Guide to
Academic
Writing
2020
School of Business and
Economics
Third Edition
Denise McAllister & Rebecca Kumi
1
©2020 Denise McAllister and Rebecca Kumi, Maastricht University.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information
storage and retrieval system, without prior permission from the copyright owner, or, as
the cases may be, the publishers, beyond the exceptions provided for in the Copyright Law.
"The mere habit of writing, of constantly keeping at it, of never giving up, ultimately teaches
you how to write."
Gabriel Fielding (British novelist 1916-1986)
2
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
4
LIST OF FIGURES
4
PREFACE
5
1
INTRODUCTION
8
2
THE PLANNING PROCESS
11
THE PLANNING ACTIVITIES
11
THE OUTLINE
12
STRUCTURING
15
3
THE INTRODUCTION
4
5
15
3.1.1
General Background
15
3.1.2
The purpose statement
17
3.1.3
The outline section of the Introduction
20
3.1.4
The organization of paragraphs in the Introduction
21
THE BODY SECTIONS
23
THE ORGANIZATION OF A PARAGRAPH
24
THE DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
32
REDUCTION OF BIAS IN ACADEMIC WRITING
35
FOCUSING ON RELEVANT CHARACTERISTICS
35
USING AN APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF SPECIFICITY
36
USING SENSITIVITY WITH LABELS
37
ACKNOWLEDGING HUMANITY OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
38
AVOIDING PLACING RESEARCH SUBJECTS IN A FALSE HIERARCHY
38
CITATION OF SOURCES
40
THE IMPORTANCE OF CITATION
41
HOW TO CITE INFORMATION FROM OTHER SOURCES
42
5.2.1
Paraphrasing and summarizing
43
5.2.2
Direct Quotations
43
5.2.3
The choice between integral and non-integral citations
45
IN-TEXT CITATIONS
47
5.3.1
Source by multiple authors
49
5.3.2
Source with no author
50
3
5.3.3
Sources with no date
51
5.3.4
Distinguishing similar sources
51
5.3.5
General Information from a Website, Periodicals, Software etc.
52
THE LIST OF REFERENCES
6
54
5.4.1
Format for Reference List
54
5.4.2
Categories of sources
56
EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES
64
5.5.1
Periodicals
64
5.5.2
Books, Reference book, Book Chapters
65
5.5.3
Technical Reports, Annual Reports, Research Reports
66
5.5.4
Meetings and Symposia
67
5.5.5
Dissertation or Thesis References
67
5.5.6
Web Based Sources
68
MANUSCRIPT PRESENTATION
69
FORMAT REQUIREMENTS
69
6.1.1
Title (Cover) page
70
6.1.2
Abstract
71
6.1.3
Table of contents
72
6.1.4
Sections and Headings
73
6.1.5
Footnotes
76
FORMATTING OF TABLES AND FIGURES
77
ATTRIBUTION OF TABLES AND FIGURES
79
REVISING THE PAPER
80
6.4.1
Revising the content
80
6.4.2
Revising the style and tone
81
6.4.3
Revising the grammar, spelling and punctuation
82
EVALUATION
REFERENCES
84
85
4
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Types of purpose statements and associated papers
Table 2 Basic citation styles
18
53
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Stages of the writing process
Figure 2 Example of an Introduction from a first-year business student
Figure 3 Example of outline paragraphs in academic papers
Figure 4 Example of a paragraph with topic sentence, elaboration, and closure
Figure 5 Spatial elaboration example
Figure 6 Temporal elaboration example
Figure 7 Analytical elaboration example
Figure 8 Deductive elaboration example
Figure 9 Inductive elaboration example
Figure 10 Dialectical Elaboration example
Figure 11 Enumerational elaboration
Figure 12 Example of a conclusion paragraph
Figure 13 Examples of integral citations, non-integral citations, and direct quotations
Figure 14 Citation variations in a paraphrase
Figure 15 Direct quotation example
Figure 16 Explanation of alterations in direct quotations
Figure 17 Indented direct quote longer than 40 words
Figure 18 Example of non-integral citation at the end of a paragraph
Figure 19 Example of integral and non-integral citations
Figure 20 Title Page format
Figure 21 Example Table of Contents
Figure 22 Example of line spacing and layout
Figure 23 Format for five levels of Headings
Figure 24 Tables and figures from journal articles and books
9
16
20
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
34
42
43
44
44
45
46
46
70
72
75
76
80
5
PREFACE
FIRST EDITION (2002)
We have written this guide for you to help you on the way to becoming proficient in your
chosen field of economics or business administration. As you advance in your studies, you
will demonstrate your proficiency through the essays, papers, case reports, and other texts
that you write. Your writing is thus a marker of your relative expertise in your discipline. Yet,
it is also a means in itself. Writing helps you to organize your own ideas, discover the
strengths and weaknesses in your thinking, and internalize the knowledge you construct. We
hope this guide will help you on your way. Nevertheless, like all guides, it does not contain
everything. As Voltaire said, “the best way to be boring is to leave nothing out”. This guide
acts as a starter – it is up to you to go deeper.
Just as you will find with your writing assignments, we too have gone through the
writing process in the construction of this guide. We constructed a plan, consulted
numerous sources and people, wrote the text, revised it, and edited it, all the time trying to
keep it clear and simple. In putting together this guide, we have aimed to follow Ernest
Hemingway who said, “My aim is to put down on paper what I see and what I feel in the best
and simplest way.” We hope we have succeeded.
Henri Mennens, MSc
Robert Wilkinson, MSc
THIRD EDITION - REVISED (2020)
Since its first edition, this guide has been reworked to keep it up-to-date and to provide you
with more examples, and information on formatting requirements. The second edition,
produced in 2010, and subsequent revision, produced in 2016, included changes to chapter 2, 3
and 5. Chapter 4, the chapter on citation and referencing, was completely rewritten, formatting
requirements were introduced, and more examples were provided.
6
With the publication of the Seventh Edition of the APA Style Guide, this handbook has been
again revised and updated to reflect the modernizations to academic style and scientific
research and writing. There are two particularly notable additions to this edition; the first is
the inclusion of a chapter dedicated to examining and reducing bias in scientific research and
writing (Chapter 4) , and the second, are the updates to the citation style that were introduced
with APA 7 (Chapter 5). These updates reflect the APAs attempts at expanding and simplifying
the citation and referencing style, and include ever-more categories and examples.
There has also been a great deal of detail added to the formatting guidelines (Chapter 6), and
advice throughout on how to apply a scientific standard to your work. Following the advice
present in this guide will help your work progress to a higher standard and prepare you for
future academic success.
It is important to remember, though, that this guide does not contain everything. It is only
intended as an introduction, so you may have to do further research on certain aspects.
Furthermore, this guide only provides basic guidelines on grammar and punctuation as SBE
students are expected to have a good command of these aspects on entry. If you are unsure of
any of these items, you are advised to consult a good grammar book or a reputable writing site
on the internet.
Revised and updated by Rebecca Kumi and edited by Denise McAllister (2020, revised 3rd
Edition)
Note: If a Microsoft Word copy of this guide is required, please submit a request to Surf
Yourself.
7
Acknowledgements
This revised edition is merely an update of earlier editions and revisions, constructed by Bob
Wilkinson and Henri Mennens originally in 2002, revised by Keith Campbell in 2006, rewritten by
Bob Wilkinson and Jeannette Hommes in 2010 and revised again by Denise McAllister in 2016. We
are indebted to their work and effort. We gratefully acknowledge the people and sources that
have been consulted during the construction of this revised edition of the guide, especially the
Academic Writing tutors of the Language Centre for their input and the many students who
have made comments and suggestions based on their use of the earlier editions. Finally, thank
you to the American Psychological Association for their “Publication manual” (American
Psychological Association, 7th ed., 2020) and their blog, which were consulted in order to update
this revised edition of the guide.
8
1 INTRODUCTION
Academic writing covers the wide range of specific writing tasks that you are required to write
during the course of your academic studies. What they all have in common is a similar type of
reader: a person educated in the specialist field (here economics or business studies), and
usually acting as a professional in that field. These target readers represent the professional
community of which you aim to become a member. To be accepted as a member requires you
to meet the norms and standards that the professional community expects. Therefore, with
regard to writing, you are expected to adhere to the norms of the (international) academic
community.
A professional academic field has a set of overt norms, such as a style guide. This guide is based
on the editorial style requirements described in the seventh edition of the Publication Manual
of the American Psychological Association (2020). Alongside these is a set of covert norms that
are just as powerful. Examples of covert norms will be the nature of argumentation that is
considered acceptable in the field. Covert norms are hidden and therefore take a longer and
greater effort to acquire. Most novice writers acquire them through extensive reading in their
field, and by paying active attention to the use of language. This process of acquisition demands
close observation of how expert writers use words and expressions differently in different
types of text, e.g. in literature reviews or case studies in a single field (e.g. marketing).
Academic papers (and most other forms of academic writing) are typically expository or
argumentative. An expository or informative paper describes or explains a particular set of
phenomena, and provides an account of why these phenomena are found in one or more
specific situations or contexts. The goal of the expository paper is also to acquaint the reader
with a body of knowledge. An argumentative or persuasive paper must choose a side, make a
case for it, consider and refute alternative arguments, and prove to the undecided reader that
the opinion it presents is the best one. The author of an argumentative paper must be aware of
alternative positions and treat them fairly; dismissing them completely will weaken the paper’s
argument. It is always best to take a side that you believe in, preferably with the most
supporting evidence.
9
To develop a good academic paper you should go through a number of stages, called the
writing process. The following seven stages can be distinguished:
Figure 1. Stages of the writing process
1. Thinking stage
2. Research stage
3. Outline stage
Planning Process
}
4. Drafting stage
Transfer in a first draft output
5. Revising stage
6. Editing stage
}
7. Final version stage
Revising & editing
Final output
1. Thinking stage: In this stage you determine your topic area (which may of course
already be given), brainstorm about ideas on the topic, select, reject and focus those
ideas, before arriving at your final choice.
2. Research stage: Here you search for and study background literature and other
materials, analyse the results, draw your own conclusions and interpretations, etc.
3. Outline stage: In this stage you draft an outline of the paper you intend to write, setting
out your main aim or purpose in the paper (the purpose statement or thesis statement),
sketch how you will develop the points that follow from the purpose, and indicate how
you will conclude the paper.
4. Drafting stage: Here you put down on screen successively improved versions of your
paper.
5. Revising stage: In this stage you scan your work on a macro level for logical coherence,
checking whether you need to add or delete information, whether sections need
rephrasing for clarification.
6. Editing stage: Here you edit your text on a micro level, checking the grammar, spelling,
punctuation, in-text citations, references and the layout.
7. Final version stage: In this stage you set out the final paper neatly and clearly.
10
Writing a paper is recursive: you do not start at the beginning, and work through straight to the
end. Instead, you will be ‘backtracking’ or ‘looping’, so that as you are writing your first draft,
you may discover you need to add more information and have to return to the research stage.
This guide is organized as follows. Chapter 2 covers the planning process, describing the
construction of an outline that will ensure the strong, logical progression of your ideas. Chapter
3 focuses on the structuring of an academic paper; it provides a detailed look at all the
important elements, and elaborates on the expectations. Before the writing process can truly
begin, Chapter 4 provides guidelines for meeting the high level of rigor in academic writing,
which calls for respect and inclusivity with regard to research subjects. In particular, this
chapter names, and attempts to find solutions for, instances of bias in academic writing.
Chapter 5 explains the importance of citing sources and giving references, and provides
guidelines how to format them correctly in your paper. Finally, Chapter 6 concentrates on
finalizing the paper by discussing the format requirements, text revision and the evaluation of
the paper. The formatting and attribution (citation) requirements for tables and figures are also
outlined.
To conclude, this guide helps you master the process of academic writing, which you can
apply to the specific writing assignments during the course of your academic studies.
However, please keep in mind two things. First, each assignment will be different and require
a different organization. Second, writing is a skill; you only get better at a skill through regular
practice. For more information you should consult literature, especially the Publication
Manual of the American Psychological Association, which can be found with a great deal of
supporting information on the APA Style Guide Website. Websites such as the Purdue Online
Writing Lab (Purdue OWL) provide further resources for virtually all stages, and types of
academic writing.
Keep in mind that the writing process is not simply following a set of rules; try to develop
your own style, expertise and talent, in order to distinguish yourself. Good luck with your
writing career!
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2 THE PLANNING PROCESS
In order to get a good start to writing your paper, it is important that you pass
successfully through the planning process. This chapter describes the different activities
of the planning process and discusses the most important stage of the planning process:
the construction of an outline.
THE PLANNING ACTIVITIES
During the planning process, according to Hannay and Mackenzie (2002), you are
concerned with six major activities:
1. Generating ideas for the content. Ideas for content can come from several sources:
from your own knowledge, from discussions with other people, and from various
media sources (written texts, audio-visual media and electronic media).
Brainstorming techniques help you to generate ideas in the first two categories.
2. Selecting and classifying points. Here you are concerned with ordering your ideas.
Analyse them to determine the extent to which they are connected with each other.
Ideas and concepts that are highly connected are likely to form key points in your
texts. Those which are less closely connected may form essential supporting topics,
or may need to be abandoned. Some may require more development. Always be
prepared to get rid of ideas that prove not to be relevant to your argument.
3. Establishing your perspective. In this activity you need to decide what angle you are
going to take with your material. Are you taking a historical perspective, or only
discussing the present situation? Are you taking an objective position, or are you
bringing in your own personal standpoint? Are you taking a general viewpoint, or
only a specific case? Are you looking at the matter from your home country’s
perspective? Are you discussing a general issue or only a national situation?
4. Determining your intention. Now you need to consider what you want to do with the
text. Do you want to present both sides of an argument equally, or do you want to
present only one side? Do you need to give examples, or will your argumentation be
sufficient on its own? Do you want to persuade the reader of your opinion, or are
12
you only wishing to describe the matter? Do you want just to present a problem, or
do you want to offer solutions as well? What you are going to do with your text
must become very clear to the reader in the thesis statement: this statement directs
the readers to the purpose of the text.
5. Formulating a draft title, structuring the introduction and conclusion. Here you
should set down a working title and devise a draft structure for the introduction and
the conclusion. At this stage your drafting should only be provisional: you should
write the actual version only after you have written the body of the paper. This is
because you do need to know what your introduction is indeed introducing, and you
need to know what your conclusion is concluding. A useful rule of thumb is: Plan
your introduction, then your conclusion, and then your body, but write your body,
then your conclusion and then your introduction.
6. Drafting paragraph themes. At this stage, go back to the ideas (themes) you have
selected and classified. Now you have to decide which will be suitable for your text.
Each theme usually is the basis for a single paragraph. Each theme too will require
sufficient development; so do not try to include too many. As a rough guide, you
probably cannot treat adequately more than about 4 themes in a 1000-word paper
(roughly 3 pages), while a 2500-word paper (roughly 6 pages) will seem
overwhelming if it includes more than 9 or 10 themes. Once you have selected
your themes, list the points that you need to make to support the theme in the
paragraph.
THE OUTLINE
The goal of the outline is to help you organize your ideas, and present them in a logical
order. It serves to identify relationships between ideas; it allows you to see how related
ideas can be grouped, w hich ideas you can cut out, and which ideas need more support. A
good outline helps you to maintain the direction in your paper, and prevents you from
providing irrelevant information.
With an outline, you are able to see, and keep track continually, whether or not the logical
flow of your paper, as a whole or as individual sections, paragraphs, and even sentences, is
optimal. This is done by clearly stating the research question and purpose statement at the
13
top, and ensuring, at each level and sub level of your paper, that the information is not
simply related to the main purpose – but actually serves to support it. You will better be able
to make alterations to the order and presentation to ensure all relevant information is placed
in optimal order, making you work as clear and persuasive as possible.
Consider these six steps in the development of an outline:
1. Decide the purpose of your paper and the audience you are writing for.
2. Develop a statement in which you define the goal or purpose of your paper (commonly
called thesis statement). This clarifies what you are going to present or argue in the
paper. At this stage you may not have a definitive version of this statement.
3. List all the important points you want to handle in the paper. These points have to be
split in three main parts: the introduction, body, and conclusion.
a. The points in the introduction include the items that lead to the purpose or
thesis statement (background information), and a statement of the purpose or
goal that should now be defined precisely. When you are planning your paper,
you will group all your ideas around one central theme. This theme forms the
core of your purpose or thesis statement or research question.
b. The points in the body have to be logically organized so that they follow from
your purpose and lead towards the conclusion. In a larger paper (for example a
Master’s thesis), you usually develop a set of sub-questions, covering the points
that lead to an answer to the research question. By answering step by step the
different sub-questions in the body, you can draw a structured and well-founded
conclusion at the end. Ensure that all points considered for body paragraphs
support the statement of purpose as opposed to being only tangentially related.
c. The points in the conclusion include the summary of the facts that lead to an
answer to the statement or question you started with and the answer itself.
4. Categorize the points in the body under general headings so that you can identify which
points need more development (e.g. you have to do more reading) and which points are
not useful or relevant (delete these). Choose precise, concrete words for the headings:
avoid vague terms. Relate the headings to the purpose of your paper. If your paper is
describing a situation, you are more likely to choose noun structures for headings (for
14
example: Failure of Bretton Woods). If your paper is oriented to action, you may choose
verbal structures; typically -ing forms in English (for example: Reforming the auditor’s
duties).
5. Work out how one idea follows logically from the previous one. Note down how you will
make the transitions from point to point. This is a key step, but one that is often
underrated. Failure to think out the transitions in the planning stage can cost you more
time in the revising stage and may ultimately lead to poor readability.
6. Finally, look back at the whole outline, and check that you are satisfied that it all fits
together logically and conceptually. Now you are ready to start writing.
Outlines are generative. They are most useful if you modify them as you write in line with
new thoughts or information. Some of you may find that a simple, less detailed written
outline is sufficient – you may be very competent in holding the full structure in your
mind – but you may add more detailed points to the outline as you progress. Most of you,
however, find that a relatively detailed outline on paper is an effective reminder of what
the goal of your paper is and of what you have selected from the literature, and an
efficient guide to how far you have come.
15
3 STRUCTURING
This chapter focuses on the structure of your paper and any sections that you are expected to
include. While each type of paper you write may vary slightly, whether it’s a project report,
research paper or dissertation, there are sections which must be included in all papers: the
introduction, main body and conclusion. This chapter will provide details on the features of
each of these sections in addition to information regarding the formulation of your problem
definition, the organization of a paragraph, and writing coherently.
THE INTRODUCTION
The introduction has three functions, all of which must be present. First, it sets the context by
introducing the topic of your paper. This is called the background information and leads to the
second function: it specifies the purpose of the paper. Finally, the introduction contains a short
outline of how you are going to handle the aspects of your topic in the rest of the paper. Any
introduction in which one of these functions is missing is incomplete.
The length of the introduction varies from one paragraph to several pages, depending on the
total length of the paper. A useful rule of thumb is to think of an introduction as being about
one-eighth of the length of the whole text . However, length also depends on genre and context.
Typically, a literature review contains a very short introduction (much less than one-eighth),
whereas in some research articles the introduction may be much longer. If your readers are not
familiar with the context, more background information will have to be provided in the
introduction. Treat the one-eighth concept as a guideline, not as a straightjacket.
3.1.1 GENERAL BACKGROUND
The introduction prepares the readers for what will follow in the body of the paper. Thus, it
should orient the readers, and present enough background information so that the readers will
recognize that the body of your paper follows logically and coherently from the introduction you need to pay attention to what the reader can be expected to know already and what will be
new. Your introduction is more effective when it progresses from the known to the unknown or
general to specific (Figure 2).
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Figure 2. Example of an Introduction from a first-year business student
Title
Prediction markets and their applicability for organizational decision
making
1. Introduction
Background
information
(known 
less known,
general 
specific )
*be sure to
stay within
the bounds of
your chosen
purpose
statement
New
information
(topic)
Whether firms are successful or not depends to a great extent on their
decisions about new products. Therefore, top management has large
incentives to have as accurate information as possible on future demand and
success of new products. Usual methods of gathering this information include
customer surveys and expert opinions. Often, however, these approaches
are very inaccurate and misleading. In order to avoid problems linked to
the two methods mentioned above, firms came to think about whether or
not to make use of prediction markets as information gathering tools (Ho &
Chen, 2007).
Prediction markets, also known as information markets or future events
(Wolfers & Zitzewitz, 2004), are markets in which price is used as an
indicator of the probability that a certain event will occur in the future
(Manski, 2006). Market participants buy and sell contracts of the particular event they think will be likely to take place and they receive
Purpose of
paper
money when they betted correctly (Wolfers & Zitzewitz, 2004). This
paper investigates the question whether or not firms should engage in
prediction markets to make informed decisions.
Firstly, the paper explains some general aspects of prediction markets.
Outline
Secondly, it describes examples of this forecasting tool, focusing for
illustration on the Iowa Electronic Market and finally it compares benefits
and disadvantages of implementing prediction markets in businesses.
17
3.1.2 THE PURPOSE STATEMENT
The purpose statement is a vital component of academic papers. It marks the high point of the
introduction and is an explicit expression what your paper is expected to assert, explain,
support, or defend (Fulwiler & Hayakawa, 2000). The statement answers the questions the
critical reader has: “So what? Why does this paper exist? What’s it all about?”
In the literature on academic writing, you will meet the term ‘thesis statement’. Strictly
speaking, this is a type of purpose statement relevant to argumentative papers. In these papers,
you are advancing a claim (the thesis), and presenting the arguments (evidence) that
demonstrate whether the claim holds. An example of an argumentative paper is a position
paper in which you set out a particular theoretical position (opinion) based on arguments
(evidence).
Many papers that you write will not be essentially argumentative papers. You may often simply
be explaining a phenomenon or showing and analysing data. Sometimes, you may be answering
an exploratory question. However, all papers require a statement or question that neatly
summarizes what you are going to do in your paper (see Table 1).
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Table 1. Types of purpose statements and associated papers
Type of paper
Purpose
Explanation
Example
expressed as:
Argumentative
Thesis
You argue a proposition (claim). You
Government action to restrict the bonuses
paper
statement
present the arguments (evidence) for
paid to investment bankers is unwise
and against the claim, and decide
because it is harmful to the economy as a
whether the claim is supported or not.
whole.
Are poor people more generous than rich
Experimental
Research
You start with a question about a
paper
question;
phenomenon, and devise one or more people?
hypothesis
hypotheses that you will test in your
research. Your experimental paper
reports the results.
Exploratory
data analysis
Poor people will give a larger percentage of a
monetary gift to poor people than rich people
will.
How much do students know about financing
Research
You conduct a survey or a series of
question
interviews, for example, but do not have small and medium-sized businesses?
an explicit hypothesis before you start.
You have a research question, but do
not know in advance what the answers
may be.
Or:
This paper explores the knowledge students
have about the financing of …
Literature or
Purpose
Your goal is to examine what has
This paper reviews recent experimental
practice review
statement
been researched previously or what
research into the principal-agent relationship.
article
practices are used in particular
business or economics.
Expository
paper
Purpose
Your goal is to explain a phenomenon This paper examines whether the economic
statement or and to inform readers about it. Your
grounds for approving the merger were
question
sound.
paper will mainly be presenting facts
(evidence), although you may include
some opinions, especially regarding
OR:
your conclusions. However, your main Were the economic grounds for approving
focus is not on opinions.
the merger sound?
Case study
Thesis
Your goal is to analyse the case and
The European Commission was justified in
statement or draw a conclusion. You may present
fining the lift manufacturers as their cartel
purpose
your purpose as a thesis statement
had distorted competition and reduced
statement
(proposition), which you will argue in consumer welfare.
the paper (see Argumentative paper
above).
You may decide not to argue a claim
beforehand but just rely on the
evidence to lead you to a conclusion.
OR:
This paper investigates whether the European
Commission was justified in fining the lift
manufacturers.
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Structure of a Purpose Statement
A purpose statement includes three integral parts: the topic, the purpose and the scope. The
scope makes a commitment to the reader and creates expectations that help guide the
reader through your work. It also points the way forward to the conclusions that you will
draw at the end of the paper. The purpose statement is, characteristically, a generalization
usually in one sentence (sometimes more): it summarizes the topic and purpose of your text
which is then supported and developed throughout the rest of the paper. Purpose statements
are effective when they conform to one or more of the following criteria:
1. Imply rather than state that the discussion will follow.
Any decision to place restrictions on the free movement of capital should follow from a careful
consideration of the pros and cons of the freedoms enshrined in the European Union.
2. Use conditional constructions, to make effective, suggestive purpose statements:
If the West were to consider its long-term interests, its leaders would appreciate the need to
become more active in dialogue with popular movements in North Africa and the Middle East.
3. Use a question form, if that helps make your purpose statement more striking. It also
implies a more balanced, neutral assessment of the topic. This style applies more to
expository papers.
Should the common agricultural policy be scrapped before new countries accede to the European
Union?
4. Do not personalize the purpose statement: personal preferences do not entice the
reader to read further.
5. Do not present a statement of fact or definition in your purpose statement: such
statements leave no room for expansion.
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3.1.3 THE OUTLINE SECTION OF THE INTRODUCTION
The final part of the introduction contains a short outline that describes how you are going
to answer the purpose statement, and how you are going to handle the aspects of your
topic in the rest of the paper. This part actually describes the (remaining) structure of the
paper. Figure 3, illustrates the short outline that comes after the related background
information and the specification of the purpose statement:
Figure 3. Example of outline paragraphs in academic papers
Note: The upper box illustrates a theoretical structure, the lower box an actual example.
Adapted from “ Ripoffs, lemons, and reputation formation in agency relationships: A laboratory
market study”, by Dejong, D.V., Forsythe, R., & Lundholm, R.J., 1985 The Journal of Finance,
40(3), 809-820.
21
With specific regard to larger papers (such as a thesis), the introduction may well form a
short chapter in its own right; the outline is then expanded to a whole section, In this section
you will indicate the contents of each chapter of your larger paper. The outline of your
paper, described in the introduction, shows the reader the path that leads to the final answer to
the research question, by concisely describing the contents of each chapter. In the outline
you mention each of the chapters indicating first what sub-question is going to be answered
and why (clearly linking the previous step to the next step in answering the thesis statement
so the reader can follow the line of the story) and also what issues will be dealt with.
3.1.4 THE ORGANIZATION OF PARAGRAPHS IN THE INTRODUCTION
Although the organization of paragraphs is discussed in section 2.3, special attention has to be
paid to the construction of an introductory paragraph, which contains the background
information, the purpose statement, and the outline. T opic sentences in the introductory
paragraph especially demand great care. The topic sentence, usually the first sentence of a
paragraph, tells the reader what the paragraph is about. In the introductory paragraph the
topic sentence represents the starting point for your readers, and can attract or repel them!
The following list specifies some good guidelines for topic sentences in introductory
paragraphs:
1. Make sure your first sentence is fairly uncontroversial – you do not want to alienate or
irritate those readers who may disagree with you. It should be general enough to be
relatable, but still closely connected to your purpose.
2. Make sure the topic sentence of the introductory paragraph is relatively ‘timeless’; that
is, it should not be directly linked to the time of writing. You cannot always know
when a reader is going to be reading the text. General time expressions like in recent
years or in the last years of the twentieth century can be freely used, but do not use
expressions like nowadays, last year, last week, this month, yesterday, etc.
22
3. Although the topic sentence of the introduction occurs immediately under the title,
the convention is that the introduction should always be seen as a ‘ fresh start’. Do
not make the topic sentence simply a reformulation of the title.
4. Do not make the topic sentence depend on the title for its interpretation: as a rule, the
first sentence should not refer back to the title. A ‘fresh start’ requires you do not
assume the content of the title page or abstract form a part of the contextual knowledge
of your reader when you begin the introduction.
Elaboration sentences explain or exemplify the topic stated in the topic sentence (see
Section 2.4). The purpose of the elaboration sentences in an introductory paragraph is to
contextualize the topic and to indicate the perspective from which it is viewed.
Contextualizing means providing sufficient background for your argument to unfold. This
may concern simple matters of time and place. But note the following points:

Readers will assume you are writing about the present unless you clearly indicate
otherwise.

Readers of texts in English will assume the texts refer to the English-speaking
environment unless you specifically indicate otherwise. Make sure, for instance, that
specific references to a German, Dutch or Spanish context are clear for nonGerman, non-Dutch or non-Spanish readers.
Perspective concerns the angle you wish to adopt for your subject. For example, if you are
writing about the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), you should
indicate your perspective on the topic. Do you approach the topic of the EBRD from a
purely economic standpoint, or from a socio-political point of view?

In the elaboration, especially in short papers, you will often have to indicate the
areas of the topic that you cannot cover in the text. Preferably, do this by
focusing on what you will be dealing with, rather than going on at length about
things you will not discuss.

An expression like of particular interest enables you to focus on the topic you are
dealing with, but at the same time implies that there are other aspects which are,
for current purposes, of less interest.
23
THE BODY SECTIONS
The middle part of the paper, or body, is the meat in the sandwich. In order to organise the
body, choose specific numbered headings that relate to the different sections you mention in
the short outline of the introduction. Then, define the different subsections and related
headings to finalize the structure of the body. Too many headings in a short paper do not help
the readability of your paper; on the contrary, they appear as a series of unconnected chunks of
information and give the impression of an unfinished set of notes.
The body must logically follow from the purpose statement, and you must develop the points
adequately and sufficiently to elaborate, support or refute your purpose statement. The body
must be organized under clear content-relevant headings: never use the term ‘body’ as a label
for the section in your papers as it is simply an abstract term used to refer to this part of the
paper. The content in the body must be written in clear, logical paragraphs, which are well
connected both each other in succession, and the overall purpose of the paper.
Ideally, your paragraphs will only contain one topic each, and will correspond with your
outline. To this point, it may be necessary to spilt longer paragraphs into their sub-topics.
When doing so, ensure that each of the new paragraphs is internally consistent: that is, they
each have topic sentences and adequate elaboration. Further, ensure the relationship between
the new paragraphs is evident. Use appropriate connecting phrases and words.
Similarly, the flow of your paper may require you to join shorter paragraphs together. The
same considerations apply – formulate a single topic sentence that encompasses the topic of
the new paragraph. Make sure the supporting evidence remains directly related to your new
topic and that it is cohesive. Aim to ensure that your paragraphs are well-balanced in length.
Where necessary, the content should be supported by exhibits (figures, tables, charts,
photographs, etc.) which are referred to in the text first before it appears on the page. Ensure
that you explain the important features of the exhibit in the text – do not leave your readers to
work it out for themselves, for they could well draw different conclusions.
The body of a paper is usually the largest, approximately three-quarters of the total length. In
most papers that you will write for your studies, you will need to indicate the different sections
24
of the middle part by giving appropriate subheadings. In very short papers (i.e., 500 words),
however, you do not need to use subheadings for the different sections.
The direction you take in the body of your paper will be determined by the approach you have
adopted. This indicates the overall organizing principle of your paper. For example, a paper on
the historical origins of the European monetary union is likely to be controlled by a
chronological structure. Each paragraph will deal with events in clearly delimited periods of
history. In contrast, if your perspective in a similar paper on the origins of the European
monetary union is from an analysis of the banking system, you may adopt an opposition
structure. In this case, you may contrast the different approaches to EMU taken by various
banking authorities and specify these in separate paragraphs. A third organizing principle is
that of relative strength, where you are asserting a particular claim (in your purpose
statement) and you then order the pieces of evidence in terms of their strength. This may apply
to a paper in which you assert that countries with booming economies should increase
taxation.
THE ORGANIZATION OF A PARAGRAPH
Paragraphs are not the same as sections. Papers are divided into sections, and a section is
organized into paragraphs. Paragraphs are the organizing units of writing, indicating which
ideas go together and how they relate to each other. Good paragraphing gives readers clues to
how to read your paper. Moreover, the visual impact of paragraphs on the page or screen helps
show the reader when you have moved on to the next step in your ideas. Readers expect your
paragraphs to be unified – that is, each paragraph discusses one main issue. They also expect
your paragraphs to be well organized – in that the development of the ideas follows a clear
order. Finally they expect your paragraphs to be coherent – so that each sentence logically
follows from the previous ones, in advancing and supporting the topic of the paragraph. Always
ask yourself: how does this paragraph fit in the whole paper?
The paragraph starts with the so-called topic sentence, and subsequently, treats the issue in a
series of linked sentences: the elaboration. The high point of the paragraph comes at the end,
the closure, which concludes the paragraph or a transition to the next point. If you do not fulfil
these three components of a paragraph, you leave your reader with a feeling of incompleteness
25
and dissatisfaction. Avoid using one-sentence paragraphs. The one-sentence paragraph is a
technique that should, as a rule, not occur in a paper. It is a technique of informal writing, emails, webpages, manuals, guides, correspondence and of some types of popular journalism,
but, with rare exceptions, has very limited place in academic writing.
The topic sentence
The foundation of every paragraph is of course the initial sentence, the topic sentence. This
sentence has two functions. First, it announces the topic of the paragraph, i.e. what the rest of
the paragraph will deal with. A paragraph will be internally coherent if all sentences in that
paragraph fall under the scope of the topic sentence. Secondly, it relates the paragraph to the
surrounding text, especially to the preceding material. The topic sentence helps the writer and
the readers to grasp the issues (the topic) being discussed in the paragraph (Figure 4). When
you check your work, you can quickly see whether information in the sentences of the
paragraph are all related to the topic, or whether some information needs to be deleted or
moved to a different paragraph, or even whether a paragraph needs splitting in two.
Figure 4. Example of a paragraph with topic sentence, elaboration, and closure
Topic Sentence
Elaboration
Closure
Third, the Internet has made it relatively easy for researchers to conduct
field experiments. The earliest example we know of is work by LuckingReiley (1999), who examined how differences in auction rules affected the
revenue raised by the auctioning of hundreds of items (in his case trading
cards) over the Internet. Such experiments have the advantage of allowing
researchers to examine the behavior of real market participants rather than,
say, college undergraduates given artificial incentives. Furthermore, Reiley’s
experiments were inexpensive to conduct. The sub sequent growth of eBay
has made auction experiments even easier to carry out. Some interesting
examples are Lucking-Reiley and Katkar (2000), Hossain and Morgan
(2003) and Bajari and Hortacsu (2003). To our knowledge, economists using
the Internet to run field experiments have so far limited themselves to the
study of auctions. We imagine, however, that in the future, economists
may build their careers by running experiments in different settings. For
example, one could set up and operate a number of “competing” websites
selling similar products. Existing retailers already take advantage of the
mutability of websites to experiment with different prices, product mixes or
look-and-feels. Such experimentation could be a powerful tool for
estimating characteristics of demand and testing models of consumer
decision making
26
The elaboration and closure
The largest part of the paragraph is the elaboration of the topic sentence, the part of the
paragraph that offers the most information. The final sentence is the closure. It may be
explicitly linked to the topic sentence, but is never a mere restatement (see Figure 4 above).
Rather, it serves to either state the point, make clear the cognitive gain of the paragraph and
can sometimes point ahead to the topic sentence of the next paragraph. We can distinguish
seven different types of elaboration (Hannay and Mackenzie, 2002), depending on the
communicative goal of the paragraph.
Spatial elaboration is found in paragraphs whose goal is to describe the spatial configuration of
things and places. Such paragraphs typically have a topic sentence that introduces the location,
which elaborates on the area being depicted, and a closure sentence that identifies a
particularly important point in the ensuing text. However this type is not common in academic
writing, but is found in companies’ annual reports (Figure 5).
Figure 5. Spatial elaboration example
Topic
sentence
(Location)
Elaboration
(areas
within
location)
Topic
sentence
(Location)
Elaboration
(areas
within
location)
Zone Americas had sales of CHF 32.2 billion. Organic growth was 6.5% and
RIG was 2.8%, above the level achieved in 2008. The EBIT margin increased
by 20 basis points to 16.8%, reflecting the benefits of the strong growth and mix.
In North America, petcare, ambient dairy, soluble coffee and chocolate
performed particularly well. Overall, North America achieved higher RIG than
in 2008. In Latin America, Brazil achieved double- digit organic growth and
there were good contributions also from Mexico and the other regions. By
category, there were strong performances from most categories in Latin
America, with chocolate, soluble coffee, ambient culinary, petcare, biscuits
and powdered and ready-to-drink beverages all achieving double digit organic
growth.
Zone Europe had sales of CHF 22.5 billion. Organic growth was 0.3% and RIG
was – 0.9%. The EBIT margin was unchanged at 12.4%. This was a resilient
EBIT margin performance during a year in which marketing spend increased
noticeably. Great Britain, France and Switzerland achieved good growth.
Amongst the categories there was strong growth in petcare, soluble coffee,
powdered beverages and sugar confectionery. Eastern Europe achieved midsingle digit organic growth despite the tough economic environment in many
countries. Soluble coffee, ambient culinary and powdered beverages all
contributed well.
27
Note: From Annual Report 2009, by Nestle S.A. 2010, http://www.nestle.com/R esou rce.axd?Id=585 80 6D1BC 1B-4 04 B-A0 3F-F 7A68A6 8F 43 6
Temporal elaboration is used where various pieces of historical evidence are cited for the claim
made in the topic sentence (Figure 6). Just as the body as a whole should show chronological
sequencing, so the paragraph should give the succession of events in the order of their actual
occurrence in time. The closure sentence should present the historical high point of the time
period under discussion.
Figure 6. Temporal elaboration example
Topic sentence
Another key dynamic concerns the make-up of the Council itself, and its
(claim)
progressive enlargement. It is certainly the case that both the 1973 and
1995 enlargements – which brought the UK, Denmark, Ireland, Sweden,
Finland and Austria into the mix – tended to pull the EU in a ‘northern’
direction. If so, both the 1980 and 1986 enlargements, bringing in Greece,
Chronological
Spain and Portugal, pulled the Council in a southern direction (but again,
sequencing
note that ‘northern’ or ‘southern’ votes are far from a sure thing). The
2004 enlargement, which took the EU from fifteen to twenty-five
members, by contrast was a rather balanced package. Countries as
different as Poland, Estonia, the Czech Republic and Cyprus map pretty
Closure
well on to the existing balance of trade policy interests in the Council,
and have not significantly tilted the balance one way or the other except
perhaps on is- sues relating to Russia, for obvious reasons.
Note: From “EU trade politics – heaven or hell? “ by Baldwin, M., 2007, Journal of European Public
Policy, 13(6), 926-942.
28
Analytical elaboration occurs where the topic sentence presents a generalization and the
following sentences serve to particularize, exemplify or specify that generalization. After a
topic sentence such as: all the major religions of the world have underrated the potential of
their female adherents, the elaboration sentences would then provide examples of how
this applies to each of the world’s most important religions. The closure sentence would
both add more detail to the topic sentence and link in naturally with a following
paragraph. Analytical elaboration does not necessarily entail a closure sentence (Figure 7).
Figure 7. Analytical elaboration example
Topic sentence
Economists have long noted that trading activity can be strikingly
(generalization)
concentrated. In medieval Europe, people would travel hundreds of
miles to trade fairs to buy a year’s provisions (Walford, 1883). When
Daniel Defoe (1724 [1986], pp. 102–104) visited the annual
Particularizations
Sturbridge Fair in 1723 (over 500 years after it started), he was amazed
(support for the
to find a half mile square field full of “goldsmiths, toyshops, braziers,
generalization)
turners, milliners, haberdashers, hatters, mercers, drapers, pewterers,
china-warehouses, and in a word all the trades that can be named in
London,” as well as vast wholesale trade in woollens, hops, etc., and
Note: the example
wondered “… why this fair should be thus, of all other places in
could also be
England, the centre of that trade; and so great a quantity of so bulky a
viewed as
commodity be carried thither so far.” In the modern world, great fish
temporal
markets like New York’s Fulton fish market and Tokyo’s Tsukiji are
elaboration
similar phenomena. Stock exchanges are another well-known example
of the agglomeration of trade.
Note: From “Lessons about markets from the Internet” by Ellison, G., & Ellison, S.F. 2005, Journal
of Economic Perspectives, 19(2), 139-158.
29
Deductive elaboration is found where the topic sentence tends to make an assertion that has
some obvious validity and the elaboration develops the logical consequences of that assertion
(Figure 8). For example, a topic sentence like: language is a vital tool of human
communication, would be followed by elaboration sentences such as: any study of language
must therefore take account of its role in communication. The closure of the paragraph takes
the form of a conclusion to the argument presented in the elaboration: it follows that every
effort should be made to elaborate a functional theory of language.
Figure 8. Deductive elaboration example
Topic sentence
(assertion)
Turning from the process to the dynamics of EU trade politics, I would
argue that far too much is simplistically made of the differences in the
Council between the ‘northern liberals’ and the ‘Club Med’
protectionists. Indeed, these labels themselves have tended to enshrine
the view of ‘camps’. The reality is different. Italy and other southern
Evidence
member states can be vociferously ‘liberal’, particularly with regard to
sectors where they have strong commercial interests. The Netherlands or
the UK can equally be vociferously ‘protectionist’ in defence of their own
suppliers of cut flowers or salmon. It is true that France and a number of
other member states fear that reform of the common agricultural policy
Closure
(conclusion)
(CAP) has gone too far, too fast, while Sweden and others would like to
abolish the CAP tomorrow. Yet, these distinctions are rarely a good
guide to predicting how the Council will react on a given issue on a
given day.
Note: From “EU trade politics – heaven or hell? “ by Baldwin, M., 2007, Journal of European Public
Policy, 13(6), 926-942.
30
Inductive elaboration, by contrast, occurs when the topic sentence makes some claim, the
validity of which is not immediately obvious, and the subsequent elaboration presents evidence
to support the claim. A topic sentence such as: the world is a safer place today than it has ever
been, would be followed by elaboration sentences such as: the Soviet Union, the major
threat to world peace, no longer exists. The closure sentence offers a (typically positive)
evaluation of the evidence (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Inductive elaboration example
Topic
Thus, in countries with a highly independent CB, the monetary authority
sentence
leans against inflationary wage increases by contracting money growth
(claim)
in response to wage inflation. Casual evidence about the industrial
organization of labor negotiations in Germany as well as recent
empirical evidence concerning monetary policy reaction functions
Evidence
supports the theoretical discussion above. Studies on industrial
relations in Germany, such as Berghan and Detlev (1987) and Streek
(1994), report that the Bundesbank often threatened to tighten monetary
policy in response to excessive wage settlements. Hall (1994,
p. 12) and Hall and Franzese (1998) note that, due to the high level of
Closure
independence of the Bundesbank, labor unions usually took this threat
(evaluation)
seriously but that, from time to time, the German CB actually
tightened monetary policy in response to high wage settlements in
order to maintain its credibility. This view is corroborated by
empirical evidence in Cukierman, Rodriguez and Webb (1998).
Note: From “Monetary institutions, monopolistic competition, unionized labor markets and
economic performance” by Coricelli, F., Cukierman, A., & Dalmazzo, A. 2006, Scandinavian Journal
of Eco- nomics, 108(1), 39-63.
31
Dialectical elaboration involves presenting two sides of an argument in one paragraph.
The topic sentence (plus possibly one or two further sentences) advances the proposition to
be discussed, the elaboration offers the counter-argument (Figure 10). Finally, the closure
sentence can then contain the synthesis of the two; a resolution of the opposition that
preserves something of both sides of the argument. For example, a paragraph might begin:
many people consider that the high fees charged by medical specialists are contributing to the
difficulties being experienced in financing health care. After a couple of sentences amplifying
this side of the argument, you can switch to the counter-argument: it must be conceded,
however, that these specialists have invested many years of their lives in attaining their high
degree of expertise and moreover incur many expenses that are not immediately visible to
outsiders. Again after a couple of sentences elaborating the counter-argument, the closure
synthesizes both viewpoints: the answer lies in moderating the fees, but also in making
visible the hidden expenses with a view to reducing them and maintaining the specialists’
standard of living.
Figure 10. Dialectical Elaboration example
Topic
Our experiments have shown that fairness concerns may have
Argument A
important consequences for the optimal provision of incentives. Incentive
contracts that are optimal when there are only selfish actors perform less
Transition (on
well when some agents are concerned about fairness. On the other hand,
the other
implicit bonus contracts that cannot work when all actors are selfish
hand)
provide powerful incentives and become superior when there are also fair-
Argument B
minded players. Our results indicate that the principals understand that
fairness matters and predominantly choose the superior bonus contract
Closure
that relies on fairness as an enforcement device.
Note: From “Fairness and contract Design” by Fehr, E., Klein, A., & Schmidt, K.M. 2007
Econometrica, 75(1), 121-154.
32
Enumerational elaboration, finally, is encountered in those paragraphs in which the topic
sentence serves merely to quantify the points that are to be made in the elaboration
(Figure 11). After a topic sentence like: there are five arguments in favour of abolishing
capital punishment in the USA, the elaboration must then contain exactly five distinct
arguments against the preservation of capital punishment. Enumerational paragraphs often
lack a closure sentence. If they do have one, then it usually picks out some justification for
presenting the various arguments in combination: these arguments, taken together, call for
an immediate implementation of a ban on capital punishment.
Figure 11. Enumerational elaboration
Topic sentence
There has been considerable discussion about the price and quality of
(quantification)
services provided within certain principal-agent relationships. For
example, the Securities and Exchange Commission and Congress have
Elaboration
focused a great deal of attention on the price and quality of outside audit
(examples of
services to investors. The Securities and Exchange Commission and the
the point made
Department of Justice have considered the regulation of investment
in the topic
banking contracts because of their concern over the price and level of
sentence)
services provided. Finally, a large and growing literature has focused
attention on the conflict between owners and managers and the problem of
shirking by managers.
Note: From “Ripoffs, lemons, and reputation formation in agency relationships: A laboratory market
study” by Dejong, D.V., Forsythe, R., & Lundholm, R.J. 1985, The Journal of Finance, 40(3), 809-820.
THE DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Many papers you will write need to be concluded with a section called Conclusion, Discussion,
or Discussion and conclusions. In papers where you present empirical or experimental data in
the middle part, you usually discuss your results in the Discussion. In argumentative papers,
your argument is in the middle part of your paper, so you need a Conclusion section. The same
applies to most literature reviews and theoretical papers.
33
A paper must close with an effective conclusion. The conclusion finally provides the answer to
the purpose statement. In longer papers, the answer to your research question may be
presented over several paragraphs. In short papers, the conclusion may be a single paragraph.
The concluding paragraph is organized in the following way.
The topic sentence of a concluding paragraph must serve as notice that the body is over and the
conclusions are about to be drawn. Note that the signaling words ‘so’, ‘however’, and ‘therefore’
are too weak to signal the change from body to conclusion. Other signals, such as to conclude or
to sum up are clear, but may be too explicit. Adverbs such as clearly, arguably, undoubtedly
seem to work best. In longer papers, indicate the conclusion with a clear heading.
The elaboration of the conclusion should cover three functions in the following order: first, a
summary should been given of what has been presented in the middle part (body). This
summary leads to the second function, the answer to, or present the resolution of, the purpose
statement. Finally, you should indicate your own interpretation of the conclusion: this is your
judgement or opinion, but aim to ex- press it in a non-personal way.
The final sentence should be striking and memorable, and so end the paper on a
communicatively important and positive note. It should not depend for its interpretation on the
preceding sentences. It should stimulate the reader to think further. So, take care that the
conclusion ends strongly (Figure 12).
As a useful guide, the conclusion should comprise about one-eighth of the whole text; thus in a
500-word paper the conclusion should not be more than about 60-70 words, i.e. one single
paragraph, usually without a heading. In a larger paper (e.g. 2500 words), the conclusion may
consist of several paragraphs. In a Master’s thesis, for example, it will form a separate chapter.
34
Figure 12. Example of a conclusion paragraph
5. Conclusion
Prediction markets have enormous benefits for an organizational decision of
a product launch. They predict future demand and success of goods more
accurately than consumer surveys and they outperform expert opinions in
Summary
most cases. They are less costly than meetings and allow more employees
to participate and reveal their true opinion. Additionally, pre- diction
markets encourage group learning by publishing the beliefs of all members
Answer to
and they always show the latest movement in the forecasting process.
purpose
Nevertheless, prediction markets cannot be used at all times and in every
statement
organization. When implementing this method, firms have to consider
certain aspects such as the number of their employees and how to motivate
them to participate successfully in the prediction market. Furthermore, it is
important to ensure that the sources of information are independent and
different form each other and that the members of the pre-diction market
only trade to make money. In conclusion, if firms have taken these
conditions into account and have eliminated potential problems, they
should engage into prediction markets to make best informed decisions.
Note: the writer’s opinion is expressed impersonally and merged with the answer to the purpose
statement (see also Figure 3).
35
4 REDUCTION OF BIAS IN ACADEMIC WRITING
It is important to remember that the purpose of academic writing is not only to inform and
engage readers with your topic, but to engage with the wider academic community in your
field. Academic writing is a conversation between you, the authors that support and refute
your claims, as well as the readers of your work.
As such, issues of academic style, tone and register go beyond the basic requirements of
formality and structure; participating in academic discourse through academic writing includes
ensuring your tone and register are free from bias. Being bias free entails ensuring the nonprejudicial and fair treatment of the subjects of academic research – after all, research in the
social sciences is meant to inform and contribute to society as a whole. It requires accounting
for implied or irrelevant evaluations of people and groups, and striving for greater sensitivity
concerning how our language choices might impact individuals from different identities,
orientations, and statuses. Ultimately, it means writing in a way that reflects respect for your
subjects, participants, potential readers, and the wider community.
The following sub-sections will provide some guidance on how to reduce constructions in your
language that may imply prejudicial beliefs or perpetuate biased assumptions. The first step
towards this is to consciously choose words that accurately represent who or what you are
describing, and to use an appropriate level of specificity.
FOCUSING ON RELEVANT CHARACTERISTICS
First, it is important to understand that, even as we seek to reduce bias, failing to recognize
differences that exist between us may also be a source of bias. If we take for example a
discussion concerning governmental policies on poverty reduction, it is presumable that
including the socio-economic status of the subjects would be necessary. However, particular
outcomes of governmental policies are likely to impact individuals differently based on their
age, gender, race or ethnicity, region or another attribute. Provided it is still within the scope of
the purpose of your paper, not accounting for these differences would be a disservice to those
individuals not represented, as well as to the quality of your academic research.
36
Equally so, reducing bias in your work also calls for the careful inclusion of only those
descriptors and characteristics that are relevant to the discussion at hand. Although it is
possible to write about sensitive topics, or about the identities of others that do not reflect our
own in an unbiased way, we can reduce the possibility of bias by only including the necessary
information. For example, unless it is germane to the analysis you are conducting, be cautious
about whether including information on subject’s sexual orientation, religious background,
disability status etc. is necessary. Accuracy in academic writing also entails not over-reporting.
USING AN APPROPRIATE LEVEL OF SPECIFICITY
Gone are the times when we would use the term ‘man’ to refer to all humans, and we now
accept that academic register prefers ‘individuals’, ‘persons’ or ‘people’. We understand the
formative power of language and the capacity of such generalizations to exclude other gender
identities. As a rule, researchers should seek to be more specific than not in their writing.
Consider the terms you choose based on the boundaries of your research question, and the
present trends and state of the knowledge in the field. A conscious evaluation of specificity in
language will help your reader assess the generalizability of your findings, and aid other
researchers in using or replicating your findings.
One exception to this is the use of third person pronouns, where the norm tends towards
greater generalization. The reason for this is because using ‘one’ as the generic third-person
pronoun is not common in English academic writing; however, using ‘he’ or ‘she’ as a
replacement is exclusionary and most often irrelevant. Instead, it is acceptable to replace ‘he’
and ‘she’ with the singular ‘they’ in place of the third-person pronoun. See subsection 6.4.2. for
more.
Here are some general guidelines to help you make that evaluation:

When writing about age, consider including more specific age ranges (e.g. 15-18 year
olds, 65-80 year olds) rather than vague categories such as ‘under 18 years’ and ‘over
18 years’.
37

When writing about disability, names of specific conditions (e.g. Alzheimer’s) are
preferred above categories of conditions (e.g. dementia) or simply using ‘people with
disabilities.’

When writing about gender identity, descriptors with modifiers (e.g. cisgender woman)
are more specific than those without (e.g. woman).

When writing about research, use terms such as ‘subjects’, ‘patients’, or ‘participants’,
rather than generalizing outside of the study to ‘children’, ‘people’, or ‘men’.

When writing about racial and ethnic groups or origins, be as specific as your research
topic will allow by using terms like ‘African American’ ‘Afro-Caribbean’ rather than
‘Black’. Consider whether terms such as ‘LatinX’ better describe individuals in your
research than ‘Latino’.

When writing about sexual orientation, write the names of specific orientations (e.g.
lesbian people, bi-sexual people) rather than maintaining the unbalanced and imprecise
dichotomy of heterosexual vs. homosexual or ‘gay’.

When writing about socio-economic status, provide specific income ranges where
appropriate, rather than generalizing groups as ‘low-income’, ‘working class’, or ‘middle
class’.
USING SENSITIVITY WITH LABELS
Below are some guidelines to help increase sensitivity towards the use of labels in English
academic writing. However, these guidelines should not be taken as definitive. You must
continually seek and use, as much as is possible, the descriptive words and labels that
individuals and groups would choose for themselves. Labels may change over time, and there is
likely to be disagreement within groups; it is important to make a concerted effort towards
determining what is appropriate for your paper. Do research, ask questions, and use labels
consciously.
A concerted effort with regard to avoiding bias in identity labels will include directing attention
to two main issues: acknowledging the humanity of the research subjects, and avoiding false
hierarchies.
38
ACKNOWLEDGING HUMANITY OF RESEARCH SUBJECTS
When we acknowledge the humanity of the subjects of our research, we redraw a connection to
our subjects that may be easily lost in the formality of research and academic writing. We
strive to present subjects accurately with respect to their individuality and humanity, rather
than as inanimate objects or numbers in a data set. To do so, choose labels with sensitivity and
avoid using nouns for words that should be expressed as adjectives. For instance, choose such
phrasing as ‘gay men’ over ‘the gays’. Further, try to incorporate descriptive phrasing such as
‘people living in poverty’, ‘people living with disability’, or ‘ those experiencing symptoms of
depression’. Such phrasing follows a ‘person-first’ structure to description that places the focus
on the individual over a condition or status.
AVOIDING PLACING RESEARCH SUBJECTS IN A FALSE HIERARCHY
With regard to the avoidance of false hierarchies, we must accept that that our own (often
culturally defined) biases are often exposed through the comparison of individuals and groups.
Take care to compare subjects in a manner that limits assumptions about who is considered
the ‘standard’ against which others will be compared. This includes attention to language that
may present some individuals as ‘normal’, ‘natural’, ‘healthy’ or ‘developed’ and others as thus
inherently ‘abnormal’ ‘deviant’ or ‘diseased’. Even where such dichotomies are not your
intention, such connotations may be derived from your choice of words.
Be aware that the order of presentation of social groups may also imply that the first
mentioned group is the standard to which the others may be deemed acceptable or not. For
instance, the phrase ‘White people and racial minorities’ is dismissive of BIPOC people (Black,
Indigenous and People of Colour) in comparison to a so-called White ‘majority’. Similarly, in
graphs representing comparisons, placing White people on the left hand side of the graph, or at
the top of a top, may imply that White people are the universal standard. Consider instead to
order groups based on alphabetical order or sample size. Remember that racial and ethnic
origins are proper nouns and are capitalised.
39
Although it may seem obvious, avoid all judgmental terms, or terms that may be considered
disparaging to the individual. These phrases may find their way into your academic writing
particularly when some members of the groups themselves use the phrase, or when a slang
term has become part of the common vernacular. Further, phrases such as ‘confined to a
wheelchair’ or ‘meth addict’ imply restriction and finality in a way that limits the humanity of
the individual. Choose instead to use the ‘person-first’ structure introduced above.
Similarly, avoid descriptors such as ‘less developed’ or ‘unskilled labour’ when speaking of
socioeconomic status, and terms such as ‘slums’ ‘the ghetto’, or ‘urban’ to describe specific
living circumstances. Please note that the term ‘Third World’ is an outdated and offensive
phrase. The IMF currently uses the terms ‘Advanced Economies’, ‘Emerging Markets’ and
‘Developing Economies’; however, based on the discussion that has preceded, you may already
sense that this is insufficient for eliminating bias. The term ‘developing nations’, for the time
being, is considered a better alternative than ‘third world’; however, be conscious of the fact
that even the word ‘developing’ suggests that there is one linear conception of ‘development’
and that Western Nations are one end, while all others are behind. Consider classifying
countries more precisely within their regions, or by other factors that help comparison.
40
5 CITATION OF SOURCES
Research is complete only when scholars share their results and findings with the scientific
community, with the correct scientific practice. Students are also important members of the
scholarly community, even if they are not actively publishing. Therefore, it is equally important
for students to engage with the scientific community with the expected format. A major part of
this format is citation, which is the process of giving due credit to the sources of facts, opinions
and ideas that you refer to in your writing. If, for example, you find an interesting fact in a book,
journal article, webpage, or another publication, and you want to use it in your paper, you must
indicate in your paper exactly where you got the information. If you report an author’s opinion,
hypothesis, or idea, you must also give due mention in your paper.
The following are some basic principles of citation:

Cite only sources you have read or ideas that you have incorporated into your paper

Cite primary sources (original content) as much as possible, and use/cite secondary
sources (reported content) to bolster your arguments.

Use what are considered ‘scholarly’ or ‘academic’ sources. Such sources are found in
academic journal articles, books, and published reports, and have been peer reviewed
by experts who examine the source for quality and accuracy.

Always cite the source you use. If you describe Porter’s generic strategies in your paper,
and you used an introductory textbook on international strategy, cite the textbook you
used and not Porter’s original publication.

Both Paraphrases and direct quotations require citations, as do the images and tables
you reproduce from other sources.
41
THE IMPORTANCE OF CITATION
Three main reasons may be identified why (correct) citation is so important in academic
writing, and why you need to check carefully that you present the cited author’s work
accurately. First, you demonstrate your understanding of the different concepts that you have
learned and applied in the text. Second, the reader can retrieve the different sources you refer
to in the text. Third, you avoid the risks of plagiarism. Plagiarism is either the intentional or
unintentional reporting of facts, opinions, ideas, etc., as though they were your own. It is a
serious academic offence that may have serious consequences.
Academic facts, ideas, and opinions are the intellectual property of academics and it is
necessary to recognize to the source of those facts, ideas and opinions. We accept that music,
logos, and commercial ideas can all be protected as the intellectual property of the inventor,
particularly because they may be a source of livelihood for the inventor. If these rights are
infringed, the inventor or owner of the rights can take legal action. The same principles apply to
academic facts, ideas and opinions. Although few academics will make money out of them
directly, this academic knowledge does underpin the career, and integrity of the author. The
same is true for the work of your fellow students.
Many people plagiarize unintentionally by forgetting from where information came. Keep
careful records of the sources of information you use in your paper; you will need to
distinguish which ideas are yours, and which are contributions of other authors. The only
exception to this rule is that information which is considered ‘common knowledge’. However,
as deciding conclusively what defines common knowledge is a difficult task, in the early stages
of your studies it is wise to cite all outside knowledge. The more you advance in your studies,
the more you will discover what shared common knowledge is. Later in your studies, the issue
of self-plagiarism may arise. Self-Plagiarism is the act of presenting your previous work as the
original; this is considered unethical as it misleads reader.
Although both unintentional and intentional plagiarism will be considered a violation,
deliberate plagiarism can be considered more serious. This is particularly true given the ease of
plagiarizing electronic sources. Fortunately, it is usually easy to spot: the style of writing
changes, the relevant references are not in the text, and grammar errors are simply repeated in
your work. As a student, it does not help you acquire an effective understanding of the sources,
42
nor does it help you develop your own writing style. Further, plagiarizing may lead to complete
exclusion from the academic community. Therefore, while plagiarizing may sometimes seem
like a quick and easy solution, consider the consequences and make time to ensure your
sources are fully and correctly cited. Maastricht University has introduced a university-wide
anti-plagiarism policy. Check the main website of the university to ensure that you are familiar
both with what plagiarism is and how you can avoid committing it.
HOW TO CITE INFORMATION FROM OTHER SOURCES
This section covers the different techniques you can use to cite information from the sources
you use. One choice you will make is whether to cite information by paraphrasing and
summarizing (subsections 5.2.1), or by using a direct quote (subsections 5.2.2.). Your second
choice is whether to insert the citation in the grammatical structure of the sentence (integral
citation) or to place it in parentheses after the information cited (non-integral citation)
(subsection 5.2.3.).
Figure 13. Examples of integral citations, non-integral citations, and direct quotations
The literature not only falls short in defining unfree labour, but also in
Integral Citation
accounting for its breadth and scale, excluding apriori many dynamics from
its sphere of investigation. Bales (2004) maintains, for instance, that if workers
receive any form of payment—however minimal—their labour is no longer
Direct Quotation
unfree since “receiving wages that barely keep you alive…is not slavery”
(p.25). Scholars have also excluded child labour from their definitions;
positing a rigid binary between ‘free’ and ‘unfree’ labour, the literature seeks
to neatly separate ‘slavery’ from labour exploitation at large. But in excluding
Non-integral
Citation
large swathes of highly unfree labour relations from their conceptualisation,
scholars may be dramatically underestimating the scale of unfree labour
worldwide (Lerche, 2011).
Note: Adapted from “The Rise of a ‘New Slavery’? Understanding African Unfree Labour through
Neoliberalism” by A. Ayers Third World Quarterly, 34:5, 873 892
43
5.2.1 PARAPHRASING AND SUMMARIZING
The preferred way to cite work by other authors is to include the information you have found
from other sources in your own words (paraphrasing). Paraphrasing is the preferred method
of citation in Academic writing because of the author’s ability to simultaneously use both a
natural voice, and give credit to sources used. Further, it allows the author to summarize and
synthesize information from multiple sources at the same time. See Figure 14.
Figure 14. Citation variations in a paraphrase
Three separate
Some of the earnings differentials in the 1980s may have been due to
sources, each
customer preferences. Gwartney and Haworth (1974), Kahn and Sherer
with two authors.
(1988), and Burdekin and Idson (1991) showed that team racial
composition can have significant effects on attendance. Despite
One source with
empirical evidence indicating a diminishing earnings gap between
three authors
White and Black players in the 1990s, Burdekin, Hossfeld, and Smith
(2005) continue to find evidence of racial preferences in NBA
Three sources, in
attendance patterns. Also, in baseball, where evidence of salary
parentheses, each
discrimination has always been sparse, empirical results suggest that
with two authors
fans maintain racial preferences for players (Anderson & La Croix,
1991; Fort & Gill, 2000; Nardinelli & Simon, 1990).
Note: Adapted from: “Earnings, performance, and national discrimination in a highly competitive
labor market as an analysis of the English professional soccer league” By Pedace, R. 2008, Journal of
Sports Economics, 9, 115-140
5.2.2 DIRECT QUOTATIONS
To use direct quotations in your work is to copy verbatim the words of the original source.
While the preferred choice is to paraphrase, direct quotations may be used where the original
author has said something unique, memorable or distinct, and paraphrasing would lessen the
44
impact. To quote directly, use quotation marks, or “inverted commas” to signify the start and
end of the text copied verbatim. Always include the author, year and page number of the
quotation in the in text citation. Single pages are indicated by a ‘p’ (e.g. p.25) whereas multiple
pages are indicated by ‘pp’ (e.g. pp.34-35). Indeed, quotes are relatively rare in economics and
business academic papers. Incorporate direct quotes of less than 40 words within the sentence
of your text (see Figure 15).
Figure 15. Direct quotation example
Canes (1974) showed that improvements in team quality have important negative external
effects that may induce clubs to over-employ athletic talent. He suggested the need for
institutional mechanisms such as revenue-sharing, reserve clauses and player drafts in order to
“counteract the incentive to overinvest in team quality” (p. 109).
Note: Adapted from “Overinvestment in team sports leagues: A contest theory model. Scottish
Journal of Political Economy,” by Dietl, H., Franck, E., & Lang, M. 2008, 55 p353-368.
In some cases, it may be preferable to make small changes to the original quote in order to
allow it to fit the grammatical structure of the text. Provided there is an explanation
accompanying them, three types of changes may be made in direct quotations: omissions,
insertions, and adding emphasis. To explain the alterations, use an ellipses to indicate an
omission of words, phrases, or more; use [square brackets] to indicate the addition of a word to
aid the grammatical continuity of the quote; and, both italicize and add [emphasis added] to
indicate you have added the emphasis yourself (Figure 16).
Figure 16. Explanation of alterations in direct quotations
…omission
[addition]
[emphasis added]
In economic models human actors are typically portrayed as "self- interest
seeking with guile [which] includes … more blatant forms, such as lying,
stealing, and cheating … [but] more often involves subtle [emphasis added]
forms of deceit" (Williamson, 1985, p. 45).
Note: Adapted from “Fairness and retaliation: The economics of reciprocity. Journal of Economic
Perspectives” by Fehr, E. & Gächter, S. 2000, 14(3), 159-181.
45
Quotes longer that 40 words are displayed as indented freestanding text. The citation appears
at the end of the quote, outside the final punctuation mark (Figure 17).
Figure 17. Indented direct quote longer than 40 words
Lucien Freud considers his art a search for an elusive goal, but recognizes that because this
goal is unattainable, what is most important is the process of the search:
A moment of complete happiness never occurs in the creation of a work of art. The promise of it is felt in
the act of creation but disappears towards the completion of the work. For it is then that the painter
realizes that it is only a picture he is painting. Until then he had almost dared to hope that the picture
might spring to life. Were it not for this, the perfect painting might be painted, on the completion of
which the painter could retire. It is this great insufficiency that drives him on. Thus the process of
creation becomes necessary to the painter perhaps more than it is in the picture. The process is in fact
habit-forming. (Rose, 1987, pp. 17-18)
Freud’s avoidance of preconception is such that he not only makes no preliminary studies
for his paintings, …
Note the placement of the citation, outside the final punctuation mark. Adapted from “Who are
the greatest living artists? The view from the auction market “ by Galenson, D.W. 2005,
National Bureau of Economic Research: NBER Working Paper 11644.
5.2.3 THE CHOICE BETWEEN INTEGRAL AND NON-INTEGRAL CITATIONS
As can be seen in Figure 13 and 14 above, you have a choice between incorporating the citation
in the grammatical structure of the sentence, or placing it in parentheses. Integrating the
citation into the text increases the objectivity of the report, emphasizes the role and position of
the specific researcher and gives more credit to that researcher. However, it is more often that
you will paraphrase by using non-integrated citations, which tend to emphasize the findings
and analysis over the contributions of a particular author. The two options may also be used
together to increase the clarity of your citations.
46
Figure 18. Example of non-integral citation at the end of a paragraph
Today, consumers are using sites that compare online auction markets like eBay, Amazon or Yahoo!
and many others, for each particular product in order to protect themselves. In this way, the users
have more power over their decisions where to purchase or sell the goods. EBay has also suffered
under these changes and it has gotten a damaged image because of piracy. To accommodate these
problems eBay designed security software and hired holder of rights in order to identify illegal
auctions to delete them afterwards. It also changed its layout many times, because previous ones had
been confusing. Those modifications raised the costs and therefore consumers had to accept higher
listing fees charged by eBay. Consequently, eBay lost many users that were switching to other online
auctions (Scholtys, 2007).
Note: Adapted from a student paper.
In the example in Figure 18 above, the reader does not know whether the source (Scholtys,
2007) relates only to information reported in the last sentence, to more than one sentence,
or even to the whole paragraph. The reader’s default position is to relate the citation only to
the sentence that contains the parenthetical reference. In cases such as these, it is advisable to
combine both options within the paragraph to ensure the reader is aware of what information
came from where. See the same example improved by using both integrated and nonintegrated citations in Figure 19.
Figure 19. Example of integral and non-integral citations
According to Scholtys (2007) consumers are using sites that compare online auction markets like eBay,
Amazon or Yahoo! and many others, for each particular product in order to protect themselves. In
this way, the users have more power over their decisions where to purchase or sell the goods.
EBay has also suffered under these changes and it has gotten a damaged image because of piracy.
Scholtys explains that to accommodate these problems, eBay designed security software and hired
holder of rights in order to identify illegal auctions to delete them afterwards. It also changed its
layout many times, because previous ones had been confusing. Those modifications raised the costs
and therefore consumers had to accept higher listing fees charged by eBay. Consequently, eBay lost
many users that were switching to other online auctions (Scholtys, 2007).
Note: When your integral citation appears more than once in the same paragraph, you do not need to
state the year after the first time. However, with each new paragraph that that same citation appears,
the year will need to be restated.
47
The following sections of this chapter will discuss citation standards in greater detail, based on
the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (American Psychological
Association, 2020, 7th ed.). If you cite a source according to APA standards, you have to insert
two components in the paper: a reference citation in the text (i.e., in-text citation) and a related
full entry at the end of the paper (i.e. references list). Section 5.3 discusses how to put a
reference citation in the text in a correct way. Section 5.4 describes how to construct an entry
in the references at the end of the paper. Section 5.5 continues by providing a selection of the
most common types of sources as referencing examples. For information on the citation
(attribution) of tables and images, please refer to Section 6.3.
IN-TEXT CITATIONS
If you cite a source according to APA standards, you have to insert two components in the
paper: a citation in the text, and a related entry in the reference list at the end of the paper. This
section discusses how to put a citation in the text in a correct way.
The APA standards for reference citations in text use the author-year method. That is, the
surname of the author and the year of publication are inserted in the text at the appropriate
point:
In a recent study of reaction The standard parentheses (non-integral)
times (Rogers, 2009)…
Rogers (2009) compared
When the name appears as part of the narrative (integral)
reaction times…
Rogers also found…
In the second mention within the same paragraph, the year
need not be included again if the name appears as part of
the narrative. This only applies to integral citations in the
same paragraph.
For non-integral (parenthetic) citations, you have to give
the name and year each time within the same paragraph.
48
If you directly quote an author, in addition to the author and year, the related page number
must either be included in the parentheses or bookend the quotation as in the examples in
below. The quoted text must always be in double quotation marks.
“A business model is a vague
concept” (Rogers, 2009, p.5).
The standard parentheses (non-integral)
Rogers (2009) stated “a
business model is a vague
concept” (p.5).
When the name appears as part of the narrative (integral)
Rogers also stated that “a
business model is a vague
concept” (p. 5).
With the second mention within the same paragraph, the
year may be left out.
The rule concerning page numbers also applies if you read the direct quote on an e-reader,
such as a Kindle, if that e-reader has real page numbers. If there are no page numbers, you
should use the paragraph number, if provided. Alternatively, you can include an overarching
heading (the chapter title) or another way of locating the quoted passage.
If you cite a direct quote from any audio-visual materials such as podcasts, television shows,
movies, or videos, including YouTube videos, you must add a timestamp in the in-text citation
alongside the author and date. Note that if you cite a YouTube video, the author is the name of
the person or company who posted the video rather than the person being quoted; those being
quoted must be mentioned in the narrative instead. If you paraphrase audio-visual material,
you are not required to include a timestamp, but can include it if you feel it will help the reader
to locate the information. Furthermore, if you feel that including a timestamp range would
assist the reader, you can present it in the same way that you would present a page range.
“A business model is a vague concept”
(Rogers, 2009, 0:32)…
Timestamp indicates the direct quote starts
at 32 seconds. Note that a zero is used
where the quote starts before 1-minute.
Rogers (2009, 1:15:37–1:48:29) compared
reaction times…
Timestamp indicates the cited information
starts at 1 hour, 15 minutes and 37 seconds
and finishes at 1 hour, 48 minutes and 29
seconds.
49
5.3.1 SOURCE BY MULTIPLE AUTHORS
When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time (i.e. w h e t h e r within the
same paragraph or the subsequent paragraphs); in subsequent citations within the same
paragraph, exclude the year. In parenthetical, non-integrated citations, use an ampersand (&)
between names. In narrative, or integrated citations, spell out the word ‘and’.
Rogers and Zoe (2008)
found…
Rogers and Zoe found…
First citation in the paragraph (integral citation)
Second mention within the same paragraph, omit year from
subsequent citations.
When a work has three or more authors, include only the surname of the first author followed
by et al. Remember that ‘et al.’ means ‘and others’ and therefore cannot stand where there is
only one additional name.
Rogers et al. (2005) found…
First citation in the text (integral)
Rogers et al. found…
Second mention within the same
paragraph, omit year from subsequent
citations
At times, the use of ‘et al.’ can become confusing. For instance, if Rogers in the example above
had collaborated with a different team of authors on a different project, and you intend to use
both sources, both in-text citations will read ‘Rogers et al.’ and it will not be clear that different
authors were involved. To correct for this, add the names of the subsequent contributing
authors until the citations are distinct.
Rogers, Jansen et al. (2004) found…
50
5.3.2 SOURCE WITH NO AUTHOR
When a work has no author, the title of the work moves to the author position. Where the title
would be italicized in the reference list (such as with the title of a book), it should also be
italicized in the in-text citation. Equally, where the title would be in “quotations marks” (as
with the title of a journal article), it should remain in “quotation marks” in the in-text citation as
well. Shorten long titles to an appropriate length.
The data shows an increase in price (Economics, 2019).
Subjects were given special instruction (“Understanding Sensory Memory”, 2018)
Sometimes the name of a group can serve as author (e.g., corporations, associations,
government). This also applies to newspapers that do not identify the individual journalists,
e.g. The Economist. This is called a group author or a corporate author.
In a telecommunications study (Vodafone, 2006)…
It is possible to abbreviate the name of a group or corporate author if two conditions are met.
First, the abbreviation should be well-known, and second, it should appear at least three times
in the paper. As with other abbreviations, provide the full name of the group author in the first
mention followed by the abbreviation. If the first mention of the group author appears in a
parenthetical non-integrated citation, include the abbreviation in square brackets before the
comma and date. Do not abbreviate group author names in the reference list.
According to The American Psychological Association (APA 2017)…
When an author is designated as “Anonymous”, cite the word Anonymous. Do not use this if the
work has not been so designated.
In another report of the CIA (Anonymous, 1969)…
51
5.3.3 SOURCES WITH NO DATE
When a work has no date of publication, cite in the text the author’s name, followed by a
comma and n.d..
(Janssen & Schröder, n.d.)
5.3.4 DISTINGUISHING SIMILAR SOURCES
Distinguishing sources that have the same author and same publication date
When you cite two sources from the same author with a different year of publication,
distinguishing them is not a problem as the dates will indicate that they are separate
publications.
Baaten (2006) found…
Baaten (2009) found…
However, when you cite two sources from the same author with the same year of publication, it
will be impossible for your reader to recognize the difference. To correct this, lowercase letters
are placed immediately after the year of publication, so that you can distinguish them. These
letters must also be included in the reference list.
Baaten (2009a) found…
Baaten (2009b) found…
52
It is sometimes the case that multiple sources share the same surname. In this case, distinguish
them by including the first initial in the in-text citation. If in the rare case their first initial is
also the same, include also the second initial.
(J. Taylor, 2012)
(H. Taylor, 2017)
(H.M. Taylor, 2015)
5.3.5 GENERAL INFORMATION FROM A WEBSITE, PERIODICALS, SOFTWARE ETC.
If you mention general information with no indication of a particular piece of information or a
specific page, it is sufficient to provide the name of the website in the text and provide the URL
in parentheses. These types of entries do not require replication in the references list.
The survey was created using Qualtrics (http://www.qualtrics.com)
53
Table 2 summarizes the guidelines given in this subsection concerning in-text citations. For
more detailed information consult the APA Manual (2020).
Table 2. Basic citation styles
Narrative (integral) citation
One work by
one author
Galenson (2005) confirms…
Parenthetical (non-integral)
citation
(Galenson, 2005)
One work by
two authors
Brandts and Charness (2004)
(Brandts & Charness, 2004)
One work by
three, four, or
five authors
Dejong et al. (1985)
demonstrate…
(Dejong et al., 1985)
Groups
(readily
identifiable)
as authors
International Monetary Fund
(IMF, 2009) reported….
(International Monetary
[IMF], 2009)
Groups (no
abbreviation)
as authors
University of Edinburgh
suggest…
Fund
(First Entry)
(2008) published…
(University of Edinburgh, 2008)
54
THE LIST OF REFERENCES
Citing a source according to APA standards requires two distinct components: a citation in the
text and a related entry in the references at the end of the paper. This section describes how to
construct entries in the references list at the end of the paper.
However, first the distinction between a reference list and a bibliography should be explained,
as these terms are often confused. A bibliography is more extensive than a reference list. The
list of references contains only those works that are actually cited in the text. A bibliography, on
the other hand, contains all the works that have been consulted during the research process,
and which are considered relevant for further reading on the topic, but are not necessarily
cited in the text. In most cases, you will only be required to construct a list of references. Only
in the rare cases where your supervisor or instructor explicitly so requests, should you
construct a bibliography.
The list of references begins on a new page. At the top of the page type the heading
“References” (without the inverted commas) (or “Bibliography” if your supervisor has so
requested). The reference list does not use a numbered heading, nor does it use bullet points
for each reference entry. Each entry in the reference list follows the same pattern and includes
the author, date, title, and source (publisher, URL, DOI etc…). The following rules have to be
applied in the construction of a reference entry:
5.4.1 FORMAT FOR REFERENCE LIST
The different entries should be arranged in alphabetical order by the surname of the first
author. Each entry starts with a hanging indent and 1.5 line spacing between. Alternatively
referred to as a negative indent, a hanging indent is an indent that indents all text except the
first line. Further, each entry must be aligned left (not justified).
Jackson, L. M. (2019). The psychology of prejudice: From attitudes to social action (2nd ed.).
American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000168-000
Sapolsky, R. M. (2017). Behave: The biology of humans at our best and worst: an anthology.
Penguin Books.
55
General rules for alphabetical order:

Invert all author names so that the surname is first, followed by a comma and the
Initials: Anderson, A.J.

Alphabetize letter by letter. Remember, “nothing” precedes “something”. For example:
Brown, J. R. precedes Browning, A. R.

Alphabetize the prefixes so that MacNeil precedes McAllister, which precedes M’Carthy

Alphabetize surnames that contain prefixes (de, la, du, von, van etc.) by starting with the
surname: Akker, G. J. van de.

If a surname begins with O’, it is not considered to be a prefix but part of the main
surname.

Alphabetize entries with numerals as if the numerals were spelled out.

Double space the entire reference list
Alphabetical order of works by the same first author:

Single-author entries by the same author are arranged by the year of publication.

Single-author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same surname.

Reference entries with the same first author and different second or third author are
arranged alphabetically by the surname of the second author and so on.

Reference entries with the same authors in the same order are arranged by the year of
publication, the earliest first.

Reference entries with the same author(s) and with the same publication date are
arranged alphabetically, by the first significant word (i.e. excluding A or The) of the title
that follows the date. Important: lowercase letters are placed immediately after the year
of publication in the reference entry, mirroring those present in the in-text citation
Alphabetical order of works by different first authors with the same surname

Works by different authors with the same surname are arranged alphabetically by
the first initial.
56
Alphabetical order of works with no author

If a group author can be used, alphabetize by the first significant word of the
name. Spell out the full name of a group author. Do not use abbreviations. For
example, The Economist (2010) would be alphabetized under E

If, and only if, the work is signed “Anonymous”, then the entry begins with the word
Anonymous spelled out, and alphabetized as if anonymous were a true name.

If there is no author, the title moves to the author’s position before the date of
publication, and the entry is alphabetized by the first significant word of the title.
5.4.2 CATEGORIES OF SOURCES
It is probable that most of the sources you consult for your papers will be available
electronically, and you retrieve them from the University Library or online. You will probably
retrieve different types of sources, such as journal articles (online), books (both hardcopy and
electronic), and official reports. Under the Seventh edition of APA guidelines (2020) if a source
has a DOI or URL, you should include it in the reference regardless of whether a hard copy is
also available.
Although they follow the same principles, each category of source has its own particular
requirements. Note carefully the order of elements in the entries and the specific punctuation
used.
General principles governing elements of reference entries.
The APA referencing system follows a very consistent pattern, comprising the following
elements:
Author
element
Publication
date
Title
Source
element
Electronic sources and
locator information
The requirements of each of these elements will be explained on the next page.
57
Author element

Provide the surnames and initials for up to, and including 20 authors.

Use commas to separate an author’s initials from the next author’s surname (e.g. Banks,
C., Smith, W).

Use an ampersand (&) before the last author. If there are three or more authors, use a
comma before the ampersand.

Use period after each initial.

Spell out the name of a group author in full. Put a period after the group author.
Sometimes the publisher may be the author (e.g. The Economist).

In a reference with no author, move the title to the author position, before the date of
publication. Put a period after the title. (This will be rare, as you can nearly always trace
a group author or publisher.)

In a reference to an edited book, place the editors’ names in the author position, and
insert the abbreviation Ed. or Eds. in parentheses after the last author’s name. Put a
period after the parenthetical abbreviation (Eds.). (Note: italics are only used for
emphasis here; you should not italicize these abbreviations in the reference entry.)

In a reference to a chapter in an edited book, invert the chapter authors’ names
as above, but do not invert the editors’ names and initials (see example below). Insert
In before the editors’ names.
Single Author
Friedmann, M. (2019)…
Three Authors
Güreck, Ö., Irlenbusch, B., & Rockenbach, B.
(2015)…
Group Author
International Monetary Fund. (2020)…
Title when no author or publishing
organization can be traced
Edited book
Oil glut won’t last. (2017).
Chapter in an edited book
Ruskin, S. (2009). Concession Contracts in
the Petroleum Industry. In V. A. Pandic,
(Ed.), International Oil and Gas. Routledge.
Pandic, V. A., Hunter, G., & Pauwels, N. G. A.
(Eds.). (2016). Shale Coal Modalities. Parker
58
Date element

Give the date of publication in parentheses followed by a period.

For books, use the copyright date as the publication date, even if it differs from the
release date.

For magazines, newsletters, newspapers, audio-visual materials, and social
networks give the exact date of publication (year, month + day) where given,
separated by a comma and enclosed in parentheses: e.g. Goldman, C. (2018, November
18).

For websites, ensure that the copyright date applies to the content you are citing and
not to the website as a whole. If the footer shows the ‘last updated’ date of the page, use
this as the publication date.

Website entries that display non-stable content should also include a retrieval date.
The retrieval date should appear before the URL: e.g. Retrieved October 11, 2020, from
https://www.wto.org/pages

For papers or posters presented at meetings, give the year and month of the
meeting, as above.

Write in press for articles that have been accepted for publication but a r e not yet
published.

If no date is available, write n.d. in parentheses.

Close the element with a period.
Year of publication
(2009).
Publication date of newsletter or magazine
(2010, May).
Publication date of newspaper
(2010, September 3).
Article accepted for publication, but not yet
published
(in press).
No publication date known
(n.d.).
59
Title element

Book or Report: Capitalize the first word of the title and the first word of the subtitle.
Italicize the title. Add any additional information (e.g. edition, report number, volume
number) in parentheses immediately after the title. Do not put a period between the
title and the parenthetical information. Do not italicize the parenthetical information.

Article or Chapter in a book: (for works that are a part of a greater whole)
Capitalize the first word of the title and of the subtitle. Do not italicize the title. Do
not place quotation marks around the title. Close the element with a period.
Periodicals (journal, newsletter, magazine): directly following the article or chapter
title, give the periodical title in title case. Italicize the name of the periodical.

Foreign language publication: cite the original title and include a translation in square
brackets directly afterwards. Adhere to the format of the original language when
reproducing the title. If the original title is written in non-Latin script (e.g. using
Russian, Greek, or Chinese characters) then write it using the English alphabet.

E-reader materials: add [E-reader version] in square brackets directly after the title, if
applicable. This does not have to be italicized.

Audio-visual materials: write [Video file] in square brackets directly after the title.
This does not have to be italicized.

Webpages: webpages are a part of a greater whole of a website. Therefore, the title of
the webpage corresponds with the title element, whereas the website corresponds with
the source or publisher. Unlike print sources however, the title element on the webpage
must be italicized, whereas the name of the website will not be. See the example below.

Social networks: provide the name of the page, or the content or caption of the post
(up to 40 words) as the title. Any status updates, tweets, pages, or photographs, do not
need to be italicized. The titles of individual items such as videos or photo albums do
have to be italicized. If the item is untitled (e.g. a photograph), provide a description.
Mention the content form in square brackets after the title (e.g. [Tweet]).

For works without a title, include a description of the work in [square brackets] instead:
e.g. [Map showing the population density of the United States in 2010]

Close the element with a period.
60
Title of article
Fairness and retaliation: The economics of
reciprocity.
Full journal citation
Russo, B. (2015). Fairness and retaliation: The
economics of reciprocity. Journal of Labor Economics.
28(3), 151-165
Title of book
The wisdom of crowds.
Full book citation
Tribiani, J. (2018). The wisdom of crowds. Random
House.
Title of report
Who are the greatest living artists? The view from the
auction market.
Full report citation
Galenson, D. W. (2017) Who are the greatest living
artists? The view from the auction market (NBER
Working Paper 11644). National Bureau of
Economic Research.
https://www.nber.org/papers/w11644.pdf
Title of a webpage
The secret to a long life.
Full webpage citation
Avramove, N. (2019, January 3) The secret to a long
life. CNN.
https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/03/health/respecttoward-elderly-leads-to-long-life-intl/index.html
Source Element
The source element refers to the information a reader can use to retrieve the cited work. For
works that form a part of a greater whole (e.g. periodicals such as journals, newsletters,
magazines), the source element is the full name of the periodical, journal, newsletter, or
magazine plus any available DOI or URL. If the work stands alone (e.g. books, reports,
dissertations etc.), the source is the publisher, or institution, plus any available DOI or URL.
Finally, for webpages, the source is the website name under which the webpage may be found,
plus any available DOI or URL. If the webpage and website name is the same, you may omit the
61
repetition of the name from the source element and only include the DOI or URL. The following
will outline the requirements for specific categories of sources.
For a periodicals such as journals, newsletters, magazines

Italicize and capitalize the title of a periodical in Title Case (All Principle Words are
Capitalized) and follow with a comma.

Give the volume number after the periodical title. Italicize it. Do not use Vol. before the
number.

Add the issue number (if known) in parentheses immediately after the volume number
and include a comma. Do not add a space. Do not italicize.

After the volume(issue), provide the inclusive page numbers of the cited material with a
dash and close with a period: e.g. 58(3), 67-81.

Finish periodical source information with the DOI or URL.
Periodical (journal) source
Journal of Economic Issues, 25(2), 215-234.
For non-periodicals such as books, edited book chapters, reports etc.

The name of the publisher is used as the source for non-periodicals.

Write the name of the publisher as shown on the work. Do not abbreviate the publisher
name, unless it appears that way on the work itself.

When the author name is the same as the publisher (such as with an annual report by a
company or institution), omit the publisher to avoid repetition.

Finish the element with a period.
Publishers of books as a source
McGraw-Hill.
Peter Lang.
Routledge
Penguin
62
Electronic sources
The general APA rule for citing electronic sources is to use the same elements, in the same
order, as for traditional sources, and add as much electronic retrieval information as is needed
for others to locate the sources you cite. Electronic retrieval information includes in particular
uniform resource locators (URLs) and digital object identifiers (DOIs). Because electronic
information can be moved, restructured or deleted, leading to broken hyperlinks and nonworking URLs, scholarly publishers now assign DOIs to journal articles. A DOI is a unique
alphanumeric string for articles. APA recommends that when DOIs are available, they should be
used for both print and electronic sources.
In most cases you will be able to locate the document you require through the University
Library. However, if you know the DOI, you can locate the document via http://www.doi.org/.
Whenever you cannot access the document without a subscription, you will most likely be able
to get most documents through the library.
Source data for electronic sources

A webpage corresponds with the title element, whereas a website corresponds
with the source or publisher.

Provide the source of a webpage by adding the name of the website in title case
without italics. Follow with a period.

Finish the citation with the DOI if given, or a URL if not.

For non-stable URLs (links likely to change or disappear), include the retrieval
date; e.g. Retrieved October 11, 2020, from https://www.wto.org/pages. You do
not need to include a retrieval date for stable URLs.

When the author is the same as the website name, omit the source element to avoid
repetition.

Cite multiple webpages from the same website each as separate entries.

For other online content, give the DOI if one has been assigned to the content.
Usually the DOI will be on the first page. Copy and paste the DOI, as it can be a long
complex string.
63

Give the DOI in the references as: doi:xxxxxxxxxxx

When a DOI is used, no further retrieval information is necessary and you do not need
to also include the URL.

If no DOI is assigned, provide the URL of the document, journal, publisher.
Make sure your hyphenation is turned off for this part of the referencing process.

Do not insert a hyphen if you need to break a URL across lines; if necessary, break
the URL before a punctuation marker. Do not add a period after the URL.
DOI number
doi:10.1126/science.1123633
URL
http://ezinearticles.com/?Book-Review--The-Economic-Institutions-Of-Capitalism-ByOliver-Williamson&id=480351
Webpage Citation
Martin Lillie, C.M. (2016, December 29). Be
kind to yourself: How self-compassion can
improve your resiliency. Mayo Clinic.
https://www.mayoclinic.org/healthylifestyle/adult-health/
in-depth/self-compassion-can-improveyour-resiliency/art-20267193
64
EXAMPLES OF REFERENCES
The following section gives examples of the different types of references. For cases not
included below, consult the APA Manual (2020).
5.5.1 PERIODICALS
Journal articles without DOI
Hopkins, W. E., & Hopkins, S. A. (2002). Effects of cultural recomposition on group interaction
processes. Academy of Management Review, 27(4), 541- 553.
http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?
vid=3&hid=106&sid=1a214bd4-c6f4-400c-aad7- b4f68f0dacde%40sessionmgr112
Journal article with DOI
Bajeux-Besainou, I., Joshi, S., & Vonortas, N. (2010). Uncertainty, networks and real options.
Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization, 75, 523-541.
doi:10.1016/j.jebo.2010.06.001
Chong, A., & Gradstein, M. (2009). Volatility and firm growth. Journal of Economic Growth, 14, 125. DOI 10.1007/s10887-009-9037-y
Journal article in print
Glass, V., & Cahn, E. S. (1997). A queueing model of organization structure. Journal of Business
and Economic Studies, 3, 13-28.
Journal article without DOI, title translated into English
Alonso Martín, P. (2008). Estudio comparative de la satisfacción laboral en el personal de
administración [A comparative study of work satisfaction among public servants].
Revista de Psicología del Trabajo y de las Organizaciones, 24(1), 25-40.
http://scielo.iscii.es/pdf/rpto/v24n1/v24n1a02.pdf
65
Magazine article
Weir, K. (2017, January). Forgiveness can improve mental and physical health. Monitor on
Psychology, 48, 30
Magazine article no author
The Economist (2010, May 15). Emergency repairs. 71-73.
Newspaper Article
Guarino, B. (2017, December 4) How will humanity react to alien life? Psychologists have some
predictions. The Washington Post https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/speakingof-science/wp/2017/12/04/how-will-humanity-react-to-alien-life-psychologists-havesome-predictions/
5.5.2 BOOKS, REFERENCE BOOK, BOOK CHAPTERS
Entire book without DOI
Williamson, O. (1985). The economic institutions of capitalism: Firms, markets, relational
contracting. The Free Press.
McDowell, M., Thom, R., Frank, R. H., & Bernanke, B. (2009). Principles of economics (2nd
European ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Entire book with DOI
Perloff, J. M. (2009). Microeconomics (5th internat. ed.). Pearson Addison Wesley. DOI
10.1007/s10887-009-9037-y
E-book or Audiobook
Smith, A. (2009). An enquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations [E-book].
Gutenberg. http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/3300
66
Book in another language
Piaget, J., (1966). La psychologie de l’enfant [The psychology of the child] Quadrige
Book chapter in edited book
Arrow, K. J. (1987). Rationality of self and others in an economic system. In R. M. Hogarth & M.
W. Reder (Eds.), Rational choice: The contrast between economics and psychology (pp.
201-215). The University of Chicago Press.
Book chapter in edited book with DOI
Aron, L., Botella, M., & Lubart, T. (2019). Culinary arts: Talent and their development. In R. F.
Subotnik, P. Olszewski-Kubilius, & F. C. Worrell (Eds.), The psychology of high
performance: Developing human potential into domain-specific talent (pp. 345–359).
American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000120-016
5.5.3 TECHNICAL REPORTS, ANNUAL REPORTS, RESEARCH REPORTS
Report by a government agency
National Cancer Institute. (2019). Taking time: Support for people with cancer (NIH Publication
No. 18-2059). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of
Health. https://www.cancer.gov/publications/patient-education/takingtime.pdf
Report by an organization
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). (2010). OECD economic
surveys: South Africa, July 2010. Paris: OECD.
Report by an individual
Stuster, J., Adolf, J., Byrne, V., & Greene, M. (2018). Human exploration of Mars: Preliminary lists
of crew tasks (Report No. NASA/CR-2018-220043). National Aeronautics and Space
Administration. https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/
casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20190001401.pdf
67
5.5.4 MEETINGS AND SYMPOSIA
Conference, symposium contribution
Nijkamp, P. (2009, April). A micro-simulation model for tourism e-services in cultural heritage.
Paper presented at Advances in Tourism Economics 2009 Conference, Lisbon, Portugal.
Conference Presentation
Evans, A. C., Jr., Garbarino, J., Bocanegra, E., Kinscherff, R. T., & Márquez-Greene, N. (2019,
August 8–11). Gun violence: An event on the power of community [Conference
presentation]. APA 2019 Convention, Chicago, IL, United States.
https://convention.apa.org/2019-video
5.5.5 DISSERTATION OR THESIS REFERENCES
Published Dissertation or Thesis References
Kabir, J. M. (2016). Factors influencing customer satisfaction at a fast food hamburger chain: The
relationship between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty (Publication No.
10169573) [Doctoral dissertation, Wilmington University]. ProQuest Dissertations &
Theses Global.
Miranda, C. (2019). Exploring the lived experiences of foster youth who obtained graduate level
degrees: Self-efficacy, resilience, and the impact on identity development (Publication No.
27542827) [Doctoral dissertation, Pepperdine University]. PQDT Open.
https://pqdtopen.proquest.com/doc/2309521814.html?FMT=AI
68
5.5.6 WEB BASED SOURCES
Webpage on a news website
Woodyatt, A. (2019, September 10). Daytime naps once or twice a week may be linked to a
healthy heart, researchers say. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/10/health/napheart-health-wellness-intl-scli/index.html
Webpage on a website with a government agency group author
National Institute of Mental Health. (2018, July). Anxiety disorders. U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, National Institutes of Health.
https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml
Webpage on a website with an organizational group author
World Health Organization. (2018, May 24). The top 10 causes of death.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-death
Webpage on a website with an individual author
Giovanetti, F. (2019, November 16). Why we are so obsessed with personality types.
Medium. https://medium.com/the-business-of-wellness/why-we-are-so-obsessedwith-personality-types-577450f9aee9
Webpage on a website with a retrieval date
U.S. Census Bureau. (n.d.). U.S. and world population clock. U.S. Department of Commerce.
Retrieved January 9, 2020, from https://www.census.gov/popclock/
*Note: use a retrieval date when there is a non-stable link, that is, where the content is updated
regularly.
69
6 MANUSCRIPT PRESENTATION
This chapter considers the presentation of your paper. The format requirements for papers at
the SBE are specified in section 6.1. The presentation of tables and figures in outlined in section
3.2., and their attribution (citation) is outlined in 6.3, Finally, section 6.4 explains the revision
of style, grammar and punctuation for the finalization of your paper.
FORMAT REQUIREMENTS
Most papers that you submit to the SBE will comprise a number of pages of text divided into
sections and subsections. Papers, articles, case studies, literature reviews do not have chapters.
A long assignment, such as a Master’s thesis, which may contain 100 pages, however, may be
divided into chapters, each of which will comprise several sections and subsections. For a
doctoral dissertation, which may be 250 pages or more, you may decide to group several
chapters together as parts, e.g. Part I: Theoretical framework; Part II: Findings from practice;
Part III: Synergy and conclusions.
Student papers generally do not include a running header, and author’s note, or an abstract,
unless specifically requested by the instructor. However, in addition to your manuscript text,
you may add one or more appendices. These contain information that you do not want to put
directly into the text of your paper, since otherwise they would interrupt the reader and
distract from the line of the story. For example, detailed or extensive tables and figures may
best be placed in an appendix. Mathematical or econometric proofs, extensive data output (e.g.
an SPSS output), and lengthy interview transcripts are further examples of information that is
best put in appendices. The following subsections deal with the format requirements of the
paper.
Arrange the pages of an APA Style paper in the following order:
a) title page
b) abstract
c) table of contents
d) text
e) references
f) footnotes
g) tables
h) figures
i) appendices
70
6.1.1 TITLE (COVER) PAGE
The title of your paper has to be positioned as shown in Figure 20 below. In the bottom left
corner of the title page, the following elements are expected to be mentioned: Maastricht
University, School of Business and Economics, your name and initials, your ID number,
programme of study, course name and course code, your group number, your tutor’s or
supervisor’s name, the due/submission date and the type of writing assignment (e.g. case
study). In some circumstances, other details may be required. In the case of a Master’s thesis or
a dissertation, you should check the specific requirements that may apply.
Do not mention any other information on the title page. Items such as famous quotations do not
belong here and should be stated elsewhere in the paper. Furthermore, the title page should
not be numbered. Numbering starts after the title page.
Figure 20. Title page format
The title, and any possible sub-titles should be
centered near the top of the page.
a) Maastricht University
b) School of Business and
Economics
c) Name, Initials
d) ID number
e) Study programme,
f) Course name, course code
g) Group number
h) (Due) Date
i) Tutor name
j) Type of writing assignment
k) Email address
l) (Word Count)
71
The Title
A paper must have a title, which gives the reader a clear indication of what the paper is about.
It provides your readers with the first impression of your writing. A poor title puts your
readers off: it may be too general or too vague, too emotional or too polemical, too chatty or too
restricted. Make sure that it accurately reflects what you have written about. Relate your title
to the nature of the paper: are you focusing on action or on facts? Titles that are focused on
action typically start with a verb in the –ing form: Harnessing the emotional strengths of your
employees. Titles that are focused on facts typically start with a noun: The impact of credit
availability on patterns of trade. Titles may also be direct or indirect questions, to which your
paper gives an answer: Why accounting firms should not merge. Finally, two-part statements
are often used as titles, i.e. title plus subtitle: Ohio school milk market: An indictable case of
collusion. Whichever form of title you choose, your paper has to reflect accurately the topic
established in the title. The title should be clear, not too long, and immediately understandable.
Finally, take care that the title states the conclusion of the paper; however, do not copy the
thesis statement as the title. Expectations in academic writing appear to prefer simple, concise
titles.
6.1.2 ABSTRACT
An abstract is a self-contained, short statement that describes a larger piece of work; an
abstract is typically not a requirement for shorter papers unless specified. The abstract is a
short summary around 100-250 words and should include the research question, hypothesis (if
there is any) or purpose of your research, the research methodology, and the findings. The
following four questions may help to structure your abstract:

What problem did you study and why is it important?

What methods did you use to study the problem?

What were your key findings?

What did you conclude based on these findings and what are the broader implications?
72
6.1.3 TABLE OF CONTENTS
In short papers, a table of contents is not required. Typically, in papers of 2,000 words or more,
it is desirable to include a table of contents. Master’s theses and dissertations require a table of
contents. In a thesis or dissertation, the table of contents comes between your abstract and
your introduction. It should be written in the same font and size as the rest of your paper. At
the top of the page, write Table of Contents, centred and in bold.
In APA Style, you can use up to five levels of headings, each with its own formatting style. In the
table of contents, you should include all level 1 and 2 headings, left-aligned and formatted as
plain text. Headings past level 1 are indented. For most academic papers fourth-level headings
are generally avoided. However, in business and technical reports you may well find fourth- or
even fifth-level headings. Conventionally, chapters, sections and subsections are indicated with
Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.). Appendices are indicated by capital letters (A, B, C, etc.). If you
are writing a dissertation and have grouped the chapters into parts, then indicate the parts by
Roman numerals (I, II, III, etc.).
Figure 21. Example Table of Contents
Table of Contents
73
All pages must be numbered, except the title and/or cover page. Page numbering is required to
construct the table of contents, and it is also necessary for readers who may wish to refer to a
particular statement in your paper, e.g. if they wish to quote your Master’s thesis.
As there is no standard format for a table of contents in APA style, you should always defer to
the provided guidelines for your assignment. If your instructor does not have a preferred
format, consider using the following:

Title the page “Table of Contents” and centre the title at the top of the page.

Use an outline format for the different sections of your paper. Use Arabic numerals (1, 2,
3) to list any sub-level headings. If you are writing a dissertation and have grouped the
chapters into parts, then indicate the parts by Roman numerals (I, II, III, etc.).
Appendices are indicated by capital letters (A, B, C, etc.).

All main headings should be flush-left.

Sub-headings should be indented.

All entries should use title case.

Identify the page numbers flush-right. Consider dot leaders between the headings and
the page number to improve readability.
6.1.4 SECTIONS AND HEADINGS
The organization of your paper will depend on the genre you are writing. A literature review
will have different sections compared with a paper reporting an experimental study. A critical
analysis of an economic theory will similarly have different sections compared with a case
study. In all cases, number each of your sections, including the introduction. The introduction
will, in almost all circumstances, be numbered 1.
74
General format requirements

Ensure that a heading does not occur at the bottom of a page: move it to the next page
using Insert Page Break.

Leave one blank line between a main section heading and the first paragraph.

Do not leave a blank line between subheadings (second or third level) and the
subsequent paragraph.

Double space the text of the paper except for the title page, abstract, within tables and
images and when changing from section to section. In the latter case, leave two blank
lines, as shown in Figure 22 below.

Font: Times New Roman 12-point; Cambria 11.5-point

Margins (top, bottom, left, right): 2.54 cm (= 1 inch). This is default on most word
processing programmes.

All pages should have page numbers in the header, top right corner. The title page is
page 1 (hidden).

Paper size: A4 (210 x 297mm).

Alignment: alignment should be left justified. However, the faculty will accept both left
justified, and justified text (block paragraphs).

Indentation of the first line is required for starting a new paragraph. Between two
paragraphs, there is a double blank space.

Do not justify the list of references. Align left, using a hanging indent.

Choose either American or British English spelling, and be consistent throughout the
whole document.

Do not enable “hyphenation”, to avoid large spaces between words, because of the
justified alignment applied.

Do not enable “hyphenation” for the list of references.

In cases where a hardcopy has to be submitted, the paper should be bound before you
hand it in.
Note: special format requirements may apply to long texts, such as Master’s theses and
dissertations. Check with the regulations that apply.
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Figure 22. Example of line spacing and layout
(… ) is a violation of the EC Antitrust Rules and is therefore illegal (European
Double line spacing
Union, 2004). This paper examines whether the European Commission decided
correctly when accusing TCCC and its bottlers of infringing the EC Treaty.
Double blank lines
Section heading bold
2. The Coca-Cola Case
Double blank line
Indented first line
Double Line spacing
The parties belonging to TCCC that are involved in the Commission’s
concerns are Bottling Holdings (Luxembourg) sarl, Coca-Cola
Erfrischungsgetränke AG, and Coca-Cola Hellenic Bottling Company SA.
The relevant geographic regions are the Community, Iceland and
Norway. The case also concerns two different channels that these parties
supply: the ‘take-home channel’ and the ‘on-premise channel’. The first
refers to beverages that consumers buy, for example in supermarkets, to
take home for later consumption. The second refers to those beverages
consumers buy for direct consumption, for example in restaurants or
bars (European Commission, 2005).
Subsection heading
(italicized);
no blank line
afterwards
2.1. Carbonated soft drinks (CSDs)
The relevant beverages belonging to CSDs are “cola-flavoured, lemonand/or lime-flavoured, other fruit-flavoured CSDs and bitter drinks”
(European Commission, 2004). (… )
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Formatting Headings
As seen above, APA Style has five possible heading levels. The number of levels needed
however, particularly with regard to the size and complexity papers at the university level, is
typically around three. As the beginning of a paper is understood as the introduction, no
‘introduction’ heading is needed.
Figure 23. Format for five levels of Headings
Levels
1
Format
Centred, Bold, Title Case Heading
Text begins indented as a new paragraph
2
Flush Left, Bold, Title Case Heading
Text begins indented as a new paragraph
3
Flush Left Bold Italic, Title Case Heading
Text begins indented as a new paragraph
4
Indented, Bold, Title Case Heading, Ending with a Period. Text begins
on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.
5
Indented, Bold Italics, Title Case Heading, Ending with a Period. Text
begins on the same line and continues as a regular paragraph.
6.1.5 FOOTNOTES
The use of footnotes within the APA standards is not meant for a replacement of citations in the
text and related reference entries. They are used in two ways: content footnotes and copyright
permission footnotes. A complete citation in the text and a related entry in the references must
still be made.
Content footnotes are kinds of footnotes supplement or amplify substantive information in
the text. They should not include complicated, irrelevant, or non-essential information. In
most cases, important information should be integrated in the text.
Copyright permission footnotes acknowledge the source of long direct quotations in the text.
You typically have to seek permission to use long quotes. For specific details, check in
the APA 7 Publication Manual (2020).
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FORMATTING OF TABLES AND FIGURES
For more information on citations for tables and figures in APA 7, see chapter 7 of The APA
Publication Manual (2020). Here are some brief guidelines for the formatting of tables and
figures.

Decide carefully whether you need tables and figures. It is better to present simple
descriptive statistics in the text, not in a table.

Design the tables and figures so that your message is displayed effectively. Do not put in
more information than you need to communicate your message.

Do not use a large number of tables and figures in relation to the amount of text. It is
confusing for a reader.

Align all tables and figures with the left margin after the end of the paragraph where the
first callout appears.

Entries within tables should be centre-aligned unless left-aligning them would make
them easier to read.

Label and caption your tables and figures fully and clearly. Consider carefully whether
the reader will be able to understand.

All contextual information should be present in the table or figure, allowing the reader
to comprehend it independently.

Refer to tables and figures by their number, and never as ‘figure above’, or ‘table below’.

If you are reproducing a table or figure, then the acknowledgement should appear
immediately below the table or figure in the notes section. (See Section 6.3)

When you are presenting your own tables or figures, you do not need to a source.
*Note: it is integral that tables and figures are both referred to, and explained within the text
itself. If you place them throughout the text (see Placement of Tables and Figures), explain the
key points either in the preceding or subsequent paragraph. Do not allow additions to speak
for themselves; rather, highlight the key issues, findings and tendencies.
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Table and Figure Components:
Tables and figures are structured as follows: Each has a table or figure number (Table 1, Figure
2), a table or figure title, and notes as needed.

Number: the table or figure number (e.g. Figure 23) appears above the figure in bold.

Title: the title appears one double spaced line below the figure number table/figure
number in italic title case.

Body/Image: the body may be single, 1.5, or double-spaced.

Legend: Figures may require legends positioned within the borders of the figure.

Note: should include any necessary supplementary information, as well as the
copyright.

There are three types of notes for tables and figures: general, specific, and probability
notes. All of them must be placed below the table in that order.
o General notes explain, qualify or provide information about the table as a
whole. Put explanations of abbreviations, symbols, etc. here.
o Specific notes explain, qualify or provide information about a particular
column, row, or individual entry. To indicate specific notes, use superscript
lowercase letters (e.g. a, b, c), and order the superscripts from left to right, top to
bottom.

Example: a n = 823. b One participant in this group was diagnosed with
schizophrenia during the survey.
o Probability notes provide the reader with the results of the tests for statistical
significance. Asterisks indicate the values for which the null hypothesis is
rejected, with the probability (p value) specified in the probability note. Such
notes are required only when relevant to the data in the table. Consistently use
the same number of asterisks for a given alpha level throughout your paper.

Example: *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001
o Attribution or in-text citation is placed within the note
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Placement of Tables and Figures
You have two options for the placement of tables and figures in APA Style:

Option 1: Place tables and figures throughout your text, close to the parts of the text
that refer to them.

Option 2: Place them all together at the end of your text (after the reference list) to
avoid breaking up the text.
If you place them throughout the text, note that each table or figure should only appear once. If
you refer to the same table or figure more than once, do not reproduce it each time; place the
table or figure after the paragraph in which it is first discussed. If you place all your tables and
figures at the end, you should have one table or figure on each page. Begin with all your tables,
then place all your figures afterwards.
Lists of Tables and Figures
APA does not require a list of tables or a list of figures. However, it is advisable to do so if your
text includes a lot of tables and/or figures. The list of tables, and a separate list of figures
should appear (in that order) after your Table of Contents, and should be presented similarly to
the Table of Contents.
ATTRIBUTION OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Tables and figures require attributions, which are similar to in-text citations. However, the
format of the citation for a table or a figure differs substantially from citations in text; this is
because they are written out in long format and placed within the ‘note’ of the table or Figure.
To correctly format citations for tables and figures, follow the order given below. In some cases
where a table or figure is from another source, you may need to adapt it to your purpose. In
these cases, insert “Adapted from” instead of just “From” before starting the citation. See the
following page for guidance on the format of the attribution for tables and figures that are
sourced in books, and periodicals.
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Figure 24. Tables and figures from journal articles and books
Source: journal article
Source: book
Adapted/Reproduced from “title of source”, by A.A. Author, B.B.
Author, C.C. Author, year, Journal Name, Volume(Issue), page
DOI/URL
Adapted/Reproduced from Title of Book, by A.A. Author, year,
Publisher DOI
REVISING THE PAPER
Revision concerns everything that you do to create a text. Thus, it covers revision of your
content, spelling, grammar, and punctuation. In this section we will focus on content; style and
tone, grammar and punctuation.
6.4.1 REVISING THE CONTENT
Your first consideration when revising your paper is the content. You need to check if your
paper correctly responds to the question or problem set, defined in the purpose or thesis
statement. Check what you have written against the outline that you made during your
planning, and check that your paper matches the purpose set.
Your purpose statement will have provided your paper with the controlling idea. Check that
each section (and each subsection) in the body of the paper expounds and clarifies the goal you
have set yourself. If you find some information is not clearly relevant, then either delete it, or
rewrite it in such a way that it is relevant. Consider the order of the points you make: do they
occur in the most effective order for your topic, or should you reorder them? Check whether
you have provided sufficient support for the points you wish to make. If you find that
information is missing, that you have not provided adequate evidence, then add it.
One way of checking your work is to read the paper without the introduction; just read the
middle part and conclusion. As you read, see if you can identify a clear pattern of organization
of information: each point and each sub-point should logically fit into a pattern.
Next, you should check your conclusion. You must conclude by providing the succinct response
to the purpose or thesis you set yourself. The conclusion needs to be based on the evidence or
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the arguments that you presented in the body. Do not have claims in the conclusion for which
you have not provided any evidence before.
You also need to check the sources you have cited. Checking is not merely a question of correct
citations in the text and the related references at the end of the paper; it concerns the accurate
reporting of the information your sources have provided. Your aim should be to summarize or
paraphrase the facts, ideas, and opinions that your sources advance: you are aiming to tell your
story, after all, referring accurately to the sources of the facts and ideas.
Check that you have not plagiarized. If you have quoted a source directly, make sure that you
have put the quotation in quotation marks, and that you have given the page reference for the
quotation as well. Finally, check that all the sources you have cited in the text are accurately
listed in the references. Your references should include only the sources cited in the text.
6.4.2 REVISING THE STYLE AND TONE
The style of your paper should be appropriate to formal academic writing. Eliminate jargon
that complicates your message. If you have used jargon or fashionable phrases (e.g. “an
empowering environment”), ask yourself what it means. If the meaning is not obvious, you
should not use it. The same applies to slang expressions, street language, and regionalisms (e.g.
Briticisms and Americanisms that non-Brits and non-Americans do not readily understand).
Specialist technical terms are not jargon if they are used in the appropriate context: they may,
however, need a quick explanation. Check whether you need to do so. Do strive to avoid
subjective and emotional language (e.g. “the plan is bad”, “the organization is extremely
disorganized”), as this may both reduce the academic tone of your writing, and serve to
alienate your reader.
Check that you have not filled your paper with unnecessary words (e.g. firms can be “bought”
and “sold”, not “bought up” and “sold off”) or unnecessary meta-discourse. Writing in a short,
precise style is a mark of good academic writing.
Academic style implies using the active voice, rather than the passive voice. This strengthens
your writing, and makes it livelier. When you are revising, check every passive sentence to see
if it cannot be better expressed in the active voice. While there are sound reasons for using the
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passive, such as avoiding first person pronouns or where the subject truly is irrelevant, too
many passive forms makes your writing overly complex, dull and long.
Academic style also implies avoiding first-person and second-person pronouns (I, we, my, our,
you, your etc.). Eliminate these forms and rephrase the relevant sentences: this may mean
switching to a passive structure or rewriting the sentence entirely.
Given that academic writing should be as objective and neutral as possible, it is also important
to eliminate, as much as possible, content that reflects gender bias. For this reason, the
gendered pronouns ‘he’ and ‘she’ should rarely be used, and only to describe actual people who
identify as such. Do not use ‘he’ or ‘she’ as a generic third person pronoun. Instead, it is now
widely accepted to use ‘they’ in the singular for this purpose. When using the singular ‘they’,
use the forms ‘them’, ‘their’, ‘theirs’, and themselves.
Writing in an academic style also means writing clearly. Make sure that if you use abbreviations
and technical jargon, you explain what they mean. Some very well-known abbreviations may be
used without explanation (e.g. “GDP”).
Avoid using contracted forms (e.g. “isn’t”, “aren’t”): Do not use complex or complicated
vocabulary and structures in an attempt to appear more academic or formal. This approach is
likely to irritate or bore your readers. Finally, do not try to ‘teach’ your readers: cut out as
many imperatives as you can (e.g. “Recall that … ”, “Remember … ”, “Consider … ”, “Note … ”).
6.4.3 REVISING THE GRAMMAR, SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION
This guide does not include a section on grammar. At entry to the SBE you are expected to have
a certain level of English that implies the mastery of the basic principles of good sentence
structure and coherent paragraph writing. There are numerous websites that will help you
with grammar, such as Purdue University’s Online Writing Lab. Make sure you consult such
resources if you are unsure of any grammatical structures.
Your first check is at the level of the paragraph. You check whether each paragraph is well
structured, that there is a topic sentence, and that the paragraph is adequately developed. If
you are comparing, for example, does your paragraph compare? If you are explaining the
causes of a situation, does your paragraph give the causes? Check the pattern of nouns and
83
verbs to see if they are consistent. For example, the more frequently you change the subject of
sentences, the more difficult the text is to read. Similarly, if you frequently change from active
to passive verb tenses, you make it more difficult for your readers to understand. Consistent
chains of subject within a paragraph ensure that your paper is easier to read.
Secondly, check the connective words and phrases to see whether they support your argument.
Connective words function at two levels; at a rhetorical level between paragraphs and between
sentences, and within sentences, as links between clauses and phrases. Some connective words
will function at both levels, but most will not. You need to check whether you are using the
appropriate connective word, for example:
Words for addition
in addition, moreover, for example, for instance, in particular, and,
also, both ... and, as well as
Words for cause
thus, consequently, as a result, so, therefore, as a consequence
Words for contrast
but, however, although
Words for
sequence
briefly, first, finally, next, then, in short, second, third
Make sure you are neither using too many connective words or not enough: how well does
your argument fit together? Can your readers follow, or do they have to infer too much
between points? Are you patronizing your readers by using too many connectives? The
message risks becoming obscured by the means.
At the level of each sentence, you need to check the nouns, the verbs, the pronouns, and the
syntactic structures. Check that your sentences are not ambiguous or unclear. Especially check
that you can clearly identify what every pronoun, especially “it”, “that”, and “this” refers to. Use
a grammar checker if available, but they are not infallible.
Resources
Corpus Linguistic software is a great benefit when you are unsure if a word or phrase is correct
and being applied in the appropriate context. Brigham-Young University has developed a
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software tool that allows you to check your word or phrase on all of the most significant
corpora, including the British National Corpus (BNC) , which is a corpus of 100 million words,
and the Corpus of Contemporary American (COCA), which is a corpus of 520 million words. You
can check for word frequency, collocates, and semantic prosody (checking if a word carries a
negative, neutral, or positive tone in a given context). Both webpages provide help and
explanations of how to use them.
Regardless of external help, use the spell checker carefully before you submit your paper.
However, spell checkers are not perfect, so double-check in a good dictionary if you are in
doubt. Papers with careless spelling errors usually attract lower grades. Whether you choose
British or American English, be consistent throughout your paper.
Finally, double check all your punctuation. For example, there are differences in punctuation
practices between English and many European languages, such as the use of the comma. Check
by using a good guide. Many are available electronically.
EVALUATION
As stated before, it is not possible to give a blueprint for the writing of a paper. The same
applies to the assessment of a paper. Every paper is tailor-made and needs to be considered as
such. However, the assessor refers to a defined set of criteria when correcting your paper. All
these criteria are discussed in the preceding text in this guide. The criteria are displayed on the
“Tutor Grading Criteria” document on the final page of your course manual. It is highly
recommended to use this document as a checklist, when finalizing your paper. When correcting
your submitted paper, the assessor will address the various items on the document in the
comments and annotations they leave on your paper. You should request a copy of the
annotated paper when you receive your results. You can do this by sending a request which
includes your name, student ID number, course code, group number, and tutor name to the
dedicated email address to which you are directed at the plenaries and during the course. In
order to acquire routine and expertise, always evaluate your performance afterwards by
analysing the returned paper and the related comments, edits, and annotations.
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REFERENCES
American Psychological Association. (2020). The Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association (7th ed.).
Bruer, J. T. (1993). Schools for thought: a science of learning in the classroom. MIT
Press.
Fulwiler, T., & Hayakawa, A. R. (2000). The Blair Handbook (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall.
Hannay, M., & Mackenzie, J. L. (2002). Effective writing in English (2nd ed.). Martinus
Nijhoff.
Hume-Pratuch, J. (2012, December 06). Citing Translated Sources in APA Style [Web log].
http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2012/12/citing-translated-works-in-apa-style.html
Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for academic purposes. Cambridge University Press.
Lee, C. (2011, June 03). How Do You Cite an E-Book (e.g., Kindle Book)? [Web log].
http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2011/06/how-do-you-cite-an-e-book.html
Lee, C. (2013, October 18). How to Cite Social Media in APA Style (Twitter, Facebook, and
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Lee, C. (2014, January 17). Timestamps for Audio-visual Materials in APA Style. [Web log].
http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2014/01/timestamps-for-audiovisual-materials-inapa-style.html
Lee, C. (2014, November 04). Lost in Translation: Citing Your Own Translations in APA Style
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[Web log]. http://blog.apastyle.org/apastyle/2014/11/lost-in-translation-citing-yourown-translations-in-apa-style.html
Stefanie (2011, October 27). How to Create a Reference for a YouTube Video. [Web log].
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Wilkinson, R., Rijlaarsdam, G., & van Essen, A. (2005. Patterns of citation behaviour
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