented messages. Provide take-home materials that will reinforce the message for the secondary audiences. 8. Assess and evaluate, formally or informally. Educator’s Tip Every fire and life safety education presentation should include an announcement of the primary and secondary exits before beginning the presentation. The Nuts and Bolts of Presentations These are the more tangible items and tasks necessary to be fully prepared for a presentation. Educators may want to develop three types of checklists for speaking engagements. One list will include tasks to complete in preparing for the talk, a second list will consist of contact information, and a third list will consist of items to bring to the speaking engagement that will be necessary for the actual presentation. Completing these checklists will help speakers feel more confident before the presentation because there are fewer arrangements left to chance. Appendix B includes a sample of each of these checklists. Educator’s Tip Prepare three checklists and keep them on file. Routinely fill out the forms for each presentation to ensure that you have all the information and support materials necessary to deliver a professional speaking engagement. If you are making arrangements for another speaker, it will be helpful to provide them with this information. Room Setup Age group characteristics and other audience demographics, along with the type of presentation, available space, and level of activity and interaction will dictate the best physical arrangement for the room. Sometimes this is beyond the control of the speaker, and the presentation will need be adjusted to accommodate the setup provided by the host organization. It may not be ideal for the planned activities or for the target audience’s style of learning, but the experienced presenter will figure out the best way to maximize learning in the given environment. When gathering information before a presentation, it is useful to find out the exact location of the presentation within the facility, the type of type of room provided, typical seating arrangements and availability of speaker support items. If there is any possibility to request a particular setup more conducive for the presentation, take this opportunity to discuss the room layout. FIGURE 9-3 depicts common seating arrangements based on the type of presentation and size of the audience. FIGURE 9-3 Common seating arrangements for large groups (A) and small groups (B). © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Educational and Instructional Materials Many examples of educational support materials and props as they related to appropriateness for specific age groups and populations were discussed in the chapter Learning Styles and Theories, Teaching Methods, and Strategies. Some of these can be developed and created in-house. Others are purchased as professionally designed and marketed additions to program delivery, and come in many forms and price points. When choosing materials or props for a presentation, consider the following guidelines to make the best use of resources and to ensure the most valuable educational experience: Age appropriateness for both the primary and secondary audiences. Accurate and current information. Discontinue use of support materials that no longer match current messaging. Relevancy to the lesson objectives. Culturally competent and sensitive graphics, language, and artifacts. Visual aids and props usable within viewing range for the entire audience. Any items that will be passed around or handled should be clean and safe. Interactive vs. static displays and props. Interactive is better for message retention. If you are using interactive activities, is there enough room and enough time for all audience members to participate? Realistic and authentic items make the best impression for an audience FIGURE 9-4. Nonthreatening visual aids (videos, CDs, pictures, actual items from a fire). Remember that a scared child cannot learn! Prudent use of budget monies for handouts. Items such as brochures and giveaways have a one-time use and are considered consumables. Will these actually be read or used once the participants have left the room, or will they be thrown away? Can you incorporate a sign-off component to be collected and rewarded with a prize once the pamphlet is read, or a behavior change can be demonstrated FIGURE 9-5? Promotional items can be used as “cues to action” rather than simply handed out. Erasers, cups, stickers, pencils, and other items can be handed to the teacher who agrees to distribute them to the children once they have completed an assignment (test smoke alarms, create a home escape map, conduct a home hazard survey) FIGURE 9-6. FIGURE 9-4 Realistic and authentic items make a more lasting impression for an audience such as these melted smoke alarms. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 9-5 Student home smoke alarm check sheet. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. FIGURE 9-6 Promotional items catalogs. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Educator’s Tip Children often want to touch a visual aid. This is how they learn and remember. If there is not enough time to pass the object around or if it will be disruptive to do so, tell the children you will stand near the door as they leave the room and hold the object for them to touch on their way out. Dealing with the Unexpected Murphy’s Law states, “If anything can go wrong, it will.” Even the best laid plans can develop an unforeseen wrinkle. What about hostile audience members? There are a few tricks of the trade for dealing with these negative individuals. First, do not engage in the “fight.” Repeat and rephrase the question, including the emotions that accompanied it. The questioner will know you’ve really heard him or her. This can help diffuse some of the negative emotions. When answering the question, address the entire audience, not solely the individual who began the exchange. While doing so, make eye contact with someone else in the audience. This takes away the impression that there is a twoway discourse going on between the speaker and the one upset individual. It also prevents the conversation from getting off course and steeped in an emotional topic. Any engagement beyond this should be handled offline. No number of checklists can guarantee a perfect world. Always have a backup plan and materials. Room arrangements may have been switched at the last minute, providing a different seating arrangement or poor acoustics. The staff may have forgotten to provide a projector or screen. Parents did not read the instructions, and many brought very young children to an adult presentation. As much as possible, bring everything you might need with you. Prepare for the rare instance that all audiovisual equipment breaks down. How will you handle this situation when the audience needs to see pictures? How will you adjust the content if young children are in the room throughout the presentation? Consider all possibilities and learn to take them in stride when they happen. That’s what professionals do. It puts the audience at ease and earns you points as you take control of the situation. Slide and PowerPoint® Presentations PowerPoint® allows speakers to present colorful, animated, and visual presentations and eliminates the need for posters and multiple handouts. Audiences have something to look at other than the speaker. Videos can be inserted. Colorful graphics support text. There are many advantages to this teaching aid. Bring along a flash drive and a laptop, and you are on your way to a professional-looking presentation. Unfortunately, too many presenters use PowerPoint® as the presentation itself. It becomes a substitute for an engaged presenter, as the speaker reads the entire content of the material from the slides. This “death by PowerPoint®” is certain to put the audience to sleep. Other common mistakes include loading each slide with too much information, too many graphics, and spinning and bouncing text—visual acrobatics that detract from the core of the information and overwhelm the audience. For educators who enjoy using slides for teaching, it is a good idea to read books about the most effective use of this tool or to take a basic course. The following fundamental guidelines serve as a foundation for educators beginning to use this teaching tool: Reduce the outline to the essentials the audience needs. Do not put the entire point on the slide. The explanation is your job. When creating bulleted text, use one concept per slide. Use only key words and phrases—primarily nouns and verbs. Eliminate unnecessary words and descriptive adjectives. Do not read the slides to the audience. Use an appropriate font size. Sizes 22 or 24 are the recommended font sizes, with 18 being the minimum. Titles should be at least 38 or 40 points. Some fonts are easier to read than others. For slide presentations, it is best to use fonts with clean straight lines, such as Times New Roman, Book Antiqua, Bookman Old Style, or Arial. Stay within the 8 × 8 rule. This rule dictates no more than eight lines of text per slide and no more than eight words per line. Some presenters even prefer a 6 × 6 rule. Make bullet points consistent in structure. Keep the tense and voice (passive or active) parallel throughout all bullet points. Doing so helps the audience understand the points more quickly. Capitalize properly. Some presenters use all capital letters in their slides. Adults have learned to read and have subconsciously memorized the shape of lowercase words. If the text is in all capital letters, it takes them longer to process the text. Determine the correct number of slides. The general rule is one or two slides per minute. So, if the slide presentation is scheduled for 20 minutes, there should be no more than 40 slides. Some speakers pride themselves on the vast number of slides in their presentations. Never was there a better time to remember the adage, “Less is more.” If your presentation is full of support information, stories, and examples, the number of slides should be even less. Plan backward from the total amount of time allotted for lesson. If the total class time is 30 minutes and you know you need to allow approximately 10 minutes for a group activity and 5 minutes at the end for questions and answers, that leaves a total of 15 minutes for slides, or a maximum of 30 slides. Beware of too many fun and funky transitions. Words, pictures, and new slides can fly, zoom, flash, peek, and swivel up on the screen—and they can do so to music or special sound effects. A special effect can be used to emphasize a point, but too many of these combined with a cacophony of sound will look gimmicky. Double-check before the presentation that any imbedded video or sounds (e.g., a 911 call) work on the equipment and sound system. Depending on how you build your presentation, it may reference your C drive to find the file, which is not on the C drive of the computer at the venue. It is best to bring your own laptop and connect it to their system. Newer versions of PowerPoint® allow presenters to imbed videos directly into the slide presentation so there is no need to link to another drive or outside source. Investigate the copyright on pictures and videos before making them part of your presentation. Either obtain permission to use them, or find something else appropriate to illustrate the point. Today, there are many platforms other than PowerPoint® available and useable for professional presentations, such as Prezi, Google Docs, electronic dry erase boards, and student response systems, to name a few. Discuss the systems available to your organization and learn to be proficient in their use. Partnerships, Teams, and Coalitions The fire service has realized through the past several decades that educating an entire community in fire and life safety is a task that requires the expertise of many agencies and professionals. Networking through teams, partnerships, coalitions, and interagency networks provide the benefit of pooling resources, knowledge, and experience. Those who share experiences and work together toward a common goal provide a catalyst for creating emotional connections. Coalitions and teams allow members to be part of something bigger than themselves. As work progresses and all participants bring their strengths and weaknesses to the table to work together, a synergy develops, driving them and their energy forward. The potential for more productivity, creativity, and divergent thinking is multiplied. Educators may find themselves participating in small department teams, local and state associations and coalitions, or even national organizations and forums. It is important to look beyond the scope of your home community to develop an awareness and appreciation for best practices, new ideas, and the most recent data that supports or refutes program messaging. Many national organizations now provide downloadable free lesson plans and handouts. TABLE 9-2 provides a partial list of organizations and association that are recommended to be most useful for Level I educators. TABLE 9-2 List of Recommended National Organizations 1. American Burn Association 2. American Psychological Association 3. American Red Cross 4. Center for Campus Safety 5. Burn Concerns 6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 7. Department of Homeland Security 8. People First 9. Federation of Burn Foundations 10. Federal Emergency Management Agency 11. Fire 20/20 12. Fireproof Children 13. FireSmartKids 14. Firewise Communities 15. Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition 16. International Association of Arson Investigators 17. International Association of Fire Chiefs 18. International Association of Fire Fighters 19. International Association of Fire Marshals 20. International Association of Hispanic Firefighters 21. International Fire Service Training Association 22. International Society of Fire Service Instructors 23. John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health 24. Keep Kids Safe Foundation 25. National Association for the Education of Young Children 26. National Association of State Fire Marshals 27. National Fire Protection Association 28. National Fire Sprinkler Association 29. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 30. National Institue of Standards and Technology 31. National Safety Council 32. National Volunteer Fire Council 33. Northeast Youth Set Fire Task Force 34. NRICS Youth Fire Safety Alliance 35. Phoenix Society for Burn Survivors 36. ProLiteracy 37. Safe Kids Worldwide 38. SOS Fires Data from National Fire Protection Association. 39. ThinkFirst Foundation 40. United States Fire Administration 41. Underwriters Laboratory 42. United States Forest Service 43. Vision 20/20 Data from National Fire Protection Association. Having extolled the virtues of teamwork, it must also be pointed out that although coalitions provide many advantages to advance the cause of education, several barriers and pitfalls can derail all efforts unless steps are taken at the outset to prevent their occurrence. The first step is identifying the easily understood and routinely emphasized vision, mission, and goals of the team. If these statements are written down and consistently reinforced, they will serve as a point of reference for priorities, questions, and misunderstandings. The second step is creating a clear set of operating rules, standard operating procedures, values, boundaries, and conventions of behavior. These parameters can be developed by all members of the team. Items to consider might include methods of communication, duties and responsibilities, expectations for attendance, and identification of the point person for communication. The most effective teams have characteristics that allow them to function smoothly and to navigate through the rough spots. These teams have respect for each member and are given the freedom and authority to manage their own work and responsibilities. They also recognize the strength and contributions each person brings to the table. Some members bring task management skills such as initiating ideas, information seeking, clarifying, elaborating, energizing and stimulating, coordinating, orienting the team toward its stated goals, handling operational details, recording, and questioning or checking for quality. Others bring more interpersonal skills such as encouraging, mediating, bringing others to consensus, gatekeeping and keeping everyone included, reflecting on both the negative and positives, setting standards, and following as well as leading. Every team needs good listeners and followers. If everyone on the team is a vocal leader, no one will be heard. A heterogeneous team will always be more creative than a team composed of people with similar backgrounds and ideas TABLE 9-3. The latter types of teams often fall into the trap of a groupthink. Groupthink is a thought process exhibited by group members who try to minimize conflict and reach consensus without critically testing, analyzing, challenging, and evaluating ideas. When team members place too much emphasis on conformity of opinion, they lose their ability to look at alternative solutions, think beyond the obvious, and challenge the status quo. Teams benefit when members are free to challenge each other in an atmosphere of respect and tolerance and when new and different viewpoints and ideas are welcomed and encouraged. All teams and coalitions engage in decision making processes at some point during their existence. This integrated, participative sequence of activities includes such actions as setting goals, gathering, sharing and interpreting information, evaluating alternatives and choosing a solution, and implementing and evaluating a final consensus. Today’s work environment for a team may be a virtual conference room. Individuals separated by many miles may function as a team and accomplish their goals through conference calls, e-mails, or video conferencing. Time and money can be saved by operating as virtual teams, but a percentage of face-to-face time at some level is important for better interpersonal communication and understanding. Try It—It Works! One way to get a team working together is for a leader or facilitator to introduce a problem on a flip chart, white board, or screen at the outset of the meeting. When the members all understand the issue, they silently write ideas for 10 to 15 minutes. The group then takes turns around the table sharing their ideas or each member can submit his or her ideas to the leader, who reports on the feedback. As a group, the team can rank the ideas and begin to consider the possibilities. This encourages every member to contribute. TABLE 9-3 Common Roles in Teams and Work Groups Advisor: Assumes the role of informing the team of the available options to be considered and the approaches to be used in dealing with changing events. Boundary spanner: Acts as a bridge or liaison between groups or people in an organization who might not otherwise interact. These important team members are exposed to more ideas and information than members who do not interact with other groups. Boundary spanners are able to integrate ideas at a deeper cognitive and creative level because of their interaction with more ways of thinking and operating. Coordinator: Arranges formal and informal communication with other people, agencies, or organizations outside the team. Gatekeeper: Controls the flow of information to and from the group. This is usually a trusted, respected member who uses discretion and good judgment in deciding the most effective way to share important information. Interpreter: Shapes the collective thinking and understanding of the team. Because messages can be ambiguous and open to several interpretations, this is the member who can effectively and accurately take the information and frame it in the correct context for the group’s use. Lobbyist: Provides meaning about what the team is doing and its importance to people outside the team. This extremely important team member controls the perceptions of what the team is doing. He or she may take the same information and present it three different ways to three different groups, depending on their goals and interests. The lobbyist needs good interpersonal skills and an ability to understand the role of their home team in the bigger picture. Negotiator: Acts as a mediator when the team is in conflict with others. The team empowers this member to negotiate on behalf of the entire team. This person has the ability to define options, stay focused, and obtain additional resources and options. Spokesperson: The voice of the team. Within the team, this position may evolve naturally or by general consensus. Externally, another agency or higher level organization may appoint the person they choose as the spokesperson for the group. Source: Adapted from Leigh, L. Making the Team: A Guide for Managers, 2nd edition. Thompson, Pearson, 2003. Even the best teams can experience conflict. But those who are professionals know how to avert disaster and the disintegration of a potentially successful collaborative effort. One commonly encountered phenomenon is the development of cliques in a team. These should be dealt with as soon as possible to avoid escalating problems. If they are allowed to go on, morale, pride, trust, and team spirit will disappear. Another phenomenon of groups is social loafing by individual members. Some members of teams do not work as hard in a team as when they work independently because they know others will get the job done. The bigger the team, the more likely this behavior becomes and the less likely any one member will work as diligently as in a smaller team. In large teams, it is even more important to identify responsibilities, make sure they are appropriate to each member’s level of ability and experience, and make sure there is accountability to the entire team for completion of each member’s task. Teams, coalitions, and partnerships are examined in further detail in the chapter Program Design and Management. It is common for team or coalition members to have personal or organization agendas at work that are in conflict with the group’s goals. It is possible that some individuals are present as a way to get their name on a list or in a publication, others are at the table because their organization wants recognition as a contributor to the final product, and still others may need the experience as part of a job requirement or resume builder. These are unfortunate circumstances, but the reality is that the situation may exist and may become a drain on the team because the mission of the team is not at the heart of the participants’ involvement. This is why it is important to develop and revisit the mission and goals often during the group’s existence. If there are any indications that team members are in disagreement because of goals in conflict with the greater good of the project, they need a sharp reminder to refocus on the mission and vision of the team’s existence. Partnerships, teams, and coalitions have the potential to produce creative and rich results. Educators can deal with problems that are inherent in teamwork by understanding the dynamics of teamwork and the most reasonable methods to work through them. Working with Other Fire Department Members Educators must be able to work well with other department members. Some members may not value the mission of public education; others are simply uncomfortable in this role. All department members deserve to be respected and considered when education initiatives affect their job. Following are a few simple reminders when looking to colleagues to assist with fire and life safety education: What else is on the schedule for them on the day they are requested to assist with a program? Check the training schedule, talk to them, and communicate with their officer first. Put the right person in the right job. One fire fighter may be a wonderful teacher for children and another more suitable for working with older adults. Take time to learn about their skills and match the fire fighters with the correct audience. It will be more enjoyable and successful for both parties. Perhaps one person is not interested in speaking to a group but would be willing to build a prop or visual aid. If a fire fighter agrees to assist with a program, take the time to show up at the event and support the person’s efforts. Make sure he or she knows you are not there to critique the performance but rather to provide support in any way possible. Give fire fighters everything they need to be successful when working in public education. Not only do they need an outline and visual aids, but they also need information about their audience, where to find additional resources, and any other information that might be helpful. Offer to assist in presenting a program the first time. It will give the person more confidence and allow him or her to see how you handle questions and demonstrations. Encourage fire fighters to put their own fingerprints on all programs. The more ownership a person takes in a program, the more likely he or she is to enjoy working with it. Follow up with a thank you in a written note, e-mail, or some other form the person will appreciate. But it must be sincere. Never take this help for granted. Never take advantage of people lending assistance. Get to know the fire fighters working with education programs. They will probably have good ideas. Listen and learn from them. Educator’s Tip If a fire fighter assists with or takes over an education program, be sure to communicate this positive initiative up the chain of command. It must not be handled in a way that embarrasses the fire fighter, but it should be acknowledged and reported to his or her supervisor. Wrap-Up © Greg Henry/ShutterStock, Inc Summary Points Professionalism embodies a number of qualities. All department members can and should demonstrate professionalism when representing the department. Most educators realize their weaknesses. Working with the public means concentrating on improving habits that will interfere with a professional image and presentations. Even short, informal presentations require some preparation and planning. Beginning educators need to spend time honing their presentation skills. The more presentations an educator delivers, the less time it will take to pull together a polished presentation. But even experienced educators need to prepare. It is never appropriate to “wing it.” PowerPoint® is not a presentation; rather, it is a tool used to support presentations. Most people learn through a variety of modalities. Many are visual learners. Use visuals, demonstrate, and deliver animated presentations. Few presenters are able to keep an audience interested when the entire message is delivered by a “talking head.” In today’s world, educators can download many safety messages, outlines, and programs. However, the measure of the effectiveness of these programs will come in the method of delivery. Educators who study and practice the skills involved in preparing and presenting presentations experience greater success, enjoy the process, and more fully engage their audiences. Partnerships, teams, and coalitions provide individuals and organizations with the ability to pool resources, knowledge, and experience.Those who understand how to work in teams and who share with all members for the good of the mission and goals of the group will reap the greatest rewards. Information hoarding is counterproductive and self-serving. Key Terms Flaming Insults, criticisms, and character assassinations people send via e-mail. Groupthink A thought process exhibited by group members who try to minimize conflict and reach consensus without critically testing, analyzing, challenging, and evaluating ideas. Lesson A component of a program in which the educator directly presents fire or life safety information to a group. Liability The legal responsibility and accountability for an act or process related to a program. Objective A statement that describes what a learner will be able to do after completing a unit of instruction. Screen loading Writing lengthy e-mail messages. Social loafing A phenomenon of groups that occurs when some members of teams do not work as hard in a team as when they work independently because they know others will get the job done. White space The empty space on a page that allows natural places for the eyes to relax from reading. Review Questions 1. List some attributes of educators who exemplify the true meaning of professionalism. 2. What types of behaviors and practices will erode a professional image when working with the general public? 3. What are five important tips for educators to remember to help improve their writing skills? 4. List ten tips for creating effective presentations. 5. List the educational materials and props you would bring when addressing a group of homeowners about the importance of installing smoke alarms in all sleeping areas of the home. Critical Thinking 1. Develop a generic introduction about yourself that will serve as a solid foundation in most situations to foster trust and credibility with audiences. Keep this introduction on file and use it as a template to be updated and tailored for audiences and topics in the future. 2. You have been assigned to attend local coalition meetings for the development of a community safety event. The meetings seem to run on an agenda-less schedule, members ramble on about irrelevant topics, and a small number of members control the direction of the majority of the decisions. Although you do not serve as the chairperson, what are some ways you might help improve the structure of the meetings? 3. Design an outline for a presentation on the topic of injury prevention and its importance in the school curriculum. The presentation is part of a fire department presentation to the local school board. Include an introduction, any pertinent announcements, an overview of the presentation, a “hook,” the core message, and a simple activity. Provide a strong conclusion. How can you evaluate the effectiveness of the presentation? Think About It and Make It Better You have been acting as a safety educator in the town for one year and have earned a good reputation for the fire department through your efforts. The chief has also been impressed by the results of the program in terms of testimonials regarding safer practices, improved safety measures implemented in schools and businesses, and pre- and posttest results from programs. He has asked that you conduct training for other department members on the value of participating in the fire and life safety activities. Using a web, as provided in the chapter Learning Styles and Theories, Teaching Methods, and Strategies, begin outlining ideas that will be incorporated and those that should not be used in this presentation. What can be used as a “hook” for this group? Reference 1. Gallo, C. Talk Like Ted. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2014, pp. 183. Additional Resources Gallo, C. Talk Like Ted. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2014. Klann, G. Building Your Team’s Morale, Pride, and Spirit. Greensboro, NC: Center for Creative Leadership, 2004. Morgenstern, J. Never Check E-Mail in the Morning. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2005. Palmer, S. Good in a Room. New York: Doubleday, 2008. Rotondo, J. and Rotondo, M., Jr. Presentation Skills for Managers. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Sprague, J. and Stuart, D. The Speaker’s Handbook, 5th ed. Orlando: Harcourt Brace and Company, 2000. Steele, W. R. Presentation Skills 201. Denver, CO: Outskirts Press, Inc., 2009. Stewart, G. l., Manz, C. C., and Sims, H. P., Jr. Team Work and Group Dynamics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999. Thompson, L. L. Making the Team. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2004. Wallace, M. Guide on the Side – Room Setups for Presentations & Training – One Size Does NOT Fit All. Available at http://www.LLRX.com, 2002. Wilder, C. The Presentations Kit: 10 Steps for Selling Your Ideas. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994. Young Markets Effective Business Communications. Room Layouts & their Uses. Available at http://www.youngmarkets.co.uk, 2008. Zelazny, G. Say it with Presentations. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000. CHAPTER 10: Public Relations and Working with Media Paper: © silver-john/ShutterStock, Inc.; Chapter Opener Photo: Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Explain why safety educators inherit the role of public relations as part of their responsibilities. (p. 198) Distinguish the differences among public relations, publicity, and marketing. (pp. 198–199) Demonstrate an understanding of internal and external publics for fire departments. (pp. 200–201) Discuss basic principles of public relations. (p. 199) Identify various marketing tools available to safety educators to promote safety messages. (pp. 211–213) Identify ways people are persuaded and provide examples of each. (pp. 202–203) List types of publicity available to safety educators for advancing safety messages. (pp. 206–209) Notify the public and convey the details about a scheduled event. NFPA 4.4.5 (pp. 207–209) Distribute educational information to a target audience within a specified timeframe. NFPA 4.4.6 (pp. 207–211) Using the appropriate electronic forms of communication for the topic, convey accurate and timely information about an event, incident, or policy. NFPA 4.4.7 (pp. 207–209) Introduction At one time or another, most safety educators will find themselves stepping into the role of public relations specialist. As they attempt to serve as a liaison between the organization and its messages to the public, their responsibility will be to work in the best interests of both. Without benefit of formal training, educators may need to provide publicity, promotion, marketing, merchandising, or advertising for the organization. There will be times when a delicate balance between sensitive information and a commitment to honesty and openness for the public poses a conflict and ethical dilemmas for the educator. Many larger departments have personnel designated specifically as public information officers (PIOs). Sometimes, the roles of PIO and safety educator are filled by the same individual. PIOs have training in dealing with the press on camera, in writing, through social media, and on the street. Department members know that any questions from the media and the public are to be directed to either the administration or the PIO; however, because all safety educators work among the public and are tasked with developing and presenting programs, they are often approached by both media and community members with questions and comments. In this capacity, it is important for safety educators at all levels to understand some basic principles of public relations. This chapter will focus on some of the basics of public relations and working with the media. The chapter Public Information Officer provides more information on this topic and examples. What Is Public Relations? “Oh, Lord, let me utter words sweet and gentle, for tomorrow, I may have to eat them.” Pete Roussel, President Ronald Reagan’s deputy press secretary, coined this phrase the “Press Secretary’s Prayer.”1 The quotation serves as a reminder to educators to be aware of the image they are shaping for their organization and the reputation they are building for themselves, their message, and their co-workers. The British Institute of Public Relations (IPR) has defined public relations as follows: “Public relations is about reputation—the result of what you do, what you say and what others say about you. Public Relations Practice is the discipline which looks after reputation with the aim of earning understanding and support, and influencing opinions and behaviour.” The first step is always building trust and credibility. After earning support and understanding you can begin to influence opinions and change behavior, and that persuasion must be built on sound information. The degree to which this is achievable will be directly proportional to the level of honesty, integrity, and ethics the community attributes to the department and its employees. Voice of Experience As part of my professional role, I sometimes have to manage public relations. Recently, we had a carbon monoxide poisoning incident in our community, which affected four kids and four adults in a home where they had been using a backup power generator; I ended up being the PR person on that incident. The media got involved pretty quickly, since children were involved. I knew they would want to know how this could happen, and how to identify the signs and symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning. I also realized I could use the media as a means of public education. So right away, I did research on NFPA’s website, and even downloaded some statistic sheets on carbon monoxide poisoning (the media likes quick statistics they can quote or use on their screens). I sent out a quick press release with this information so everyone had the same information, and I had these packets available with me on the scene to hand out to reporters. I stayed on scene to be available for interviews, because I knew different outlets had different time frames. Among the things I’ve learned about working with the media: Make brief statements, which will work better as sound bites, ask in advance what kinds of questions they will ask so you can be prepared, and tell them what kinds of questions you’d like them to ask. At noon, I did a follow-up press conference on the status of the individuals involved in the incident, along with key prevention information. Everyone ended up being fine. Since this was close to the holidays and the family had been displaced, our local Firefighters Association delivered gift cards and toys about a week after the incident. I contacted the media to let them know we were doing this, as it was another chance we could get the message of prevention out. —Jon Johnston, Senior Fire Inspector, Menlo Park Fire Protection District, CA Public relations involves more than building a good reputation. It involves researching the public and target audiences to decide what to tell them, which people to tell the information to, how it should be told, and through which media it should be communicated. There is a greater demand than ever before for strong skills in both written and verbal communication; use of technology, graphics, and photography; sensitivity to multiculturalism and diversity; understanding media guidelines; and problem solving skill. Information travels so quickly and so globally today that any mistake might take on a life of its own within minutes. Research, proofreading, and retracing steps are critical to positive public relations efforts. Social media has exponentially caused drastic changes in this field, dictating that educators become familiar with new platforms, ethics, and legalities. Whether the educator is comfortable using social media or not, it should not be ignored. It is here to stay and can be a powerful ally in the field of public relations. There are those who will draw a line in the sand, dividing public relations from public education. Public relations has sometimes been associated with “spin doctors” who are out to sell the public a “bill of goods.” However, good public relations works to provide services, promote ideas, and persuade the public about information to improve their lives. In the fire service, it is difficult to separate the science of public relations from education. Indeed, the positive effects of fire and life safety education will also serve as positive public relations for the department. The foundation for both education and public relations fields must be the interest of the public’s safety. Principles of Public Relations Public relations deals with fact, not fiction, and putting the public’s interest in the forefront. It is a service to the public, not a role for personal gain or reward. Nor is it a guessing game; any information must be investigated, researched, analyzed, and tested. Program selection is based on the needs of the public. The fire service’s fivestep process, as outlined in the chapter Program Design and Management, is clearly aligned with this principle. Although it is tempting to follow popular initiatives, educators will need to say no to those ideas and programs which pull them away from their mission and the goals for their own community. Because educators often rely on the mass media for message delivery, it is important to understand their rules, deadlines, and etiquette. Above all, never lie to the media. The current methods by which the public receives their information is in a state of flux. Some still prefer hard copies of text such as magazines and newspapers, but others take in all their information online. Educators have a responsibility to research target audiences to discover which media will best serve his or her public. People working in the public relations arena must be effective communicators, carrying information back and forth between their organization, the administration, and the public. They need to be aware of the political climate and sensitive issues; follow economic and social trends; and use psychology, sociology, and other social science skills. They will make an effort to prevent unpleasant surprises for the public by anticipating, informing, educating, advising, and promoting timely information about emerging issues and concerns. This includes explanations of potential problems to the public, without alarming them or drawing undo attention to negative issues, before they become crises. Good fire department public relations people provide a multidisciplinary approach to their work. They gather information and share it internally and externally as it applies to all facets of the fire service. Most importantly, ethical performance should dictate the words and actions of a person working with the public. Monitoring the Issues Public relations includes working with those outside and inside the organization and those both up and down the department ladder. Educators need to monitor issues and anticipate how to deal with potential problems. This effort makes it easier to manage the issues when they arise and may even create unplanned opportunities. Consider the circumstance, the public, and the climate in which an issue develops and develop a strategy for the entire organization to speak with one clear voice, accommodating all demographics. Make sure education efforts are not in conflict with any political or economic issues facing the department. In the case of life safety education, it only makes sense to prevent injuries before they occur; a “wait and see” attitude will not keep them from happening. Internal communication is extremely important. It is important to inform the administration of all concerns and plans for new initiatives. Find out if the timing is right for promoting such education. There may also be opportunities to combine efforts with other messages for a more powerful impact. Addressing the Issues After conflicting issues have been identified, they must be thoroughly evaluated and managed. The first step is to attempt to “contain and maintain.” Identify any and all supporters and detractors. Understand how best to work with both. Then begin to reframe the issue to be able to shape it and define it on your own terms. This can take many forms, depending on the most appropriate technique. The organization will need to decide if it will resist and deny allegations when they are absolutely untrue, bargain or reason with an opposing faction, or cease an activity altogether. These are not easy decisions, and all choices must be tempered by the organization, the people, the community, and other external factors. The last option is to cope with the issue and hope it will simply go away, deal with it head on, or change the behavior in question and live with that decision. These decisions will be handled by those at the top of the organization. It can be difficult to convince management to address issues in a timely fashion given their demanding schedules or other information they must weigh before final resolution. Timing is everything. Because of your familiarity and working knowledge of the public, it may be important at times to raise touchy questions and carefully present unpleasant and unpopular outcomes to proposed ideas. Planning and Researching The first step to setting up public relations functions as an educator is to conduct research. It is impossible to make important decisions and plan for the future without a solid foundation. Research can be conducted informally and formally. Informal research includes opinion polls, observations, physical evidence, casual interviews, and publicity. The danger in using solely informal research is that it cannot be substantiated or replicated by another agency—but it will give the educator a general feeling and a sense of the issues. Although intuition and experience will not provide a scientific foundation for action by themselves, they should not be ignored because they are often the precursor to larger studies that do provide reliable evidence. Formal research can be qualitative, quantitative, or both. Qualitative research describes conditions and events. Examples of qualitative research include case studies, histories, in-depth interviews, testimonials, and focus groups. The advantage to gathering information qualitatively is that the human side of a story is told; hard numbers are not distorting or overshadowing the realities of situations that should be looked at from a more humanistic approach. Quantitative research is based primarily on measurement and provides a higher degree of predictability and reliability. This research includes data from the hospital, schools, or fire and police departments in terms of numbers of injuries and fires. Surveys, census, attendance and financial records, and pre- and posttest results are examples of quantitative data that help to predict future trends. It is wise to investigate the history of the organization to discover information about the department’s mission, changes in the culture and personnel, activities in the community, strengths and weaknesses, and job descriptions. Learn about the organization’s audiences to better understand their needs, learning styles, abilities, and risks. After the educator has identified the problems and goals for resolution, program development and implementation can begin. Educator’s Tip Keep a folder, and both hard and soft copies, of information that is organized, readily available, and easily retrievable. Information should include databases of local school names, addresses, and telephone numbers; a department organizational chart; media contacts; a shift calendar; a list of department personnel and their contact numbers; a local map (grid map, if applicable); an incident information worksheet (a worksheet used to give an official statement or an account of any emergency-related situation, event, or incident that is distributed publicly to the media); and any other information commonly needed to answer questions FIGURE 10-1. FIGURE 10-1 Keep a folder of information that is organized, readily available, and easily retrievable, even if you typically keep most of your data electronically. Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Publics and Audiences Before embarking on any campaign, first identify your publics and audiences. In public relations, an audience is considered more passive, acting as recipients of a message, speech, presentation, or performance; a public is more active and acts together as a group by a common bond of interest, occupation, or concern and has some consequences for an organization. You may be part of several publics, such as a department union, uniformed personnel, a church group, a baseball team, or a running club. Many publics or groups make up the general public. Publics are divided into two categories: internal and external publics. Internal publics are those that share an internal identity, such as other department divisions. For example, the fire, police, public works, and other city employees are publics of an entire municipal government that works together for the good of the community. An external public exists outside the organization but has some relationship with it. The local school district, a service club, churches, or the park district may be considered external publics for the fire department. Local businesses are another example of an external public that would be affected by fire service code changes and life safety issues. Who is most important to your project? Who might also be affected by the same problems? Who knows the most about these publics? It is advisable to do the research rather than assume the answers to these questions. External publics are often potentially important partners when forming coalitions and task forces to address community issues. After the internal and external publics have been identified, take steps to build trust and confidence in working with them. Communication and relations improve when the educator practices building positive connections with as many facets of the publics as possible. After these bridges are established, the public will feel comfortable communicating with the organization, even when conflicting issues arise. Dealing with internal publics is not always a simple task. The difference among various members of a group can be profound. The organizational culture affects the way each member works within the walls of the system. The image of an organization is often shaped by the employees who are major contributors to the work the public sees on the street. Involve frontline employees in education and public relations activities as much as possible. At the very least, even those who are disinterested in this part of their job should receive communication about upcoming events, how their work affects the outcome of educational efforts, and how the educational efforts may affect their work. Those who are able to identify community needs and problems may be the same members motivated to assist with solving the issues. Members of an organization should be aware that internal communications can easily become public, so all memos and correspondence need to be prepared with professionalism and sensitivity for any audience. Under the rules of the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) many electronic and hard copy internal communications can be obtained upon request by the general public. External publics represent larger segments of the general public than internal publics. It is best when the external and internal publics’ perception of the organization is the same. Messages can be delivered more honestly, sincerely, and consistently. Educators will be wise to continue monitoring both internal and external publics for shifts in economic, political, and demographic status. Changes can occur at any time and affect the climate of the organization along with the perception of the organization’s place in the community. Members of the general public may lag behind new changes as they cling to their preexisting attitudes, opinions, and beliefs. An attitude or opinion reflects a point of view, but a belief is a deeply rooted conviction, making it the hardest to change. This is the time for public relations specialists to really put their persuasive skills to work, especially when attempting to improve something as important as the safety of families in the community. The media is an external public to most organizations. Contrary to some popular opinion, the media is not the enemy. Build positive relations with the media during nonemergency situations. Get to know them before their appearance at an emergency. The local media are just as important, if not more so, than high-profile city, state, and national media. All media have an influence on public opinion. Public opinion is the collective opinion of most people of a particular public about a specific issue; it is not necessarily based on facts. Rather, public opinion is often based on perceptions or myopic observations of events, people, organizations and institutions, and products. It can be influenced by the economy, media, specific isolated events, spokespersons, leadership, misinformation, or special interest groups. And public opinion can be fickle! Public opinion needs to be monitored because perception can quickly become reality if not dealt with in its infancy. Make sure the public receives accurate and timely information and that they have the ability to communicate with the organization. Educator’s Tip If you deal with the media on a consistent basis, you will benefit from taking a PIO class designed specifically for emergency services personnel. Several important populations should be considered in all plans for education and public relations issues. One of these groups is frontline employees. These are the very people who have direct contact with the public and prove to be very credible to others as they serve in that capacity. Most often, these employees feel a loyalty to the organization and will support efforts to improve their standing in the community after it is clearly explained to them. But it cannot be assumed that they understand the mission of fire and life safety education efforts. They, too, must be educated and informed about the fire and injury problem in the community and the rationale behind the work to mitigate these problems. Educator’s Tip Safety educators need to inform fire fighters about the fire and injury problem and the steps being implemented. It is unfair to assume that they look at the community from the same perspective as the educator. Ask for their opinions and ideas based on their experiences and observations. You may be surprised at the rich source of information you have just tapped! Another group is women. Statistics show us that there continues to be great disparity between women and their male counterparts. Women make up the majority of the world’s population; however, there are still many economic, social, and political environments in which women are the minority in terms of power. Remember that the very young and the very old are two of the highest risk populations for both fires and injuries. Women are often the caregivers and in charge of the safety of these groups on a daily basis. Vision 20/20’s research indicates that people are motivated to make home safety changes because of their roles as caretakers for their families. Design programs accordingly. Look for opportunities to address this population through organizations, publications, and social media that also target this demographic. The third group deserving more attention is minorities. These populations can be ethnic or religious, with diverse populations within these groups. Ethnic and religious groups that are minorities in some areas have become majority populations in others. Be mindful of the multilayered differences among these populations and take care not to “clump” them all together. Remain sensitive to the diversity of cultures and work to accurately identify and monitor their issues. Persuasion and Changing Behavior By now, we have established that the purpose of fire and life safety education is to change behavior. In other words, the educator’s job is to persuade people to make changes that will improve safety for them and for their families. Information, facts, figures, and educational materials will have no effect if the educator does not have the ability to persuade an audience. Public relations experts know that people can be persuaded through a variety of methods. Sometimes it takes the form of authority, power, and implied or overt threats. For some people and organizations, the threat of legal action, closing down businesses, invoking fines, or revoking licenses are the only things that will motivate them to change their behaviors and habits. Peer pressure is a form of power. Although these may appear to be heavy handed and are not the first choice for educators, they do have their place as tools of persuasion. This form of persuasion is comparable to the enforcement leg of the Five Es of fire prevention. People can be moved to change through the use of patronage, in which one favor is exchanged in payment for another. This method conjures up thoughts of shady practices of bribery and “pay to play” contributions. Organizations must be very careful when considering these methods because there are few, if any occasions where this practice is considered ethical. On the other hand, paying a celebrity to endorse public safety messages or offering in-kind services for promotion of safety products and messages can be effective and appropriate as long as there are no ulterior motives or illegal transactions. For example, if the owner of local hardware store requests the department to send a fire engine and an ambulance to the store’s grand opening, the educator may speculate that the manager’s motivation is primarily to attract business. Would it be appropriate to ask the store to give away a number of smoke alarms or issue coupons for a percentage off night lights or items that would be important for a home emergency kit during the fire department’s visit? Check with the department’s administration or legal advisors before proceeding with these types of arrangements. Remember that if the department offers its services to one business, it has opened the door to offering the same service to all businesses. The department cannot pick and choose or play favorites. Last, and most important for educators, people can be won over and persuaded through effective communication. For communication to take place, the following six elements are needed: presenting, attending, comprehending, yielding, retaining, and acting. The first step of presenting requires that people be both mentally receptive and physically available. Even if they are present, they will not receive the message if they are not paying attention or attending. Material presented must be at a level and in a form that will be understood and comprehended. When a receiver understands the message, he or she must be willing to accept and yield to the tenants of the new information. The message should be repeated often so it will be retained. Take opportunities to repeat messages through several avenues of communication. Even if people understand, agree with, and remember messages, the most important step is follow through and taking action. The results of campaigns and other efforts to change behavior need to be monitored and assessed to make sure people made it through all of the steps. Decide how you will collect data during and after an education initiative to be able to evaluate and support its continued use as a method of persuasion. Think About It Make sure the translated message fits the culture. The California Milk Processors Board realized that their “Got Milk?” campaign could not be literally translated to Spanish because the result meant something akin to “Are you lactating?” To make matters worse, they discovered that the idea of running out of milk for a household implied the provider had failed to meet his responsibilities.2 Always find an ally within the demographic community to make sure a wellintended campaign does not offend or confuse a public. The Persuaders Some people and organizations are effective as persuaders in one situation, and others prove to be more effective in other situations. The most influential persuaders are often those who are considered personal persuaders. These are respected authorities, family members, friends, and other significant people. Organizations people belong to and are affiliated with also serve as personal persuaders. Safety educators have the advantage of being respected community members and respected authorities and should use this to their advantage in convincing the public to adapt to safer practices. Educator’s Tip Sending information to a secondary audience is a powerful way to persuade them to change their behavior when it is carried to them by the primary audience, who are usually personal persuaders in their lives. For example, asking children to bring safety messages home to their parents can have a positive effect in changing family behaviors. Impersonal persuaders may be less influential but can reach a greater number of people at one time. Celebrity spokespersons, mass media, advertising, editorials, and public officials all serve as impersonal persuaders. Some professions, such as teachers and religious leaders, bridge the gap between personal and impersonal persuaders as they get to know their students and community on a more personal basis. So, too, can safety educators become personal persuaders for their communities as they develop more individual relationships and meet frequently with segments of the population. Try It—It Works! Look for opportunities to visit classrooms, clubs, organizations, or areas of the community on an informal basis so they learn about who you are and get to know you as an individual. The more the public identifies with the educator as a person, the more likely they are to follow advice and listen to messages. Stop in at a school play or concert, attend local chamber of commerce meetings, and visit with older adults at a festival or ice cream social. Tight schedules will not always allow for these interactions, but take advantage of them when you can. Persuasion Appeals Some methods of persuasion are intentionally used to tempt and mislead people in advertising, politics, and other media campaigns. You are encouraged to avoid these techniques in the quest to improve the safety of the community. Social scientists have identified several other elements that cause people to accept new behavior changes. An awareness of these principles will help educators when developing message delivery. People tend to comply with a request when it is consistent with their core beliefs. Core beliefs and personal values are very resistant to change. Therefore, when someone acquiesces to a suggested behavior or advice, that person is more likely to continue that behavior, especially if not coerced in the first place. If it is an observed action or publicly acknowledged, the likelihood of its reoccurrence is increased. When educators identify with the personal lives and needs of the people in their audience, they can use that common ground to form a connection. For example, rather than relying solely on your position as a fire service representative when talking with a group of parents, make sure they know how you relate to them by saying “I’m a parent, too” or “There is nothing more important to me than my family.” That kind of bond is hard to deny. People also act out of a sense of reciprocity. If they feel they owe a person or organization something, they will be more likely to say yes to an appeal, and they will be more likely to change and act in accordance with what they see others doing, especially when encouraged to do so by a respected authority. Authority figures gain even more compliance when they are familiar, trusted, and able to instill confidence in their ideals and goals. As we learned earlier in discussions about adult learning, if people are involved in the decision-making process and believe they are part of the solution and final decisions, they will have invested themselves in the initiative and will be much more likely to accept and even promote its implementation. Many people will want a service, product, or membership if they believe it is a scarce commodity. If the numbers of handouts, smoke alarm installations, and giveaways are limited, be sure to mention that in any publications. Safety educators are in the business of trying to provide safety messages and services to as many of their constituents as possible, so it would not be right to limit available services to the public simply to attract attention to a program. If there truly is a limited number of available items, make sure the public knows about it. Tight deadlines for pick-up and distribution also create greater interest. Last, the most important behavior change messages should be clear and precise. Avoid losing a call to action by cluttering the messages with too much extraneous information. Messages When you are summoned to deliver a presentation and provide materials, it is helpful not only to review the messages for each age group but also to understand ways to present those messages. Give due consideration to message delivery, purpose, and quality, as well as the message receivers. Message Delivery The following suggestions will help when delivering messages to the public: Put the good news first. Tell both sides of a story. This allows the receivers to digest the full picture. Sometimes the ability to compare and contrast makes a stronger argument for the right answer. Use repetition and consistency. For receivers to really hear what the educator is saying, it is necessary to repeat the message through many different venues and several times within the same presentation. However, the use of repetition must be used judiciously to avoid boredom and annoyance. At a certain threshold, repetition can become white noise, too easily ignored. Make sure message delivery is clear and easy to understand. Keep it simple. Tell people exactly what they are being asked to do and think. Walk them through the steps in order. Offer information that will allow people to make their own conclusions and lead them down the right path. Remember that no two people hear exactly the same message. Each person listens and watches through his or her biases, cultures, and experiences. Think about each of those perspectives before proceeding with any message delivery. Message Purpose The foundation of messages is derived from the objectives and goals identified by the educator or coalition of safety experts. The purpose of delivering the messages is to motivate and inspire people to take appropriate actions to meet those objectives. For many years, Abraham H. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory (Theory of Human Motivation, 1943) has been a standard by which social sciences looked at how and why people are motivated to take actions and make decisions. Although Maslow’s theory has undergone closer scrutiny in recent years, it still provides a foundation for looking at what motivates people. The theory postulates that people will not be motivated to achieve higher levels until their more primary needs are satisfied FIGURE 10-2. Often depicted as a pyramid, Maslow’s five basic levels are as follows: FIGURE 10-2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. 1. Physiological needs: These are the most fundamental motivations and needs for human survival, including breathing, water, sleep, food, excretion, and sex. 2. Safety needs: When level one needs are met, the individual’s safety needs take over and dominate his or her behavior. These include personal and family security, financial and employment security, health and well-being, and a safety net against accidents, illness, and their adverse effects. 3. Social needs: This layer involves emotionally and socially based relationships such as love, friendship, intimacy, family, belonging and acceptance, and friendly social ties. 4. Self-esteem needs: All humans have a need to be respected, to have selfesteem, self-respect, and acceptance; a need to engage in activities that give one a sense of purpose and recognition. 5. Self-actualization needs: This level represents the need to develop individuality and make constructive use of abilities. It extends to creativity and aesthetic appreciation. It is the motivation to realize one’s own maximum potential and possibilities. It is the final need that is manifested when the lower level needs have been met. Educator’s Tip Look closely at Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The second level is safety. This should make it apparent that the content of safety education is fundamentally important to most people unless they are still struggling to satisfy their level 1 needs. Ask an audience to make a list of the three things in their lives that are most important to them. The answers provide a logical place to begin talking about the importance of making changes to keep families safer. Your role is to help remove barriers to obtaining safety for their families. Message Quality After the safety educator knows the messages, the values of addressing the public, and the most affective persuasive appeals to use, what form will the message take? Will television, print, radio, social media, or graphics be used? What formats work best for particular types of messages? It is always best to consult with someone who has a background in graphics and public relations to get professional advice and suggestions. Sometimes it is the small things that make the biggest difference in message response and retention. Did you know that some studies have shown that questionnaires printed on hot pink paper are not likely to be returned, followed by those on blue paper, and then white and beige? Consider the following general suggestions when preparing messages for public review: Make sure nonverbal symbols do not offend any publics. Are people with physical disabilities included in pictures? Are women pictured as equal in their roles? Are cultural and ethnic minorities treated equally? Are older adults portrayed as frail and helpless, or as vital, contributing members of society? Do pictures and graphics match the message? Do they send a mixed message? It is better to use a picture of a safely locked cabinet with a young child looking on rather than a picture of a young child playing with matches. Use graphics and symbols to indicate what the message is trying to accomplish unless both correct and incorrect images are used. In this case, be sure to clearly identify the actions that should not be taken FIGURE 10-3. Choose words with clear meaning and make sure messages are consistent with other messages. Choose words, symbols, logos, and icons familiar to the public. Can they relate to and make positive associations with the graphics and pictures? For example, fire departments might use their logo or patch as a way to assure their public that anything bearing the logo has been approved by and is endorsed by the local fire department. Branding is a form of identification for products or services of a group that differentiates it from others. Branding helps to connect to the public on an emotional level, motivate people, and create loyalty. When the public trusts and recognizes the symbol or actions that accompany a service, they will begin to accept the messages more quickly because they know it is coming from a credible and reliable source. For most fire departments, this is not a matter of building their brand but of reinforcing it to their public. People who do not have a lot of time to read through brochures and articles will breeze through the content and read less than what the writer wanted them to know. Again, put the most important information up front and make those first sentences clear and interesting. If a message is complex, it is better to use print media so details can be expanded. Video is more effective for simple messages. FIGURE 10-3 Clearly identify the actions that should not be taken (A), along with positive actions (B). Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. In today’s media, television has maintained its dominance as the most effective way to advertise.3 Print media, however, provides a closer connection and better credibility for readers, especially ethnic, religious, professional, industry, and trade publications. As technology changes by the minute, educators will need to continually evaluate the availability and practicality of their use of new media for direct messaging on websites, e-news sites, social media, and other electronic forms of communication, especially for the growing number of younger members in society. Message Receivers Teaching cannot be discussed without considering the learners. Messaging cannot be discussed without considering the receivers. It is easy for receivers to tune out messages that do not have a direct connection to them or messages that do not seem relevant. There is a science to recognizing how the public perceives messages and whether they will accept and act on them. You can enhance this process by remembering these tips: Conversation with others is a powerful method of sending messages. Get people talking. A unique message is more easily remembered. Messages are more easily accepted and remembered when they do not interfere with previous beliefs and habits. Meaningful material is more easily retained. Repeat important information but do it no more than three or four times in one presentation or publication. A message often needs to be repeated a total of approximately seven times for retention. Help the public reach the goals you set for them. Provide a way for the public to follow up with questions and concerns. Audiences are more likely to accept information from someone they like and respect. Fire service personnel have long been ranked among the most admired and trusted professions. Although this gives safety educators an edge when delivering messages for the community, it is also a precariously high pedestal that needs to be carefully maintained. Safety educators who have not come from the ranks and are not sworn personnel may have to work harder to earn this trust over time. Think About It Educators need to supply information to the public about preparations for environmental emergencies and natural disasters. Use print and electronic media to provide lists of supplies, emergency contact numbers, and evacuation procedures. Educators need to alert residents that severe weather is imminent and they should take shelter. Video and radio are better media for this important yet simple message. Online notification for families who are signed up for local news and alerts is a valuable tool. Ethics and Legal Issues Safety educators have an ethical responsibility to both the fire department and the public. In all matters, operate with a clear conscience and take actions based on integrity. Consider the following situations and decide how to best handle them: a business gives you a restaurant gift card for your fire extinguisher class, an attractive person in a cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) class offers to be a victim for abdominal thrusts, or you consider starting your own “side business” of teaching outside the department using department equipment. As difficult as situations may be, you are reminded to refuse to do things that may be viewed as unethical and that run counter to strong value systems. This is not the place for a philosophical discussion of ethics and morals, but few can deny that lying, dishonesty, and cheating on the part of fire service personnel will quickly erode any positive reputation that has been built. Educators who tell the truth, listen sincerely to the public, and think before speaking, understand that any action or reaction reflects on the entire department. The most effective educators are patient, respect the work and lifestyle of others, and follow through on any promises. There may be times that educators need to use documents to support their research, presentations, or programs. Legal forms must be filed and proper channels followed when pursuing this information. Become familiar with the following terms and consult the department administration’s legal counsel before proceeding with plans to move forward: The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) makes it possible for individuals and organizations of the general public to access government-held information. Although some documents are protected from release under this act, most are eligible for disclosure. Educators should check with their department and city administrations to find out how to file these forms in their community. “Sunshine laws” (open meeting laws) require that most government meetings be open meetings. One exemption is matters dealing with personnel. Meetings must be announced, posted, and publicized within a particular time frame for the public to be notified of the meeting. This act does not generally apply to educators planning meetings for coalitions. Copyright laws are in place to protect creative work from publication in any manner. The copyright begins when an original work is first created and protects the specific expression of the idea. The symbol © must be used when reproducing any copyrighted material. When copyrights expire, the work becomes public domain and can be used by anyone. The advent of the Internet has raised several interesting issues about copyright laws because free and downloadable copies of all kinds of information and creative work are available. The future of copyright laws may undergo several more changes as the access to material becomes more freely available. A patent is different from a copyright in that it is a government grant offering protection for inventions and novelties. A trademark is a distinctive and recognizable symbol protected from use without permission. A word, design, or combination of the two can be trademarked. It can be a brand name or logo. A model release is a form used by photographers (or departments taking pictures) to obtain a person’s permission to use his or her photograph or likeness in a publication for an organization. If the subject is a minor, the photographer must obtain permission from a parent or guardian (Appendix C contains a sample model release form). A waiver is a form that a person signs to voluntarily give up his or her rights. When using another person’s photographs, the person should sign a waiver giving permission to use the work. In the case of the fire department, a signature on a waiver releases the sponsoring agency from liability during an activity. For example, before allowing children to ride on a fire engine, an educator may be required to have all participants sign a legal waiver. Educator’s Tip Most school districts require parents and guardians to sign a photo release for their children at the beginning of the school year. Before taking a picture of children at a school program, find out from the school if any of the children are not allowed to be photographed for public release. If this is not practical, take the photographs and ask the school to review them before publishing. Publicity Publicity refers to the supply of information that is factual, interesting, and newsworthy to a news medium. It is not always good news; it may be in response to an unpleasant situation. The publicist or writer does not control the media to which the information is sent, such as radio, television, magazines, newspapers, trade journals, newsletters, online magazines, and websites. Other forms of publicity are the Internet, intranets, direct mail, presentations, promotional messages, and videos. Publicity is only one aspect of public relations. Today’s media is borderless. Even though information is prepared with specific audiences in mind, other audiences the writer never intended to reach are able to access the information as well. It takes extra care and thought before releasing any information. General Guidelines for Working with the Media The media is deluged with press releases and requests. Some safety educators are charged with dealing with the media in the absence of a PIO. To improve media relations and avoid bad publicity, observe these fundamental guidelines: Proofread! Check all facts for accuracy. Make sure there are no missing pieces of information. If errors or oversights are identified by the audience, the source loses its credibility. Poor spelling and grammar detract from the message and can also undermine the credibility of the source. Learn and follow format preferences. All publicity material should be prepared for 8½ × 11 inch paper. This same format can be used for some social media submissions. Material needs to be neat and clean with no handwritten marks. Make sure the content is appropriate to the medium. Tailor releases to the publication. Allow enough lead time. Find out deadline times and honor them. Be considerate of journalists at deadline time. They are working against the clock. Include all contact information on the first page of any press release so the media can contact the proper person easily when working on a piece. Be straightforward about the organization and events. Give journalists a complete picture. Share the same information with all media sources. Avoid calling to ask why an article did not appear in the publication. Introduce yourself to the media. Prepare a backgrounder sheet for your organization that can be submitted it with public service announcements (PSAs) and other releases where clarification and additional information may be necessary. A backgrounder is preferably a one-page document that explains the purpose and structure of the organization, a brief history, the people, the activities and functions, and contact information. Include exact URLs for an organization website so the press can find out more if interested. Try It—It Works! Write several articles about safety and submit them to the local newspaper. Request a meeting with the editor to discuss the possibility of a regular column about safety. Do not limit yourself to fire safety and injury prevention. Discuss the project with the local police or sheriff’s department to provide messages about security and other safety issues as well. Offer to provide the topics and information and work together to produce the column. Another member of the department has just joined your team! What’s Newsworthy? News stories are basically divided into two types: hard news and soft news. Hard news usually refers to up-to-the minute incidents and events that are reported immediately, and takes a factual approach, delivering the what, who, where, when, and why of an incident. Soft news is background information or human-interest stories, and entertains or advises the reader. When educators know the difference between these two types of news, they can begin to develop a sense of what types of news different news media tend to publish or broadcast. In the competitive world of media, it can be challenging to get coverage of fire and life safety education events or information. Have you noticed the media swarming all over a fire scene but hard to find when trying to get an educational event covered? Journalists are looking for two things: reliable facts and an interesting news angle. Check some of the following points to see if your news meets these criteria: Keep opinions out of the material. Facts only. Have a peg. A peg is the focus, angle, main point, unusual idea, or new material along with an explanation of how the story will affect the audience. This is the justification for the release. Can you tie it to other timely news or celebrations? Follow up with solid information. Provide interesting, highly visual material with human interest and a new angle. Make sure the news has the who, what, when, where, why, and how. Ask yourself this question: If you didn’t know your organization, would you be interested in reading the piece? Have you provided journalists with a reason to consider your organization as an authority to which they can regularly turn for information? Have you made yourself available as a partner for other newsworthy information? Press Releases Simply stated, a press release is a news release sent to the media. Written well, the content will stand a better chance of getting the coverage it deserves. Written poorly, it will never be published. Journalists refer to a standard inverted pyramid format for press releases as a way of ensuring the most important information is placed up front and less likely to be cut as the article is edited for reasons of limited space FIGURE 10-4. When submitting a press release, remember to follow the format. This will be expected by the reporters and editors FIGURE 10-5. FIGURE 10-4 Inverted pyramid format for press releases. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. FIGURE 10-5 Sample press release. © Jones & Bartlett Learning. Media Advisories A media advisory is a one-page sheet that alerts the press to an upcoming news event. It is sent out several days before the event and is followed up with a phone call. This is different from the press release which announces breaking news and is written like a news story. Educators may want to use a media advisory to advertise a scheduled event such as an open house. It will be important to include the date, time, location, and sponsoring agency, along with contact information for follow-up questions. Public Service Announcements The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) defines a public service announcement (PSA) as “any announcement for which no charge is made and which promotes programs, activities or services of non-profit organizations (e.g., United Way, Red Cross blood donations, etc.) and other announcements regarded as serving community interests, excluding time signals, routine weather announcements and promotional announcements.” In short, PSAs are messages delivered by the media without charge for the public interest. PSAs have historically been very effective on television and radio. They are short, deliberate, and leave the receiver with an image that is catchy and easily remembered. Social Media Social media is a collective term that refers to online communication platforms dedicated to community-based input, interaction, content-sharing, collaboration, and other formats such as photos and videos. Even here it is necessary to have a peg, write succinctly, verify the facts, and make sure the most important information leads the pack. Social media allows writers to use videos, audio, photographs, and other images. It also provides a means for the receivers to be more interactive. When using the Internet to get news to the public, educators will find it even more important to have background information and any other support immediately available. This fast-paced medium changes quickly. Information must match their lead time and deadlines and be specific to the audience of the particular website. Information can be uploaded and shared immediately. Find out if the website uses chats and webcasts and investigate the possibilities of using that form of communication. Publicize events and information across several media outlets. If your fire department has its own website, be sure to create a tab specifically for fire and life safety education. Find out what other websites your target audience prefers and link to them. Prepare downloadable forms and easy-to-find contact information. An important rule of thumb for websites is the “three-click rule.” A visitor should be able to get to any information in no more than two or three clicks. Designing and implementing a website take time and special knowledge. It is no longer a matter of whether to use social media in public relations, but how. There are so many available platforms, and most of them upgrade and enhance their capabilities frequently. A general overview of the use of social media follows. However, if you are interested in this form of education for the public, enlist the help of someone who is knowledgeable about this process, take a class, and read about the associated etiquette, ethics, and legal issues. Find out if your organization has created a social media policy and abide by those guidelines, then decide what will work best for your organization. Journalists rely on social media to research stories. When you share your story socially, you are meeting people where they are instead of relying on a press release sent to their inbox. To capture their attention, be sure to use a creative subject line that piques curiosity, tugs at the heart, or appeals to the imagination. Use images and videos. People are drawn more to images than to text. Carefully choose an image that will really make people stop to read the text. Put yourself in their shoes— what would draw you into the information? When you show instead of tell, it elicits a stronger emotional response. The content of the post should use the language of the reader, not the jargon or buzzwords of your industry. Social media is built on the practice of speed and relevance. Interject your story into other current issues and interests breaking in the news, but do so with consideration. Ask others to mention your events in their publications. When promoting an event, you will need to send, and send again. Begin months ahead of time, and continue up to a few days ahead. Be as helpful as possible by providing contact information, links to participating organizations, and user-friendly online registration forms. The weekend is a good time to post. People tend to have more time catch up on their media and may linger a bit longer to read the information more thoroughly. Investigate the types of available social media platforms. Consider your intended audience and decide how and why they use their preferred media. Learn about that format and what works best. Whatever you decide to use, make sure it will work on a smartphone. Many people today depend totally on their smartphones, and that number is growing. Most organizations need a Facebook presence to hold up other applications. Facebook is currently the most commonly used social media network used in the United States, with approximately 1.65 billion users as of 2016. Those who are successful in reaching the public through social media know that photos and videos are imperative. Keep in mind that any photos submitted to social media should be taken in the horizontal view, which is preferred to the vertical view, and videos of 20-30 seconds may get more attention than photos. It can be confusing to sort out the various types of social media in an attempt to deliver messages to the public. Determine which platforms are used by the target audiences in your district and use them to increase the community outreach with your messages. Following are some tips for some of the most popular applications: Facebook: Organizations using Facebook to reach the public need to generate an interest in the site by posting frequently. Post more on weekends. The organization’s posts should show up for them; they should not have to go to the Facebook page. Create a presence that reaches out to the audience with information about current department and organization activities, safety messages, upcoming events, and incident updates. Monitor responses and respond in a timely manner. Twitter: Tweets get the word out in real time, but have a short lifespan. The most effective tweets are developed by writing out a complete description of a goal and then condensing it to the 140 characters. Follow people who might be interested in the same issues and they may re-tweet to others. Hashtags are short links preceded by #. This turns any word or group of words into a searchable link. It is helpful in organizing content and tracking discussion topics. Tweeting is a very effective social media tool for getting time-sensitive messages to the public about a developing incident, road closures, and evacuations. It is also a handy tool to use as a reminder about upcoming events such as open houses, programs, and safety reminders. LinkedIn: This networking site allows registered members to establish and document networks of people they know and trust professionally. It is a good way to find partners and volunteers for partnerships, coalitions, organizations, colleagues and potential resources. YouTube: YouTube can be useful to educators looking to share demonstrations where a photo will not provide the complete picture. For example, educators can create videos of the proper use of fire extinguishers, how to create fire-safe vegetation gardens around the home, or fitting bicycle helmets. Pinterest: This photo-sharing website has social networking features that lend themselves well to the community of safety educators. Create a board to share pictures of displays, educational materials, and visual aids, along with descriptions of how others can create them for their own use. Instagram: Use this social media photo album for interesting updates on activities or new innovations to programs. Add text and hashtags for more vitality. Educator’s Tip Teachers tweet! It is now common for teachers to tweet updates about classroom activities and assignments. This goes home to parents and other followers. A classroom visit by a safety educator reaches that secondary audience quickly and easily through Twitter. Educator’s Tip One of the most important and challenging aspects of maintaining a department website is keeping information updated and current. Old, expired, and useless information will make the website seem unprofessional. General Photography Guidelines for Publicity A picture is worth a thousand words. A video is worth even more! Getting a photograph published with an article will always draw the reader in more than text alone. This can be difficult as print publications struggle with limited space. There are some tips educators can use to make their photographs more competitive and attractive to editors as they sift through competing submissions. Remember that even if you submit electronic photos, some publications may still want a hard-copy photo. Be prepared to deliver both formats. When submitting photographs, consider these tips to ensure compatibility with the requirements of the publication: Find out exactly where to send the photos. Include basic information about the subject and event. Take time to talk with people at the publication to find out what types of photos they are interested in and what photos they usually reject. Make sure the event and subject are visually interesting. Take photos from several angles and different viewpoints. You may have to take several pictures to get the intended result. Try to capture the meaning and feeling of an event. What is the relationship of the people in the picture to the event? Look for any signs, symbols, or structures that help the picture tell a story. Find a focal point so readers are not confused by what they are supposed to be looking at in the photo. Use actions shots and natural, unposed photos wherever possible. Limit the number of people in the photograph. In fairness to students, teachers may want their entire class in a picture. A good rule of thumb is to keep the number of subjects in the photograph to fewer than five. Is each person in the photo identifiable, or do you have the back of someone’s head in the picture? Get the department logo or name in the shot to help identify the organization but make sure that it does not compete with the subject. If you do not have permission to use images of students, yet the situation is picture-worthy, take a picture of the back of their heads, with the focus on the speaker or activity. It is easier to obtain permission from one adult than from an entire group of students. It may be the educator’s job to check everyone for neat and clean appearances for the photo. Do not assume that every child or older adult was given the once over by someone else before showing up for the photo. Tactfully, let people know if they need to make adjustments or make adjustments yourself by rearranging where people stand or sit. Do not take a picture in front of a window. When submitting electronic artwork, find out what format you need. JPEG and TIFF are most common. What is the minimum dpi (dots per inch) the publication will accept? Picture files can be very large; find out if they should be compressed. Remember the model release forms, especially for minors! Ask the person in charge of the facility for permission to take pictures during the event. They may have their own policies regarding picture taking. Carefully review all aspects of the photo. Ensure that everyone is doing the right thing, there are no actions that contradict the message, and background or ancillary images do not detract from the image and intent of the picture. When taking pictures of educational interactions, ask yourself if all of the participants look engaged in the learning. Educator’s Tip Keep a handful of model release forms and a digital camera with you at all times. Educators never know when the perfect “photo op” will happen. Be ready when it does so you will not lose a good opportunity. Brochures and Pamphlets Brochures and pamphlets can be used as educational support materials, but they can also be used effectively as a form of publicity. A trifold brochure with information about upcoming CPR classes and a pamphlet explaining job requirements for the local department can serve as publicity. Several decades ago, outside publishing companies produced all necessary brochures. The technology and software required to put a pamphlet together were too expensive and cumbersome to be used in house. But with advances in desktop publishing, almost anyone capable of using a computer can now also pull together a brochure. The good news is that the content and photographs can be tailored to the local community. Photographs of local people, places, and settings help to develop stronger connections. The bad news is that anyone with basic word processing computer skills can pull together a handout, but that does not ensure proper grammar, eye-pleasing layouts, appropriate and professional looking graphics, or consistency in style among several different pieces. If, as the safety educator, you and your department decide to create your own brochures, always make a mock-up, or dummy copy. Show this to other department members, members of the target audience, and if possible to someone with an eye for layout and graphic design. Follow the same rules applicable to other publications and presentations; avoid small print, too much text, small graphics floating on the page, and poor photo quality. Be sure to use paper colors that provide contrast with the text for easier reading, limit the number of font styles to no more than two, and allow enough white space for readers to rest their eyes. Note As today’s society makes efforts to use less paper, consider digital formats for brochures and pamphlets. Speeches and Presentations as Publicity Educators may be called upon to make a presentation for the express purpose of promoting an upcoming event or department initiative. When promoting upcoming events, include support materials about the schedule of events, information about individuals and organizations that will be participating, and a fact sheet promoting the purpose and mission of the event. Find and make a connection between the mission of the event and the interests of the audience. Campaigns A campaign is a coordinated and purposeful effort to address an issue, achieve a goal, improve a situation, or solve a problem within a predetermined time frame. It usually moves an organization(s) closer to mission objectives. Successful campaigns first identify their goal for intended audiences and then develop a systematic plan for achieving that goal. Part of the plan should include ongoing assessments to ensure that the campaign is moving people in the right direction. Before conducting a campaign, study the steps of the five-step process as described in the chapter Program Design and Management. This comprehensive model includes an action plan, identification of the target audiences and media to be used, and an evaluation step. The fire service has launched many prevention campaigns through the years. One of the most successful campaigns ever launched is the Smokey Bear campaign, which sends the message “Only you can prevent forest fires.” This campaign, which was created in 1944, withstands the test of time today. Through the years, Smokey Bear was marketed through books, toys, and other promotional items FIGURE 10-6. In 2001, the message changed slightly to “Only you can prevent wildfires.” That message, which includes an education aspect, backed up by engineering and enforcement, also brings people to believe they can make a difference in the outcome. The campaign, as with all other successful campaigns, maintains a regularly scheduled evaluation. FIGURE 10-6 Through the years, Smokey Bear has been marketed through books, toys, and other promotional items. © Al Moldvay/Denver Post/Getty. Educator’s Tip “A successful campaign—one that changes behavior—has three elements, according to the U.S. Forest Service: education, engineering, and enforcement. The educational part consists of telling people what you want them to do, which in the case of the Forest Service was to refrain from destroying the forest and, since April 2001, all the nation’s wildlands. The second step, engineering, enables people to accomplish what you are asking. To this end, the Forest Service built “fire-safe” campsites and put up steel signs that were difficult to vandalize. The third step is enforcement, where the will of the people begins to get restricted. Laws were enacted to protect the national forests, and people who failed to obey the laws became subject to fines. Regulations also permit access to forests to be restricted if the Forest Service determines that the danger of damage to the forest is too high.”4 Marketing Marketing, another aspect of public relations, as defined by the American Marketing Association (AMA) in 2007 is “the activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners and society at large.” As an educator, you will find yourself marketing the department and shaping its image and promoting safety practices, messages, and even products (e.g., smoke alarms, residential sprinklers, bike helmets, nonslip rugs). Although it is not advisable to recommend specific brands, it is certainly important to market the technology and safety advantages behind the products and promote their use. As a marketing agent, educators cannot rest on past successes but will always survey the current landscape to update and improve existing messages and the quality of programs. Many forms of marketing are available to educators, from very basic, inexpensive methods to those more sophisticated and costly. It is up to the educator and the department to determine what marketing strategies will have the most impact, what the department budget will allow, and what the availability of those sources is for their use. The most effective marketing for message retention is face-to-face contact with the fire service personnel. Use other methods of delivery, but they will have the strongest effect when combined with personal outreach by department members. Educator’s Tip Successful fire and life safety educators continually review their messages and methods to ensure they are up to date, timely, and proactive. Reinventing and improving programs on a continuing basis is part of the job. Printed Materials As discussed previously, printed materials can be easily created by just about anyone with access to a computer. If possible, work with a graphic artist to assess the quality and visual interest of publications. Identify publications that cater to audiences similar to those you are trying to reach. For example, swimming safety messages can be placed in a park district brochure; fall prevention and fire safety reminders can be included in older adult publications and medical billing. Inserts can have a positive effect because they are usually attached to or enclosed with something the reader already needs to read. See if the department’s messages can be included on water bill statements, employee paychecks, school newsletters, or assisted living facilities’ in-house publications and letters to their caregivers. Ideally, the department might develop a monthly feature or column in the local paper. Readers will come to expect the information messages and even look forward to reading them if crafted correctly. Radio and Television Radio and television are valuable marketing tools because the messages are repeated and reach a large audience. Radio has the advantage of listeners tuning in and out when driving, at work, and at home. It takes some homework on the part of the educator to find out which television and radio stations the target audience is most likely to prefer. Match your messages to the station’s demographics. Have you ever noticed that television shows catering to young children advertise toys, cereal, and amusement parks? Stations with large older adult audiences advertise medications for arthritis and bone loss, hearing aids, and retirement villages. Find your niche. Radio stations occasionally set up live remotes at fire department events, such as open houses or fundraisers. Again, it is important to match the radio station’s music and philosophy with the intended audience. For example, one safety educator lined up a rock radio station for an open house only to hear from some parents that the music being played was inappropriate for their young children. A PSA for radio needs to catch the listener’s attention within the first five seconds or the entire message will be lost. Even within a 30-second PSA spot, a message or the department name should be repeated several times. Some fire departments have found success in having one of their own fire fighters present a PSA on local cable television. Be sure to choose the right fire fighter for the job. Educator’s Tip Some of the most successful public service announcements are immediately recognizable in everyday conversation. Think about Click It or Ticket, Only You Can Prevent Forest Fires, Do You Know Where Your Children Are? and Keep America Beautiful. When planning a PSA, consider what makes these so memorable and work to keep the audience thinking about the message after the PSA ends. Banners and Signs Signs and banners are the original attention getters for marketing. Before putting up a banner, check the local zoning regulations. There may be very specific parameters for the size of a sign and setbacks from the street. Then make the banner as big as possible! If a department is putting time or money behind the production of a banner, they should make sure it is visible or it will not be worth the effort. Use lights on the sign if it is feasible to do so. The message on a banner or sign should be catchy, creative, and short. Try to keep the message to 10 words or less. Be sure to proofread it several times before approving the work—any mistakes will be magnified for all to see. Last, consider where the banner will be posted. If it is going to be displayed outside, will it stand up to heavy wind and rain? Will the sun fade the lettering? Will it be in an area where people will be tempted to tear it down or deface the front of it? Might it cause traffic problems? There are ways around these problems. Talk to a professional sign maker about the best materials to use and methods to attach and secure the banners. Direct Mail Direct mail is the controlled delivery of messages and advertising sent to recipients of postal mail. Catalogs, postcards, mailers, envelope mailers, and clear packaging are just a few examples of direct mailing. This proven medium has a long history and is sometimes referred to as admail or junk mail, not something the fire department wants associated with its reputation. But this form of marketing does have a place if done correctly and professionally. When using this method for your department messages, be sure to obtain the proper permissions from the department administration and the city or county. Clearly state the objective of the mailing in a proposal, identify the target audience, and explain exactly how the method will assist to achieve the mission and goals of the project. This method works best with a small, highly targeted population, and it is best if the mailings can be personalized. If you decide to proceed with a direct mailing project, design the piece to fit the message, the target audience, and the image of the department. Proofread and re-proofread it. Keep in mind that just because the mail makes its way into the home of the intended audience, there is no guarantee it will be read. The postal system has reduced rates for bulk mailings, but even with this discount, direct mailings can be costly. If you are requesting a response, make the requested action simple and easy to understand and perform. Offer assistance to carry out the requested action if feasible. Try It—It Works! Ask department members to help identify residences with hard-to-read or nonexistent street addresses. Draft a letter from the fire and police chiefs explaining the importance of visible street numbers to emergency personnel. Offer to provide assistance to those needing help installing a street address. The value of this direct mail initiative is measurable. Contests and Drawings What is the first thing that comes to mind when contests and drawings are mentioned? Perhaps poster contests in schools or drawings for a large prize based on selling raffle tickets? Check with the governing body to ensure that ideas for contests are permissible in the jurisdiction. If the department wants to sponsor a contest through another agency, such as a school, church, or community organization, first discuss the idea with their directors and be prepared to submit a proposal including the benefit of hosting the contest for the participants and the supporting agency. Obtain their permission before proceeding. Allow enough lead time for them to process their decision because it may be necessary for them to present the proposal at a monthly board meeting or mail the proposal to a governing agency offsite. Your great idea may be competing with many other great ideas proposed by other agencies, so be prepared to link the mission of your project with the mission of the partnering organization. Anything less may be viewed as additional work for them. A contest offered by a fire department should fulfill an educational objective and not be thrown out to the community simply for the fun of it. People need to know that it is worth their time and energy to participate, so make the prize enticing and attractive and make it realistic so people know they have a chance to win—add a skill component to promote the idea that it is not blind luck that wins. The prize does not need to be a tangible item; it can be an opportunity to do something. The fire service has many of these sought-after opportunities at their fingertips at little cost to their budgets. With proper permissions and waivers, offer a chance to ride the fire truck to school or in a local parade, have breakfast with the fire fighters, or create a safety video. Each department will have its own rules governing the legalities and logistics of such ideas, but it is worth investigating these possibilities as a way to encourage your community to fulfill safety practices. Educator’s Tip If you can use an activity as a reward or prize for safety behaviors, more community members will participate in the behavior as it is “dangled” as a prize, rather than randomly distributed for fun or publicity. Ethnic Marketing Good educators do their homework and know the ethnic groups within their community. These groups can include not only religious or cultural groups but also professional, gender, and other groups. Mainstream marketing techniques may not be as effective with some of these groups because of predetermined attitudes, economic conditions, or biases. Be genuine in what you are trying to accomplish and find out how to best market to these groups by working directly with their members. Community Involvement If the educator’s efforts are for the good of the community, then it is advantageous to become involved and entrenched in the community. This is where it begins— connections, trust, familiarity, and friendship. Getting out into the community is one of the most effective forms of marketing. Time is tight for everyone, but an educator who can join the local chamber of commerce, volunteer with a service organization, or attend community functions will strengthen ties between the department and the community. People in the community will begin to know the educator by name and as a person rather than solely as a department representative. The fire department expects support from these facets of the community, but is the department supporting them in return? Consider some of these ideas for strengthening community support: exhibit local artwork where others will see it during station tours, set up scholarships, participate in a safe-rides program, or help with local clothing and food drives. Even if other department members are not able or interested in participating, one representative—the educator—is better than none. Get the ball rolling! As with other activities of this type, obtain proper permissions first. Testimonials In the world of prevention, it is sometimes difficult to quantify the results of the educator’s efforts, but a letter or verbal testimonial speaks volumes for the success of a program. This is especially true if it comes from a trusted source. Do not be shy about asking others to put their thoughts in writing and for permission to use their words to support the message in the future. Many people will actually be flattered and more than willing to help when they, too, believe in the mission of safety and prevention. A survey or evaluation can end with a place for general comments about the program, the speaker, the information presented, and any other thoughts and ideas. Provide an opportunity for participants to fill out the forms anonymously. These statements can be used as general support for the program’s future without identifying the authors. Word of Mouth Word of mouth is the most important element of marketing. It usually begins with another form of marketing to get the information out to the public in the first place. A department can have the most expensive, flashy, and elaborate program, but if people do not buy into it, that is where it will stop. When people talk about the message and methods and pass them on to others, that is real marketing. Follow through on promises, research the audience, prepare, and deliver on even the smallest request. And, last—overdeliver. Learn about the needs of others and try to fill them. People might not know they have a need until you present the problem and provide solutions and assistance. Keep a set of business cards with you and pass them out. Wrap-Up © Greg Henry/ShutterStock, Inc. Summary Points It is critical to develop the basic skills of public relations specialists because there will be occasions when you are representing the department as a spokesperson. Your actions will help earn a positive reputation for the department. Remember that public relations is as much about learning about the public as it is teaching the public about the department and its messages. The internal fire department publics are just as important as the external publics. If educators fail to reach the internal publics, the department may not be able to present a united message. The internal fire department publics may be the most difficult audience, culture, and population to influence, but these groups should not be avoided or neglected. Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory has withstood the test of time. Consider the nature of the audience when delivering a presentation. What state of the hierarchy are they connecting with at the time? Educators can use this information as a way to persuade their constituents. Become familiar with ethics and legal issues before launching programs and publishing works to avoid discrediting the department or yourself. More serious ramifications, such as lawsuits, could result if these simple terms are not met. With today’s more sophisticated software for computer-generated pamphlets and brochures, it can be tempting to create locally specific documents. Although this is a good idea for putting a personalized spin on the message, be sure to have others look at the work before distributing it. Consider consulting an individual trained in graphics or page layout work to ensure a more professional product. Key Terms Backgrounder sheet A one-page document that explains the purpose and structure of an organization, a brief history, the people, the activities and functions, and contact information. Branding A form of identification for products or services of a group that differentiates them from others. Campaign A coordinated and purposeful effort to address an issue, achieve a goal, improve a situation, or solve a problem. Direct mail The controlled delivery of messages and advertising sent to recipients of postal mail. External public Individuals or groups that exist outside the organization but who have some relationship with it. Formal research Qualitative or quantitative research based on facts and measurable, recordable data. Hard news Usually refers to up-to-the minute news and events that are reported immediately, and takes on a factual approach, delivering the what, who, where, when, and why of an incident. Impersonal persuader A celebrity spokesperson, mass media, advertising, editorial, or public official who can reach a greater number of people at one time. Incident information worksheet A worksheet used to give an official statement or an account of any emergencyrelated situation, event, or incident, which is distributed publicly to the media. Informal research Research that is not based on qualitative or quantitative evidence, including opinion polls, observations, physical evidence, casual interviews, and publicity. Internal public Individuals or groups that share an internal identity, such as fire department divisions. Marketing The activity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large. Media advisory A one-page sheet that alerts the press to an upcoming news event. It is sent out several days before the event and is followed up with a phone call. Mock-up A dummy copy or draft of a brochure, poster, or other publication to be reviewed and edited before final production. Model release A form used by photographers (or departments taking photos) to obtain a person’s permission to use his or her photograph or likeness in a publication for an organization. Patent A government grant offering protection for inventions and novelties. Patronage Using favors, promises, or threats to obtain favors or influence others in return. Peg The focus, angle, main point, unusual idea, or new material along with an explanation of how a story will have an impact on an audience. Personal persuader A respected authority, family member, friend, or other significant person or organization that may serve to influence opinions and practices. Press release A news release sent to the media. Public information officer (PIO) The individual who has demonstrated the ability to conduct media interviews and prepare news releases and media advisories. This individual is the department’s liaison to the media and the public. Public opinion The collective opinion of most people of a particular public about a specific issue; not necessarily based on fact, often based on perceptions or observations of events, people, organizations and institutions, and products. Publicity Information that is factual, interesting, and newsworthy to a news medium. Qualitative research Data gathered regarding conditions and events. Examples include case studies, histories, in-depth interviews, and focus groups. Quantitative research Research that is based primarily on measurement providing a higher degree of predictability and reliability. Examples include surveys, census, attendance and financial records, and pre- and post-test results. Soft news Background information or human-interest stories, which entertain or advise the reader. Trademark A distinctive and recognizable symbol protecting words, designs, or a combination of the two from use without permission. Waiver A form that a person signs to voluntarily give up his or her rights. Review Questions 1. Why do safety educators often find themselves in the role of a public relations specialist for their departments? 2. Distinguish among the terms public relations, publicity, and marketing. 3. Who are the internal and external publics (groups) of the fire department? 4. What are some of the basic principles of public relations? 5. List the points to remember when submitting photographs for publication. Critical Thinking 1. How does community involvement help the fire department’s efforts to educate the public? 2. Consider your local jurisdiction. What opportunities are there for community involvement that will help build the department’s reputation, visibility, and ability to educate the public? Who can work with the department at these events? 3. Think about a fire safety or injury prevention campaign you remember. What makes that campaign memorable to you? 4. Using the inverted pyramid technique, write a press release announcing an upcoming event to the community. Think About It and Make It Better A new skateboard park is being built in the community. What demographics will most likely be using this facility? Are these users typically risk takers? Will they be required to take instruction and wear helmets? What other community partners can the fire department contact to collaborate on this effort? Are there any other issues in conjunction with the opening of this park, such as zoning, parking, or neighborhood concerns? References 1. Newsom, D., Turk, J., and Kruckeberg, D. This Is PR: The Realities of Public Relations. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007, p. 42. 2. Newsom, D., Turk, J., and Kruckeberg, D. This Is PR: The Realities of Public Relations, p. 990. 3. Pugh, N. “TV remains the most effective way to advertise.” Ebiquity Opinion blog. June 17, 2014. Available at http://blog.ebiquity.com. 4. Newsom, D., Turk, J., and Kruckeberg D. This Is PR: The Realities of Public Relations, p. 310. Additional Resources Abbott, S. Fine Art Publicity: The Complete Guide for Artists, Galleries, and Museums. New York: Allworth Press, 2005. May, B. Firehouse Magazine. Available at http://cms.firehouse.com. Carothers, D. R. The Publicity Handbook. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2001. Cohen, H. “Use Social Media to Reach the Right Audience for Your Business”. May 27, 2015. Available from http://heidicohen.com/social-media-platforms-2015. Crestodina, A. “How to Market an Event: 50 Event Marketing Tips.” Retrieved 2015, September 8 from http://www.orbitmedia.com/blog/how-to-market-an-event. Godin, J. L. The Guerrilla Marketing Handbook. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1994. Introduction to Journalism. “Hard News Vs. Soft News.” Retrieved September 14, 2015 from https://collegejournalism.wordpress.com/2008/07/15/hardnews-vs-soft-news/. Newsom, D., Turk, J., and Kruckeberg, D. This Is PR: The Realities of Public Relations. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2007. Patterson, M. “4 Ways to Use Social Media in Public Relations.” September 15, 2014. Available at http://www.socialmediaexaminer.com/social-media-in-publicrelations. Wynne, R. “Winning Social Media Strategies for Public Relations.” April 28, 2014. Available at http://www.forbes.com/sites/robertwynne/2014/04/28/winningsocial-media-strategies-for-public-relations. CHAPTER 11: Evaluation, Assessment, and Reflection Paper: © silver-john/ShutterStock, Inc.; Chapter Opener Photo: Courtesy of Marsha Giesler. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Define evaluation, assessment, and reflection. (p. 217, 230) Explain the importance of making evaluation an integral part of programs and education initiatives. (p. 217) Determine what should be evaluated. (pp. 218–219) Summarize the types of evaluation and their applications for fire and life safety education programs. (p. 221) List methods of evaluation and the advantages of their implementation. (pp. 222–225) Discuss methods of interpreting and presenting evaluation results. (pp. 225–228) Apply an evaluation instrument to measure lesson outcomes. NFPA 4.5.1 (pp. 222–227) Score an evaluation instrument based on the scoring procedures and grading scale. NFPA 4.5.2 (pp. 227–228) Discuss the purpose and value of reflection for fire and life safety educators. (p. 230) Introduction By this point in the text, fire and life safety educators know it is important to study age groups and demographic characteristics, survey the community to identify needs and high-risk populations, choose appropriate teaching strategies, provide interesting and useful visual aids and other applicable materials, and plan and publicize education efforts, all as part of providing a sound and comprehensive program. What else is integral to the process? The forgotten piece of this puzzle is often evaluation. The five-step process and community risk reduction emphasize the importance of evaluation; curriculum development will always include an assessment piece to test the objectives; and public relations and marketing campaigns use evaluation techniques to test their effectiveness. If educators do not use evaluation, how will they know if they’ve reached the right audiences, used appropriate materials, achieved the greatest possible outreach efforts, and directed their publicity and public relations to their intended markets? What can they depend on to ensure they are heading down the correct path with their work? The thought of evaluation can be intimidating. Images of long, laborious statistics classes, mathematical formulas, charts, and graphs are enough to make the head swim. Although this field of study can certainly be complex, requiring years of study and dedication, it does not preclude beginning educators from understanding and using basic information germane to their field. Those who do not include some form of evaluation as part of every education program will not be able to justify their work, track effectiveness, or identify necessary program improvements for the future. If an educator cannot demonstrate that objectives are being met and that fire and life safety education is achieving its desired effect, how can fire chiefs, city officials, school districts, and other groups be expected to understand its importance and continue to support the budgets, personnel, time, and training necessary to carry out a comprehensive program? This chapter attempts to break evaluation down to understandable and usable information for educators beginning to define their programs. Educators will do well to remember that (1) some form of evaluation should be included in all program delivery, no matter how informal it may be; (2) evaluation is not an afterthought; rather, its form and implementation are part of initial planning and linked to the entire education process; (3) results may not be immediately evident; and (4) results of larger initiatives may need to be tracked for several years. In 1990, TriData Corporation, a well-respected organization specializing in fire protection studies and technology for government and private industry, published Proving Public Fire Education Works FIGURE 11-1. This landmark publication provided data and case studies supporting the case for evaluating public education and methodologies for evaluation. Two decades later, the fire service continues to struggle with providing finite data to administrators that can help convince them of the need to support fire and life safety education as an important partner to suppression in fighting fires. It

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