A Critical Analysis of the Marvel Cinematic
Universe’s Influence on Building a Chinese
Mythological Animation Universe
Undergraduate Thesis
05/03/2021
Xiaopei Wang
Shanghai Institute of Visual Arts
Abstract
The concept of a “cinematic universe” refers to a filmic framework in which
multidimensional characters and storylines are either shared or constructed together to
form a unified worldview. Through audiovisual media, it presents to audiences both the
narratives of individual works and the interconnections among them. Unlike the sequel
model, a cinematic universe does not always unfold along a strictly linear storyline.
Instead, it introduces dispersed yet potentially interrelated characters and narratives, and
at appropriate points in their development, brings these figures together to generate new
mainstream storylines. Within such a worldview, each film can stand independently
while remaining interconnected.
The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), centered around numerous superheroes with
distinct personalities, has satisfied diverse cultural demands and represents one of the
most successful and canonical cases in contemporary serial filmmaking. Its construction
model provides critical guidance for the development of today’s commercial film series.
By contrast, although attempts have been made in China to create interconnected film and
television works, the country has yet to establish a truly complete cinematic universe. In
the summer of 2019, the animated film Ne Zha (2019), produced by Coloroom Pictures
and distributed by Beijing Enlight Pictures, achieved a box office revenue of over 5
billion RMB and became a nationwide phenomenon in Chinese animation. This prompts
us to consider: could Ne Zha serve as a point of departure for building a “Chinese
mythological animation universe” analogous to the MCU?
This study adopts literature review, case study, and comparative research methods to
analyze the MCU’s successful model from the dual perspectives of production and
marketing. It seeks to summarize and reveal the underlying logic and principles behind
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the successful construction of a cinematic universe. In addition, it examines the current
conditions and challenges facing China’s nascent efforts—following the success of Ne
Zha—to establish its own cinematic universe, and offers targeted recommendations and
strategies. In doing so, the paper aims to explore the potential for developing a Chinese
mythological animation universe.
Key Words: Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU); Chinese Mythological Animation
Universe; Production; Marketing
Introduction
(I) Research Background
The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) is a shared fictional world centered on
superhero films, produced by Marvel Studios based on characters from Marvel
Comics. Over the span of more than a decade, from 2008 to 2019, the MCU was
carefully planned and developed, ultimately becoming one of the most successful
cinematic universes in the world, characterized by both immense cultural influence
and strong box-office appeal. Avengers: Endgame, released in mainland China on
April 24, 2019, represented the culmination of Marvel’s “ten-year plan and final
battle.” As a pivotal work, it both concluded the narrative arc of the first-generation
Avengers and initiated a new chapter for the second generation. The film created an
enormous sensation among audiences and casual viewers alike, sparking
unprecedented levels of discussion on social media. Critics further praised the film as
the climax of a ten-year, 22-film saga [Wikipedia, Avengers: Endgame]. Ultimately,
Avengers: Endgame ranked sixth in the history of Chinese box office earnings,
grossing approximately 4.25 billion RMB domestically, and more than USD 2.7
billion worldwide, making it the highest-grossing film globally in 2019.
In the same year, the Chinese animated feature Ne Zha (2019), released during the
summer season and produced by Coloroom Pictures with distribution by Beijing
Enlight Pictures, achieved unprecedented acclaim in both reputation and revenue. Its
total box office reached approximately 5.036 billion RMB, surpassing the domestic
earnings of Avengers: Endgame and ranking third in the history of Chinese cinema,
setting a new milestone for Chinese animation [Data source: EntGroup, Mainland
China Box Office Ranking]. Moreover, owing to its combination of commercial and
cultural value, the film received critical acclaim from both professional juries and
general audiences, and was selected as the official entry representing mainland China
for the 92nd Academy Awards in 2020 in the category of Best International Feature
Film.
Choosing Ne Zha as the point of departure for constructing a potential “Chinese
mythological animation universe” is based on two main reasons. First, both films hold
nearly identical ratings on major Chinese review platforms such as Douban and
Maoyan, indicating that in terms of narrative quality and audience engagement, there
is little difference between them. Second, according to the author’s survey, on Weibo
—the largest domestic social media platform—Marvel Studios’ official account has
6.14 million followers, whereas Ne Zha’s official account has 1.24 million followers
[Data source: Weibo metrics on “Marvel Studios” and “Ne Zha” accounts]. It is worth
emphasizing that Marvel’s follower base encompasses fans of 22 films and multiple
superhero franchises, whereas Ne Zha’s account represents a single film. Despite this,
Ne Zha has generated 5.848 million topic discussions on Weibo, far exceeding the
1.226 million discussions of Avengers: Endgame. This comparison demonstrates that
Ne Zha can rival Avengers: Endgame in terms of fan engagement and general
audience participation, thereby qualifying it as a legitimate candidate to serve as the
inaugural work in developing a “Chinese mythological animation universe.”
(II) Research Object
This paper takes the Marvel Cinematic Universe, the proposed Chinese Mythological
Animation Universe, and the production and subsequent marketing of Ne Zha as its
primary research objects. It draws upon the successful experience of the MCU to analyze
the problems encountered in China’s attempts to construct a mythological animation
universe and proposes potential solutions.
(III) Research Significance
In a mature cinematic universe, narrative questions and clues embedded in one film are
resolved or explained in another, while familiar characters support the introduction of
new ones. This interdependence fosters reciprocal benefits among characters, ultimately
enhancing the market competitiveness and extending the lifecycle of the entire universe.
The economic returns and potential of such cinematic universes are both remarkable and
substantial.
At present, China finds itself at an optimal juncture for creating unique cultural brands
and strengthening cultural influence, and public demand for developing a domestic
cinematic universe is rising steadily. From both economic and cultural perspectives, the
construction of a Chinese cinematic universe should therefore be prioritized.
When selecting a topic for this thesis, the author chose to focus on the phenomenal
animated feature Ne Zha, while also noting contemporaneous reports of Enlight Media’s
plans to establish a cinematic universe. However, with the release of Jiang Ziya—long
perceived as a sequel sharing the same worldview as Ne Zha—its performance revealed
critical issues, which also exemplify the broader challenges of constructing a Chinese
mythological animation universe.
Moreover, most academic articles and commentary surveyed by the author tend to offer
optimistic projections about the prospects of a Chinese mythological universe, while very
few have analyzed, in light of the recent release of Jiang Ziya, the problems and
obstacles that such an endeavor faces. This gap strengthened the author’s determination
to address this issue. The MCU, as a paradigmatic case built over a decade of successful
development, provides valuable lessons. Accordingly, this study situates Ne Zha as the
starting point for a Chinese mythological animation universe, analyzes it in comparison
with the MCU, and explores both the problems and conditions involved. By diagnosing
root causes and offering recommendations, the paper aims to distill and adapt successful
strategies from abroad, thus contributing corrective measures to advance the construction
and development of China’s own mythological animation universe.
(IV) Research Methods
This study employs literature review, case analysis, and comparative research methods to
examine the challenges and deficiencies in China’s efforts to build a mythological
animation universe.
1. Literature Review
Relevant resources and scholarly works were consulted from the libraries of the Shanghai
Institute of Visual Arts and the Shanghai Library, supplemented by digital academic
databases and printed monographs. Direct searches were also conducted regarding
activities and operational information, including Marvel’s cross-brand marketing
initiatives and the authorized merchandising practices related to Ne Zha.
2. Case Analysis
Through a case study of the MCU’s decade-long success, the paper distills several
concrete practices and extracts valuable lessons. At the same time, by analyzing the
production and marketing strategies of Ne Zha, it identifies existing problems in order to
formulate targeted countermeasures.
3. Comparative Research
The paper employs comparative research between the MCU’s success and the ongoing
attempts to build a Chinese mythological animation universe. The analysis focuses on the
domestic environment, cultural traditions, industrial background, and modes of
presentation. The study summarizes the challenges faced in the developmental process
and probes into their deeper causes. During the comparison, efforts are made to avoid one
-sided interpretations confined to narrow definitions of technical terms or isolated
examinations of specific rules or institutions. Instead, the analysis pays simultaneous
attention to both cultural and policy contexts, with the aim of producing more accurate
comparative results.
I. Case Analysis of a Successful Cinematic Universe
The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) is widely regarded as the most successful and
canonical example of cinematic universe construction. Having developed over more than
a decade, its explorations and proven methods are worthy of close study and emulation.
To clarify the developmental logic and structural patterns behind its success, this paper
takes the MCU as a case study and identifies several indispensable elements.
(A) Production Dimension
1. A Strong Narrative Foundation
A strong narrative foundation plays a crucial role in initially attracting audiences and
consolidating a loyal fan base. Ideally, such a foundation is supported by an existing
source text or adaptation material, since the popularity and cultural capital of the original
work can greatly facilitate the successful development of a new cinematic universe.
The MCU—currently the most prolific in terms of adaptations, the highest-grossing
globally, and with the largest fan community and broadest global influence—originates
from Marvel Comics. Long before the release of the MCU’s inaugural film Iron Man
(2008), Marvel’s stories had already endured 69 years of cultural circulation and market
testing. Marvel’s comic books account for more than 40% of total comic sales in
American comic stores, commanding a dominant market share and exerting a lasting
influence on readers. According to surveys, more than 60% of American adults aged 18
to 44 identify themselves as Marvel Comics fans [Source: Marvel.com, Marvel Statistics].
The immense popularity and cultural momentum of the original works therefore provided
a solid foundation and continuous impetus for the successful development and
construction of the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
2. IP Development and Continuity of Characters
IP, or Intellectual Property, refers to intellectual property rights. In the contemporary
cultural industries, IP development involves exploring a cultural work from multiple
angles and dimensions, enriching its forms, and sustaining its creativity in order to
maximize its commercial value. The outcome is the creation of cultural symbols that are
highly recognizable, carry their own fan traffic, possess strong monetization potential,
and sustain long-term profitability. Achieving this requires each character IP to be vividly
distinctive, with a well-defined backstory and a recognizable persona that leaves a lasting
impression on audiences.
Character continuity builds upon this IP foundation, ensuring consistency of identity and
setting across subsequent installments. Marvel’s approach to character IP development is
comprehensive, ranging from central heroes to minor villains, with each role
demonstrating distinctive features on screen. In terms of continuity, Marvel films
typically employ fixed actors for recurring roles. With the exception of the “three
generations of Spider-Man,” a result of copyright complications, most Marvel characters
are consistently portrayed by the same actors across both their own franchises and the
larger MCU. For instance, Star-Lord of Guardians of the Galaxy, appearing in both
Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame, is consistently portrayed by American
actor Chris Pratt; likewise, Loki, appearing across multiple Thor and Avengers films, is
portrayed by British actor Tom Hiddleston.
This practice establishes enduring, distinct, and unified on-screen identities for each
superhero, embedding in the audience’s mind a clear and stable image of each character.
Such continuity provides a solid foundation for the expansion and sustainability of the
MCU’s broader industrial chain.
3. Unity of Values and Worldview
A cinematic universe entails the sharing of an overarching worldview across independent
films and specific narrative settings, adhering to a unified theme and core message while
constructing a distinctive brand identity. The Marvel Cinematic Universe is
fundamentally centered on the narrative core of superheroes. Each hero possesses
personal struggles and forward-driving goals: in the early phase, Captain America fought
against fascism; Thor endured numerous trials to prove himself as a worthy heir to the
throne; in later stages, the Avengers assembled to prevent Thanos from eradicating half
of all life. Despite the varied storylines, the unchanging theme—that justice will
ultimately triumph over evil—remains the MCU’s central throughline.
The heroes’ growth, choices, responsibilities, and sacrifices are consistently measured
against this guiding principle, thus shaping a complete and tightly woven circular
narrative structure. At the same time, the personal perspectives and values expressed by
individual superheroes are seamlessly integrated into the overarching worldview of the
MCU. This interplay between individual character arcs and the shared narrative
framework imbues the entire cinematic universe with vitality, coherence, and clarity.
4. Multi-Dimensional and Multi-Layered Character Framework
In a cinematic universe, time and space are continuous, character relationships are
interconnected, and narrative events are mutually interactive. Characters must be linked
to one another, stories must connect to stories, and stories must intertwine with characters,
thereby forming a tightly woven network of interlocking events.
The Marvel Cinematic Universe exemplifies this model: it is an integrated mega-IP
composed of multiple standalone superhero IPs. The development of each individual IP’s
storyline and character relationships directly influences the trajectory of the whole, while
the overarching unified narrative simultaneously feeds back into the individual arcs. For
example, Spider-Man in Spider-Man: Homecoming and Black Panther in Black Panther
both made their debuts in Captain America: Civil War, and their subsequent standalone
stories unfolded in conjunction with the broader MCU narrative.
5. Commitment to Excellence and Sincerity in Execution
With the rapid development of the film industry in recent years—marked by a surge in
practitioners, the exponential growth of CGI and special effects technologies, and a
continuous increase in annual film output—the standards of audiences have risen
accordingly. Even in 2020, when the global pandemic caught the industry off guard, 187
films were still released in theaters or on major streaming platforms, with many more
remaining unreleased for various reasons.
As a result, contemporary audiences have become discerning and uncompromising in
their aesthetic expectations. They are no longer willing to pay for uninspired stories,
fragmented frameworks, low-quality special effects, contrived moral messaging, shallow
character design, or forced emotional appeals. Mere reliance on celebrity traffic is
insufficient to withstand market scrutiny.
The only sustainable path is to make films sincerely: to tell stories with authenticity, to
invest significant time and energy in refining scripts and production, and to unite the
efforts of entire teams and industries in presenting audiences with a polished, compelling
work. Just as fine wine will always find its admirers, only films crafted with genuine
dedication can achieve the dual success of box office revenue and critical acclaim,
thereby earning the status of a true classic.
6. Robust Capital Support
The development of a cinematic universe is by no means a small undertaking. In most
cases, the production, distribution, and overall risk management of such franchises entail
extremely high costs, which explains why many attempted universes fail to advance
beyond a few installments. For instance, the production budget of Avengers: Endgame
reached as high as $356 million, while Captain America: Civil War cost $250 million
and Black Panther cost $200 million.
Moreover, given the necessity of maintaining unified intellectual property rights and
consistent profit-sharing mechanisms, the establishment of a cinematic universe typically
requires the backing of powerful financial capital. Such support ensures coherence in
character portrayals, uniformity in production quality, and consistency in overarching
world-building.
The Walt Disney Company, as one of the largest media and entertainment conglomerates
in the world, epitomizes this model. With a vast portfolio of globally recognized
intellectual properties and unparalleled financial strength, Disney has been more than
capable of producing and distributing the films of the Marvel Cinematic Universe,
thereby sustaining its unified vision and long-term success.
(B) Marketing Dimension
Film brand marketing operates on two fundamental levels: First, constructing a
differentiated brand system; Second, developing a brand identity centered on the core
values of the brand. Even if a new film is well-crafted in terms of content and quality,
without adequate marketing and promotional strategies it risks severe setbacks such as
box-office failure, financial loss, or even complete neglect by audiences. The most direct
factor influencing marketing effectiveness is capital investment.
In this regard, Marvel’s brand marketing is exemplary. One of its most notable strategies
is the creation of an extended emotional network marketing model, where the fate of each
hero captures the audience’s emotional investment. For instance, once viewers are
introduced to Iron Man, they are naturally drawn to other films featuring him. In those
films, other superheroes make their appearance, attracting attention to new characters and
gradually expanding the audience’s interest until it evolves into a sustained engagement
with the Marvel Cinematic Universe as a whole. Beyond this long-term, web-like
emotional strategy, Marvel’s brand marketing is also characterized by several distinctive
features, which will be elaborated in the following sections:
1. “Spoiler-Proof” Marketing as Pre-Release Hype
High-quality trailers build anticipation and lay the groundwork for advance ticket sales.
One of Marvel’s most famous promotional strategies is its “Spoiler-Proof method”:
certain shots in the trailer may not actually appear in the final film, designed to prevent
giving away plot details. This unprecedented approach, pioneered exclusively by Marvel,
consistently triggers heated discussions online prior to each release, with speculation, fan
edits, and secondary creations flourishing. Simultaneously, cast and crew members are
famously strict in refusing to reveal spoilers during press tours, often responding with “I
don’t know” or “I really can’t say,” which further heightens media and fan attention.
2. Strategic Release Timing and Public Discourse
The marketing campaign for Avengers: Endgame stands as the pinnacle of Marvel’s
promotional strategies. As the concluding chapter of the original Avengers saga, the film
sparked near-phenomenal levels of discussion in China. In late March 2019, social media
influencers leaked that the film would premiere in China on April 24, two days earlier
than in North America, immediately igniting a frenzy among Chinese Marvel fans.
Nearly a full day later, the official announcement confirmed the release date. Both the
“leak” and the “official confirmation” dominated Weibo’s trending topics list for the
entire day. This calculated tactic amplified public discourse, gave fans room for
speculation, and generated strong momentum that translated directly into box-office
success.
3. Online–Offline Dual Interaction
Marvel has long employed a strategy of “scarcity marketing” for its offline events.
Tickets are released in limited quantities, forcing fans to scramble for them—sometimes
even resorting to scalpers—thereby manufacturing a sense of urgency and fueling
heightened enthusiasm. At the same time, Marvel leverages online engagement: on
platforms such as Weibo, official accounts post staged photos of the main cast, each
accompanied by a question reflecting popular fan curiosities about character traits (e.g.,
“Whose picture is hidden inside Captain America’s pocket watch?”). This dual-channel
approach generates interactive discussions between fans and the studio, amplifying buzz
both online and offline.
4. Emotional Resonance as a Marketing Tool
Among all strategies, nostalgia-driven marketing is the most effective at mobilizing
audience sentiment. For Marvel, a decade-long saga culminating in a climactic
conclusion was not only the journey of beloved heroes but also a collective reflection on
the audience’s own irretrievable youth. By tapping into this shared sense of memory and
sentimentality, Marvel successfully deepened emotional resonance, inspiring strong
viewing intent and forging a profound connection between film and audience.
5. Cross-Industry Marketing for Mutual Benefit
Cross-industry (or cross-brand) marketing refers to strategic collaborations between
brands, leveraging each other’s traffic and influence to amplify visibility, achieve
reciprocal promotion, and ultimately realize win–win outcomes. As a global mega-IP,
Marvel typically partners with leading brands in their respective industries or those with
significant leadership in social marketing. In the food sector, Marvel has collaborated
with Coca-Cola and Wu Fang Zhai; in consumer goods, it has partnered with OnePlus
smartphones and UNIQLO; and even in the beauty industry, Marvel has tapped into the
female fan base by working with renowned cosmetics brand Sephora.
6. Merchandise Development and Full Industrial Chain Formation
Merchandise development serves as a key strategy to enhance fan loyalty and
engagement. Themed peripheral products customized with film IP characters often
feature unique and creative designs, making them more appealing than ordinary goods to
general consumers, and nearly indispensable collectibles for Marvel fans. Iconic IP
characters possess enduring value, promotional power, and brand influence. Recognizing
the immense commercial potential of flagship characters such as Iron Man, Spider-Man,
Captain America, and Black Widow, Marvel has actively developed merchandise
including figurines, toys, and collectibles, thereby extending the value chain. With the
massive traffic generated by these IPs, Marvel’s merchandise alone brings in around
USD 1 billion annually. At the same time, licensed and co-branded products amplify
marketing effectiveness, providing a powerful supplement to conventional film
promotion strategies while simultaneously fostering fan stickiness.
II. Analysis of the Construction of a “Chinese Mythological Animation Universe”
(1) Development Opportunity
The emergence of Ne Zha (2019), hailed as the “ceiling of Chinese animation,” became a
watershed moment in China’s animation industry. With a box office of 5.036 billion
RMB (ranking third in Chinese film history)，the film achieved phenomenal and
milestone status, even being submitted to compete for Best International Feature Film at
the 92nd Academy Awards in 2020. It represents a revolutionary success in adapting
Chinese mythology into animation.
The film reinterprets Ne Zha—one of the key deities from The Investiture of the Gods
mythology and a character with broad popular recognition—by creating the “ugliest Ne
Zha in history”: a rebellious, sharp-toothed, smoky-eyed antihero reciting doggerel verses
with legs defiantly crossed. Simultaneously, the characters of Li Jing, Ao Bing, Taiyi
Zhenren, and Shen Gongbao were also reimagined with fresh narrative perspectives.
Director Jiaozi’s team rooted their creative vision in traditional culture but avoided
simple replication. Instead, they enriched the classical IP by expanding its connotations,
constructing a coherent story logic, well-paced narrative rhythm, multidimensional
characters, and a respectful inheritance of the original values. The result was a visually
stunning and emotionally resonant cinematic experience.
Despite initial doubts, Ne Zha shattered expectations with its empowering themes of “My
fate is determined by me, not by heaven” and “defying destiny.” These messages struck
deep emotional chords with audiences, prompting nationwide word-of-mouth momentum.
Cinemas rapidly increased screenings, distributors extended screenings via key
extensions, and viewers actively recommended the film. Ultimately, Ne Zha achieved
both critical acclaim and commercial success, becoming a landmark representative of
China’s animated film industry.
(II) Analysis of Development Challenges
As the first attempt to establish a “Chinese Animated Mythological Universe,” Ne Zha
exposed a number of shortcomings in both its production and marketing that must be
addressed promptly. In what follows, I will use the successful case of the “Marvel
Cinematic Universe” as a comparative benchmark, examining the environment in which
China is attempting to build its own universe beginning with Ne Zha and analyzing each
issue in turn.
1. Confused Characterization and Weak Continuity
(1) Micro-level Perspective
From the perspective of production teams and distributors, these problems stem from
both production and marketing dimensions.
a. Production Dimension
On the production side, the problem becomes evident when examining Jiang Ziya,
released during the 2020 National Day holiday by Beijing Enlight Media, the same
distributor of Ne Zha. Audiences found no trace of the familiar characters Ne Zha or Ao
Bing, and the contradictory character Shen Gongbao, who had been depicted in Ne Zha
as a half-human, half-feline trickster, was suddenly reinvented in Jiang Ziya as a burly
“idol-chasing” man. Such drastic shifts in design fractured character consistency and
created the perception of separate, disconnected worlds due to differing narrative
timelines.
At present, the only real link between Jiang Ziya and Ne Zha is that both drew their
prototypes from The Investiture of the Gods, the classic Chinese mythological novel.
There is no integration into a shared cinematic universe. Moreover, Jiang Ziya, Ne Zha,
and Deep Sea were all greenlit by Enlight Media around the same time but assigned to
three different production teams and directors, with Enlight functioning solely as
financier and distributor, without creative involvement.
Such a strategy inevitably leads to fragmented intellectual property rights and chaotic
character ownership. Audiences struggle to distinguish or remember characters who share
names but differ completely in design and identity. This easily generates frustration and
risks losing a significant portion of the audience base.
The production of the Marvel Cinematic Universe was likewise entrusted to different
directing teams; however, the adaptations and the ultimate narrative trajectory were
always jointly determined by Marvel Comics and its parent company, The Walt Disney
Company, which also served as producer and distributor. Directors and screenwriters
were required to operate within this overarching framework, ensuring alignment with the
established direction. Consequently, the central storyline and overarching worldview of
the “Marvel Universe” were never subject to arbitrary deviation, and its characters
remained distinctive and continuous.
b. Marketing Dimension
From a marketing perspective, the trailer for Jiang Ziya first appeared as the post-credit
scene of Ne Zha, which thrilled many viewers and sparked unprecedented online
discussion about whether a “Chinese Mythological Universe” was about to be formed.
Subsequently, the film’s first official trailer, released at the end of 2019, carried the
slogan “New Year’s Day: A Battle for Deification,” and multiple posters even featured
surprise tie-ins with the blockbuster IP characters Ne Zha and Ao Bing. These strategies
appeared to confirm audiences’ expectations and drew tremendous attention.
However, upon release, viewers discovered that the two films had no direct narrative
connection. The supposed “universe building” was nothing more than a marketing
gimmick designed to promote Jiang Ziya. All of the cross-promotional tactics amounted
merely to collaborative advertisements leveraging the popularity of Ne Zha to generate
hype for the new film. In part, the failure of Jiang Ziya’s reception can be attributed to
this deliberately misleading and strategically flawed marketing approach, which
ultimately left audiences feeling disappointed and misled.
(2) Macro Perspective
From a broader cultural standpoint, another major obstacle to the development of a
“Chinese Mythological Universe” lies in the fact that its characters belong to the shared
cultural heritage of the Chinese public. The film Ne Zha was adapted from a widely
circulated Chinese myth, and Ne Zha himself is a deity found in Daoist, Buddhist, and
folk traditions. Since no single entity owns the rights to the character, his image has been
repeatedly reinterpreted across countless films, games, and entertainment projects.
Beyond the fixed archetype of the “three-headed, six-armed lotus-body” figure, Ne Zha
now exists in multiple, often conflicting, visual forms that make it difficult for audiences
to identify or retain a stable image.
By contrast, every superhero film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe is rooted in the same
foundation—Marvel’s original comics. Although directors may exercise some degree of
creative adaptation, the overarching worldview remains consistent. Moreover, Marvel
Comics and Disney maintain powerful legal and intellectual property enforcement
departments to safeguard the works against excessive or unauthorized alterations. Thus,
the MCU was built upon a unified source-text framework, where the films largely follow
canonical storylines.
In China, however, mythological stories have been transmitted for centuries. The values
embedded in many of these originals are no longer fully aligned with modern sensibilities.
Directors, seeking to convey new ideas from fresh perspectives, inevitably resort to
radical reinterpretations. This dynamic led directly to the disjunction between Jiang Ziya
and Ne Zha. Each director pursued his or her own creative vision without the constraint
of a unifying script, making it impossible to achieve the level of narrative cohesion seen
in the MCU. Although the characters originate from the same mythological tradition, they
do not inhabit a common or unified worldview.
The lack of authoritative source texts for adaptation has resulted in an overabundance of
“radical rewrites,” while the absence of clear intellectual property ownership for The
Investiture of the Gods characters has produced hundreds of conflicting portrayals. Both
factors leave audiences feeling overwhelmed, confused, and frustrated. Classic
mythological archetypes are deeply ingrained in the collective memory of the Chinese
people, and their historical significance and cultural positioning cannot easily be altered.
Any reinterpretation inevitably invites direct comparison with prior versions. Therefore,
adapting such iconic figures demands extreme caution, which constitutes the greatest
challenge of reworking classic mythological characters.
2. Absence of a Fully Developed Peripheral Industry Chain
The establishment of a peripheral industry chain is one of the key factors that sustains the
long-term vitality of a cinematic universe. At its core, the issue is no longer merely how
to develop derivative products from films, but how to integrate a film’s brand into the
identity of its production company. This deeper form of brand attachment encourages
audiences to form an emotional bond with the company or director, thereby ensuring a
stable market base for sequels and subsequent works.
From the perspective of the merchandise market, the follow-up release of licensed
products for Ne Zha fell short of expectations. The development of official merchandise
lagged far behind market demand. To date, only a handful of companies, such as
crowdfunding platform Modian, have obtained authorization to produce derivative
products. However, these emerging developers were still in their early stages, with
immature operations in areas such as product release, after-sales service, and supply
tracking. Promotional campaigns for merchandise were inadequate, leaving many fans
eager to buy products but unable to find reliable purchasing channels. Moreover, the
range of merchandise was limited, consisting mostly of non-essential items like pillows,
figurines, and ornaments.
This highlights a broader marketing dilemma for Chinese animated films. Before release,
few manufacturers are willing to risk purchasing licenses and investing heavily in
merchandise development because, if the film underperforms at the box office, they face
massive losses and inventory backlogs. Based on the historical performance of domestic
animated films, this is often a losing proposition. After Ne Zha proved to be a breakout
success and box-office champion of 2019, many companies rushed to negotiate licensing
agreements. Yet by this stage, competition had intensified, licensing costs had risen, and
the time needed for product development, production, and distribution was so long that
the film’s initial popularity had already waned. Consequently, the merchandise missed
the crucial promotional boost of the first two weeks following release.
Unlike Disney, which has its own in-house team dedicated to developing derivative
products, Enlight Media (the distributor and merchandise licensor for Ne Zha) relied on
outsourcing its licensing rights. This approach not only delayed product release schedules
but also reduced profits due to revenue-sharing arrangements, further weakening the
effectiveness of the merchandise strategy.
By way of comparison, the development of Marvel’s peripheral industry chain can be
regarded as one of the most successful cases of cultural and creative commercialization.
Marvel has effectively licensed and sold products across multiple industries and sectors,
extending the influence of its IP brand into far-reaching domains. The variety of Marvel’s
derivative merchandise is vast, ranging from action figures and plush toys to keychains,
stationery, and notebooks.
In terms of collectible figures, Marvel partnered with NetEase to launch the derivative
brand NetEase Play, releasing Avengers HotToys figurines; at the same time, Marvel
licensed certain IPs to the Japanese company Good Smile Company, a leading producer
of toys, figurines, and fashion accessories, which introduced mini articulated Nendoroid
figures on Taobao.
After Marvel was acquired by Disney, the two companies entered into a mutually
reinforcing relationship: Marvel’s heroic characters were more fully developed and
expanded, while Disney’s global distribution network provided extensive worldwide
exposure【Chen Yan, Hollywood Model: A Study of the American Film Industry, 2nd
ed., 2016, p.27】. Most of Marvel’s derivative merchandise has been directly produced
and released by its parent company, Walt Disney, and sold both in Disney’s official
flagship stores and at Disney theme park outlets. Given the enormous fanbase and traffic
generated by Marvel’s superhero IPs, derivative products alone have generated
approximately US $1 billion in annual revenue for Marvel, further cementing its position
as a benchmark in transmedia franchising.
3. Insufficient Capital Support
As noted earlier, the filming, production, and distribution of a film universe entails
extremely high costs and risks, which is why many attempted franchises stall before
achieving a complete development. The successful expansion of the Marvel Cinematic
Universe (MCU) was in large part attributable to the substantial backing of its parent
company, Walt Disney, the world’s largest entertainment conglomerate. Disney’s fullscale financial and industrial support made possible a decade-long coordinated strategy
that ensured consistency across character design, production standards, and narrative
world-building.
By contrast, Ne Zha (2019) was co-produced by four companies—Enlight Media,
Coloroom Pictures, October Animation Studio, and Cocoa Entertainment. Of these, only
Coloroom (a subsidiary of Enlight), Cocoa (founded by Ne Zha’s director Jiaozi), and
October Culture (founded by Monkey King: Hero is Back director Tian Xiaopeng) acted
as the principal investors. The film’s total production budget was approximately RMB 60
million, and nearly all of China’s top animation studios participated in the three-year
production process. Despite Enlight Media’s role as the “major sponsor,” by the final
stage the project still faced budgetary shortfalls and schedule overruns. The production
only reached completion—and the film was eventually released as a record-breaking
RMB 5 billion box-office hit—thanks to crowdfunding support from around 1,600
contributors.
This exposes a critical structural challenge: if China aims to develop a sustainable
National Mythological Animation Universe largely comprised of high-cost 3D animation
blockbusters, robust and consistent capital support will be indispensable. Without longterm financial commitment comparable to that of Disney, attempts to replicate the Marvel
model risk faltering under budgetary and operational constraints.
4. Underdeveloped Domestic Animation and VFX Industry
Before and during the release of Ne Zha (2019), an unusual phenomenon emerged.
Unlike most film projects that actively publicize their production budgets or even use
such figures as a marketing highlight, Ne Zha’s production cost was never openly
disclosed. Later, when the official list of production companies was released【Source:
Coloroom Pictures official website, “List of Production Companies for Ne Zha,” 2019】,
it became evident that the massive workload of visual effects was spread across a
fragmented network: 10 co-production companies, 3 art design collaborators, 3 digital
asset partners, 12 animation studios, 17 VFX contractors, and 4 post-production
compositing companies. Over a three-year production cycle, more than 1,400 VFX shots
were created with the involvement of over 100 companies and 1,600 individuals. The
final product was, in many ways, a polished showcase of the industry’s collective effort.
However, as Yi Qiao critically observed, “I don’t think this is something to be proud of;
on the contrary, it is rather lamentable. It reveals that the industry lacks professionalism
and maturity, relying instead on manpower-intensive tactics and fragmented collaboration
models.” By comparison, Avengers: Endgame (2019), released the same year, contained
over 3,000 VFX shots but was completed with the support of only 12 specialized
companies.
It is undeniable that Ne Zha consumed a disproportionate amount of money and time
during production due to inefficiencies in project management and technical expertise.
This highlights the immaturity of China’s domestic animation and VFX industries, which
remain structurally fragmented and overly dependent on a “human-wave strategy” rather
than consolidated, professionalized production pipelines.
III. Recommendations for Future Development
1. Harnessing Momentum and Establishing a Unified Character Identity
Today, virtually anyone can create a version of Ne Zha simply by equipping a childlike
figure with iconic attributes such as the Hun Tian Ling (Heaven and Earth Silk) or the
Qiankun Circle, thereby signaling that this character is the beloved little hero from The
Investiture of the Gods. In fact, numerous reinterpretations have emerged that bear little
resemblance to the traditional archetype, developing entirely new narratives in alternate
settings.
Audiences, however, are prone to first impressions. Once they have fully accepted a
specific visual and narrative representation of Ne Zha, alternative versions struggle to
gain recognition—especially when they deviate sharply from the traditional image
ingrained in cultural memory. Ne Zha (2019) boldly subverted earlier depictions by
presenting the so-called “Ugly Ne Zha”: a mischievous, smoky-eyed, snaggletoothed
child who recites doggerel while sitting cross-legged with roguish defiance. This was a
daring and innovative experiment that intensified the film’s visual impact and refreshed
audience expectations.
While traditional representations carry deep cultural resonance, unchanging images over
decades risk aesthetic fatigue. Contemporary culture increasingly values aesthetic
diversity, and the “Ugly Ne Zha” offered a powerful sense of novelty by breaking fixed
stereotypes. This enabled the character to stand out from more conventionally handsome
portrayals, becoming vividly memorable. It also laid the groundwork for developing new
stories, perspectives, and personalities in the modern era.
In addition, the film reimagined other mythological figures such as Taiyi Zhenren, Ao
Bing, Shen Gongbao, and Li Jing, making them more vivid and multidimensional. The
thematic focus shifted from rigid indoctrination of authority to empathetic human
connection, thereby achieving what scholar Wang Xiaoyin describes as: “using animated
characters to resist reality and alleviate pressure, emphasizing the release and experience
of desire, marked by a sense of playfulness and consumer appeal”【Wang Xiaoyin,
Interpreting Ne Zha: The Reconstruction and Transformation of Traditional Culture in
Chinese Animation, Communication Power Research, 2019, No.3】.
Given the phenomenal box-office and critical success of Ne Zha, the momentum is
strong for using the “Ugly Ne Zha” as the foundational entry point into a National
Mythological Animation Universe. To achieve this, Jiaozi’s team must consolidate the
unique character identities established in Ne Zha (2019), enrich each figure’s narrative
arc, and ensure the continuity of these distinctive portrayals so that audiences form stable
and enduring associations. At the same time, Ne Zha should avoid misleading crosspromotional campaigns with Jiang Ziya, which risk confusing viewers through
conflicting timelines and inconsistent characterizations (e.g., Shen Gongbao).
2. Enhancing Brand Value and Strengthening Peripheral Product Development
If the National Mythological Animation Universe is to leave a lasting imprint in the
minds of audiences, significant effort must be devoted to the development and operation
of derivative merchandise. While the production quality of Ne Zha (2019) itself must be
ensured, the success of its subsequent peripheral product development is equally vital.
A crucial factor is timing: the release of derivative products must coincide with the film’s
premiere and peak popularity. To achieve this, planning and licensing must begin well in
advance. Yet advance licensing requires instilling confidence in licensees. Hollywood
studios such as Disney enjoy an inherent advantage, as their overwhelming brand
influence naturally assures potential partners. By contrast, domestic Chinese films have
yet to establish such credibility or perception within the industry. At present, most
Chinese animated films remain standalone projects, lacking either a coherent corporate
brand or a recognizable director-driven brand. This absence of sustained brand equity
prevents them from offering licensees the assurance of a stable market foundation.
The formation of a derivative industry chain should not be limited to the short-term
profitability of selling merchandise tied to a single film such as Ne Zha (2019). Instead,
the goal must be to build the broader merchandise ecosystem for the entire National
Mythological Animation Universe. Achieving this requires greater investment in brand
value so that consumers are inclined to purchase derivative products even outside the
film’s immediate release window. Establishing such a loyal consumer base constitutes the
essential groundwork for the long-term expansion of derivative markets tied to future
installments.
3. Implementing Favorable Policies and Strengthening Organizational Coordination
Collaboration among film studios, production companies, and other organizational
entities is of paramount importance during the filmmaking process. Conflicts often arise
due to poor coordination or unequal distribution of interests, which can ultimately lead to
project stagnation or failure. Such disputes must be avoided to prevent negative impacts
on film production. At the same time, leveraging the momentum created by the success of
Ne Zha (2019) as the “light of Chinese animation,” the government could provide
support for the construction of a National Mythological Animation Universe. This could
involve introducing favorable policies or instituting regulatory oversight and guidance.
Such measures would not only help reduce production costs and mitigate the risks of
budget shortfalls, but also stimulate the enthusiasm of filmmakers, thereby ensuring
stability and long-term growth for the National Mythological Animation Universe.
4. Cultivating Talent and Building a Mature Animation Industry
True confidence stems from clear self-awareness, as director Jiaozi aptly remarked:
“When people stop talking about the rise of Chinese animation, that is when it will have
truly risen.” The success of Ne Zha (2019) was built on years of painstaking effort,
underscoring that the growth of a National Mythological Animation Universe must be
rooted in a mature animation industry with a strong base of skilled professionals. In
today’s era of rapid advancements in CG technology, the industry should actively
collaborate with universities, providing funding and project opportunities while recruiting
both creative artists and technical experts. This dual pipeline will serve as the reserve
force and fresh blood for China’s animation sector. At present, Chinese animated films
still face a long journey before they can fully mature into a sustainable industry and gain
global recognition.
Conclusions
From the development of each individual superhero IP to the convergence of timelines
and worldviews, the construction of the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) is, without
doubt, also a process of cultural resource integration. By skillfully weaving together
fragmented resources through the flexible linking of singular character images, Marvel
achieved a “1+1>2” effect, generating greater cultural and commercial value. In terms of
brand building and peripheral operations, Marvel—backed by Disney’s immense
financial resources—has actively expanded its industrial chain and collaborated with
numerous brands. Even during non-release periods, Marvel’s brand influence continues
to grow.
This advanced and well-structured “cinematic universe model” of production and
marketing reveals the tremendous industrial potential of IP-based cinematic universes and,
to some extent, has greatly propelled the film industry’s development as a whole. Today,
China urgently seeks to enhance its cultural soft power and capacity for cultural export,
and film remains one of the most effective vehicles for global communication. With the
phenomenal success of Ne Zha (2019) and the nation’s wealth of traditional cultural
resources, the exploration and experimentation of building a National Mythological
Animation Universe has become an imperative task.
At the same time, practical challenges remain, such as inconsistent character
representations, fragmented copyright ownership, and limited financial support. These
issues require careful reflection. By studying and drawing upon the valuable lessons from
the MCU’s successful construction, and by analyzing China’s actual conditions with
targeted solutions, we can seize the momentum of China’s burgeoning film industry and
strive to create a truly distinctive National Mythological Animation Universe of our own.
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