Part VI Material Removal
Processes
Theory of Metal
20 Machining
Chapter Contents
20.1 Overview of Machining Technology
20.2 Theory of Chip Formation in Metal
Machining
20.2.1 The Orthogonal Cutting Model
20.2.2 Actual Chip Formation
20.3 Force Relationships and the Merchant
Equation
20.3.1 Forces in Metal Cutting
20.3.2 The Merchant Equation
20.4 Power and Energy Relationships in
Machining
20.5 Cutting Temperature
20.5.1 Analytical Methods to
Compute Cutting Temperatures
20.5.2 Measurement of Cutting
Temperature
The material removal processes are a family of shaping operations (Figure 1.5) in which excess material is
removed from a starting work part so that what remains
is the desired final geometry. The “family tree” is shown
in Figure 20.1. The most important branch of the family
is conventional machining, in which a sharp cutting tool
is used to mechanically cut the material to achieve the
desired geometry. The three most common machining
processes are turning, drilling, and milling. The “other
machining operations” in Figure 20.1 include shaping,
planing, broaching, and sawing. This chapter begins the
coverage of machining, which runs through Chapter 23.
Another group of material removal processes is
the abrasive processes, which mechanically remove
material by the action of hard, abrasive particles.
This process group, which includes grinding, is covered in Chapter 24. The “other abrasive processes” in
Figure 20.1 include honing, lapping, and superfinishing. Finally, there are the nontraditional processes,
which use various energy forms other than a sharp
cutting tool or abrasive particles to remove material.
The energy forms include mechanical, electrochemical,
thermal, and chemical.1 The nontraditional processes
are discussed in Chapter 25.
Machining is a manufacturing process in which a
sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material to leave
1
Some of the mechanical energy forms in the nontraditional processes use abrasive particles, and so they overlap with the abrasive
processes in Chapter 24.
522
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523
Turning and
related operations
Conventional
machining
Drilling and
related operations
Milling
Other machining
operations
Material removal
processes
Abrasive
processes
Grinding
operations
Other abrasive
processes
Mechanical energy
processes
Nontraditional
machining
Electrochemical
machining
Thermal energy
processes
FIGURE 20.1
Classification of material
removal processes.
Chemical
machining
the desired part shape. The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear
deformation of the work material to form a chip; as the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed. Machining is most frequently applied to shape metals. The process is
illustrated in the diagram of Figure 20.2.
Machining is one of the most important manufacturing processes. The Industrial
Revolution and the growth of the manufacturing-based economies of the world
can be traced largely to the development of the various machining operations
(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process. (b) Tool with negative rake angle; compare with
positive rake angle in (a).
FIGURE 20.2
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Chapter 20/Theory of Metal Machining
(Historical Note 21.1). Machining is important commercially and technologically
for several reasons:
➢ Variety of work materials. Machining can be applied to a wide variety of work
materials. Virtually all solid metals can be machined. Plastics and plastic composites can also be cut by machining. Ceramics pose difficulties because of their
high hardness and brittleness; however, most ceramics can be successfully cut by
the abrasive machining processes discussed in Chapter 24.
➢ Variety of part shapes and geometric features. Machining can be used to create
any regular geometries, such as flat planes, round holes, and cylinders. By introducing variations in tool shapes and tool paths, irregular geometries can be created,
such as screw threads and T-slots. By combining several machining operations in
sequence, shapes of almost unlimited complexity and variety can be produced.
➢ Dimensional accuracy. Machining can produce dimensions to very close
tolerances. Some machining processes can achieve tolerances of 0.025 mm
(0.001 in), much more accurate than most other processes.
➢ Good surface finishes. Machining is capable of creating very smooth surface
finishes. Roughness values less than 0.4 microns (16 min) can be achieved in
conventional machining operations. Some abrasive processes can achieve even
better finishes.
On the other hand, certain disadvantages are associated with machining and
other material removal processes:
➢ Wasteful of material. Machining is inherently wasteful of material. The chips
generated in a machining operation are wasted material. Although these chips
can usually be recycled, they represent waste in terms of the unit operation.
➢ Time consuming. A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a
given part than alternative shaping processes such as casting or forging.
Machining is generally performed after other manufacturing processes such as
casting or bulk deformation (e.g., forging, bar drawing). The other processes create
the general shape of the starting work part, and machining provides the final geometry, dimensions, and finish.
20.1
Overview of Machining Technology
Machining is not just one process; it is a group of processes. The common feature
is the use of a cutting tool to form a chip that is removed from the work part. To
perform the operation, relative motion is required between the tool and work. This
relative motion is achieved in most machining operations by means of a primary
motion, called the cutting speed, and a secondary motion, called the feed. The shape
of the tool and its penetration into the work surface, combined with these motions,
produces the desired geometry of the resulting work surface.
Types of Machining Operations There are many kinds of machining operations,
each of which is capable of generating a certain part geometry and surface texture.
These operations are discussed in considerable detail in Chapter 21, but for now it
is appropriate to identify and define the three most common types: turning, drilling,
and milling, illustrated in Figure 20.3.
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525
Speed motion (tool)
Work
New surface
Speed motion (work)
Cutting tool
Drill
bit
Feed
motion
(tool)
Feed motion
(tool)
Work
(a)
(b)
Speed motion
Rotation
Milling cutter
The
three most common
types of machining
processes: (a) turning,
(b) drilling, and two
forms of milling: (c)
peripheral milling, and
(d) face milling.
FIGURE 20.3
New surface
Feed
motion
(work)
Milling cutter
New surface
Feed motion
(work)
Work
Work
(c)
(d)
In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material
from a rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape, as in Figure 20.3(a). The
speed motion in turning is provided by the rotating work part, and the feed motion
is achieved by the cutting tool moving slowly in a direction parallel to the axis
of rotation of the workpiece. Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that typically has two cutting edges. The tool is fed in a
direction parallel to its axis of rotation into the work part to form the round hole,
as in Figure 20.3(b). In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is fed
slowly across the work material to generate a plane or straight surface. The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool’s axis of rotation. The speed
motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are
peripheral milling and face milling, as in Figure 20.3(c) and (d).
Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planing, broaching,
and sawing (Section 21.6). Also, grinding and similar abrasive operations are often
included within the category of machining. These processes commonly follow the
conventional machining operations and are used to achieve a superior surface finish
on the work part.
The Cutting Tool A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made
of a material that is harder than the work material. The cutting edge serves to separate a chip from the parent work material, as in Figure 20.2. Connected to the cutting
edge are two surfaces of the tool: the rake face and the flank. The rake face, which
directs the flow of the newly formed chip, is oriented at a certain angle called the
rake angle a. It is measured relative to a plane perpendicular to the work surface.
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FIGURE 20.4 (a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b) a helical milling cutter,
representative of tools with multiple cutting edges.
The rake angle can be positive, as in Figure 20.2(a), or negative as in (b). The flank
of the tool provides a clearance between the tool and the newly generated work
surface, thus protecting the surface from abrasion, which would degrade the finish.
This flank surface is oriented at an angle called the relief angle.
Most cutting tools in practice have more complex geometries than those in
Figure 20.2. There are two basic types, examples of which are illustrated in
Figure 20.4: (a) single-point tools and (b) multiple-cutting-edge tools. A single-point
tool has one cutting edge and is used for operations such as turning. In addition to the
tool features shown in Figure 20.2, there is one tool point from which the name of this
cutting tool is derived. During machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the
original work surface of the part. The point is usually rounded to a certain radius, called
the nose radius. Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their motion relative to the work part by rotating. Drilling and milling use
rotating multiple-cutting-edge tools. Figure 20.4(b) shows a helical milling cutter used
in peripheral milling. Although the shape is quite different from a single-point tool,
many elements of tool geometry are similar. Single-point and multiple-cutting-edge
tools and the materials used in them are discussed in more detail in Chapter 22.
Cutting Conditions Relative motion is required between the tool and work to
perform a machining operation. The primary motion is accomplished at a certain
cutting speed v. In addition, the tool must be moved laterally across the work. This
is a much slower motion, called the feed f. The remaining dimension of the cut is the
penetration of the cutting tool below the original work surface, called the depth of
cut d. Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the cutting conditions.
They form the three dimensions of the machining process, and for certain operations
(e.g., most single-point tool operations) they can be used to calculate the material
removal rate for the process:
RMR vfd
(20.1)
where RMR material removal rate, mm3/s (in3/min); v cutting speed, m/s (ft/min),
which must be converted to mm/s (in/min); f feed, mm (in); and d depth of cut,
mm (in).
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527
FIGURE 20.5 Cutting speed,
feed, and depth of cut for a
turning operation.
The cutting conditions for a turning operation are depicted in Figure 20.5. Typical
units used for cutting speed are m/s (ft/min). Feed in turning is expressed in mm/rev
(in/rev), and depth of cut is expressed in mm (in). In other machining operations,
interpretations of the cutting conditions may differ. For example, in a drilling operation, depth is interpreted as the depth of the drilled hole.
Machining operations usually divide into two categories, distinguished by purpose and cutting conditions: roughing cuts and finishing cuts. Roughing cuts are
used to remove large amounts of material from the starting work part as rapidly
as possible, in order to produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving some
material on the piece for a subsequent finishing operation. Finishing cuts are used
to complete the part and achieve the final dimensions, tolerances, and surface finish.
In production machining jobs, one or more roughing cuts are usually performed on
the work, followed by one or two finishing cuts. Roughing operations are performed
at high feeds and depths—feeds of 0.4–1.25 mm/rev (0.015–0.050 in/rev) and depths
of 2.5–20 mm (0.100–0.750 in) are typical. Finishing operations are carried out at
low feeds and depths—feeds of 0.125–0.4 mm (0.005–0.015 in/rev) and depths of
0.75–2.0 mm (0.030–0.075 in) are typical. Cutting speeds are lower in roughing than
in finishing.
A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool and lubricate
the cutting tool. Cutting fluids are discussed in Section 22.4. Determining whether
a cutting fluid should be used, and, if so, choosing the proper cutting fluid, is usually
included within the scope of cutting conditions. Given the work material and tooling,
the selection of these conditions is very influential in determining the success of a
machining operation.
Machine Tools A machine tool is used to hold the work part, position the tool
relative to the work, and provide power for the machining process at the speed,
feed, and depth that have been set. By controlling the tool, work, and cutting conditions, machine tools permit parts to be made with great accuracy and repeatability,
to tolerances of 0.025 mm (0.001 in) and better. The term machine tool applies to
any power-driven machine that performs a machining operation, including grinding.
The term is also applied to machines that perform metal forming and pressworking
operations (Chapters 18 and 19).
The traditional machine tools used to perform turning, drilling, and milling are
lathes, drill presses, and milling machines, respectively. Conventional machine tools
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Chapter 20/Theory of Metal Machining
are usually tended by a human operator, who loads and unloads the work parts,
changes cutting tools, and sets the cutting conditions. Many modern machine tools
are designed to accomplish their operations with a form of automation called computer numerical control (Section 37.3).
20.2
Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
The geometry of most practical machining operations is somewhat complex.
A simplified model of machining is available that neglects many of the geometric
complexities, yet describes the mechanics of the process quite well. It is called the
orthogonal cutting model, Figure 20.6. Although an actual machining process is
three-dimensional, the orthogonal model has only two dimensions that play active
roles in the analysis.
20.2.1 THE ORTHOGONAL CUTTING MODEL
By definition, orthogonal cutting uses a wedge-shaped tool in which the cutting edge
is perpendicular to the direction of cutting speed. As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by shear deformation along a plane called the shear plane,
which is oriented at an angle ø with the surface of the work. Only at the sharp cutting
edge of the tool does failure of the material occur, resulting in separation of the chip
from the parent material. Along the shear plane, where the bulk of the mechanical
energy is consumed in machining, the material is plastically deformed.
The tool in orthogonal cutting has only two elements of geometry: (1) rake angle
and (2) clearance angle. As indicated previously, the rake angle a determines the
direction that the chip flows as it is formed from the work part; and the clearance
angle provides a small clearance between the tool flank and the newly generated
work surface.
During cutting, the cutting edge of the tool is positioned a certain distance below
the original work surface. This corresponds to the thickness of the chip prior to chip
FIGURE 20.6 Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process, and (b) how it reduces to two dimensions in
the side view.
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Section 20.2/Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
529
formation, to. As the chip is formed along the shear plane, its thickness increases to tc.
The ratio of to to tc is called the chip thickness ratio (or simply the chip ratio) r:
to
r __
t
(20.2)
c
Since the chip thickness after cutting is always greater than the corresponding thickness before cutting, the chip ratio will always be less than 1.0.
In addition to to, the orthogonal cut has a width dimension w, as shown in Figure
20.6(a), even though this dimension does not contribute much to the analysis in
orthogonal cutting.
The geometry of the orthogonal cutting model allows us to establish an important
relationship between the chip thickness ratio, the rake angle, and the shear plane
angle. Let ls be the length of the shear plane. The following substitutions can be
made: to ls sin ø, and tc ls cos(ø a). Thus,
ls sin ø
sin ø
r ____________
___________
ls cos (ø a) cos (ø a)
This can be rearranged to determine ø as follows:
r cos a
tan ø ___________
1 r sin a
(20.3)
The shear strain that occurs along the shear plane can be estimated by examining
Figure 20.7. Part (a) shows shear deformation approximated by a series of parallel
Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a series of parallel plates sliding
relative to each other; (b) one of the plates isolated to illustrate the definition of shear strain based on this parallel
plate model; and (c) shear strain triangle used to derive Equation (20.4).
FIGURE 20.7
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Chapter 20/Theory of Metal Machining
plates sliding against one another to form the chip. Consistent with the definition
of shear strain (Section 3.1.4), each plate experiences the shear strain shown in
Figure 20.7(b). Referring to part (c), this can be expressed as
AC __________
AD DC
g ____
BD
BD
which can be reduced to the following definition of shear strain in metal cutting:
g tan (ø a) cot ø
Example 20.1
Orthogonal
cutting
(20.4)
In a machining operation that approximates orthogonal cutting, the cutting
tool has a rake angle 10°. The chip thickness before the cut to 0.50 mm and
the chip thickness after the cut tc 1.125 mm. Calculate the shear plane angle
and the shear strain in the operation.
Solution: The chip thickness ratio can be determined from Equation (20.2):
0.50 0.444
r _____
1.125
The shear plane angle is given by Equation (20.3):
0.444 cos 10 0.4738
tan ø ______________
1 0.444 sin 10
ø 25.4°
Finally, the shear strain is calculated from Equation (20.4):
g tan (25.4 10) cot 25.4
g 0.275 2.111 2.386
20.2.2 ACTUAL CHIP FORMATION
It should be noted that there are differences between the orthogonal model and
an actual machining process. First, the shear deformation process does not occur
along a plane, but within a zone. If shearing were to take place across a plane of
zero thickness, it would imply that the shearing action must occur instantaneously
as it passes through the plane, rather than over some finite (although brief) time
period. For the material to behave in a realistic way, the shear deformation must
occur within a thin shear zone. This more realistic model of the shear deformation
process in machining is illustrated in Figure 20.8. Metal-cutting experiments have
indicated that the thickness of the shear zone is only a few thousandths of an inch.
Since the shear zone is so thin, there is not a great loss of accuracy in most cases by
referring to it as a plane.
Second, in addition to shear deformation that occurs in the shear zone, another
shearing action occurs in the chip after it has been formed. This additional shear is
referred to as secondary shear to distinguish it from primary shear. Secondary shear
results from friction between the chip and the tool as the chip slides along the rake
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Section 20.2/Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
531
Chip
Tool
Effective
More
realistic view of chip
formation, showing
shear zone rather
than shear plane. Also
shown is the secondary
shear zone resulting
from tool–chip friction.
FIGURE 20.8
Primary shear
zone
Secondary shear zone
face of the tool. Its effect increases with increased friction between the tool and chip.
The primary and secondary shear zones can be seen in Figure 20.8.
Third, formation of the chip depends on the type of material being machined and
the cutting conditions of the operation. Four basic types of chip can be distinguished,
illustrated in Figure 20.9:
➢ Discontinuous chip. When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons) are
machined at low cutting speeds, the chips often form into separate segments
(sometimes the segments are loosely attached). This tends to impart an irregular texture to the machined surface. High tool–chip friction and large feed and
depth of cut promote the formation of this chip type.
➢ Continuous chip. When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and
relatively small feeds and depths, long continuous chips are formed. A good
surface finish typically results when this chip type is formed. A sharp cutting
edge on the tool and low tool–chip friction encourage the formation of continuous chips. Long, continuous chips (as in turning) can cause problems with
regard to chip disposal and/or tangling about the tool. To solve these problems, turning tools are often equipped with chip breakers (Section 22.3.1).
Discontinuous chip
Continuous chip
Continuous chip
High shear
strain zone
Tool
Tool
Tool
Low shear
strain zone
Tool
Built-up edge
Irregular surface due
to chip discontinuities
(a)
Good finish typical
(b)
Particle of BUE
on new surface
(c)
(d)
Four types of chip formation in metal cutting: (a) discontinuous, (b) continuous, (c) continuous with
built-up edge, (d) serrated.
FIGURE 20.9
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➢ Continuous chip with built-up edge. When machining ductile materials at lowto-medium cutting speeds, friction between tool and chip tends to cause portions of the work material to adhere to the rake face of the tool near the cutting
edge. This formation is called a built-up edge (BUE). The formation of a BUE is
cyclical; it forms and grows, then becomes unstable and breaks off. Much of the
detached BUE is carried away with the chip, sometimes taking portions of the
tool rake face with it, which reduces the life of the cutting tool. Portions of the
detached BUE that are not carried off with the chip become imbedded in the
newly created work surface, causing the surface to become rough.
The preceding chip types were first classified by Ernst in the late 1930s [13]. Since
then, the available metals used in machining, cutting tool materials, and cutting
speeds have all increased, and a fourth chip type has been identified:
➢ Serrated chips (the term shear-localized is also used for this fourth chip type).
These chips are semi-continuous in the sense that they possess a saw-tooth
appearance that is produced by a cyclical chip formation of alternating high
shear strain followed by low shear strain. This fourth type of chip is most closely
associated with certain difficult-to-machine metals such as titanium alloys,
nickel-base superalloys, and austenitic stainless steels when they are machined
at higher cutting speeds. However, the phenomenon is also found with more
common work metals (e.g., steels) when they are cut at high speeds [13].2
20.3
Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
Several forces can be defined relative to the orthogonal cutting model. Based on
these forces, shear stress, coefficient of friction, and certain other relationships can
be defined.
20.3.1
FORCES IN METAL CUTTING
Consider the forces acting on the chip during orthogonal cutting in Figure 20.10(a).
The forces applied against the chip by the tool can be separated into two mutually
perpendicular components: friction force and normal force to friction. The friction
force F is the frictional force resisting the flow of the chip along the rake face of the
tool. The normal force to friction N is perpendicular to the friction force. These two
components can be used to define the coefficient of friction between the tool and
the chip:
F
m __
N
(20.5)
The friction force and its normal force can be added vectorially to form a resultant
force R, which is oriented at an angle b, called the friction angle. The friction angle
is related to the coefficient of friction as
m tan b
2
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(20.6)
A more complete description of the serrated chip type can be found in Trent & Wright [13], pp. 348–367.
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Section 20.3/Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
533
FIGURE 20.10 Forces in metal cutting: (a) forces acting on the chip in orthogonal cutting, and (b) forces acting on
the tool that can be measured.
In addition to the tool forces acting on the chip, there are two force components
applied by the workpiece on the chip: shear force and normal force to shear. The
shear force Fs is the force that causes shear deformation to occur in the shear plane,
and the normal force to shear Fn is perpendicular to the shear force. Using the shear
force, the shear stress that acts along the shear plane between the work and the chip
can be defined:
F
t ___s
As
(20.7)
where As area of the shear plane. This shear plane area can be calculated as
tow
As ____
sinf
(20.8)
The shear stress in Equation (20.7) represents the level of stress required to perform the machining operation. Therefore, this stress is equal to the shear strength of
the work material (t S) under the conditions at which cutting occurs.
Vector addition of the two force components Fs and Fn yields the resultant force
R. In order for the forces acting on the chip to balance, this resultant R must be
equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and collinear with the resultant R.
None of the four force components F, N, Fs, and Fn can be directly measured
in a machining operation, because the directions in which they are applied vary
with different tool geometries and cutting conditions. However, it is possible
for the cutting tool to be instrumented using a force measuring device called a
dynamometer, so that two additional force components acting against the tool
can be directly measured: cutting force and thrust force. The cutting force Fc is
in the direction of cutting, the same direction as the cutting speed v, and the
thrust force Ft is perpendicular to the cutting force and is associated with the
chip thickness before the cut to. The cutting force and thrust force are shown in
Figure 20.10(b) together with their resultant force R. The respective directions
of these forces are known, so the force transducers in the dynamometer can be
aligned accordingly.
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Chapter 20/Theory of Metal Machining
Equations can be derived to relate the four force components that cannot be measured to the two forces that can be measured. Using the force diagram in Figure 20.11,
the following trigonometric relationships can be derived:
F Fc sin a Ft cos a
(20.9)
N Fc cos a Ft sin a
(20.10)
Fs Fc cos f Ft sin f
(20.11)
Fn Fc sin f Ft cos f
(20.12)
If cutting force and thrust force are known, these four equations can be used to
calculate estimates of shear force, friction force, and normal force to friction. Based
on these force estimates, shear stress and coefficient of friction can be determined.
Note that in the special case of orthogonal cutting when the rake angle a 0,
Equations (20.9) and (20.10) reduce to F Ft and N Fc, respectively. Thus, in this
special case, friction force and its normal force could be directly measured by the
dynamometer.
Example 20.2
Shear stress in
machining
Suppose in Example 20.1 that cutting force and thrust force are measured during an orthogonal cutting operation: Fc 1559 N and Ft 1271 N. The width
of the orthogonal cutting operation w 3.0 mm. Based on these data, determine the shear strength of the work material.
Solution: From Example 20.1, rake angle a 10°, and shear plane angle f 25.4°. Shear force can be computed from Equation (20.11):
Fs 1559 cos 25.4 1271 sin 25.4 863 N
The shear plane area is given by Equation (20.8):
(0.5)(3.0)
As _________ 3.497 mm2
sin 25.4
Thus the shear stress, which equals the shear strength of the work material, is
863 247 N/mm2 247 MPa
t S _____
3.497
This example demonstrates that cutting force and thrust force are related to the
shear strength of the work material. The relationships can be established in a more
direct way. Recalling from Equation (20.7) that the shear force Fs S As, the force
diagram of Figure 20.11 can be used to derive the following equations:
Stowcos(b a)
Fs cos(b a)
Fc ___________________
______________
sin f cos(f b a) cos(f b a)
(20.13)
Stowsin(b a)
Fs sin(b a)
Ft ___________________
______________
sin f cos(f b a) cos(f b a)
(20.14)
and
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Section 20.3/Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
535
FIGURE 20.11 Force diagram showing
geometric relationships between F, N,
Fs, Fn, Fc, and Ft .
These equations allow one to estimate cutting force and thrust force in an orthogonal
cutting operation if the shear strength of the work material is known.
20.3.2 THE MERCHANT EQUATION
One of the important relationships in metal cutting was derived by Eugene Merchant [10]. Its derivation was based on the assumption of orthogonal cutting, but
its general validity extends to three-dimensional machining operations. Merchant
started with the definition of shear stress expressed in the form of the following relationship derived by combining Equations (20.7), (20.8), and (20.11):
Fc cos f Ft sin f
t _________________
(to w/sin f)
(20.15)
Merchant reasoned that, out of all the possible angles emanating from the cutting edge of the tool at which shear deformation could occur, there is one angle f
that predominates. This is the angle at which shear stress is just equal to the shear
strength of the work material, and so shear deformation occurs at this angle. For all
other possible shear angles, the shear stress is less than the shear strength, so chip
formation cannot occur at these other angles. In effect, the work material will select a
shear plane angle that minimizes energy. This angle can be determined by taking the
derivative of the shear stress t in Equation (20.15) with respect to f and setting the
derivative to zero. Solving for f, the relationship named after Merchant is obtained:
b
a __
f 45 __
2
2
(20.16)
Among the assumptions in the Merchant equation is that shear strength of
the work material is a constant, unaffected by strain rate, temperature, and other
factors. Because this assumption is violated in practical machining operations,
Equation (20.16) must be considered an approximate relationship rather than an
accurate mathematical equation. Nevertheless, consider its application in the following example.
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Chapter 20/Theory of Metal Machining
Example 20.3
Estimating
friction angle
Using the data and results from the previous examples, determine (a) the friction angle and (b) the coefficient of friction.
Solution: (a) From Example 20.1, a 10°, and f 25.4°. Rearranging Equation (20.16), the friction angle can be estimated:
b 2 (45) 10 2 (25.4) 49.2°
(b) The coefficient of friction is given by Equation (20.6):
m tan 49.2 1.16
Lessons Based on the Merchant Equation The real value of the Merchant equation is that it defines the general relationship between rake angle, tool–chip friction,
and shear plane angle. The shear plane angle can be increased by (1) increasing the
rake angle and (2) decreasing the friction angle (and coefficient of friction) between
the tool and the chip. Rake angle can be increased by proper tool design, and friction
angle can be reduced by using a lubricant cutting fluid.
The importance of increasing the shear plane angle can be seen in Figure 20.12.
If all other factors remain the same, a higher shear plane angle results in a smaller
shear plane area. Since the shear strength is applied across this area, the shear force
required to form the chip will decrease when the shear plane area is reduced. A
greater shear plane angle results in lower cutting energy, lower power requirements,
and lower cutting temperature. These are good reasons to try to make the shear
plane angle as large as possible during machining.
Approximation of Turning by Orthogonal Cutting The orthogonal model can
be used to approximate turning and certain other single-point machining operations
so long as the feed in these operations is small relative to depth of cut. Thus, most
FIGURE 20.12 Effect of shear plane anglef: (a) higher f with a resulting lower shear plane area; (b) smaller f with
a corresponding larger shear plane area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase shear
angle according to the Merchant equation.
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Section 20.3/Force Relationships and the Merchant Equation
FIGURE 20.13
537
Approximation of turning by the orthogonal model: (a) turning; and (b) the corresponding orthogonal
cutting.
of the cutting will take place in the direction of the feed, and cutting on the point
of the tool will be negligible. Figure 20.13 indicates the conversion from one cutting
situation to the other.
The interpretation of cutting conditions is different in the two cases. The chip
thickness before the cut to in orthogonal cutting corresponds to the feed f in turning,
and the width of cut w in orthogonal cutting corresponds to the depth of cut d in
turning. In addition, the thrust force Ft in the orthogonal model corresponds to the
feed force Ff in turning. Cutting speed and cutting force have the same meanings in
the two cases. Table 20.1 summarizes the conversions.
TABLE • 20.1 Conversion key: turning operation
vs. orthogonal cutting.
C20.indd 537
Turning Operation
Orthogonal Cutting Model
Feed f Depth d Cutting speed v Cutting force Fc Feed force Ff Chip thickness before cut to
Width of cut w
Cutting speed v
Cutting force Fc
Thrust force Ft
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538
Chapter 20/Theory of Metal Machining
20.4
Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
A machining operation requires power. The cutting force in a production machining operation might exceed 1000 N (several hundred pounds), as suggested by
Example 20.2. Typical cutting speeds are several hundred m/min. The product of
cutting force and speed gives the power (energy per unit time) required to perform
a machining operation:
Pc Fcv
(20.17)
where Pc cutting power, N-m/s or W (ft-lb/min); Fc cutting force, N (lb); and v cutting speed, m/s (ft/min). In U.S. customary units, power is traditionally expressed
as horsepower by dividing ft-lb/min by 33,000. Hence,
Fcv
HPc ______
(20.18)
33,000
where HPc cutting horsepower, hp. The gross power required to operate the
machine tool is greater than the power delivered to the cutting process because of
mechanical losses in the motor and drive train in the machine. These losses can be
accounted for by the mechanical efficiency of the machine tool:
P
HP
Pg ___c
or
HPg ____c
(20.19)
E
E
where Pg gross power of the machine tool motor, W; HPg gross horsepower; and
E mechanical efficiency of the machine tool. Typical values of E for machine tools
are around 90%.
It is often useful to convert power into power per unit volume rate of metal cut.
This is called the unit power, Pu (or unit horsepower, HPu), defined:
Pc
HP
Pu ____
or
HPu ____c
(20.20)
RMR
RMR
where RMR material removal rate, mm3/s (in3/min). The material removal rate can
be calculated as the product of vtow. This is Equation (20.1) using the conversions
from Table 20.1. Unit power is also known as the specific energy U.
Pc
Fcv
Fc
U Pu ____
____
___
(20.21)
RMR vtow tow
The units for specific energy are typically N-m/mm3(in-lb/in3). However, the last
expression in Equation (20.21) suggests that the units might be reduced to N/mm2
(lb/in2). It is more meaningful to retain the units as N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3).
Example 20.4
Power
relationships
in machining
Continuing with the previous examples, determine cutting power and specific
energy in the machining operation if the cutting speed 100 m/min. Summarizing the data and results from previous examples, to 0.50 mm, w 3.0 mm,
Fc 1557 N.
Solution: From Equation (20.18), power in the operation is
Pc (1557 N)(100 m/min) 155,700 N–m/min 155,700 J/min 2595 J/s 2595 W
Specific energy is calculated from Equation (20.21):
155,700
155,700
U ________________
_______ 1.038 N-m/mm3
3
100(10 )(3.0)(0.5) 150,000
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Section 20.4/Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
539
TABLE • 20.2 Values of unit horsepower and specific energy for selected work materials
using sharp cutting tools and chip thickness before the cut to 0.25 mm (0.010 in).
Material
Carbon steel
Alloy steels
Cast irons
Stainless steel
Aluminum
Aluminum alloys
Brass
Bronze
Magnesium alloys
Specific Energy U or
Unit Power Pu
Brinell
Hardness
N-m/mm3
in-lb/in3
Unit Horsepower
HPu hp/(in3/min)
150–200
201–250
251–300
200–250
251–300
301–350
351–400
125–175
175–250
150–250
50–100
100–150
100–150
100–150
50–100
1.6
2.2
2.8
2.2
2.8
3.6
4.4
1.1
1.6
2.8
0.7
0.8
2.2
2.2
0.4
240,000
320,000
400,000
320,000
400,000
520,000
640,000
160,000
240,000
400,000
100,000
120,000
320,000
320,000
60,000
0.6
0.8
1.0
0.8
1.0
1.3
1.6
0.4
0.6
1.0
0.25
0.3
0.8
0.8
0.15
Data compiled from [6], [8], [11], and other sources.
Unit power and specific energy provide a useful measure of how much power
(or energy) is required to remove a unit volume of metal during machining. Using
this measure, different work materials can be compared in terms of their power and
energy requirements. Table 20.2 presents a listing of unit horsepower and specific
energy values for selected work materials.
The values in Table 20.2 are based on two assumptions: (1) the cutting tool is
sharp, and (2) the chip thickness before the cut to 0.25 mm (0.010 in). If these
assumptions are not met, some adjustments must be made. For worn tools, the power
required to perform the cut is greater, and this is reflected in higher specific energy
and unit horsepower values. As an approximate guide, the values in the table should
be multiplied by a factor between 1.00 and 1.25 depending on the degree of dullness
of the tool. For sharp tools, the factor is 1.00. For tools in a finishing operation that
are nearly worn out, the factor is around 1.10, and for tools in a roughing operation
that are nearly worn out, the factor is 1.25.
Chip thickness before the cut to also affects the specific energy and unit horsepower values. As to is reduced, unit power requirements increase. This relationship is referred to as the size effect. For example, grinding, in which the chips are
extremely small by comparison to most other machining operations, requires very
high specific energy values. The U and HPu values in Table 20.2 can still be used to
estimate horsepower and energy for situations in which to is not equal to 0.25 mm
(0.010 in) by applying a correction factor to account for any difference in chip
thickness before the cut. Figure 20.14 provides values of this correction factor
as a function of to. The unit horsepower and specific energy values in Table 20.2
should be multiplied by the appropriate correction factor when to differs from
0.25 mm (0.010 in).
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540
Chapter 20/Theory of Metal Machining
Chip thickness before cut to (in.)
0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
0.040
0.050
0.125 0.25 0.38 0.50 0.63 0.75 0.88 0.1
Chip thickness before cut to (mm)
1.25
1.6
FIGURE 20.14
Correction factor
for unit horsepower
and specific energy
when values of
chip thickness
before the cut to
are different from
0.25 mm (0.010 in).
Correction factor
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
TABLE • 20.3 Troubleshooting Guide for Power Problems
Problem
Possible Solutions
Cutting power requirements too high
for machine tool
Reduce cutting speed
Reduce depth of cut and/or feed
Use a more machinable work material
Use a machine tool with more power
Use a cutting fluid
Use a cutting tool with higher rake angle
In addition to tool sharpness and size effect, other factors also influence the values of specific energy and unit horsepower for a given operation. These other factors
include rake angle, cutting speed, and cutting fluid. As rake angle or cutting speed
are increased, or when cutting fluid is added, the U and HPu values are reduced
slightly.
Table 20.3 presents a troubleshooting guide that summarizes the actions that can
be taken to mitigate problems in which the power requirements of the machining
operation exceed the capacity of the machine tool.
20.5
Cutting Temperature
Of the total energy consumed in machining, nearly all of it (~ 98%) is converted into
heat. This heat can cause temperatures to be very high at the tool–chip interface—
over 600°C (1100°F) is not unusual. The remaining energy (~2%) is retained as elastic
energy in the chip.
Cutting temperatures are important because high temperatures (1) reduce tool
life, (2) produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to the machine operator, and
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Section 20.5/Cutting Temperature
541
(3) can cause inaccuracies in work part dimensions due to thermal expansion of the
work material. This section discusses the calculation and measurement of temperatures in machining.
20.5.1 ANALYTICAL METHODS TO COMPUTE CUTTING TEMPERATURES
There are several analytical methods to calculate estimates of cutting temperature.
References [3], [5], [9], and [15] present some of these approaches. The method by
Cook [5] was derived using experimental data for a variety of work materials to
establish parameter values for the resulting equation. The equation can be used to
predict the increase in temperature at the tool–chip interface during machining:
vto 0.333
0.4U ___
T _____
rC K
( )
(20.22)
where T mean temperature rise at the tool–chip interface, C° (F°); U specific energy in the operation, N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3); v cutting speed, m/s
(in/sec); to chip thickness before the cut, m (in); rC volumetric specific heat
of the work material, J/mm3-C (in-lb/in3-F); K thermal diffusivity of the work
material, m2/s (in2/sec).
Example 20.5
Cutting
temperature
For the specific energy obtained in Example 20.4, calculate the increase in
temperature above ambient temperature of 20°C. Use the given data from the
previous examples in this chapter: v 100 m/min, to 0.50 mm. In addition,
the volumetric specific heat for the work material 3.0 (103) J/mm3-C, and
thermal diffusivity 50 (106) m2/s (or 50 mm2/s).
Solution: Cutting speed must be converted to mm/s: v (100 m/min)
(103 mm/m)/(60 s/min) 1667 mm/s. Equation (20.22) can now be used to
compute the mean temperature rise:
0.4(1.038)
1667(0.5) 0.333
T _________
(138.4)(2.552) 353°C
°C _________
3
50
3.0(10 )
(
20.5.2
)
MEASUREMENT OF CUTTING TEMPERATURE
Experimental methods have been developed to measure temperatures in machining.
The most frequently used measuring technique is the tool–chip thermocouple. This
thermocouple consists of the tool and the chip as the two dissimilar metals forming
the thermocouple junction. By properly connecting electrical leads to the tool and
work part (which is connected to the chip), the voltage generated at the tool–chip
interface during cutting can be monitored using a recording potentiometer or other
appropriate data-collection device. The voltage output of the tool–chip thermocouple (measured in mV) can be converted into the corresponding temperature value
by means of calibration equations for the particular tool–work combination.
The tool–chip thermocouple has been utilized by researchers to investigate the
relationship between temperature and cutting conditions such as speed and feed.
C20.indd 541
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542
Chapter 20/Theory of Metal Machining
RC-130B Titanium (T = 479v 0.182)
FIGURE 20.15
Experimentally
measured cutting
temperatures plotted
against speed for
three work materials,
indicating general
agreement with
Equation (20.23).
Based on data in [9])3
Cutting temperature, °F
1600
1200
18-8 Stainless steel (T = 135v 0.361)
800
B1113 Free machining steel (T = 86.2v 0.348)
400
200
400
600
800
1000
Cutting speed (ft/min)
Trigger [14] determined the speed–temperature relationship to be of the following
general form:
T K vm
(20.23)
where T measured tool–chip interface temperature and v cutting speed. The
parameters K and m depend on cutting conditions (other than v) and work material.
Figure 20.15 plots temperature versus cutting speed for several work materials, with
equations of the form of Equation (20.23) determined for each material. A similar relationship exists between cutting temperature and feed; however, the effect of
feed on temperature is not as strong as cutting speed. These empirical results tend to
support the general validity of the Cook equation: Equation (20.22).
References
[1] ASM Handbook, Vol. 16: Machining. ASM
International, Materials Park, Ohio, 1989.
[2] Black, J, and Kohser, R. DeGarmo’s Materials
and Processes in Manufacturing, 11th ed., John
Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, New Jersey, 2012.
[3] Boothroyd, G., and Knight, W. A. Fundamentals of Metal Machining and Machine Tools,
3rd ed. CRC Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton,
Florida, 2006.
[4] Chao, B. T., and Trigger, K. J. “Temperature
Distribution at the Tool–Chip Interface in
Metal Cutting.” ASME Transactions. Vol. 77,
October 1955, pp. 1107–1121.
[5] Cook, N. “Tool Wear and Tool Life.” ASME
Transactions, Journal of Engineering for
Industry. Vol. 95, November 1973, pp. 931–938.
[6] Drozda, T. J., and Wick, C. (eds.). Tool and
Manufacturing Engineers Handbook. 4th ed.
Vol. I: Machining. Society of Manufacturing
Engineers, Dearborn, Michigan, 1983.
[7] Kalpakjian, S., and Schmid, S. Manufacturing
Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
3
The units reported in the Loewen and Shaw ASME paper [9] were °F for cutting temperature and ft/min
for cutting speed. Those units have been retained in the plots and equations of our figure.
C20.indd 542
17/07/12 11:38 PM
Problems
Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River,
New Jersey, 2007.
[8] Lindberg, R. A. Processes and Materials of Manufacture, 4th ed. Allyn and Bacon, Boston, 1990.
[9] Loewen, E. G., and Shaw, M. C. “On the Analysis
of Cutting Tool Temperatures,” ASME Transactions. Vol. 76, No. 2, February 1954, pp. 217–225.
[10] Merchant, M. E. “Mechanics of the Metal
Cutting Process: II. Plasticity Conditions in
Orthogonal Cutting,” Journal of Applied
Physics. Vol. 16, June 1945, pp. 318–324.
[11] Schey, J. A. Introduction to Manufacturing
Processes, 3rd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1999.
543
[12] Shaw, M. C. Metal Cutting Principles, 2nd ed.
Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, 2005.
[13] Trent, E. M., and Wright, P. K. Metal Cutting,
4th ed. Butterworth Heinemann, Boston, 2000.
[14] Trigger, K. J. “Progress Report No. 2 on
Tool–Chip Interface Temperatures.” ASME
Transactions. Vol. 71, No. 2, February 1949,
pp. 163–174.
[15] Trigger, K. J., and Chao, B. T. “An Analytical
Evaluation of Metal Cutting Temperatures.”
ASME Transactions. Vol. 73, No. 1, January
1951, pp. 57–68.
Review Questions
20.1 What are the three basic categories of material removal processes?
20.2 What distinguishes machining from other
manufacturing processes?
20.3 Identify some of the reasons why machining is commercially and technologically
important.
20.4 Name the three most common machining
processes.
20.5 What are the two basic categories of cutting
tools in machining? Give two examples of
machining operations that use each of the
tooling types.
20.6 What are the parameters of a machining
operation that are included within the scope
of cutting conditions?
20.7 Explain the difference between roughing and
finishing operations in machining.
20.8 What is a machine tool?
20.9 What is an orthogonal cutting operation?
20.10 Why is the orthogonal cutting model useful in
the analysis of metal machining?
20.11 Name and briefly describe the four types of
chips that occur in metal cutting.
20.12 Identify the four forces that act upon the chip
in the orthogonal metal cutting model but
cannot be measured directly in an operation.
20.13 Identify the two forces that can be measured
in the orthogonal metal cutting model.
20.14 What is the relationship between the coefficient of friction and the friction angle in the
orthogonal cutting model?
20.15 Describe in words what the Merchant equation tells us.
20.16 How is the power required in a cutting operation related to the cutting force?
20.17 What is the specific energy in metal machining?
20.18 What does the term size effect mean in metal
cutting?
20.19 What is a tool-chip thermocouple?
Problems
Answers to Problems labeled (A) are listed in the Appendix at the back of the book.
Chip Formation and Forces in Machining
20.1(A) (SI units) The rake angle in an orthogonal
cutting operation 12°. The chip thickness
before the cut 0.30 mm, and the resulting
C20.indd 543
chip thickness after the cut 0.70 mm. Calculate (a) the shear plane angle and (b) the
shear strain for the operation.
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544
Chapter 20/Theory of Metal Machining
20.2 (SI units) In Problem 20.1, suppose the rake
angle were changed to 0°. Assuming that
the friction angle remains the same, determine (a) the shear plane angle, (b) the chip
thickness, and (c) the shear strain for the
operation.
20.3 (USCS units) The tool in an orthogonal cutting operation is 0.250 in wide and has a rake
angle 5°. The machine tool is set for a chip
thickness before the cut of 0.012 in, and cutting speed 100 ft/min. After the cut, the
deformed chip thickness 0.031 in. Calculate (a) the shear plane angle, (b) the shear
strain for the operation, and (c) material
removal rate.
20.4 (SI units) In a turning operation, cutting
speed 1.8 m/s. Feed 0.30 mm/rev and
depth of cut 2.6 mm. Rake angle 8°.
After the cut, the deformed chip thickness 0.56 mm. Determine (a) shear plane angle,
(b) shear strain, and (c) material removal
rate. Use the orthogonal cutting model as an
approximation of the turning process.
20.5(A) (SI units) The cutting force and thrust
force in an orthogonal cutting operation
are 1470 N and 1589 N, respectively. Rake
angle 5°, width of the cut 5.0 mm, chip
thickness before the cut 0.6, and chip thickness ratio 0.38. Determine (a) the shear
strength of the work material and (b) the
coefficient of friction in the operation.
20.6 (USCS units) The cutting force and thrust
force have been measured in an orthogonal
cutting operation to be 300 lb and 291 lb,
respectively. Rake angle 10° and width
of cut 0.200 in. Chip thickness before the
cut 0.015, and chip thickness ratio 0.4.
Determine (a) the shear strength of the work
material and (b) the coefficient of friction in
the operation.
20.7 (USCS units) An orthogonal cutting operation is performed using a rake angle of 15°.
Chip thickness before the cut 0.012 in and
width of cut 0.100 in. The chip thickness
ratio is measured after the cut to be 0.55.
Determine (a) the chip thickness after the cut,
(b) shear angle, (c) friction angle, (d) coefficient of friction, and (e) shear strain.
20.8(A) (USCS units) The orthogonal cutting
operation described in previous Problem 20.7
C20.indd 544
involves a work material whose shear strength
40,000 lb/in2. Based on your answers to the
previous problem, compute (a) shear force,
(b) cutting force, (c) thrust force, and (d) friction force.
20.9 (SI units) In an orthogonal cutting operation,
the rake angle 5°, chip thickness before the
cut 0.2 mm, and width of cut 4.0 mm. The
chip ratio 0.4. Determine (a) the chip thickness after the cut, (b) shear angle, (c) friction
angle, (d) coefficient of friction, and (e) shear
strain.
20.10 (USCS units) The shear strength of a certain
work material 50,000 lb/in2. An orthogonal
cutting operation is performed using a tool
with rake angle 20° at a cutting speed 100 ft/min, chip thickness before the cut 0.015 in, and width of cut 0.150 in. The
resulting chip thickness ratio 0.50. Determine (a) the shear plane angle, (b) shear
force, (c) cutting force and thrust force, and
(d) friction force.
20.11 (USCS units) Solve previous Problem 20.10,
except that the rake angle has been changed
to 5° and the resulting chip thickness
ratio 0.35.
20.12 (USCS units) Consider the data in Problem
20.10, except that rake angle is a variable, and
its effect on the forces in parts (b), (c), and
(d) is to be evaluated. (a) Using a spreadsheet calculator, compute the values of shear
force, cutting force, thrust force, and friction
force as a function of rake angle over a range
of rake angles between the high value of 20°
in Problem 20.10 and a low value of 10°.
Use intervals of 5° between these limits. The
chip thickness ratio decreases as rake angle
is reduced and can be approximated by the
following relationship: r 0.38 0.006a,
where r chip thickness and a rake angle.
(b) What observations can be made from the
computed results?
20.13 (USCS units) A carbon steel bar with diameter 7.64 in has a tensile strength of 65,000
lb/in2 and a shear strength of 45,000 lb/in2.
The diameter is reduced in a turning operation at a cutting speed of 350 ft/min. Feed 0.011 in/rev and depth of cut 0.120 in. The
rake angle on the tool in the direction of chip
flow 13°. The cutting conditions result in a
17/07/12 11:38 PM
Problems
chip ratio of 0.52. Using the orthogonal model
as an approximation of turning, determine (a)
shear plane angle, (b) shear force, (c) cutting
force and feed force, and (d) coefficient of
friction between the tool and chip.
20.14(A) (SI units) Low carbon steel having a
tensile strength 300 MPa and a shear
strength 220 MPa is turned at a cutting
speed 2.5 m/s. Feed 0.20 mm/rev, and
depth of cut 3.0 mm. The rake angle 5° in
the direction of chip flow. The resulting chip
ratio 0.45. Using the orthogonal model to
approximate turning, determine the cutting
force and feed force.
20.15 (USCS units) A turning operation is made
with a rake angle of 10°, a feed of 0.010 in/
rev, and a depth of cut 0.100 in. The shear
strength of the work material is known to be
50,000 lb/in2, and the chip thickness ratio after
the cut 0.40. Determine the cutting force
and the feed force. Use the orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the turning process.
20.16 Show how Equation (20.3) is derived from
the definition of chip ratio, Equation (20.2),
and Figure 20.5(b).
20.17 Show how Equation (20.4) is derived from
Figure 20.6.
20.18 Derive the force equations for F, N, Fs, and Fn
(Equations (20.9) through (20.12) in the text)
using the force diagram of Figure 20.11.
Power and Energy in Machining
20.19(A) (SI units) In a turning operation on stainless steel, cutting speed 150 m/min, feed 0.25 mm/rev, and depth of cut 7.5 mm. How
much power will the lathe draw in performing
this operation if its mechanical efficiency 90%. Use Table 20.2 to obtain the appropriate specific energy value.
20.20 (SI units) In Problem 20.19, compute the lathe
power requirements if feed 0.50 mm/rev.
20.21 (USCS units) In a turning operation on aluminum, cutting speed 900 ft/min, feed 0.020 in/rev, and depth of cut 0.250 in. What
horsepower is required of the drive motor, if
the lathe has a mechanical efficiency 87%?
Use Table 20.2 to obtain the appropriate unit
horsepower value.
C20.indd 545
545
20.22 (SI units) Plain carbon steel with Brinell
hardness of 275 HB is turned at a cutting
speed 200 m/min. Depth of cut 6.0 mm.
The lathe motor is rated at 25 kW (gross),
and its mechanical efficiency 90%. Using
the appropriate specific energy value from
Table 20.2, determine the maximum feed that
can be used in this operation. Use of a spreadsheet calculator is recommended for the iterative calculations required in this problem.
20.23 (USCS units) A rough turning operation is
performed on a 20 hp lathe that has a 92%
efficiency. The cut is made on alloy steel
whose hardness is 325 HB. Cutting speed 375 ft/min, feed 0.030 in/rev, and depth of
cut 0.150 in. Based on these values, can
the job be performed on the 20 hp lathe?
Use Table 20.2 to obtain the appropriate unit
horsepower value.
20.24 (USCS units) Suppose the cutting speed in
Problems 20.7 and 20.8 300 ft/min. From
your answers to those problems, find (a) the
horsepower consumed in the operation,
(b) metal removal rate in in3/min, (c) unit
horsepower (hp-min/in3), and (d) the specific
energy (in-lb/in3).
20.25 (SI units) A turning operation is carried out on
aluminum. Based on the specific energy values in Table 20.2, determine material removal
rate and cutting power in the operation under
the following sets of cutting conditions: (a)
Cutting speed 5.6 m/s, feed 0.25 mm/rev,
and depth of cut 2.0 mm; and (b) cutting
speed 1.3 m/s, feed 0.75 mm/rev, and
depth 4.0 mm.
20.26 (USCS units) In a turning operation on low
carbon steel (175 BHN), cutting speed 400
ft/min, feed 0.010 in/rev, and depth of cut 0.075 in. The lathe has a mechanical efficiency 0.85. Based on the unit horsepower
values in Table 20.2, determine (a) the horsepower consumed by the turning operation
and (b) the horsepower that must be generated by the lathe.
20.27(A) (USCS units) A cast iron workpiece is
turned on a lathe whose mechanical efficiency 0.87. Cutting speed 400 ft/min,
feed 0.011 in/rev, and depth of cut 0.120 in. Cutting force 250 lb. Determine
(a) the horsepower consumed by the turning
17/07/12 11:38 PM
546
Chapter 20/Theory of Metal Machining
operation; (b) horsepower that must be generated by the lathe; (c) unit horsepower and
specific energy for the work material in this
operation.
20.28 (USCS units) A turning operation is performed on an engine lathe using a tool with
zero rake angle in the direction of chip flow.
The work material is an alloy steel with hardness 325 Brinell. Feed 0.015 in/rev, depth
of cut 0.125 in, and cutting speed 300 ft/
min. After the cut, the chip thickness ratio 0.45. (a) Using the appropriate value of specific energy from Table 20.2, compute the
horsepower at the drive motor, if the lathe
efficiency 85%. (b) Based on horsepower,
compute your best estimate of the cutting
force for this turning operation. Use the
orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the turning process.
20.29 (USCS units) A lathe performs a turning operation on a workpiece with diameter 6.0 in.
Shear strength of the work 40,000 lb/in2 and
tensile strength 60,000 lb/in2. Rake angle
of the tool 6°. Cutting speed 700 ft/min,
feed 0.015 in/rev, and depth 0.090 in.
The chip thickness after the cut 0.025 in.
Determine (a) the horsepower required in
the operation, (b) unit horsepower for this
material under these conditions, and (c) unit
horsepower as it would be listed in Table 20.2
for a to of 0.010 in. Use the orthogonal cutting model as an approximation of the turning process.
20.30 (USCS units) In a turning operation on an
aluminum alloy workpiece, feed 0.020 in/
rev, and depth of cut 0.250 in. The motor
horsepower of the lathe is 20 hp, and it has
a mechanical efficiency 92%. What is the
maximum cutting speed that can be used on
this job?
20.31 One of the foremen in the machine shop
complains of a problem with an operation
in the turning section. It seems the lathe has
a tendency to slow down or stall in the middle of the cutting operation, indicating that
the machine is underpowered for the work
material and conditions of the cut. Without
knowing any more about the problem, what
actions and changes can be made to mitigate
this power problem?
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Cutting Temperature
20.32(A) (SI units) Orthogonal cutting is performed on a metal whose mass specific heat 1.0 J/g-C, density 2.9 g/cm3, and thermal diffusivity 0.8 cm2/s. Cutting speed 3.5 m/s,
uncut chip thickness 0.25 mm, and width of
cut 2.2 mm. Cutting force 950 N. Determine the cutting temperature if the ambient
temperature 22°C.
20.33 (SI units) Consider a turning operation performed on steel whose hardness 225 HB
at a cutting speed 3.0 m/s, feed 0.25 mm,
and depth 4.0 mm. Using values of thermal properties found in the tables and definitions of Section 4.1 and the appropriate
specific energy value from Table 20.2, compute an estimate of cutting temperature.
Assume ambient temperature 20°C.
20.34 (USCS units) An orthogonal cutting operation is performed on a certain metal whose
volumetric specific heat 110 in-lb/in3-F and
thermal diffusivity 0.140 in2/sec. The cutting
speed 350 ft/min, chip thickness before the
cut 0.008 in, and width of cut 0.100 in. Cutting force 200 lb. Determine the cutting temperature if the ambient temperature 70°F.
20.35 (USCS units) It is desired to estimate the
cutting temperature for a certain alloy steel
whose hardness 240 Brinell. Use the appropriate value of specific energy from Table 20.2
to compute the cutting temperature for a
turning operation in which the cutting speed
is 500 ft/min, feed is 0.005 in/rev, and depth
of cut is 0.070 in. The work material has a
volumetric specific heat of 210 in lb/in3-F and
a thermal diffusivity of 0.16 in2/sec. Assume
ambient temperature 88°F.
20.36(A) (USCS units) An orthogonal machining
operation removes metal at 1.8 in3/min. Cutting force 300 lb. The work material has a
thermal diffusivity 0.18 in2/sec and a volumetric specific heat 124 in-lb/in3-F. If the
feed 0.010 in and width of cut 0.100 in,
compute the cutting temperature in the operation given that ambient temperature 70°F.
20.37 (SI units) In a turning operation, cutting
speed 200 m/min, feed 0.25 mm/rev, and
depth of cut 4.00 mm. Thermal diffusivity of
the work material 20 mm2/s and volumetric
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Problems
specific heat 3.5 (103) J/mm3-C. If the temperature increase above ambient temperature
(20°F) is measured by a tool-chip thermocouple to be 700°C, determine the specific energy
for the work material in this operation.
20.38 (SI units) During a turning operation, a toolchip thermocouple was used to measure cutting temperature. The following temperature
C20.indd 547
547
data were collected during the cuts at three
different cutting speeds (feed and depth were
held constant): (1) v 100 m/min, T 505°C,
(2) v 130 m/min, T 552°C, (3) v 160 m/
min, T 592°C. Determine an equation for
temperature as a function of cutting speed
that is in the form of the Trigger equation,
Equation (20.23).
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