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Class_12_Chemistry_Guide.md
CLASS 12 CHEMISTRY - COMPLETE GUIDE
Organic Conversions | Distinguishing Tests | Named Reactions
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Organic Conversions (Chapter-wise)
2. Tests to Distinguish Between Compounds
3. Named Reactions in Organic Chemistry
PART 1: ORGANIC CONVERSIONS (CHAPTERWISE)
A. HALOALKANES & HALOARENES
Haloalkane Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Type
R-X → R-OH
Aq. KOH/NaOH (warm)
Alcohol
SN2/SN1
R-X → R-OR'
Aq. KOH/R'OH
Ether
SN2
R-X → R-CN
KCN (DMSO)
Nitrile
SN2
R-X → R-NH2
NaN3, then LiAlH4
Amine
Gabriel synthesis
R-X → R-H
Zn/Cu couple + CH3COOH
Alkane
Reduction
CH3-X + CH3-Y
2Na (ether)
CH3-CH3
Wurtz Reaction
X-Ph → Ph-Ph
2Na (ether)
Biphenyl
Fittig Reaction
Haloarene Conversions
Conversion
Reagent/Condition
Product
Type
Cl-Ph → OH-Ph
NaOH (300°C, 300 atm)
Phenol
Nucleophilic aromatic substitution
Cl-Ph → NH2-Ph
Aniline, CuCl
Diphenylamine
Ullmann Reaction
Ph-N2+ Cl- → Cl-Ph
CuCl
Chlorobenzene
Sandmeyer (Cl)
Ph-N2+ Cl- → Br-Ph
CuBr
Bromobenzene
Sandmeyer (Br)
Ph-N2+ Cl- → I-Ph
KI
Iodobenzene
Sandmeyer (I)
Ph-N2+ Cl- → CN-Ph
CuCN
Benzonitrile
Sandmeyer (CN)
B. ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS & ETHERS
Alcohol Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Conditions
R-OH → R-X
HX, or PX3, PCl5, SOCl2
Alkyl Halide
Room temp
R-OH → R-O-R'
R'-X + NaOH
Ether
Williamson synthesis
R-OH → R-CHO
PCC or mild oxidant
Aldehyde
Room temp
R2CHOH → R2CO
KMnO4 (acidic) or K2Cr2O7
Ketone
Heat
RCH2OH → RCHO → RCOOH
KMnO4/K2Cr2O7
Carboxylic acid
Heat
R-CH2OH → R-CHO → R-CN
(i) PCC, (ii) NH2OH
Oxime
Sequential
CH3CH(OH)CH3 + I2/NaOH
Iodoform test
CHI3 (yellow ppt)
Haloform rxn
Phenol Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Conditions
Ph-OH → Ph-O-Na
NaOH
Sodium phenoxide
Room temp
Ph-OH → o/p-CHO-Ph
CHCl3 + NaOH
Salicylaldehyde (o)
Heat
Ph-OH → o/p-COOH-Ph
CO2 + NaOH (200°C)
Salicylic acid (o)
Heat
Ph-OH + Br2 (H2O)
Br2 in water
2,4,6-Tribromophenol
White ppt
Ph-OH → p-NO2-Ph-OH
HNO3 (dilute)
p-Nitrophenol
Heat
Ph-O-H → Ph-O-COCH3
CH3COCl or (CH3CO)2O
Phenyl acetate
Esterification
Ether Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Conditions
R-O-R' + HI (conc)
Heat
R-I + R'-OH
Cleavage
R-O-R' + HBr (conc)
Heat
R-Br + R'-OH
Cleavage
R-O-R' → R-CHO
Ozonolysis then H2O2
Aldehyde/Ketone
Multiple steps
C. ALDEHYDES & KETONES
Aldehyde Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Type
R-CHO → R-CH2OH
NaBH4 or LiAlH4
Primary alcohol
Reduction
R-CHO → R-COOH
KMnO4 (hot) or Tollens' rxn
Carboxylic acid
Oxidation
R-CHO + R'-CHO
Base (dilute)
α,β-unsaturated aldehyde
Aldol condensation
R-CHO + NH2NH2/KOH
Heat
Alkane (Wolff-Kishner)
Reduction
R-CHO + Zn/Hg + HCl
Heat
Alkane (Clemmensen)
Reduction
R-CHO + NaHSO3
Water
Bisulfite adduct
Reversible addition
Ph-CHO + Ph-CHO
NaOH
Benzil (Cannizzaro)
Disproportionation
Ketone Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Type
R-CO-R' → R-CH(OH)-R'
NaBH4 or LiAlH4
Secondary alcohol
Reduction
R-CO-R' + HCN
Base
Cyanohydrin
Addition
CH3-CO-R + Br2/NaOH
Warm
CHBr3 + RCOONa
Haloform reaction
R-CO-R' + NH2NH2/KOH
Heat
R-CH2-CH2-R'
Wolff-Kishner
R-CO-R' + Zn/Hg + HCl
Heat
R-CH2-CH2-R'
Clemmensen
D. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS & DERIVATIVES
Carboxylic Acid Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Type
R-COOH → R-COCl
PCl3, PCl5, or SOCl2
Acid chloride
Acylation
R-COOH → R-CO-O-R'
R'OH + H2SO4 (conc)
Ester
Esterification
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Type
R-COOH → R-COONH4
NH3 + heat
Ammonium salt
Salt formation
R-COOH → R-CONH2
(COCl)2 then NH3
Amide (primary)
Via acid chloride
R-COOH → R-H + CO2
Heat (with lime/soda)
Alkane
Decarboxylation
2R-COOH → R-CO-O-CO-R
Heat
Anhydride
Dehydration
R-COOH → R-CHO
LiAlH4 reduction → oxidation
Aldehyde
Rosenmund reduction
Ph-COOH → Ph-Br
Br2 + FeBr3
Bromobenzene
After diazotization
Acid Derivative Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Type
R-COCl + H2O
Aqueous
R-COOH
Hydrolysis
R-COCl + NaOH
Cold
R-COONa
Saponification
R-COCl + R'-OH
Pyridine
R-CO-O-R'
Esterification
R-COOR' + NaOH/H2O
Heat
R-COONa + R'-OH
Saponification
R-CO-NH2 + Br2/NaOH
Heat
R-NH2 + CO2
Hofmann degradation
R-CN + H2O
H+ or OH- heat
R-COOH
Hydrolysis
R-CN + H2/Ni
Heat, pressure
R-CH2NH2
Reduction
E. AMINES & DIAZO COMPOUNDS
Primary Amine Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Type
Ph-NH2 → Ph-N2+Cl-
NaNO2 + HCl (0°C)
Benzenediazonium chloride
Diazotization
Ph-NH2 → Ph-OH
(i) NaNO2/HCl, (ii) H2O
Phenol
Via diazo
Ph-NH2 → Ph-I
(i) NaNO2/HCl, (ii) KI
Iodobenzene
Via diazo
Ph-NH2 → Ph-Br
(i) NaNO2/HCl, (ii) CuBr
Bromobenzene
Sandmeyer
Ph-NH2 → Ph-Cl
(i) NaNO2/HCl, (ii) CuCl
Chlorobenzene
Sandmeyer
Ph-NH2 → Ph-CN
(i) NaNO2/HCl, (ii) CuCN
Benzonitrile
Sandmeyer
R-COOH + Ph-NH2
ΔH
R-CO-NH-Ph
Amide formation
Ph-NH2 → Ph-N=C:Cl
CHCl3 + KOH
Phenyl isocyanide
Carbylamine test
Secondary Amine Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Type
R2NH → R2N-SO2-C6H4-CH3
p-Toluenesulfonyl chloride
Sulfonamide
Hinsberg test
R2NH + R'X
NaOH/heat
R2N-R'
Alkylation
Tertiary Amine Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Type
R3N + CH3X
SN2 (no H)
Quaternary ammonium salt
Alkylation
R3N → R2N-OH
H2O2
N-oxide
Oxidation
F. BENZENE & SUBSTITUTED BENZENE DERIVATIVES
Benzene Ring Conversions
Conversion
Reagent
Product
Reaction Type
C6H6 + CH3Cl
AlCl3, FeCl3
Toluene (methylbenzene)
Friedel-Crafts alkylation
C6H6 + CH3COCl
AlCl3
Acetophenone
Friedel-Crafts acylation
C6H6 + Br2
FeBr3
Bromobenzene
Electrophilic aromatic
C6H6 + HNO3
H2SO4 (conc)
Nitrobenzene
Nitration
C6H6 + SO3
H2SO4 (conc)
Benzenesulfonic acid
Sulfonation
NO2-Ph → NH2-Ph
Sn + HCl (warm)
Aniline
Reduction
CH3-Ph → CHO-Ph
CrO3 (conc H2SO4)
Benzaldehyde
Oxidation (Etard)
CH3-Ph → COOH-Ph
KMnO4 (hot) or K2Cr2O7
Benzoic acid
Oxidation
Substituted Benzene Conversions
Starting Material
Reagent
Product
Key Features
Toluene → Benzal Chloride
Cl2 + light
C6H5-CHCl2
Free radical
Toluene → Benzyl Chloride
Cl2 + light (low)
C6H5-CH2Cl
Allylic position
Benzaldehyde → Benzoic acid
KMnO4 (hot)
C6H5-COOH
Oxidation
Benzoic acid → Benzyl alcohol
LiAlH4
C6H5-CH2OH
Reduction
Benzoyl chloride → Benzaldehyde
H2/Pd-BaSO4
C6H5-CHO
Rosenmund
Benzyl alcohol → Benzaldehyde
PCC or K2Cr2O7
C6H5-CHO
Oxidation
PART 2: TESTS TO DISTINGUISH BETWEEN
COMPOUNDS
TABLE OF COMMON DISTINGUISHING TESTS
1. TESTS FOR ALDEHYDES vs KETONES
Tollens' Test (Silver Mirror Test)
Reagent: Tollens' reagent (ammoniacal silver nitrate)
Aldehydes: Silver mirror formation (black coating)
Ketones: No reaction
Example Questions:
Distinguish between Propanal and Propanone
Distinguish between Benzaldehyde and Acetophenone
Fehling's Test
Reagent: Fehling's A (CuSO4) + Fehling's B (NaOH, Rochelle salt)
Aldehydes: Red precipitate (Cu2O)
Ketones: No reaction
2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazone (2,4-DNP) Test
Reagent: 2,4-DNP in dilute HCl
Aldehydes: Yellow or orange crystals
Ketones: Yellow or orange crystals
Use when: Cannot distinguish aldehydes from ketones (both positive)
Schiff's Test
Reagent: Schiff's reagent (magenta dye + HCl)
Aldehydes: Magenta color reappears
Ketones: No color change
2. TESTS FOR ALCOHOLS
Lucas Test (Distinguishing Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Alcohols)
Reagent: Lucas reagent (HCl + ZnCl2)
Primary alcohols: Slow turbidity (or no turbidity at room temp)
Secondary alcohols: Turbidity in 5 minutes
Tertiary alcohols: Instant turbidity (immediate oily layer)
Mechanism: Reaction rate depends on carbocation stability
Tertiary carbocation (most stable) → fastest
Secondary carbocation → intermediate
Primary carbocation (least stable) → slowest/no reaction
Iodoform Test (for CH3-CHOH or CH3-CO groups)
Reagent: I2 + NaOH (warm)
Positive compounds:
Secondary alcohols with CH3 group next to CHOH (e.g., isopropanol, acetoin)
Methyl ketones
Ethanol and other CH3CH2OH compounds
Product: Yellow precipitate of CHI3 (iodoform)
Reaction: CH3-CHOH → CH3-CO → CHI3
Sodium Metal Test
Reagent: Sodium metal
Alcohols: Vigorous effervescence (H2 gas)
Water: Vigorous reaction (to differentiate from water content)
Carboxylic acids: Also effervescence
Phenols: Slower reaction than alcohols
3. TESTS FOR PHENOLS
Ferric Chloride Test
Reagent: Neutral FeCl3
Phenols: Violet/purple or blue/green color
Carboxylic acids: Buff/brown precipitate (no color)
Enols: Color (similar to phenols)
Bromine Water Test
Reagent: Br2 in H2O or CCl4
Phenols: White/yellow precipitate (brominated phenol)
Note: Activated aromatic rings (phenols, anilines) give positive test
4. TESTS FOR CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Sodium Bicarbonate Test
Reagent: NaHCO3 solution
Carboxylic acids: Effervescence (CO2 gas evolved)
Phenols: No effervescence
Alcohols: No effervescence
Reaction: R-COOH + NaHCO3 → R-COONa + CO2↑ + H2O
Ester Test
Reagent: Carboxylic acid + alcohol + H2SO4 (conc)
Heat gently
Result: Pleasant fruity smell (ester formation)
5. TESTS FOR AMINES (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary)
Carbylamine Reaction (Primary Amine Test)
Reagent: CHCl3 (chloroform) + NaOH (warm)
Primary amines: Characteristic pungent smell of isocyanide
Secondary amines: No smell
Tertiary amines: No smell
Reaction: Ph-NH2 + CHCl3 + 3NaOH → Ph-N≡C (isocyanide) + 3NaCl + 3H2O
Hinsberg Test (Distinguishing Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Amines)
Reagent: Benzene sulfonyl chloride (p-toluenesulfonyl chloride) + NaOH
Amine Type
Hinsberg Product
Solubility in NaOH
Primary
R-NH-SO2-C6H5
Soluble (white precipitate dissolves in excess NaOH)
Secondary
R2N-SO2-C6H5
Insoluble (white precipitate remains)
Tertiary
None (no NH)
No precipitate
Nitrous Acid Test (HNO2, NaNO2 + HCl)
Primary amines: Immediate nitrogen gas evolution (colorless gas)
Secondary amines: Slow N-nitroso compound formation (yellow oil)
Tertiary amines: No gas evolution
6. TESTS FOR UNSATURATION
Bromine Water Test (Alkenes & Alkynes)
Reagent: Br2 in H2O or CCl4
Alkenes: Immediate decolorization (red/brown → colorless)
Alkynes: Rapid decolorization
Alkanes: No decolorization
Note: Also works for phenols and activated aromatic compounds
Baeyer's Test (Alkenes)
Reagent: KMnO4 (dilute, cold, neutral solution)
Alkenes: Purple color fades, brown precipitate (MnO2)
Alkynes: Decolorization
Alkanes: No decolorization
Decolorization by Cl2
Reagent: Cl2 (in CCl4)
Alkenes: Rapid decolorization
Alkynes: Decolorization
Saturated hydrocarbons: No decolorization
7. QUICK REFERENCE: COMMON DISTINGUISHING PAIRS
Ethanol vs Propanone
Test: Tollen's test or Fehling's test
Result: Ethanol → Aldehyde (oxidation) gives positive test; Propanone gives negative test
Alternative: Iodoform test (propanone gives CHI3)
Benzaldehyde vs Acetophenone
Test: Tollen's test
Result: Benzaldehyde → positive (silver mirror); Acetophenone → negative
Phenol vs Benzoic Acid
Test 1: FeCl3 test → Phenol: violet color; Benzoic acid: buff ppt
Test 2: NaHCO3 test → Phenol: no effervescence; Benzoic acid: effervescence
Primary vs Secondary vs Tertiary Alcohol
Test: Lucas test
Results: Tertiary (instant) > Secondary (5 min) > Primary (slow/no turbidity)
Primary vs Secondary vs Tertiary Amine
Test 1: Carbylamine test → Only primary amines give smell
Test 2: Hinsberg test → Primary (soluble in excess NaOH), Secondary (insoluble)
Aldehyde vs Ketone
Test 1: Tollen's test → Aldehyde: positive; Ketone: negative
Test 2: Fehling's test → Aldehyde: positive (red ppt); Ketone: negative
Both positive for: 2,4-DNP test, Schiff's test
PART 3: NAMED REACTIONS IN ORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
CATEGORY A: HALOALKANES & HALOARENES
1. WURTZ REACTION
Reactants: Haloalkane + Sodium (ether medium)
Reaction Type: Coupling reaction
General Equation: 2 R-X + 2 Na → R-R + 2 NaX
Example: 2 CH3-Br + 2 Na → CH3-CH3 (Ethane)
Limitation: Cannot prepare odd-carbon alkanes
2. FINKELSTEIN REACTION
Reactants: Alkyl chloride or bromide + NaI (acetone)
Reaction Type: Halogen exchange (SN2)
General Equation: R-Br + NaI → R-I + NaBr
Driving force: Insolubility of NaBr in acetone
3. SWARTS REACTION
Reactants: Alkyl bromide/iodide + AgF
Reaction Type: Halogen exchange (SN2)
General Equation: R-Br + AgF → R-F + AgBr↓
4. SANDMEYER REACTION
Reactants: Benzenediazonium salt + CuX
Reaction Type: Aryl halide formation
General Form:
ArN2+Cl- + CuCl → Ar-Cl + N2
ArN2+Cl- + CuBr → Ar-Br + N2
ArN2+Cl- + CuCN → Ar-CN + N2
5. GATTERMANN REACTION
Reactants: Benzenediazonium salt + Cu powder (with HX)
Reaction Type: Aryl halide formation (alternative to Sandmeyer)
6. DIAZOTIZATION & COUPLING REACTIONS
Diazotization: Ar-NH2 + NaNO2 + HCl (0°C) → Ar-N2+ClCoupling: Ar-N2+Cl- + activated ring (phenol/aniline) → Azo dye
CATEGORY B: ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS & ETHERS
7. WILLIAMSON ETHER SYNTHESIS
Reactants: R-O-Na (or Ar-O-Na) + R'-X
Reaction Type: SN2
Product: R-O-R'
8. KOLBE'S REACTION
Reactants: Sodium phenoxide + CO2 + NaOH (heat, pressure)
Product: o-Hydroxybenzoic acid (salicylic acid mainly)
9. REIMER-TIEMANN REACTION
Reactants: Phenol + CHCl3 + NaOH (warm)
Product: o-Hydroxybenzaldehyde (salicylaldehyde)
10. HYDROBORATION-OXIDATION
Reactants: Alkene + BH3, then H2O2/NaOH
Product: Anti-Markovnikov alcohol
CATEGORY C: ALDEHYDES & KETONES
11. ROSENMUND REDUCTION
Reactants: Acid chloride + H2/Pd-BaSO4
Product: Aldehyde
12. STEPHEN REACTION
Reactants: Nitrile + SnCl2/HCl → iminium → hydrolysis
Product: Aldehyde
13. CLEMMENSEN REDUCTION
Reactants: Aldehyde/ketone + Zn/Hg + HCl
Product: Alkane
14. WOLFF-KISHNER REDUCTION
Reactants: Aldehyde/ketone + NH2NH2 + KOH (heat)
Product: Alkane
15. ALDOL CONDENSATION
Reactants: Aldehyde/ketone with α-H + base
Product: β-hydroxy aldehyde/ketone → α,β-unsaturated compound
16. CROSS ALDOL CONDENSATION
Same as aldol but with two different carbonyl compounds
17. CANNIZZARO REACTION
Reactants: Aldehyde without α-H + strong base
Products: Alcohol + carboxylate (from same aldehyde)
18. HALOFORM REACTION
Reactants: Methyl ketone (or ethanol) + X2 + base
Products: Carboxylate + CHX3 (haloform, e.g. CHI3)
CATEGORY D: CARBOXYLIC ACIDS & DERIVATIVES
19. HELL-VOLHARD-ZELINSKY (HVZ) REACTION
Reactants: Carboxylic acid + Br2/Cl2 + red P
Product: α-Halocarboxylic acid
20. DECARBOXYLATION
Thermal decarboxylation or soda-lime decarboxylation
Carboxylic acid/salt → Alkane + CO2
21. ROSENMUND (ALSO UNDER ACIDS)
Acid chloride → Aldehyde (as above)
CATEGORY E: AMINES
22. GABRIEL PHTHALIMIDE SYNTHESIS
Reactants: Phthalimide + RX + base → hydrolysis
Product: Primary amine
23. HOFFMANN BROMAMIDE REACTION
Reactants: RCONH2 + Br2 + NaOH
Product: RNH2 (amine with one C less)
24. CARBYLAMINE REACTION
Reactants: RNH2 + CHCl3 + KOH
Product: R-NC (isocyanide, bad smell); test for 1° amines
25. DIAZOTIZATION
Covered already (Ar-NH2 to Ar-N2+Cl-)
CATEGORY F: BENZENE SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS
26. FRIEDEL-CRAFTS ALKYLATION
Reactants: Benzene + RX + AlCl3
Product: Alkylbenzene
27. FRIEDEL-CRAFTS ACYLATION
Reactants: Benzene + RCOCl + AlCl3
Product: Aryl ketone
28. ELECTROPHILIC AROMATIC SUBSTITUTION
Nitration, sulfonation, halogenation etc.
29. GATTERMANN-KOCH REACTION
Reactants: Benzene + CO + HCl + AlCl3
Product: Benzaldehyde (formylation)
CATEGORY G: SPECIAL REACTIONS
30. CUMENE PROCESS
Benzene + propene → cumene → cumene hydroperoxide → phenol + acetone
31. OZONOLYSIS
Alkene + O3 → ozonide → aldehydes/ketones
SUMMARY TABLE: NAMED REACTIONS BY FUNCTIONAL GROUP
TRANSFORMATION
Starting Material
Reaction Name
Key Reagents
Product
Alkyl halide
Wurtz
Na/ether
Alkane
Alkyl halide
Finkelstein
NaI/acetone
Alkyl iodide
Alkyl halide
Swarts
AgF
Alkyl fluoride
Aniline
Sandmeyer
NaNO2/HCl, CuX
Aryl halide
Aniline
Gattermann
NaNO2/HCl, Cu
Aryl halide
Phenol
Kolbe
CO2/NaOH/heat
o-Hydroxybenzoic acid
Phenol
Reimer-Tiemann
CHCl3/NaOH
o-Hydroxybenzaldehyde
Alkene
Hydroboration-oxidation
BH3, H2O2/NaOH
Alcohol (anti-Markovnikov)
Alkene
Ozonolysis
O3/Zn
Aldehyde/ketone
Acid chloride
Rosenmund
H2/Pd-BaSO4
Aldehyde
Nitrile
Stephen
SnCl2/HCl → hydrolysis
Aldehyde
Aldehyde/ketone
Clemmensen
Zn/Hg/HCl
Alkane
Aldehyde/ketone
Wolff-Kishner
NH2NH2/KOH
Alkane
Aldehyde (α-H)
Aldol
Base
β-hydroxy/α,β-unsaturated
Aldehyde (no α-H)
Cannizzaro
NaOH
Alcohol + carboxylate
Methyl ketone
Haloform
X2/NaOH
Carboxylate + CHX3
Carboxylic acid
HVZ
X2/red P
α-Halocarboxylic acid
Primary amide
Hoffmann
Br2/NaOH
Primary amine (C–1)
RX
Gabriel
Phthalimide/NaOH
Primary amine
Primary amine
Carbylamine
CHCl3/KOH
Isocyanide
Benzene
Friedel-Crafts alkylation
RX/AlCl3
Alkylbenzene
Benzene
Friedel-Crafts acylation
RCOCl/AlCl3
Aryl ketone
STUDY STRATEGY (SHORT)
Conversions: Practice 5 per chapter daily.
Tests: Write reagent + positive observation for each.
Named reactions: Learn “Reactant + Reagent + Product” as a one-line, then mechanism.
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