Traffic Injury Prevention
ISSN: 1538-9588 (Print) 1538-957X (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/gcpi20
Do wider longitudinal road markings influence
driving speed perception?
Francisco Calvo-Poyo, Laura Garach & Juan de Oña
To cite this article: Francisco Calvo-Poyo, Laura Garach & Juan de Oña (17 Mar 2025): Do wider
longitudinal road markings influence driving speed perception?, Traffic Injury Prevention, DOI:
10.1080/15389588.2025.2465822
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2025.2465822
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Published online: 17 Mar 2025.
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Traffic Injury Prevention
https://doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2025.2465822
Do wider longitudinal road markings influence driving speed perception?
Francisco Calvo-Poyo
, Laura Garach and Juan de Oña
TRYSE Research Group, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
ABSTRACT
Objective: Excessive speed is one of the factors most frequently associated with traffic accidents
and noncompliance with traffic regulations. Road markings serve as a fundamental aid for drivers,
with their design playing a critical role in road safety. Wider longitudinal markings create a visual
narrowing effect on the driving lane, potentially increasing the perception of speed and encouraging
drivers to reduce their speed, thereby enhancing traffic safety. However, this phenomenon has
received limited attention in prior studies, which have predominantly relied on field experiments
with small sample sizes and have often overlooked important variables such as night driving
conditions. Given these considerations, the objective of the present study is to examine whether
the perception of speed while driving on curves increases with the use of wider longitudinal
markings compared to those established by traffic regulations.
Methods: To address this objective, video recordings were made of vehicles navigating 6 curves
under 2 conditions: With standard longitudinal markings and with modified, wider markings.
Subsequently, a survey was conducted with 2,419 participants. The participants were shown the
videos and asked to identify in which segments they perceived greater vehicle speed.
Results: The findings revealed that the likelihood of perceiving greater speed on curves with wider
markings was significantly higher in the following cases: Female participants, drivers who had not
caused an accident or received a traffic ticket in the past 5 years, those with greater driving
experience, higher vehicle speeds, viewing standard markings prior to the wider ones, navigating
right-oriented curves, and nighttime driving conditions.
Conclusions: These results demonstrate that the application of wider longitudinal road markings
can, in general, enhance the perception of speed on curves. This effect has the potential to improve
road safety by promoting slower driving behavior.
Introduction
The causes behind roadway accidents mainly have to do with
road and traffic characteristics (Wang et al. 2013), the environs,
the vehicles, and the drivers themselves (American Association
of State Highway Transportation Officials 2017). According to
the European Commission (2024), human factors contribute to
approximately 95% of accidents. With regard to driver behavior,
inappropriate speed (i.e., above the speed limit or due to other
circumstances) is a factor directly related with the occurrence
and the severity of accidents (L. Zhang et al. 2014; Yu et al.
2015; Elvik et al. 2019; Fondzenyuy et al. 2024). In Europe, 43%
of drivers do not comply with the speed limits on conventional
2-lane roads (Vias Institute 2023). Moreover, a large proportion
of accidents take place on curves (Kang et al. 2013; Yin et al.
2020); in fact, more than 25% of fatal accidents are associated
with horizontal curves (Federal Highway Administration 2022).
One means of reducing driver speed along curves is the
use of traffic signals and road markings. Regarding the latter, the American Traffic Safety Services Association (2008)
pointed out that pavement markings are a fundamental element
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received 10 September 2024
Accepted 6 February 2025
KEYWORDS
Road safety; road markings;
driving speed perception; field
experiment; survey
for reducing the number of accidents. The prevailing opinion in road marking studies is that they have a positive
impact on road safety (Babić et al. 2020). However, field
studies that aim to evaluate the effects of wider longitudinal
road marking on road safety and on driver behavior are
scarce, owing to the difficulty of implementation on roads
where vehicles are circulating. Furthermore, field studies
may be old or contradictory. Cottrell (1987) and Hall (1987)
found no evidence that wide road markings significantly
affect the number of accidents or driving speed. Other studies reported inconclusive and statistically nonsignificant
results in terms of reduced road accident rates (Carlson
et al. 2013). Few have described results indicative of certain
benefits in terms of traffic safety (Calvo-Poyo et al. 2020;
Garach et al. 2022).
The present study aspires to advance along these lines
and determine whether an increase in the width of longitudinal road markings—hence a reduction in lane width—on
curves of 2-lane roads can augment the sensation of driver
speed, thereby inducing drivers to reduce their speed, with
the ensuing gain in traffic safety.
CONTACT Laura Garach
lgarach@ugr.es
TRYSE Research Group, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Granada, Severo Ochoa s/n, 18007 Granada,
Spain.
Associate editor Alessandro Calvi oversaw the review of this article.
Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/15389588.2025.2465822
© 2025 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2
F. CALVO-POYO ET AL.
The article is organized into the following sections: State
of the art, objective of the study, methodology, results, and
discussion.
State of the art
This section describes previous studies aimed at evaluating
the effects of modified road markings.
A number of field experiments are based on before-andafter direct measures of speed or number of accidents on
rural roads. Different alternatives have been explored; for
example, wider or additional longitudinal markings and/or
transversal ones of different configurations. Beginning with
those using wider longitudinal road markings, Cottrell
(1987) performed a field experiment that consisted of comparing a series of variables for 3 years previous to the use
of wide longitudinal markings (8 in. rather than 4 in., the
standard width in the United States) as opposed to those
observed during the 2 years after their implementation. The
author found no evidence that the wide road markings significantly affected the number of accidents or driving speed.
Similarly, Hall (1987) did not observe any significant effect
on the number of accidents by using wider edge lines. In
contrast, Hughes et al. (1989) reported a reduction in the
number of accidents by implementing wider edge lines on
roads with low traffic levels (2,000–5,000 vehicles per day on
the average) but not on those with high traffic levels (5,000–
10,000). The American Traffic Safety Services Association
(2008) reported several cases in which wider markings were
used on 2-lane rural highways and reported the following
results: Reductions in the number of deaths and injuries
(between 2% and 10%) and a reduction in the number of
accidents involving a single vehicle and of accidents with
injuries (from 22% to 33%, depending on the county).
Carlson et al. (2013) retrieved the results of Department of
Transportation reports from various states regarding the use
of longitudinal road markings and reported inconclusive and
statistically nonsignificant results in terms of reducing road
accident rates. Calvo-Poyo et al. (2020) used radar to measure the speed of vehicles in curves in 2 scenarios, with
standard and with wider road markings. Speed reductions of
3.1% were obtained with wider markings. Among the field
experiments that used additional markings, in addition to
the conventional longitudinal edge lines, N. Ding et al.
(2021) studied the effect of discontinuous additional longitudinal markings by means of traffic analyzers, cameras, and
speed guns and concluded that these markings could help
diminish the risk of accidents. H. Zhang et al. (2023) made
video recordings of vehicles circulating on a stretch of highway with additional longitudinal markings of different colors
and configurations and observed a speed reduction of
0.1 km/h for both directions on a 2-lane road and with a
maximum speed of 100 km/h.
As an alternative to field experiments, driving simulators
have often been used to study the effect of narrowing lanes
and of the implementation of modified edge lines. In a study
of perceptual lane width narrowing, Godley et al. (1999)
found that narrowing the lanes by using wider road edge
lines could reduce speeds by 2.2 km/h. Later, Godley et al.
(2004) reported a reduction in driving speeds attributable to
wider markings. Lewis-Evans and Charlton (2006) analyzed
the behavioral adaptation of drivers to narrowed lanes and
reported lower speeds for narrow lanes and higher speeds
for wider lanes. Liu et al. (2016) analyzed driving behavior
with respect to variations in lane and edge shoulder width
on an urban expressway and found that the width of lanes
and shoulders had a significant influence on speed. In fact,
the narrowed lanes led to a reduction in speed by as much
as 32%. Some simulation experiments involved additional
road markings. Charlton (2007) experimented with different
warning signs to alert drivers about the presence of curves
and several types of road markings but only obtained reductions in speed when a combination of modified road markings (herringbones) with chevron and arrow signs was used,
not for road marking alone. Montella et al. (2011) studied
the effect of applying different types of road markings in the
intersections of rural roads and found that some (e.g.,
dragon tooth markings and raised median island) resulted in
significant reductions in speed. Finally, H. Ding et al. (2016)
evaluated the effects of longitudinal speed reduction markings on interchange connectors with different radii. Their
results showed that these markings significantly reduce vehicles’ travel speed.
Another way to evaluate the effect of road markings is
through driver opinion surveys. For instance, a variety of
opinion polls and studies have shown that motorists value
the visibility of road markings with regard to safe travel
(Huberty and Swenson 1997; Bender and Schamber 2000).
Ohme and Schnell (2001) found that drivers who participated in a distance detection evaluation field experiment
judged wider markings as more favorable than standard
ones. Parham et al. (2003) evaluated the understanding of
the current pavement markings system in the United States
through a driver survey. More closely related to the study
topic, Garach et al. (2022) undertook a study entailing a
video survey wherein participants viewed vehicles that drove
along curves with standard and with wider edge lines. They
found that when participants perceived a difference in speed,
a sensation of greater speed was produced with wide markings. Despite the novelty of this approach and the advancement in knowledge it represents, some limitations are worth
mentioning. The study involved a limited number of participants with similar socioeconomic profiles (university students). Variables included did not include respondents’
driving experience or whether they had been ticketed in the
past, the transversal section of the roadway, the direction of
the curve, or night driving.
Previous studies related to the width of road markings
have analyzed the relationship between accidents and the
width of road markings but did not generally analyze the relationship with speed perception. In this context, and taking
into account the limitations of previous studies, this article
aims to advance our knowledge about the effect of widened
road markings on the perception of speed. To this end, the
present contribution takes as reference the study by Garach
et al. (2022) but increasing the number of cases studied (from
3 to 6 curves), the number of videos (from 14 to 50), the
Traffic Injury Prevention
number of surveys carried out (from 185 to 2,419 participants), and the number of independent variables considered
(from 6 to 10 variables, including night driving, not considered previously). The realm of study is 2-lane rural roadways
in Spain, where noncompliance with speed limits is above the
European average (57%; Vias Institute 2023).
Objective of the study
The main aim of this study is to analyze the influence of
using wider longitudinal road markings in terms of the perception of vehicle speed along roadway curves. The following hypothesis is put forth for verification: Given a common
driving speed, the presence of wider edge lines produces a
sensation of moving at a greater speed, even though this
perception varies in conjunction with certain driver, road,
and environment characteristics.
Methodology
This section describes the different stages of the study.
(Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Urbanismo 1987) recommends that the width be increased to 30 cm in certain sections of the road that involve a greater possibility of conflict
or risk for traffic; for example, ascending lanes, merging and
detour sections, or specialized lanes such as bus lanes. Figure 1
shows the road sections studied, both with standard markings and with widened markings.
Fourth stage. Videos with wider road markings were
recorded in the same conditions as stage 2. Therefore, for
each curve, 5 videos were recorded while driving during the
day and 5 videos were recorded while driving at night (each
made at different speeds between 60 and 100 km/h).
Fifth stage. For each curve, and for every vehicle speed
recorded, a video was prepared with 2 parts, each having a
duration of 10 s. The first part showed driving along a curve
with standard road markings and at a certain speed, and the
second part showed driving along the same curve but with
wider road markings (or vice versa) while driving at the
same speed as in the first part of the video. Thus, the only
variation between the 2 parts of the videos was the width of
the road markings. In half of the videos the standard road
markings were shown first, and in the other half, they were
shown second.
Field experiment
First stage. To start the field experiment, 6 curves on rural
highways in Andalucia (southern Spain) were selected as
study cases. Table 1 lists the main features of these road sections. Right and left direction curves were chosen, curves
with 2 and 3 lanes, radii varying between a minimum of
230 m and a maximum of 420 m, and gradients varying
between a minimum of 0.5% and a maximum of 8%.
Second stage. For the second phase of the experiment,
video recordings while driving at a constant speed along the
6 curves were made. The width of the road markings in this
stage was standard; that is, according to Spanish legislation
(Ministerio de Obras Públicas y Urbanismo 1987): 10 cm for
lane separation and 15 cm for the edge lines. The videos
were made from within the vehicle, with a camera situated
at the height of the eyes. Recordings were made at night and
during the day, in free-flow conditions (i.e., vehicles could
travel at the desired speed without interruptions, significant
speed reductions, or any disturbance from other vehicles).
Each curve was driven at 5 different speeds, between 60 and
100 km/h.
Third stage. In this stage, both longitudinal markings,
center and edge lines, were painted with a width of 30 cm,
referred to as wider markings in this article. The width of
30 cm was chosen taking into account that the Spanish code
Table 1. Road section characteristics.
Road
section
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
Lane
Curve
Lanes
width
direction (number) (m)
Right
2
3.5
Right
2
3.5
Left
2
3.5
Right
3
3.5
Left
3
3.5
Right
3
3.5
Shoulder
width
Radii
(m)
(m)
1
230
1.5
400
1.5
230
1.5
420
1.5
320
1.5
270
Gradient
(%)
−2.0
−2.6
−0.5
−2.9
−6.7
−8.00
Maximun
speed
(km/h)
90
100
100
100
60
60
3
Figure 1. Curves with regular (left) and wide (right) road markings.
4
F. CALVO-POYO ET AL.
Sixth stage. In the last phase of the experiment, an online
survey was conducted among 2,419 participants who were
over 18 years of age and held a valid driver’s license. The
videos were shown and participants were asked in which
part of the video (first or second) they perceived a greater
speed of circulation. Answers included “in the first part of
the video,” “in the second part,” and “I do not perceive a
difference in speed.” Moreover, information on gender, age,
years with a valid driving license, number of kilometers
driven yearly, academic level, traffic tickets, and whether the
participant was responsible for an accident in the previous 5
years was obtained.
Statistical model
Multinomial logit models (MNLs) are used to model categorical outcome variables where the categories do not have
a natural order (McFadden 1974). In this research, an MNL
was applied because the participants had to choose among 3
alternatives: Not perceiving a different speed, perceiving
greater speed when the markings were wide, or perceiving
greater speed when the markings were standard. Furthermore,
each participant viewed 10 videos, and different results for
the same individual were collected, meaning the data have a
panel data structure.
Given that the choices made by each person surveyed
could depend on individual characteristics, the MNL
included an additional error term at the panel level. This
term is the heterogeneity term and is shown in the model
in addition to the error term.
The objective is to select, from different options, the one
that provides the greatest utility. The utility perceived by the
ith participant with J choices supposes that the utility of
choice j is (StataCorp 2021)
(1)
U ijv= xiv β j + uij + ε ijv ,
where Uijv is the utility of the ith individual toward outcome
j in video v, with i = 1, …, N, j = 1, …, J, and v = 1, …, 10.
The part observed is xivβj, with xiv as a row vector of covariates that varies across the individuals, and βj is a column
vector of coefficients for outcome j. The unobserved part is
made up of the following error components: The panel-level
heterogeneity term, uij, and an observation-level error
term, ɛijv.
Let yiv be a random variable that indicates the choice
made with video v. Then, when the data consist of specific
individual characteristics, the natural model formulation is
=
Pr( yiv m=
| xiv , β j , uij )
exp ( xiv β m + uim )
∑ exp ( x β j + u )
J
j =1
iv
.
(2)
Pr=
( yiv m | x iv , β =
F=
( yiv m , xiv† j + u ij )
j , u ij )
=
1 + ∑ j=2exp ( x iv β j + uij )
if m = 1
(3)
Pr=
( yiv m | x iv , β =
F=
( yiv m , x iv β j + uij )
j , u ij )
=
exp ( x iv βm + uim )
1 + ∑ j=2exp ( x iv β j + uij )
J
if m > 1.
(4)
In Eqs. (3) and (4), F(.) is defined as the cumulative
logistic distribution function.
The predicted probabilities can be computed with Eqs.
(3) and (4) to assess the relationship between a predictor
and each outcome. Because the predicted probabilities are
point estimates, it is recommended to compute a confidence
interval to take sampling variability into account. Though
predicted probabilities provide information about the direction and magnitude of the relationship, it can be difficult to
precisely determine whether a relationship can really be
established. Margins use predicted probabilities that can
assess the relationship between a predictor and each outcome and thus provide a more intuitive way of interpreting
the results. Marginal effects are defined as the slope of the
prediction function at a given value of the explanatory variable and therefore inform about the change in predicted
probabilities due to a change in a particular predictor. These
marginal effects are calculated by deriving the probability
function with respect to the x variables varying across the
individuals (Wulff 2015). The random effects estimator is
described in Hartzel et al. (2001).
The variables used in the random effects multinomial logit
model included the dependent variable, perceived speed, and
related to the 3 possible answers to the main question of the
survey: (1) I perceived a higher speed in the first part of
the video, (2) I perceived a higher speed in the second part of
the video, and (3) I did not perceive any speed difference
between the two parts of the video. This last answer was considered as the reference category. Moreover, the following independent variables were considered.
Participant-specific variables:
•
•
•
•
•
ij
The above equation was normalized with respect to a
base category. To do so, elements βj and uij were set to 0 for
one of the categories of the result variable. If the base outcome is assumed to be 1, the probability that the ith individual chooses result m at time t is
1
J
Gender: Binary variable (1: Female, 0: Male).
Driver experience: Continuous variable indicating
number of years with a valid driving license.
Annual driving: Categorical variable indicating the
approximate kilometers traveled per year as a driver.
Traffic ticket: Binary variable that indicates whether
the participant received a ticket for speeding in the
previous 5 years (1: Yes, 0: No).
Accidents: Binary variable that indicates whether the
participant was responsible for an accident in the
previous 5 years (1: Yes, 0: No).
Experiment-specific variables:
•
Speed: Continuous variable indicating the circulating
speed in the video.
Traffic Injury Prevention
5
Table 2. Descriptive data of the participants.
Variable
Gender
Annual driving (km/year)
Accidents
Traffic tickets
Driving experience (years)
•
•
•
•
Category
Female
Male
0–10,000
10,000–20,000
>20,000
Yes
No
Yes
No
Min/max
1/66
Frequency
1,048
1,371
1,243
797
379
188
2,231
629
1,790
Average
25.8
Percent
43.32
56.68
51.38
32.95
15.67
7.77
92.23
26
74
Standard deviation
14.39
First mark: Binary variable indicating whether the
road marking shown in the first part of the video
was standard, and hence wide in the second part (1),
or vice versa (0).
Light: Binary variable indicating whether the video
was recorded at night (1) or during the day (0).
Road section: Binary variable accounting for whether
the road had 3 lanes (1) or 2 lanes (0).
Curve direction: Binary variable indicating whether the
curve shown was to the right (1) or to the left (0).
Data and materials
Table 2 provides the descriptive statistics of the variables
regarding the survey participants.
In total, 60 videos (corresponding to 6 curves, 5 different
speeds on each curve, and daytime and nighttime recordings for
each speed) were used. These 60 videos were divided into 6
homogeneous groups, with each group comprising 10 videos.
Finally, each of the 2,419 participants viewed one of these
groups of videos. The homogeneity of the video groups ensured
that all participants, regardless of which group of 10 videos
viewed, observed the same number of curves with wide marks
and with narrow marks and with daytime or nighttime driving.
Results
Table A1 (see online supplement) shows the frequency of
the responses to the main survey question about the perception of vehicle speed with standard road markings and wider
ones, in conjunction with the conditions of daylight/darkness, and for each of the curves.
As seen in Table A1, nearly half of those surveyed
(49.20%) did not detect differences in the vehicle speed
(11,901 of 24,190 cases). Among those who perceived a difference, 26.32% reported greater speed when the road markings were wider, whereas 24.48% perceived greater speed
with the standard markings. It was also noted that, among
perceptions of a higher speed with wider markings, most
(51.38%) were at night.
Table A2 (see online supplement) displays the results of
applying the statistical model to the study data. Table A2 presents estimated coefficients, P values, and odds ratios (that is, eβ
rather than β coefficients). McFadden’s pseudo R2 was 0.0388.
The base category in Table A2 was the participant not perceiving any speed difference between the 2 parts of the video. The
Figure 2. Marginal probabilities of speed perception for the binary variables.
odds ratios column shows the results of comparing the probability of a participant perceiving a higher speed when the markings are wide as opposed to the base category (faster with wide
markings) and the results of comparing the probability of a participant perceiving a higher speed when the markings are regular (faster with regular markings). This probability increases in
the case of wider markings and regular markings, with the following variables: Female participants (2.88 times more likely for
wide markings and 2.70 times more likely for regular markings),
driver’s experience (significant at 10% with both wider markings
and regular markings), number of kilometers driven annually,
whether the participant had ever received any traffic tickets (significant in both cases), whether the participant has ever been in
an accident, the speed shown in the videos (this variable was
significant), whether the first marking shown was the regular
marking, whether driving was at night, whether there were 3
lanes, and whether the curve was to the right (all significant in
the standard case).
In view of the model displayed in Table A2, Figure 2
shows in graphic form the marginal probability of the binary
study variables.
Figure 2 shows that, for all binary variables, roughly half of
the participants perceived no difference in speed of circulation
with the wide markings versus the standard markings.
Considering only those participants who did perceive a difference in speed provided, the results are shown in Table A3 (see
online supplement), which includes the marginal effects for the
binary variables. The last column of the table likewise includes
the marginal probability differences when the difference in
speed perception between types of markings is significant. That
is, the marginal probability difference is indicated if the confidence intervals for wide and regular markings do not overlap.
For example, for females, the intervals for wide markings
(0.2582–0.2803) and for standard markings (0.2311–0.2525) do
not overlap and therefore the marginal probability (0.027) is calculated in the last column.
Table A3 indicates that the sensation of driving at a
higher speed with widened markings (as opposed to
6
F. CALVO-POYO ET AL.
standard markings) is significantly greater in the following
cases: Female gender, not having caused an accident or been
ticketed in the past 5 years, the standard markings appearing
in the video grouping before the wider ones, the direction
of the curve being to the right, the road section having 3
lanes, and driving at night. Therefore, among all the binary
variables considered, at least 1 case was encountered in
which the perception of vehicle speed was greater with the
wide markings. Specifically, the probability that a female
perceived greater speed with the wider markings was 2.7%
higher (Table A3) than with the standard markings.
Discussion
These results are consistent with previous findings in the literature. The probability that a female perceived greater speed
with the wider markings than with the standard markings is
in line with the findings of Garach et al. (2022) for this variable. Considering that a heightened sensation of speed may
induce one to reduce driving speed and therefore lower the
risk of an accident and avoid infractions such as surpassing
the speed limit, this result may be related with the findings
from a study carried out in Spain by the Dirección General
de Tráfico (DGT 2009), which reported a greater perception
of danger and better compliance with traffic regulations on
the part of females as opposed to males. Other studies also
reported that females heed driving regulations more closely
(González-Iglesias et al. 2012; Oppenheim et al. 2016).
However, this topic should be further explored because some
authors, such as Tao et al. (2017), found no gender differences
in risky driving behaviors and accident involvement.
The marginal probability of perceiving a higher speed
with wider markings than with standard markings is greater
for drivers who had not been involved in an accident (a
finding in agreement with Garach et al. 2022) or received a
ticket in the past 5 years (respectively 0.018 and 0.019
higher). The latter result is in line with that obtained by the
DGT (2009), which found that drivers who had not received
a ticket are more aware of the risks involved in driving and
adhere more frequently to traffic regulations. Furthermore
(using the heightened perception of speed as a proxy for the
reduced risk of having an accident), this finding is comparable to that reported by Factor (2014), who, in a study of
the association between accidents and tickets, observed that
the probability of being involved in an accident increased
along with the number of tickets received.
With regard to roadway-related conditioning factors, it is
interesting to underline the effect produced by viewing the
standard markings in the first part of the video and the wider
road markings in the second part, as would occur if this measure were put into practice (when approaching the curve, the
driver would drive along standard markings and then wider
curves would be found within the curve). In these cases, the
marginal probability of perceiving a higher speed with wider
markings is 0.033 greater than that with standard road markings, a result in line with Garach et al. (2022).
The results concerning the direction of the curve showed
that right-hand curves have a greater marginal probability
(+0.025) of the driver perceiving a higher speed with wide
markings. This may be owing to the decreased visibility in
curves oriented to the right (due to an embankment, walls,
vegetation, etc.; Figure 1); in contrast, left-hand curves generally afford better visibility (with extra visibility provided by
the lane and the shoulder on the left side of the road). This
finding may be related to the result of Bassani et al. (2019),
whose driving simulator study showed that on curves with
limited visibility, driving speed diminished as the available
sight distance decreased. The present study arrived at contrary results depending on the number of lanes (2 or 3).
In terms of light, results indicated that the marginal
probability of perceiving higher speed with wider markings
was significantly greater (0.048) when circulating at night.
This suggests that wide road markings would be beneficial
for traffic safety during nighttime driving.
The result of this discussion will focus on the continuous
variables. With respect to the influence of the number of
years with a valid driver’s license, Figure 3 makes 2 aspects
evident. On the one hand, the probability of not perceiving
any difference increases along with driving experience. On
the other hand, the perception of greater speed with the
wide markings increases along with experience. This effect is
significant from around 22 years of driving experience (since
intervals of wide and standard markings do not overlap
from 22 approximately; see Figure 3).
This result can be linked to the fact that, according to the
DGT (2009), the perception of driving hazards and adherence to traffic norms (in this case, likely related to not
invading the opposite lane or the shoulder owing to excessive speed) increases with age. This finding also agrees with
the meta-analysis of the relationship between drivers’ violations, age, and experience carried out by De Winter and
Dodou (2010), with violations of the code decreasing with
age. This may indicate more sensible attitudes toward driving risk over time, with relevant implications in the case of
narrowing lanes. Given that in Spain a driving license can
be obtained at age 18, this suggests that the aforementioned
effect happens after age 40 (i.e., becoming licensed at age 18
plus roughly 22 years of experience, as reflected in Figure 3).
Figure 4 indicates there are no significant differences
regarding the perception of speed with wider markings as
opposed to standard markings for any of the established
ranges of kilometers per year driven; hence, it is deduced
Figure 3. Influence of driving experience on speed perception.
Traffic Injury Prevention
Figure 4. Influence of annual driving on speed perception.
Figure 5. Influence of driving speed on speed perception.
that the sensation of speed with wide or standard road
markings is not affected by annual distance driven.
Focusing on how driving speed may affect the viewer’s
perception of speed depending on the width of the longitudinal road markings, Figure 5 shows that the marginal probability of perceiving equal speed with both types of markings,
wide and standard, decreases from 60 to 100 km/h (from
0.54 to 0.44).
In turn, the probability of perceiving higher speed
increases with the speed of circulation for both types of
markings. The probability of perceiving greater speed with
wide markings is always found to be greater than the probability of perceiving more speed with standard markings; the
statistical difference in this case is significant in the speed
range from 65 to 85 km/h. Therefore, the above results suggest that wider markings produce a greater sensation of
speed than standard markings (significantly, for intermediate
speeds, with respect to the speed limits on the curves studied, between 60 and 100 km/h) and that this sensation is
heightened with increased speed.
In general, the results of this study agree with the main
result of Garach et al. (2022), in that a heightened perception of speed is seen in conjunction with widened markings.
Furthermore, if these results are considered together with
those of Calvo-Poyo et al. (2020) and N. Ding et al. (2021),
who undertook field experiments with modified longitudinal
7
markings, or with Liu et al.’s (2016) driving simulation
experiments imposing reduced lane width, all of which
reported speed reductions, the use of wider road markings
might help reduce driving speed.
This article analyzes the influence of a greater width in
longitudinal road markings for curves on rural 2-lane roads
on the corresponding perception of driving speed. The analysis entailed a survey in which vehicles were traveling at the
same speed, first with wider markings and then standard
ones (or vice versa), after which participants were asked
about their perception of speed.
For all variables considered (gender, accidents, traffic tickets,
standard markings appearing first in the video, direction, section, light, driving experience, and driving speed)—except for
the variable annual driving—cases were identified in which the
perception of greater speed was associated with the wider markings. Thus, the hypothesis postulated is confirmed.
More specifically, the results obtained indicate that, with
regard to driver conditioning factors, the perception of higher
speed occurs significantly when one circulates along curves
with wide markings for females and those who have not been
involved in an accident or received a ticket in the past 5
years. A heightened perception of speed was likewise observed
with wide markings when the driver had some 22 years of
experience on the road; this effect was accentuated with older
age. This result has a valuable practical application in that it
indicates that wider markings are more effective in improving
road safety on curves among older drivers, a finding of great
importance in a society such as Spain’s with an increasing
older population. Annual kilometers driven did not appear to
have an impact on this perception. Finally, with respect to
driving speed, it was found that the sensation of circulating
at higher speed on curves increases with the speed of circulation with both types of markings, yet this perception is
even greater with wide markings than with standard ones for
speeds in the intermediate range. Therefore, the results
expounded here would point to a beneficial effect of widened
road markings on curves for those driver profiles who are
considered more responsible at the wheel: Adults, drivers
who have not been involved in an accident, and drivers who
comply with traffic regulations. According to these findings,
longitudinal road markings could be seen as a means of reinforcing road safety among drivers of low risk.
With regard to road-related conditioning factors, the sensation of speed is heightened with wide markings on curves
to the right. This result has important practical implications,
because it is along right-hand curves where visibility may be
reduced to some extent.
Light was also found to be influential. The results
described here confirm that the probability of perceiving
greater speed with wide markings than with standard ones
is enhanced at night. This finding illustrates the benefit of
implementing wider markings on curves, which would be
very helpful in the context of night driving.
This research represents an advance in knowledge in
studies that analyze the relationship between wider road
markings and speed (in this case, in an indirect way, by
considering the perception of speed), because diverse results
have been found in previous studies. This study has practical
8
F. CALVO-POYO ET AL.
implications. For example, this study confirmed that, for certain driver, infrastructure, and environment characteristics, a
perception of greater speed is associated with wider markings when circulating along curves. This perception could
induce drivers to drive slower. Therefore, the implementation of wider longitudinal road markings on curves should
be taken into account when aspiring to improve road safety
on rural highways.
This study has some limitations, and the results should
be taken with caution because more curves, with different
geometric characteristics or a greater variety of lane numbers, should be analyzed to better extrapolate the conclusions to any type of curve.
Future research should further explore a large number of
curves with different geometric characteristics. Additionally,
the effect of wider road markings on sections of road entailing a higher risk of accidents, such as approaches to intersections, should be analyzed.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Funding
The authors thank the Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness of
Spain for funding the project “Increasing the Width of Road Markings
as a Tool for Reducing the Speed on Highway Sections With Safety
Problems (MARVIVEL),” reference TRA2012-37823, and the Ministry of
Science, Innovation and Universities of Spain, for funding the project
“Investment in Roads and Road Safety: An International Analysis
(INCASE),” reference RTI2018-101770-B-I00 (MCIN/AEI/10.13039/
501100011033). Both projects were co-funded through the European
Regional Development Fund (ERDF).
ORCID
Francisco Calvo-Poyo
http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8804-5507
Data availability statement
All data, models, and code that support the findings of this study are
available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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