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Organizational Cultural Competence and Disaster Relief
Preparation: Implications for Policy and Practice
Martell L. Teasley, Ph.D.
Florida State University
Cultural diversity is a variable of increasing magnitude in American society and cannot be discounted in disaster preparation and relief. Recent disasters have demonstrated a need for increased attention, education, and training in the development of culturally competent emergency management professionals and services. The purpose of
this article is to provide disaster relief professionals and volunteers with some general information on the development of organizational policies and practices towards the preparation and training of personnel for culturally competent disaster relief services with vulnerable populations. It includes information on cultural awareness and assessment, identification of characteristics and factors that determine organizational culture, and implications for community outreach during crisis intervention. The model utilized in this discussion is one widely used in emergency
management — focusing on mitigation/prevention, preparedness, response, and recovery — to demonstrate how
organizational policy and practice can be used to infuse cultural competence into community crisis intervention
management and long-term disaster recovery.
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURAL COMPETENCE AND DISASTER RELIEF
PREPARATION: IMPLICATIONS FOR POLICY AND PRACTICE
The training and preparation by emergency management organizations and agencies for
disaster relief intervention is in many ways undervalued by those same organizations and
agencies. Yet, as each passing hurricane season reminds us, preparation in knowledge and skills
for cross-cultural disaster relief services is a valuable asset for emergency management
professionals and relief workers. First, “Poor people around the world suffer the greatest
disaster losses and have the most limited access to public and private recovery assets, both in
developing societies as well as wealthy industrialized nations like the United States” (Fothergill
and Peek, 2002, 89). Second, there are obvious ethnic and racial group similarities and
differences that impact the helping process such as language barriers, wealth, community
resources, and political access. Third, beyond the more superficial aspects of cultural diversity,
there are deeper level cultural distinctions, nuances, differences, and similarities within,
between, and among racial and ethnic groups that should be a part of the competent relief
workers’ knowledge base.
Recent Hurricane seasons have demonstrated that many relief organizations and agencies,
local and state governments, public health and law enforcement agencies are struggling with
cultural awareness and changing populations. For example, the Tallahassee Democrat (2004)
reported that during Hurricane Charley Hispanic migrant workers from Pine Island, Florida
were confused and hungry but reluctant to ask for assistance. During Hurricane Katrina,
there were gross differences in the portrayal of Black Americans and White Americans, both
of whom were entering closed stores in search of food and other needed supplies. Some
television newscasters reported Black Americans as “breaking into stores” and “looting,”
whereas the general portrayal of White Americans were stated as, “in desperate need” and
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“getting needed supplies.” Rubin and Popkin’s study of problems with Hurricane Hugo
revealed that many of the victims had special needs because of high illiteracy rates, extreme
poverty, fear and distrust of government authorities, physical isolation in rural communities,
and a lack of electronic media for several weeks following the storm. (cited in Fothergill and
Peek, 2002) “These issues resulted in members of service agencies reporting that providing
assistance to the rural poor following the hurricane was unusually difficult and time
consuming” (Fothergill and Peek, 2002, 93). This was due in part to a total lack of interface
with the rural poor by emergency management professionals prior to the storm and too the
“invisibility” of many of the rural poor. Research following hurricane Hugo also revealed that
those public officials had never been to many poor areas hit by the storm and were not aware
of the extent of the problem.
These brief examples and many more cited within the research literature (Denison and
Mishra, 1995; Diamond, 1991; Fothergill and Peek, 2004; Mileti, Cress, and Darlington,
2002; Peguro, 2006; Rubin and Peek, 2004) identify a need for examining organizational
cultural competence in preparation for disaster relief and recovery. Emergency management
organizations that do not value and respect human diversity cannot possibly meet the needs
of diverse client populations and communities. Disaster relief organizations and agencies
must employ a workforce and provide an environment and training opportunities that
promote acquisition of a knowledge base and critical thinking about racial and ethnic diversity
in a cross-cultural encounter.
The purpose of this article is to provide disaster relief professionals and volunteers with
some general information on the development of organizational policies and practices towards
the preparation and training of personnel for culturally competent disaster relief services with
vulnerable populations. This includes information on cultural awareness and assessment,
identification of characteristics and factors that determine organizational culture, and
implications for community outreach during crisis intervention. The overarching theme is
that organizations and communities must make concerted efforts to include culturally diverse
and marginalized groups in all phases of planning, preparation, and restoration during a
disaster occurrence and long-term recovery.
Understanding Cultural Competence
Cultural competence is part of a continuum of social skills and personality development
(Diller, 2004). It particularly pertains to an acquired ability used in conjunction with
knowledge and acquired skill for facilitating communication and egalitarian interactions
across cultures. To achieve cultural competence means to strive towards mastery of a particular
ability that enables the disaster relief worker or professional to make appropriate decisions in
a situation where obvious or underlying cultural norms and values may be a factor. There are
several levels in the process of becoming culturally competent: understanding and awareness
of cultural diversity; self-awareness including assessment of thoughts, attitudes, and actions
toward cultural diversity; skill development; and finally, cultural competence — which is an
ongoing process that seeks the continuous exchange of knowledge, responsibility, and respect
for the views and values of other diverse cultural groups (Lum, 2003).
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According to the National Center for Cultural Competence (NCCC), the concept of
organizational cultural competence is a developmental process for both individuals and
organizations as well as for individuals in organizations (Cross, et al., 1989). The NCCC has
developed a framework of requirements for determining organizational cultural competence:
• Have a defined set of values and principles, and demonstrate behaviors, attitudes,
policies and structures that enable them to work effectively cross-culturally.
• Have the capacity to (1) value diversity, (2) conduct self-assessment, (3) manage
the dynamics of difference, (4) acquire and institutionalize cultural knowledge
and (5) adapt to diversity and the cultural contexts of the communities of the served.
• Incorporate the above in all aspects of policymaking, administration, practice, service
delivery and systematically involve consumers, key stakeholders and communities
(see: www.http://gucchd.georgetown.edu/nccc/framework.html).
Disaster relief organizations and agencies must be concerned with their policies, standard
operating procedures and practice that affect client services. Organizational culture is defined
as the “shared perceptions, assumptions, beliefs, values, norms, artifacts, and patterns of
behavior of an organization. It consists of the unseen and unobservable forces that are always
behind organizational activities (Brueggemann, 2002, 232). Examining various aspects of an
organization’s structure as well as its activities and policies may help determine what type of
culture the organization has. For example, is the organization a for-profit or not-for-profit
agency? If the agency is for-profit, it may be more focused on generating revenue and
preserving the “bottom line” than on providing individualized services to clients or creating a
creative work environment for employees. Something else to consider is the organization’s
management structure. Does the organization have a vertical structure, in which a formal
hierarchy of mid- and upper-level managers exists? Or, is the organization more horizontal,
creating a team-like atmosphere with shared decision-making? For greater understanding on
the meaning of organizational culture and to understand the culture of a particular
o r g a n i z a t i o n , p l e a s e v i e w t h e O r g a n i z a t i o n a l C u l t u r e We b Wa l k a t
http://leo.oise.utoronto.ca/~vsvede/culture.htm.
One important indicator of an organization’s culture is the way decisions are made. Do
executive directors and administrators of public or private disaster relief organizations and
agencies incorporate feedback from frontline workers and clients before decisions are made
that affect organizational policy or service delivery? Is input from constituents who reside in
the organization’s primary service sector considered in the development of services? Are
decisions made by a board of directors behind closed doors and handed from the top down to
others? The answer to these questions may tell you the degree to which employees’ opinions
are valued and clients’ voices are respected.
One way of understanding levels of cultural sensitivity for a particular organizational
culture is to assess its strengths and weaknesses of service towards diverse client populations
within it primary service sector. It may not be possible to determine whether a particular
organization’s culture is “good” or “bad,” but it is certainly possible to evaluate whether
specific characteristics could be improved to make an organization function more effectively,
increase employees’ level of job satisfaction, and improve the quality of services offered to
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clients. For example, limited proficiency in English only becomes problematic when no
accommodations are made for the reality of a particular community that requires disaster relief
services. This was illustrated during the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, when many
Vietnamese Americans found themselves as refugees once again with approximately 10,000
settling in the Houston, Texas area. Similar to many Latino hurricane survivors, these
Vietnamese Americans faced difficulties in accessing services from FEMA and the Red Cross
due to language and cultural differences; some did not know they were eligible for services and
others were unfairly denied.1
A culturally competent organization is one that is familiar with the diversity of its
constituents. Such organizations are proactive in reaching out to diverse groups that may
experience culturally specific barriers to accessing services. How elders are greeted is very
important to many Asian, Latino, and African American communities. Not asking direct
questions but implying an unspoken message is different than the more direct approach to
discourse taken by many Euro-Americans (Lum, 2003). Detecting these and other cultural
nuances can facilitate the helping process, and is an example of a skill related to cross-cultural
competence. Remember: each setting calls for a different, but sometimes similar, knowledge
base and skill set.
What should public and private relief emergency management and relief organizations and
agencies do in preparation for providing services to vulnerable populations within their
primary service area? What policies and practices within an organization lead to the
development of ongoing training, knowledge development, critical thinking and intra- and
interorganizational collaboration that is characteristic of developing culturally competent
emergency management personnel? How can organizations assess their individual members as
well as their overall level of organizational cultural competence? What are the strengths of
developing organizational cultural competence and weaknesses of low levels such activities or
policies?
Of primary importance to all relief organizations is the development of contingency plans
for responding to their target populations. The strength of a culturally competent disaster
relief organization is its ability to respond to the diverse needs of vulnerable populations. On
the other hand, the weaknesses of an organization’s culture are never more apparent than
during times of crisis when the stakes are high and the immediate needs of a specific
population is within its primary or target service sector. As such, in planning for a disaster
occurrence, it is important that relief organizations evaluate their level of preparation for
underserved populations. This evaluation process should include a careful review of existing
policies and procedures from the perspectives of administrative and direct care staff as well as
other stakeholders, including clients and volunteers. In addition, all stakeholders (e.g., board
members, administrators, staff, clients, volunteers) should be given an opportunity to share
their concerns, suggestions, and experiences in a safe environment where they can be honest
without fear of repercussion.
Cultural Competence and Organizational Self-Assessment
Why is it important for an organization to evaluate and improve its level of cultural
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competence? In order for an organization to respond effectively to the needs of diverse
populations and other vulnerable groups (e.g., elderly, disabled, individuals diagnosed with a
mental illness) before, during, and after a disaster, it is essential that steps be taken to examine
that organization’s ability to engage in competent service delivery with vulnerable populations
in non-emergency times. Researchers argue that one major reason for organizational cultural
competence is that an organization that is culturally diverse is likely to be more creative,
innovative, adaptable, and flexible (Iglehart, 2000). In times of crisis and confusion, such as
during a natural disaster, these are the qualities that make an organization better able to stay
in operation and to meet the needs of its clients. In addition, research also shows that
organizations that are culturally diverse are more likely to develop strong relationships with
their community (Iglehart, 2000). “The community experiences the agency through its
workers” (Iglehart, 2000, 427). This means that community members and organizations get
to know an organization through its workers. If relief organization personnel have little
knowledge of vulnerable populations within their service sector and do not represent the
diversity of the community, it may be harder for that organization to build effective
relationships with the community’s most vulnerable cultural groups. As a result, the
organization may not be able to meet the diverse needs of its community, especially during a
disaster when strong relationships are critical.
The NCCC stresses that there are several benefits to organizational self-assessment such as
the development of a strategic organizational plan with clearly defined long-term and shortterm goals, measurable objectives, identification of essential personnel as a resource toward
organizational cultural competence, and enhanced community and consumer partnerships.
Self-assessment can also provide a vehicle to measure outcomes for organizations, personnel,
population groups and the community at large. This can be a valuable tool for emergency
management professionals and volunteer organizations that provide services to diverse groups
and ethnic and linguistic minorities. Relief organizations must continuously engage in selfassessment during preparation of crisis intervention.
According to the NCCC, guiding principles that will facilitate appropriate institutional
and organizational policy and practice toward the development of organizational cultural
competence include: (a) viewing self-assessment as a strength-based model2; (b) engaging in
self-assessment in a safe and non-judgmental environment; (c) assuring involvement of
community stakeholders and key constituent groups; and (d) the development of diverse
dissemination strategies that facilitate self-assessment, such as conference calls, town hall
meetings, strategic planning sessions, comprehensive reports and executive summaries,
education and training, on-site program and workgroup consultations, and collaboration with
other service providers in the planning process.
Likewise, the implementation of organization cultural competence self-assessment should
include cultivating leadership that practices and believes in the value of diversity; gaining a buyin from personnel, managers, administrators and consumer communities towards
understanding the importance of the self-assessment process in disaster relief preparation;
assuring community collaborations and partnerships; developing structured support which
includes the necessity of convening a committee within an organization for the purpose of
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assuring the responsibility of implementing the self-assessment process; allocating personnel
and fiscal resources for the purpose of self-assessment including budgeting considerations; and
managing logistics — the effective coordination of tasks that are vital to the self-assessment
process throughout an organization. The NCCC provides several tools for assessing both
individual and organizational levels of cultural competence.3
Culturally Competent Crisis Management For Organizations And Communities
What kinds of activities or community events can an organization initiate or become
involved in that might ensure culturally competent crisis intervention for disaster relief?
Though an organization might make informal efforts to promote awareness for cultural
differences, a culturally competent organization demonstrates its sensitivity through its
adoption and implementation of organizational policies and procedures that address the needs
and preferences of diverse groups (Hogan, 2007).
A well-known model used in emergency management education and training is the four
stages of crisis management: (1) Mitigation and Prevention, (2) Preparedness, (3) Response,
and (4) Recovery (depicted in Figure 1). Many disaster relief organizations and communitybased agencies use this model as part of their mission and planning for community crisis
intervention services. As demonstrated in Table 1, I use this model in conjunction with the
Culturally Competent Guiding Values and Principles for Community Engagement by the NCCC
(National Center of Cultural Competence) (Cross, et al., 1989). The focus is placed on
specific strategies an organization or a united community can take to organize its crisis
management efforts and to address the needs of its most vulnerable citizens.
FIGURE 1.
Mitigation
& Prevention
Preparedness
Recovery
Response
Source: U.S. Department of Education (May 2003)
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TABLE 1.
ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURAL COMPETENCE AND COMMUNITY DISASTER INTERVENTION
Domain
Administrative
Policy / Practice
Community
Engagement
Professional
Development/Training
Administration
Strategic hiring of
diverse workforce &
cultivation of leadership
Identify key community
stakeholders and informal
leaders
Acquire & institutionalize
cultural knowledge
Personnel
Buy-into and appreciate
the need for cultural
diversity
Identify & understand
vulnerable populations
within primary service area
On-going training and
feedback that values diversity
Work Environment Demonstrated behaviors,
attitudes and policies
that value diversity
Hold town forums,
meetings, & workshops
on disaster planning
Build collaboration
and partnerships
Self-Assessment
Oversight of policies
and standard operating
procedures that affect
client services with
consideration for
vulnerable populations
Extend the concept of selfdetermination to the
community
Culturally competent
evaluation and measured
outcomes and feedback to
all levels of personnel over
extended period of time
Mitigation &
Prevention
Decision making that is
inclusive of input from
the interior and exterior
Work in conjunction with
natural, informal support,
and helping networks
within culturally diverse
communities
Identification of risk,
protection, and preventive
measures for vulnerable
populations
Disaster Preparation View community as full
partner in the decision
making process /
identify special needs
populations
Residential outreach
and education
Community engagement
should result in the
reciprocal transfer of knowledge
and skills among all
collaborators and partners
Disaster Response
Set-up diverse advisoryboard and the
development of
communication
feedback loop
Empower community to
help determine its needs
during a disaster
occurrence
Sound decision-making,
innovation, initiative, and
advocacy for vulnerable
populations
Recovery
Assist vulnerable
populations with
negotiating bureaucratic
institutions
Vulnerable community
members should economically
benefit from community
collaborative efforts
Development of reports
and executive summaries that
include information on services
to vulnerable populations
Getting Organized
In order to coordinate the efforts of its many organizations and community groups, a
community must first identify or establish a lead agency or council to direct the planning,
response, and recovery processes at the community level. Ideally, this agency or council should
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include representatives from human service organizations, law enforcement and emergency
response agencies, and county, city, and state government. It should also include influential
members of the diverse groups living in the community, such as a church minister, union
leader, a tribal healer, or known informal leaders.
In general, the objective is to include people who are familiar with available (and unavailable) services, who are experts in emergency response activities and assistance, and who are
knowledgeable about the unique needs and experiences of diverse groups within particular
community and neighborhood settings. In this way, communities can help determine their own
needs in terms of disaster preparation and relief (Cross, et al., 1989).
Mitigation and Prevention
Mitigation and prevention activities comprise the first stage of crisis management. These
activities are intended to either “reduce or eliminate risk to life and property” or “decrease the
need for response” (U.S. Department of Education, 2003, 1-6, 2-3). Mitigation and
prevention activities may include, for example, physical improvements to buildings and
drainage systems, the development of evacuation procedures and routes, or outreach efforts to
educate people about the steps they should take in the event of a tornado or hurricane.
Obviously, identifying appropriate mitigation and prevention activities requires in-depth
knowledge of a community’s geography and physical infrastructure as well as the unique needs
of diverse and vulnerable groups. For example, in their research and planning efforts, Palm
Beach County (PBC), Florida discovered that many frail and disabled elders have no means
of transportation in the event they need to evacuate their homes (Rothman et al., 2005). One
solution researchers identified was to work with faith-based and civic organizations to establish
creative evacuation solutions, such as host transporters who could transport individuals to host
homes or elder-friendly shelters. PBC also noted that mitigation and prevention efforts for
elder evacuation should also include ensuring that emergency responders, human service
workers, and volunteers have the training necessary to transport frail and disabled elders safely.
Disaster Preparedness
Disaster preparedness activities include those measures a community takes to prepare for
the worst-case scenario. “Preparedness activities may include devising disaster plans, gathering
emergency supplies, training response teams, and educating residents about a potential
disaster” (Fothergill and Peek, 2004, 92). Preparedness activities are similar to mitigation
activities, but preparedness activities are conducted with the assumption that emergency
assistance will be needed as a result of the effects of a disaster.
As organizations and communities make plans for disaster preparedness, it is critical to keep
in mind that preparedness behaviors and receptiveness to warnings vary among diverse
vulnerable groups. Research shows that people who are living in poverty are less likely to
complete preparedness activities recommended by community officials (Fothergill and Peek,
2004). This is primarily because they generally lack the resources to do so. People may also fail
to complete necessary preparedness activities because they never receive the community’s
warning messages. Homeless people may not have access to television or newspapers.
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Individuals who do not speak English may not understand radio broadcasts. Following
Hurricane Andrew, researchers “found that poor women heard the storm warnings, but were
unable to take action because they did not have enough money for supplies or transportation”
(Fothergill and Peek, 2004, 93).
In their planning report, Palm Beach County (PBC) researchers recommend that another
important step that all communities take to prepare for a disaster is to maintain an updated
list of vulnerable people living in the community who may require special assistance
(Rothman et al., 2005). This means that it may be necessary to establish extra shelters or
public transportation pick-up points near impoverished neighborhoods in which most
residents do not have transportation. Faith-based and civic organizations might be called upon
to recruit volunteers to host displaced families or donate food and water to those who are
unable to leave their homes.
Disaster Response
Response activities are those that take place during and after a disaster when people need
immediate assistance to treat injuries, rejoin missing loved ones, secure safe shelter, and obtain
food, water, and necessary medical supplies. When planning their disaster response strategies,
it is important that communities take the lessons of other communities to heart. A culturally
diverse, community-wide advisory council should take the lead in organizing the efforts of
civic organizations, faith-based organizations, and emergency response agencies to come up
with creative and culturally sensitive ways to meet the needs of those community members
who would otherwise fall through the cracks. This will empower a given community to help
determine its own needs during a disaster (Cross, et al., 1989).
Recovery
The final stage of crisis management is the recovery stage, the period following a disaster
in which a community works to rebuild itself. As organizations and communities undertake
the short-term and long-term recovery processes, it is imperative that cultural sensitivity and
awareness inform all relief and recovery efforts. Help-seeking behaviors and customs vary
significantly among diverse groups and particular attention to nuances can make a meaningful
difference. Therefore, relief and recovery efforts should be made with the unique needs of
specific groups in mind. For example, door-to-door delivery of food, water, and ice to elderly
community members is ideal, particularly given that many elders cannot lift and carry a bag
of ice or a gallon of water (Rothman et al., 2005). In Palm Beach County, people reported that
although the Red Cross and other agencies provided elders with military meals, many elders
could not use them because they were unable to open and prepare them (Rothman et al.,
2005).
It is also important that a community hit by a disaster benefit from collaborations with relief
organizations (Cross, et al., 1989). Communities should consider that many groups have great
difficulty obtaining assistance from large bureaucratic organizations. Many marginalized
groups may distrust governmental officials or resist accepting what they perceive to be charity
or “welfare.” Others may have physical or mental disabilities which make it difficult to
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complete lengthy forms and application packets. Researchers “noted that poorer victims
encountered more obstacles in making trips to Disaster Assistance Centers following
Hurricane Andrew because of transportation, child care, and work difficulties. Moreover,
some recovery programs have used a nuclear family model, which serves to award funds to a
“traditional” head of the household; however, this type of model serves to disadvantage poor,
minority women (Fothergill and Peek, 2004, 98).
CONCLUSION
Cultural diversity is a variable of increasing magnitude in American society and cannot be
discounted in disaster preparation and relief. A culturally competent organization is one that
values and respects human diversity, promotes awareness of and appreciation for cultural
differences, implements policies that address the needs and preferences of various ethnic
groups, and makes appropriate outreach efforts to serve a culturally diverse community. Those
underlying beliefs and norms, which dictate organizational policies and procedures as well as
daily operating practices and service delivery protocol, define organizational culture.
An organization’s culture is the driving force behind its employee and client relations.
Therefore, it is important to consider the strengths and weaknesses of an organization’s
culture, particularly when planning for a disaster occurrence. If an organization’s staff and
clients generally feel frustrated and powerless by the organization’s lack of responsiveness or
openness to feedback, then it is safe to assume that those staff and clients do not have the
organizational resources and support they will need in order to respond effectively to diverse
populations during or after a disaster (Fothergill and Peek, 2002).
In order to create effective plans and to ensure that the needs of all community members
will be met in the event of a disaster, organizations and communities must create ways of
having input that represents the diversity of the community as well as the various agencies that
will be called upon to provide emergency assistance (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).
In order to engage in preventive measures that may reduce the inherent risk that vulnerable
populations face during and after a disaster occurrence, it is critical that communities obtain
feedback from representatives of diverse and marginalized groups about creative and effective
ways to get warning messages out and to help vulnerable citizens either prepare their homes
or secure transportation to evacuate to a safer location. In order for this to occur, it is critical
that emergency management professionals be knowledgeable of and sensitive to the unique
needs, values, and customs of diverse groups, especially those who may be unwilling or unable
to access traditional disaster relief services.
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NOTES
1 Choi, Juliet, “Current Challenges faced by Asian Americans and Hurricane Katrina: Highlights on Language
Services and Physical and Mental Health Concerns,” Asian American Justice Center, September 28, 2005.
2 By strength-based I mean acknowledgement of internal qualities and individual assets that may be inadvertently
overlooked. For example, a client’s ability to keep his or her family together despite gross economy hardship
may be overlooked as an asset.
3 http://www111.gerogetown.edu/research/gucchd/nccc/foundations/assessment.html.
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