1. Logic Basics
●​ Logic
●​ Example: "Genetic engineering
is
paano
the
science
kung
mag-evaluate
ng
arguments
para
malaman
kung valid or hindi.
●​ An argument is a group ng
statements na may premises
(reasons) at isang conclusion
(point).
●​ Good arguments = premises
support
conclusion;
Reminder:
●​ Minsan "since" ginagamit as
time, hindi reason.
●​ Kailangan
ulitin
basahin
at
i-try mentally add "therefore"
para klaruhin.
4. Types of Nonarguments
Warnings
2. Key Elements
●​ Statements
are
declarative
sentences that can be true or
false.
●​ Premises
=
reasons
or
=
statement
na
evidence.
●​ Conclusion
sinusuportahan.
●​ Indicator
words:
"therefore,"
"since,"
"thus,"
etc.,
for
premises
and
identifying
conclusion.
prove or support a conclusion.
●​ Example:
"Watch
out
for
slippery floor!"
●​ Pabala lang siya sa danger,
wala siyang gustong iprove o
patunayan.
Reports
●​ Reports convey information or
facts without trying to prove
1789,
nagsasabing may evidence or
reasons (factual claim).
may
claim
na
ng
info
lang
siya,
sinasabi
na
may
or
paniwalaan.
or
pero
may
sense).
cow
disease
spreads this way. Thus, it’s
na
dapat
about
what
Pieces of Advice
●​ Suggestions
logical
words
"Mad
●​ Kwento
o
(explicit—may
implicit—walang,
with
conclusion
conclusion
claim:
indicator
power,
yung
(inferential claim).
connection
for
monarchs
limited wars."
walang
sumusuporta
nagpapakita
European
competed
1.​ At least isang statement dapat
●​ Inferential
danger or risk but does not
●​ Example: "Between 1648 and
Para malaman kung may argument:
evidence
●​ A warning alerts someone to
anything.
3. Recognizing Arguments
●​ Example:
changes." (Implicit)
bad
arguments = hindi.
2.​ Dapat
can be risky dahil may toxic
someone
should
do,
no
reasons to prove a point.
●​ Example:
"You
should
study
early to avoid cramming."
●​ Tip or suggestion lang ito,
hindi
gusto patunayan ang
kahit anong punto.
dangerous." (Explicit)
1
Expository Passages
Loosely Associated Statements
●​ Explain or elaborate on a topic
without
proving
the
topic
sentence.
●​ Example:
●​ Related statements about a
topic but no claim that one
supports the other.
three
●​ Example: Lao-Tzu: "Not to honor
states of matter: solid, liquid,
men of worth will keep peace;
gas."
not to value goods prevents
"There
●​ Nagbibigay
are
lang
ng
explanation,
walang
sinusubukang patunayan.
proof
or
logical
connection.
●​ Express what someone believes
without evidence to support it.
"We
believe
our
products must serve customer
Conditional Statements
●​ “If... then...” statements show a
possible
outcome;
not
arguments by themselves.
●​ Example: "If it rains, the ground
needs."
●​ Sabi
●​ Related lang sila sa topic pero
walang
Statements of Belief
●​ Example:
theft."
lang
ng
paniniwala,
walang evidence or rason na
sinusuportahan.
will be wet."
●​ Possibility lang, hindi patunay
o argument.
Illustrations
●​ Give
examples
to
show
5. Deductive vs. Inductive Arguments
meaning or how something is
(with Forms)
done, without proof.
Deductive Arguments
●​ Example: "Oxygen is O2, water
is H2O."
●​ Valid:
●​ Example
lang
magpaliwanag;
tapos
ito
conclusion
(siguradong
hindi
●​ Invalid: Possible na true
views
without
reasons
or
premises
pero
false
conclusion.
●​ Soundness:
●​ Example: "In my opinion, mango
shakes taste better."
●​ Valid + All True Premises
= Sound Argument (best
●​ Opinion lang ito, walang proof
form
ng
deductive
argument).
o rason.
●​ Unsound = Invalid, false
Explanations
●​ Show why something happens,
●​ Example: "The sky appears blue
because sunlight scatters."
lang
kung
premise, or both.
●​ Argument from Definition:​
not to prove it happened.
bakit
nangyari, hindi proof na totoo
siya.
false
logical).
evidence.
●​ Paliwanag
true
premises
Statements of Opinion
supporting
Impossible
para
argument o proof.
●​ Personal
●​ Validity:
Conclusion
nakabase
sa
definition ng word (deductive).
●​ Syllogism:​
Two premises, one conclusion.
●​ Categorical:
Uses
"all,"
"no," "some."
2
●​ Hypothetical:
then..."
May
"if...
6. Table Comparison
or
Deductive Arguments
(pure
mixed/modus ponens).
●​ Disjunctive: "Either... or..."
format.
Premises
Conclusion
Validity
T
T
?
T
F
Invalid
F
T
?
F
F
?
Inductive Arguments
●​ Strength:
●​ Strong: Premises make
conclusion
more
probable
than
improbable
(50%+
chance).
●​ Weak: Premises do not
make
conclusion
probable,
even
if
claimed.
●​ Cogency:
●​ Strong
+
premises
All
=
true
Inductive Arguments
Cogent
Argument (best form ng
Premises
Conclusion
Strength
T
T
?
T
F
Weak
F
T
?
F
F
?
inductive argument).
●​ Uncogent
=
Weak
argument, one or more
false premises, kulang sa
total evidence.
Forms:
●​ Prediction: Base sa past, hula
sa future.
●​ Analogy: Similarities used as
basis.
●​ Generalization:
Sample
→
Expert/witness
as
group.
●​ Authority:
basis.
●​ Signs: Knowledge of signs.
7. Quick Tips to Remember
●​ Causal Inference: Cause-effect
relations.
Assumption
noon,
na
true
premises
true
conclusion—walang lusot.
kung
●​ Sound argument: valid + all
behavior/pattern
true premises = sure na correct.
ganun
elsewhere.
valid,
guarantee
●​ Uniformity of Nature:​
consistent
●​ Kapag
din
later
or
●​ Inductive
arguments
are
probable lang, may strength
levels,
always
need
total
evidence.
3
●​ Cogent: Inductive na strong at
may totoong premises (meet all
evidence).
Emotive Terminology
●​ Words
that
influence
mainly
aim
emotions,
to
often
logical
hiding the real reason or claim.
support and kung truth mga
●​ Mga salita na ginagamit para
●​ Laging
check
kung
premises.
makaapekto sa feelings, belat
ng ebidensya.
Varieties of Meaning
Disengaging Cognitive and Emotive
Ordinary Language
Meanings
●​ The language we use every day
●​ The
process
of
separating
to ask, tell stories, joke, flirt, lie,
facts from feelings to analyze
give directions, sing, and more.
arguments properly.
●​ Sa araw-araw, ginagamit natin
●​ Dapat ihiwalay ang facts sa
ang language for everything —
feelings
tanong,
pag-iisip.
kwento,
joke,
para
malinaw
ang
directions, at iba pa.
Vagueness
Cognitive Meaning
●​ The
part
●​ When words or expressions are
of language that
shares facts or info that can be
true or false.
unclear
or
have
no
clear
boundary, causing confusion.
●​ Yung mga salita na malabo
●​ Ito yung bahagi ng language
na nagbibigay ng totoong info
ang meaning, kaya di natin
alam kung tama o mali.
or facts.
Ambiguity
Emotive Meaning
●​ Words or phrases that have
●​ Language that shows or stirs
feelings or emotions.
●​ Yung
words
more than one clear meaning
depending on context.
na
nagpaparamdam
o
nagpapasakit sa feelings mo.
●​ Yung mga salita na pwedeng
iba
ang
pwedeng
meaning,
kaya
magkaiba
ang
pagkaintindi.
Value Claim
●​ A statement that says whether
something is good, bad, right,
or
wrong,
often
needing
reasons to support it.
●​ Yung pahayag na nagsasabi
kung tama o mali, mabuti o
Verbal Disputes
●​ Disagreements
on
different
interpretations of words, not
facts.
●​ Pagtatalo dahil iba-iba ang
pagkaintindi sa salita.
masama, pero kailangan ng
rason.
Factual Disputes
●​ Disagreements on actual facts
or evidence.
●​ Pagtatalo kung ano talaga ang
totoong nangyari or totoo.
4
Intension and Extension of Terms
●​ Kung ano yung qualities na
kasama sa intension, yun ang
Intension
●​ The intension of a term is the
set of attributes or qualities
magde-decide kung sino-sino
ang sakop sa extension.
that the term connotes; it is
Increasing and Decreasing Intension
what is meant by the term or
and Extension
the properties something must
●​ Increasing
intension
means
have to be included under that
each term in a series adds
term.
more specific attributes, while
●​ Ito
yung
kailangan
mga
qualities
para
na
masabing
sakop ng term, like kung “cat,”
dapat furry, may four legs,
marunong mag-meow.
increasing
extension
means
each term covers a larger set
of objects.
●​ Kapag mas specific ang term,
mas konti ang sakop; pag mas
general,
Extension
●​ The extension of a term is the
set of all objects or entities to
mas
marami
ang
sakop.
Empty Extension
which the term applies; it is the
●​ A term has empty extension if it
collection of things the term
denotes no actual objects (e.g.,
denotes in the real world.
“unicorn,”
●​ Lahat ng totoong bagay na
sakop ng term, so kung “cat,”
lahat ng pusa sa mundo, past,
present, future.
“current
king
of
France”), but it can still have
intension (meaning).
●​ May
mga
term
na
may
meaning pero wala talagang
existing na bagay na tinutukoy,
Proper Names
●​ Proper names are terms that
refer to specific individuals or
like “unicorn” or “current king of
France.”
entities, and while they may
seem to lack intension, they are
associated
with
certain
identifying
attributes
or
a
Definitions and Their Purposes
Definition
●​ A definition is a group of words
causal history.
●​ Mga pangalan ng tao or place,
that assigns a meaning to a
parang “Ate Joy” or “Manila,” na
word or group of words. It
may
consists
sariling
meaning
or
kwento kung bakit yun ang
parts:
the
definiendum and the definiens.
phrase being defined, and the
Intension Determines Extension
intension
determines
two
●​ The definiendum is the word or
tawag.
●​ The
of
its
of
a
term
extension
because the attributes a term
connotes define which objects
belong to its extension.
definiens is the word or phrase
that provides the meaning.
●​ Ang definition ay grupo ng
words
na
nag-aassign
meaning
sa
isang
phrase.
Yung
word
word
ng
o
na
dine-define ang definiendum,
5
tapos
yung
explanation
o
meaning ang definiens.
Precising Definition
●​ A precising definition reduces
vagueness by specifying exact
Definiendum
criteria for applying a term,
●​ The word or group of words
that is to be defined.
often used in technical or legal
contexts.
●​ Yung word o phrase na gusto
●​ Yung
definition
na
nililinaw
mong ipaliwanag o bigyan ng
yung meaning ng word para
meaning.
hindi
malabo,
madalas
ginagamit sa science o law.
Definiens
●​ The word or group of words
that
does
the
defining;
it
Theoretical Definition
●​ A theoretical definition assigns
symbolizes the meaning of the
meaning
definiendum.
theory that characterizes the
●​ Yung words na nag-eexplain o
nagbibigay
ng
meaning
sa
by
suggesting
a
entities denoted by the term,
often
used
in
science
or
philosophy.
definiendum.
●​ Yung
Stipulative Definition
definition
nagpapakita
ng
theory
na
o
●​ A stipulative definition assigns
explanation kung ano talaga
a meaning to a word for the
yung bagay na tinutukoy ng
first time, either by coining a
word.
new word or giving a new
meaning to an old word. It is
arbitrary and cannot be true
or false.
Persuasive Definition
●​ A persuasive definition assigns
an
emotionally
charged
or
ng
value-laden meaning to a word
bagong meaning sa word o
to influence attitudes, often
gumawa ng bagong word, yun
used in rhetoric or politics.
ang stipulative definition. Hindi
●​ Yung definition na ginagamit
siya pwedeng true or false kasi
para makaapekto sa feelings
siya ang unang nagbigay ng
ng tao, para tanggapin nila
meaning.
yung opinion o panig.
●​ Kapag
nag-assign
ka
Lexical Definition
Definitional Techniques
●​ A lexical definition reports the
meaning a word already has in
a
language,
like
dictionary
Extensional (Denotative) Definition
●​ An
extensional
(denotative)
definitions. It can be true or
definition assigns meaning to a
false depending on accuracy.
term
by
indicating
the
●​ Yung definition na nagsasabi
members of the class that the
kung ano talaga ang meaning
definiendum denotes. This can
ng word sa language, parang
be done by pointing to them,
sa dictionary.
naming them individually, or
naming them in groups.
6
●​ Ito
yung
definition
na
nagpapakita ng mga actual na
Intensional (Connotative) Definition
●​ An
intensional
(connotative)
example ng bagay na tinutukoy
definition assigns meaning to a
ng
word by indicating the qualities
word,
pwedeng
ituro,
isa-isahin, o i-group.
or attributes that the word
connotes.
Demonstrative (Ostensive) Definition
●​ A
demonstrative
(ostensive)
●​ There are four main types:
synonymous,
etymological,
definition assigns meaning to a
operational, and definition by
word by physically pointing to
genus and difference.
or gesturing at the thing(s) the
●​ Ito
naman,
focus
sa
mga
qualities
na
word refers to. It can be partial
katangian
(some members) or complete
nagpapakilala sa word, hindi
(all members).
sa actual na example.
o
●​ Kapag tinuturo mo lang yung
bagay para ipaliwanag kung
Synonymous Definition
ano ibig sabihin ng word, ito
●​ A synonymous definition uses a
yun. Parang "Chair means this,
single word (a synonym) that
this, and this" habang tinuturo
has the same meaning as the
mo yung mga upuan.
word being defined.
●​ Kapag pinalitan mo lang ng
Enumerative Definition
●​ An
kaparehong
enumerative
definition
word,
like
"Physician means doctor."
assigns meaning to a term by
naming
the
individual
members of the class the term
Etymological Definition
●​ An
etymological
definition
denotes. It can be partial or
assigns meaning by giving the
complete.
word's origin or history in its
●​ Dito, isa-isa mong binabanggit
yung mga example ng word,
like
"Actress
Kidman,
means
Emma
Nicole
Thompson,
Natalie Portman, etc." Parang
own or other languages.
●​ Dito, pinapaliwanag mo saan
galing yung word, like "license"
galing
sa
Latin
na
'licere'
meaning to be permitted.
name drop ng mga example.
Operational Definition
Definition by Subclass
●​ A
definition
●​ An
by
operational
definition
subclass
assigns meaning by specifying
assigns meaning to a term by
a procedure or operation that
naming subclasses of the class
determines whether the word
denoted by the term. It can be
applies.
partial or complete.
●​ Dito, may step-by-step na test
●​ Imbes na isa-isa, group by
kung applicable yung word, like
group mo binibigay, like "Tree
"Acid means a solution that
means oak, pine, elm, spruce,
turns litmus paper red."
maple, and the like."
7
Definition by Genus and Difference
●​ A
definition
by
genus
Example: All A are B. All C are B.
and
difference assigns meaning by
identifying
a
general
Therefore, all A are C.
●​ Yung
mali
sa
structure
ng
class
argument, kahit tama pa yung
(genus) and then specifying the
mga words, basta sablay yung
attributes
form, formal fallacy na yun.
(difference)
that
distinguish the term from other
Usually
members of that class.
arguments lang ito nangyayari.
●​ Parang
water"
"Ice
means
sa
deductive
frozen
— water ang genus,
Informal Fallacy
difference.
●​ An informal fallacy is a mistake
Ginagawa mong mas specific
in reasoning that can only be
yung general na bagay.
detected
frozen
ang
by
examining
the
content of the argument, not
Fallacies
just
its
involve
Fallacy
form.
These
errors
in
often
relevance,
ambiguity,
or
and
can
occur
in
argument that is more than
deductive
and
inductive
just having false premises; it is
arguments.
Example:
a mistake in reasoning or a
Brooklyn Bridge is made of
trick
atoms.
●​ A fallacy is a defect in an
that
makes
a
bad
assumptions,
Atoms
are
both
The
invisible.
argument look good. The term
Therefore, the Brooklyn Bridge
non
is invisible.
sequitur
("it
does
not
follow") is another name for
fallacy.
Both
deductive
●​ Dito naman, hindi mo makikita
and
agad yung mali sa structure,
inductive arguments can have
kailangan mo intindihin yung
fallacies,
content. Madalas, parang may
making
them
unsound or uncogent.
sense
●​ Kapag may mali sa logic ng
argument,
hindi
lang
basta
mali
facts,
tawag
dun
ang
fallacy. Parang may sablay sa
reasoning
kaya
parang
convincing pero mali pala.
pero
pag
Types of Informal Fallacies
●​ Informal fallacies are usually
grouped
into:
error that can be identified just
by
looking at the form or
structure
fallacies
relevance,
fallacies
of
weak
fallacies
of
fallacies
and
of
fallacies
of
grammatical analogy.
●​ Maraming klase ng informal
deductive
fallacies,
like
argument, regardless of the
argument
na
content. These occur only in
related, mahina ang support,
deductive
arguments
with
assumptions
identifiable
forms,
like
basehan, malabo ang words, o
categorical,
disjunctive,
or
kaya parang magkatulad lang
hypothetical
a
ambiguity,
of
of
presumption,
●​ A formal fallacy is a logical
mo,
sablay pala yung logic.
induction,
Formal Fallacy
inisip
syllogisms.
yung
hindi
na
mga
naman
walang
pero hindi naman.
8
Unsound and Uncogent Arguments
●​ If
a
deductive
●​ Example: "Believe me or else!" or
argument
contains
a
fallacy,
unsound.
If
an
it
is
inductive
"If you don’t agree, something
bad will happen to you."
●​ Kapag
tinatakot
ka
para
argument contains a fallacy, it
sumang-ayon, hindi yun proof.
is uncogent. Conversely, if an
Parang, "Maniwala ka kasi kung
argument
or
hindi, yari ka sa akin." Walang
uncogent, it has one or more
connect sa truth ng argument.
is
unsound
false premises or it contains a
fallacy (or both).
Appeal
●​ Kapag may fallacy, automatic
na hindi na good argument,
to
Pity
(Argumentum
ad
Misericordiam)
●​ This
fallacy
occurs
when
kahit deductive or inductive pa
someone tries to win support
yan. Hindi na siya reliable.
for a conclusion by making you
feel sorry for them or someone
Fallacies of Relevance
else,
instead
of giving real
evidence.
Fallacies of Relevance
●​ Fallacies
of
●​ Example:
relevance
are
mistakes in reasoning where
"Don’t
fail
me, sir,
kawawa naman ako, di ako
makakagraduate!"
the premises are not logically
●​ Kapag paawa effect lang ang
connected to the conclusion,
rason para maniwala ka, hindi
even if they seem emotionally
yun valid argument. Parang,
or psychologically connected.
"Kawawa naman ako, kaya tama
The
ako." Hindi ganun mag-prove.
premises
might
feel
they
don’t
convincing,
but
actually
support
the
conclusion with real evidence.
Appeal to the People (Argumentum
ad Populum)
●​ Kapag yung argument parang
●​ This fallacy uses the desire to
may dating pero wala talagang
be accepted, admired, or part
logical
yung
of a group to get you to agree
premises sa conclusion, fallacy
with a conclusion. It can be
of
direct (riling up a crowd) or
na
relevance
connect
yun.
Madalas,
feelings lang ang pinapagana,
indirect
hindi totoong ebidensya.
snobbery).
(bandwagon,
vanity,
●​ Example: "90% of people use
Appeal to Force (Argumentum ad
this toothpaste, so you should
Baculum)
too!"
●​ This
fallacy
happens
when
●​ Kapag
sinasabi
na
"lahat
someone tries to get you to
naman ginagawa to, sumabay
accept
by
ka na," or "sikat ka pag ginawa
threatening you with harm if
mo to," fallacy na yun. Hindi
you don’t agree. The threat can
porket uso, tama na agad.
a
conclusion
be physical or psychological,
but it’s always irrelevant to
whether the conclusion is true.
9
Argument
Against
the
Person
(Argumentum ad Hominem)
●​ Kapag
binabago
argument
●​ This fallacy attacks the person
ng
mo
yung
kalaban
para
mas madali mo siyang i-bash,
making the argument instead
straw
man
yun.
Hindi
mo
of addressing the argument
sinagot yung totoong point.
itself. It comes in three forms:
abusive
(insulting),
circumstantial
(pointing
Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi)
out
●​ This fallacy occurs when the
bias), and tu quoque (accusing
premises support a particular
of hypocrisy).
conclusion,
●​ Example: "Wag mo pakinggan
yan, masama ugali niyan." or
"Eh ikaw nga, ginagawa mo rin
yan!"
only
but
a
different,
vaguely
related
conclusion is drawn instead.
●​ Example:
"Dumarami
ang
krimen, kaya dapat ibalik ang
●​ Kapag imbes na sagutin yung
death
penalty."
(Pero
ang
point, inaaway mo na yung tao,
tamang conclusion: dagdagan
ad hominem na yun. Hindi yun
ang
sagot sa argument.
sistema.)
police
o
ayusin
ang
●​ Kapag parang may sense yung
Accident
premises
pero
ibang
●​ This fallacy happens when a
conclusion ang kinuha, missing
general rule is wrongly applied
the point yun. Hindi tugma
to a specific case it wasn’t
yung sagot sa ebidensya.
meant for, ignoring exceptions.
●​ Example: "People should keep
Red Herring
promises, so kahit toxic na
●​ This fallacy is committed when
yung relationship, dapat di ka
someone diverts attention from
umalis."
the real issue by bringing up a
●​ Kapag pilit ginagamit ang rule
different topic, making it seem
kahit obvious na hindi bagay
like the argument has been
sa situation, accident fallacy
answered.
yun. Hindi lahat ng rule, laging
●​ Example:
applicable.
mo
ako
pinapagalitan sa parking, eh
ikaw
Straw Man
nga
may
chismis
sa
office!"
●​ This fallacy is committed when
someone
"Bakit
distorts
or
●​ Kapag
nililihis
para
hindi
ang
usapan
sagutin
yung
exaggerates another person’s
totoong issue, red herring yun.
argument to make it easier to
Parang
attack, then knocks down the
makaiwas sa tanong.
pa-slide,
para
lang
distorted version instead of the
real argument.
Fallacies of Weak Induction
●​ Example: "Ayaw niya ng prayer
●​ These fallacies happen when
sa school, so gusto niya lahat
the premises are relevant to
maging atheist!"
the
conclusion,
connection
is
too
but
the
weak
to
10
justify believing the conclusion.
●​ Kapag sinabing totoo or hindi
The evidence is not strong
totoo ang isang bagay dahil
enough, even if it’s a little bit
lang walang proof, appeal to
related.
ignorance na yun. Hindi ibig
●​ Kapag may konting connect
sabihin na walang ebidensya,
yung premises sa conclusion
automatic na mali o tama na.
pero sobrang hina ng support,
weak induction na yan. Parang
Hasty
may
Accident)
ebidensya,
pero
hindi
sapat para maniwala ka talaga.
Generalization
●​ This fallacy occurs when a
conclusion
Appeal
to
Unqualified
Authority
(Argumentum ad Verecundiam)
(Converse
about
a
whole
group is drawn from too small
or unrepresentative a sample.
●​ This fallacy occurs when an
●​ Example:
"Lahat
ng
argument relies on the opinion
taga-school na yan, pasaway.
of
a
Yung nakilala ko kasi, pasaway."
credible or relevant authority
●​ Kapag nag-generalize ka agad
on the topic. The authority
base sa kakaunting example,
might lack expertise, be biased,
hasty generalization yun. Hindi
have a motive to lie, or be
porket may isang experience,
unable to perceive or recall
applicable na sa lahat.
someone
who
is
not
accurately.
●​ Example: "Sabi ng favorite kong
artista,
effective
daw
tong
False Cause
●​ This fallacy happens when a
gamot, kaya gagamitin ko na
conclusion
rin."
supposed causal connection
●​ Kapag
sumasandal
ka
sa
that
is
probably
based
doesn’t
on
a
exist.
sinabi ng hindi expert, or may
Includes post hoc (assuming
bias, or hindi reliable, fallacy
one event caused another just
na yun. Hindi porket sikat o
because it came first), non
matalino sa ibang field, expert
causa pro causa (mistaking
na sa lahat.
what is the real cause), and
oversimplified cause (blaming
Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad
Ignorantiam)
●​ This
fallacy
or crediting just one factor).
●​ Example:
happens
when
"Tuwing
nag-uulan,
sumasakit ulo ko. Siguro ulan
someone argues that a claim is
ang cause ng sakit ng ulo ko."
true just because it hasn’t been
●​ Kapag pinipilit mo na may
proven false, or vice versa. The
cause and effect kahit wala
lack of evidence is used as
namang solid na connection,
proof.
false cause na yun. Hindi lahat
●​ Example:
nakapagpatunay
"Walang
na
may
ng sunod-sunod, may cause
and effect.
aliens, so ibig sabihin, walang
aliens."
11
Slippery Slope
conclusion, or reasoning in a
●​ This fallacy is a type of false
cause
where
the
argument
circle.
●​ Parang inuulit lang yung gusto
claims that a small first step
niyang
patunayan,
will lead to a chain of related
walang
totoong
events
Paikot-ikot lang yung logic.
ending
in
disaster,
pero
ebidensya.
without enough evidence that
the chain will really happen.
Complex Question
●​ Example: "Pag pinayagan mo
yan,
sunod-sunod
na
●​ A question that combines two
yan
or more questions into one,
hanggang sa magulo na lahat."
trapping the respondent into
●​ Kapag OA na yung prediction
admitting something just by
ng mangyayari dahil lang sa
isang maliit na bagay, slippery
answering.
●​ Parang tanong na may hidden
slope na yun. Hindi lahat ng
agenda—kahit
anong
sagot
simula, mauuwi sa disaster.
mo, parang aamin ka na rin sa
ibang bagay.
Weak Analogy
●​ This fallacy happens when an
False Dichotomy
an
●​ Presenting only two options as
analogy between two things,
if they are the only possibilities,
but the analogy is not strong
when in fact there are more.
argument
enough
is
based
to
on
support
the
conclusion.
●​ Pinipilit kang pumili sa dalawa
lang,
●​ Example: "Pareho silang mahilig
sa music, so pareho silang
kahit
may
iba
pang
choices. Parang “either ako o
siya lang.”
matalino."
●​ Kapag
pinilit
mong
ng
dalawang
mag-connect
Suppressed Evidence
●​ Leaving
out
or
ignoring
bagay na hindi naman talaga
important evidence that would
magka-level
change the conclusion.
ang
similarity,
weak analogy na yun. Hindi
●​ Pinipili lang sabihin yung info
lahat ng pareho, pareho na sa
na
lahat ng bagay.
tinatago yung ibang facts na
pabor
sa
kanya,
tapos
pwedeng magbago ng sagot.
Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity,
and Grammatical Analogy
Fallacies of Ambiguity
Equivocation
Fallacies of Presumption
Begging
the
Question
●​ Using a word or phrase in two
(Petitio
Principii)
●​ The
different
same
argument
senses
argument,
assumes the
confusion
conclusion is true by leaving
reasoning.
out a key (often shaky) premise,
restating the premise as the
●​ Double
within
or
meaning
ginagamit
sa
the
causing
misleading
na
word,
magkaibang
12
Xparaan
para
magmukhang
tama yung argument.
Amphiboly
●​ Ambiguity caused by vague or
awkward
sentence
structure,
leading to misinterpretation.
●​ Malabo yung sentence kaya
iba-iba ang pwedeng intindi,
depende sa pagkakabasa.
Fallacies of Grammatical Analogy
Composition
●​ Wrongly
attributing
the
properties of the parts to the
whole.
●​ Akala mo dahil magaling ang
bawat
parte,
magaling
na
agad ang buo. Hindi laging
ganun.
Division
●​ Wrongly
attributing
the
properties of the whole to its
parts.
●​ Akala mo dahil magaling ang
buong
grupo,
magaling
na
lahat ng miyembro. Hindi rin
laging ganun.
13