Assignment 2 - HS
Á. Rueda Vidal
A.Y.A.S. Salem
L. Campos Araúz
J. Valcarcel Carrasco
M.L. Ali
February 20, 2025
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Q1 - Newton
According to Vermij, Newton was much more successful with his
new world view, compared to Descartes. Yet, he presents Descartes
as pivotal to changes in 17th century philosophy just as well. Explain
his line of thought.
The historian Rienk Vermij presents Isaac Newton as far more successful in
establishing his worldview than René Descartes. Descartes (1596–1650) sought
to develop a comprehensive natural philosophy grounded in rationalism and mechanical principles. He claimed that everything in nature was governed by a few
simple natural laws from which phenomena could be derived mathematically.
An example in which such mathematics are successful is his explanation of the
rainbow. His Discours de la méthode (1637) and La Géométrie (1637) introduced a new way of conceptualizing knowledge through systematic doubt and
mathematical reasoning. In his Principia Philosophiae (1644), he presented a
universe governed by mechanical laws. His greatest struggle was obtaining empirical validation. Six of the seven fundamental laws of Principia Philosophiae
were proven to be wrong. When it comes to astronomy, he believed that the
planets moved around the Sun in great vortices of heavenly matter but did not
attempt to calculate their trajectories.
According to Vermij, Newton’s (1642-1727) work represented the success of
new science. In his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687), he formulated three laws that could serve as a foundation for all mechanics, providing
a unifying theory that successfully explained planetary motion, terrestrial mechanics, and optics. These theories became the basis for a general vision of the
world and established modern science as an authoritative and irreplaceable form
of knowledge. In his philosophy, Descartes dealt with many different concepts,
including the entire world, living creatures, the soul, and metaphysics. Newton’s publications are purely about mathematics, physics, and optics. These
have been proven to be right by time and observational data. Vermij acknowledges Newton’s superiority in establishing a lasting scientific worldview, but
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does not dismiss Descartes as a failed thinker. Descartes is seen as an intellectual bridge: Cartesian mathematics played a crucial role in shaping Newton’s
calculus and mechanics. Descartes’ philosophical and mathematical innovations
were instrumental in shaping the intellectual landscape, even as Newton’s empirically superior framework ultimately replaced Cartesian physics.
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Q2 - Barometer
Describe in what ways the barometer may be regarded as instrumental in changes in the scientific world view in seventeenth century.
In the seventeenth century, mathematical instruments served not only to
measure nature, but also to show wealth and create ’awe’. The barometer
showed this polyvalent role. According to what was mentioned in class, its
revealed both previously unexplainable forces such as pressure, and portrayed
a status backed by royalty.
The barometer was one of many mathematical tools meant to amaze with
the discovery of hidden forces. By showing how a column of mercury could rise
and fall as a result of the change in air pressure, it showed how an empty space
could actually push things, which went against the older Aristotelian belief that
a vacuum was impossible. This was a key moment in shifting from speculative
natural philosophy to experimental science.
The use and demonstrations of these mathematical tools often occurred in
places like the Royal Society (1660) and the Académie Royale (1666). For
example, in one painting of the paintings from the lecture slides, we can see King
Louis XIV being guided around his academy, surrounded by wealthy merchants
and bankers who all had an interest in science. This shows that the barometer
was used not only for scientific study, but also to impress people of high status.
It was called a ’very important instrument’ that supported the idea of ’l’esprit
géométrique’ (the geometric spirit), a concept of the seventeenth century that
exact measurements and math could help people do quite a lot.
Outside labs and lecture halls, barometers and other measuring tools started
showing up in important paintings. Whether in portraits of wealthy individuals
or in official academy art, these devices indicated a higher social standing and
a connection to the new scientific trends. The lecturer notes that in pictures of
the Académie Royale, instruments like globes, and barometers were often shown
to represent the importance of wealth and support from the royal court.
In conclusion, in the seventeenth century, the barometer became one of the
symbols of a major change in science. Its portrayed the increasing trust of
research and mathematical understanding. It defines the change from mystical
theories to measurable data to explain nature. By mixing accuracy, wealth, and
respect, it opened the door for a new age of embracing experimental science and
the laws of nature.
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Q3 - Scientific Revolution
Is the phrase ”scientific revolution” adequate for the changes in the
purpose and use of mathematics in the sixteenth and seventeenth
century?
The way humans understand the physical and natural world has been a
significant intrigue and has been continuously evolving. We have undoubtedly
switched from recognizing science as having a religious and purpose foundation
to an experimental and quantitative perspective.
Scientific knowledge has been a cumulative process. Scientists of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries no longer needed to create their fields of study
from scratch. They could build on foundations already laid, mainly because
science adopted an institutional form in academies based in cities like Paris
and London. Up to this time, the most influential character in science was the
philosopher Aristotle. As being such an early scientist, he supported many false
beliefs that later in history were corrected, such as thinking that the earth was
the center of the universe or that natural phenomena were purely casual, not
mechanistic.
The major change in science during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
was rejection or replacement of Aristotle’s ideas with new scientific methods and
theories as well as new discoveries. In fact, Galileo’s main goal was to challenge
Aristotle and explore nature. He succeeded in this through experimentation and
observation. The theories of Newton established modern science once and for all
as an authoritative and irreplaceable form of knowledge. He is considered the
great founder of modern science, and his way of doing science was the main example followed by other researchers for more than a century. Newton discovered
turning points in history like laws of gravity, laws of motion, principles of visible
light, and contributed to calculus. The Church certainly challenged scientific
developments during this period, imposing boundaries on research. However,
with Newton, some mechanistic principles began to be incorporated. His work
established the basis for future research that aligned with Church doctrine. Society started to change their perspective from a purpose-driven view of nature
to a more mechanistic one, but not abandoning their faith in God.
In conclusion, the scientific revolution for the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is likely adequate because there were certainly advancements at this time.
The perspective of science turned from a philosophical Aristotle framework to
a mathematical and experimental one. The discoveries made provided a new
view to our world, and the most revolutionary scientists worked at this time.
However, scientific developments and discoveries have always existed and do
not have an end point as humans will continue to conduct research and experiments. Moreover, these shifts were built upon earlier knowledge and also
extended beyond the seventeenth century.
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Reference List
1. A history of Western science : the basics (Vermij)
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