Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
READINGS
IN
PHILIPPINE
HISTORY
(GEC105)
Name: __________________________________
Schedule & Section: _______________________
Name of Instructor: _______________________
Revised January 2024 (Property of MSU-GSC History Department. Do not copy or reproduce.)
HOW TO USE THIS MATERIAL
The following icons signal discussion in this compilation:
Learning Objectives are specific learning goals to be achieved by the
end of the chapter.
⌛ Overview is the short narrative that could give the students ample
background about the chapter’s focus.
Assigned Readings to signify the required primary (or secondary)
sources to be read related to the chapter in the compilation.
 Watch E-Materials to signify the required (secondary) video clips or
documentaries to supplement the learnings and understandings of the
students related to the topic.
Assessments are the suggested activities that could expound on the
lessons' discussion and analysis within the chapter. Also, the students are
required to answer the assessments/activities.
Revised January 2024 (Property of MSU-GSC History Department. Do not copy or reproduce.)
ii
Readings in Philippine History (GEC105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
i
How to Use this Material
ii
Syllabus in GEC 105
iv
Chapter 1
1
Chapter 2
9
Summative Assessmemnt 1&2
18
Chapter 3
20
Chapter 4
30
Summative Assessment 3&4
73
Chapter 5
75
Chapter 6
104
Summative Assessment 5&6
127
Chapter 7
130
Chapter 8
140
Summative Assessment 7&8
152
Chapter 9
154
Final Summative Assessment
163
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Republic of the Philippines
MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
General Santos City
http://www.msugensan.edu.ph
COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES
Department of History
SYLLABUS IN GEC 105
VISION, MISSION, CORE VALUES, GOALS, AND OBJECTIVES
MSU SYSTEM
VISION
MSU-Gensan
Campus
VISION
MSU-Gensan
Campus
MISSION
MSU-Gensan
Campus
CORE VALUES
CSSH GOALS
BA-HISTORY
PROGRAM
OBJECTIVE
“Mindanao State University, a world-class university in Southern Philippines.”
“To be a globally competitive university in Southern Philippines.”
FILIPINO
MAGUINDANAON
BLAAN
“Maging isang unnibersidad sa Katimugang Pilipinas na may
kakayahng makipagsabayan sa kompetisyong global”
“Maaden su Unbersidad sya sa sabangan sa Pilipinas sa makagaga idtigya sa langkom
kunu intiro dunya”
“Mbaling too mligal gu gambit dini Bli Kabanwe Filipinas”
“To provide competent human resources for the development of Southern Mindanao and to help improve the living condition of the Muslims and the Indigenous people.”
FILIPINO
“Makapaglaan ng mga propesyunal na may kakayahang
mapaunlad ang katimugang Mindanao at makatulong sa Muslim
at Tribong Katutubo”
Respect for others
Acting with Integrity
Service to the people
Pursuing Excellence
MAGUINDANAON
“Mangaden sa mga kapakayam a mga mama ando babay para sa kagkapya no
sabangan Mindanao ando adtabangan su mga Muslim amdo mga talainged kano
kagkapya no kapaguyag-uyag nilan”
BLAAN
“Mle dad to gmare di kimo kafye kagket I kabanwe dini di Bli
Mindanao na tmabeng I kafafye I kagka kne I dad Muslim na
dad to muna mne di banwe”
L-To LEAD in innovative instruction, pursue relevant research and extension initiatives
E-To ENSURE incorporation of cultural integration, peace and development, and civic consciousness in all degree programs of the college
P-To PRODUCE competent graduates embodying the values of honesty and integrity, addressing the human resource requirement of the industry and community
1. To provide introductory and advanced courses that will expose students with historical methods of creating the past, equipped with skills of analysis and ability in writing
historical research.
2. To provide students with an understanding and appreciation of the broad foundations of historical studies through a critical-theoretical approach.
3. To train students of history to become critically aware and responsive to the needs of tri-people of their community and the country in general.
4. To produce graduates that will be academically competitive in the pursuit of their chosen career as professional historians, researchers, educators, and extension service
providers for social development.
COURSE DETAILS
Revised January 2024 (Property of MSU-GSC History Department. Do not copy or reproduce.)
iv
Readings in Philippine History (GEC105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
Course No: GEC 105
Semester: 1st, 2nd, Summer
Course Title: Readings in Philippine History
Type: General Education (Basic)
Credit Units: 3
Prerequisite(s): None
No. of Hours: 54 hours for 18 weeks
Course Description: The course analyzes Philippine history from multiple perspectives through the lens of selected primary sources coming from various disciplines and of different genres. Students are given
opportunities to analyze the author’s background and main arguments, compare different points of view, identify biases, and examine the evidence presented in the document. The discussions will tackle traditional topics
in history and other interdisciplinary themes that will deepen and broaden their understanding of Philippine political, economic, cultural, social, scientific, and religious history. Priority is given to primary materials that could
help students develop their analytical and communication skills. The end goal is to develop the historical and critical consciousness of the students so that they will become versatile, articulate, broad-minded, morally
upright, and responsible citizens.
Course Outcomes: At the end of this course, the student must:
1. Aware of and understand the application of critical thinking in analyzing historical evidence, especially the primary sources.
2. Acquire knowledge about the experiences of the Filipino people in the past and the cultural diversity that exist in the Philippine archipelago from multiple viewpoints.
3. Discern the causes and effects of foreign colonization by the Spaniards, Americans, and Japanese in the past.
4. Discuss the role of the Philippines vis-à-vis- the international community.
5. Value the importance of Patriotism and Nationalism.
6. Write a brief and original synthesis paper of any topic of interest related to the history of the Philippines.
COURSE OUTLINE AND LEARNING PLAN
Intended
Course Outcomes
Learning Content
Desired Learning
Outcomes
Assessment/Outputs
Teaching-Learning Activities
Introduction of the Course
Aware and
understand the
application of critical
thinking in analyzing
historical evidence,
especially the primary
sources
1.1. Define history as a
discipline
1.2. Identify the different
concepts of history
1.3. Discuss the relevance
of studying history.
1.4 Explain what Pantayong
Pananaw (From Us-To Us
Perspective) is.
2.1. Demonstrate how to
interpret historical evidence
utilizing historical thinking
and reading skills.
1. Meanings and Concept of
History
Time
frame
Evidence of Attainment
1.5 hrs – Week 1
Activity 1
Close Reading Protocol
1.5 hrs – Week 1
Close Reading Protocol
3 hrs -
1.1. What is history?
Nature of History
75% of the students can define what
history is, identify the concepts of history
and discuss the relevance of Pantayong
Pananaw in studying Phil. history.
1.2. Concepts of History
1.3. History from the Filipino
People’s Point of View
2.
Thinking Like a Historian
2.1. Historical Thinking/Reading
Skills
Activity 2
Week 2
75% of the students are aware of and
understand the application of critical
thinking in analyzing selected primary
sources.
2.2. Referencing
2.3. (Un) Historical Sources in
Philippine History
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
Acquire knowledge
about the
experiences of the
Filipino people in the
past and the cultural
diversity that exist in
the Philippine
archipelago from
multiple viewpoints.
Discern the causes
and effects of foreign
colonization by the
Spaniards,
Americans, and
Japanese in the past.
Discuss the role of
the Philippines vis-àvis the international
community.
Value the importance
of patriotism and
nationalism.
3.
3.1. Familiarize the
important geographical
features of the Phil.
Archipelago
3.2. Compare and contrast
the historical and cultural
implications of the various
theories of peopling in the
Phil.
4.1. Describe the precolonial cultures and
traditions.
4.2. Pinpoint which among
the pre-Hispanic Filipino
traditions still exist at
present.
5.1. Identify and explain the
factors that led to Spanish
colonization
5.2. Pinpoint the instruments
of ‘pacification’ and
‘exploitation’ employed by
Spaniards
5.3. Describe and evaluate
the impact of Spanish
colonialism on Philippine
society and culture
6.1. Determine the causes
and results of the Early
Filipino revolts during the
Spanish era
Physical Features,
Geological-Geographical
Foundation and Peopling of
the Philippines
Activity 3
Close Reading Protocol
3 hrs – Week 3
Videos
3.1. Geography
75% of the students are able to familiarize
the important geographical features of the
Phil., identify the relevant theories in
relation to the country’s geologicalgeographical foundation, and peopling in
the archipelago.
3.2. Peopling of the Phil.
– Models of Migration
4.
Pre-Colonial Philippines
Activity 4
4.1. Pre-Colonial Culture and
Society
Close Reading Protocol
6 hrs – Week 4 & 5
4.2. Rizal’s Annotation of Morga’s
Sucesos
5.
Colonial Period: Spanish
Colonial Period (1521-1898)
Activity 5
Close Reading Protocol
5.1. Colonial Motives
6 hrs –
Week 6 & 7
5.2. Early expeditions
90% of the students can describe the
significance of the early trade patterns in
the Philippine history which contributes to
the present and existing Filipino traditions
and cultures.
80% of the students can explain the
motives of Spanish colonization and its
impact on the society and culture in the
history of the Philippines.
Videos
5.3. Colonial System
6.
The Responses of the
Filipinos Against Spanish
Colonialism
6.1. Early Filipino Uprisings
Activity 6 and Activity 7
Close Reading Protocol
Videos
9 hrs – Week 8 to 10
80% of the students can express and value
the importance of nationalism and
patriotism after analyzing the primary
resources related to Early Filipino
Uprisings, Reform/Propaganda Movement,
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
6.2. Explain the impact of
European political,
economic, and intellectual
influences on the
development of Phil.
Nationalism
6.3. Compare and contrast
La Solidaridad and
Katipunan in terms of their
objectives, methods, and
relevance to the
development of Phil.
nationalism
6.3. Reform/Propaganda
Movement
6.4. Phil. Revolution: Phase 1 and
Phase 2
7.
7.1. Explain the reasons of
American expansionism
7.2. Expound how the
Americans grant the Phil.
Self-government
(commonwealth) in 1935.
8.1. Elucidate Japan’s
imperialism design in the
context of the world
condition at that time
8.2. Assess the significance
and impact of Japanese
occupation on Philippine
society
and Katipunan.
6.2. Birth of Filipino Nationalism
American Period (1898 –
1946)
Activity 8
Close Reading Protocol
6 hrs – Week 11 &
12
7.1. Colonial Aims/Motives
80% of the students explain the factors
behind American expansionism and its
impact to the history of the Philippines.
7.2. Filipino Responses
7.3. Road to Self-Government
8.
Japanese Hegemony (19411945)
8.1. Motives
Activity 9
Close Reading Protocol
3 hrs – Week 13
80% of the students can elucidate the
impact of Japan’s imperialism and colonial
rule in the history of the Philippines.
8.2. Filipino Responses
(Collaboration and Guerilla
Movement)
8.3 Liberation of the Phil.
8.3. Explain the nature of
“collaboration” and “guerilla
movement”
8.4. Relate how the
Philippines was liberated.
9.1. Expound on the
highlights of the policies
implemented and the
challenges encountered by
9.
Philippine Republic (19462016)
Challenges Faced by the Phil.
Nation
Activity 10
Newspaper Headline
Close Reading Protocol
Video lecture
6 hrs – Week 14 &
15
80% of the students can expound on the
policies implemented and how the different
administrations responded to different
challenges afthe WWII in the history of the
Philippines.
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
the Phil. nation during the
post-WWII period in terms
of:
a. Grant of Independence
and Establishment of New
Republic
b. Agrarian Reform
c. Independent Foreign
Policy
d. Economic Nationalism
9.2. Explain the reasons
behind the declaration of
Martial Law in 1972 and
2017
Write a brief
and original
synthesis
paper of any
topic of
interest related
to the history
of the
Philippines.
9.1. Independence and
Establishment of the New
Republic
9.2. Agrarian Reform
9.3. Economic Nationalism
9.4. Martial Law (1972-1981)
9.5. 1986 EDSA Revolution
FINAL SUMMATIVE
ASSESSMENT/ SYNTHESIS
PAPER
Jigsaw: Developing
Community and
Disseminating
Knowledge
9 hrs – Week 16 to
18
80% of the students were able to write
syntheses papers related to the course.
Journals in a Remote
Learning Environment
TIMEFRAME: 54 hours
COURSE REQUIREMENTS AND GRADING SYSTEM
Course
Requirements
Grading System
1. Assessments (Summative)/ Exams
2. Activity Sheets
3. Quizzes
4. Synthesis Paper
5. Community Involvement
6. Attendance
Students will be rated based on the following indicators:
a. Exams
b. Activity Sheets/ Assignments
c. Synthesis Paper
d. Attendance
TOTAL
30%
40%
30%
10%
100%
REFERENCES
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
“The Historian’s Toolkit. Oxford Big Ideas. 214-221, Accessed on August 3, 2018, https://www.oup.com.au.
Bellwood, Peter. “A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins,” Asian Perspectives, xxvi (1), 1984 – 1985: 107-117, https://core.ac.uk.download/pdf/5105193.pdf
Blair, Emma, and Robertson, James, Eds. The Philippine Islands 55-Volumes, Cleveland, Ohio: The A. H. Clark Company, 1903-1909.
Boxer Codex. circa 1595
Carr, E.H., What is History? New York: Knopf, 1962, 7-30.
Cole, Mabel. Selected folktales. Philippine Folktales, Chicago: A.C. McClurg & Co., 1916. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/12814/12814-h/12814-h.htm
La Solidaridad, Year 1, No. 1., February 18, 1889.
Leon, Sharon & Whelan, Sarah Historical Thinking Chart (CHNM, 2008), CC-NC-BY, http://www.6floors.org/teaching/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Historical_Thinking_TAH.pdf
Richardson, Jim.. Katipunan Documents Translated, www.kasaysayan-kkk.info
Rizal, Jose. “Chapter 8”, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas por el Doctor Antonio de Morga, obra publicada en Mejico el año de 1609 nuevamente sacada a luz y anotada (Events of the Philippine Islands of Dr. Antonio de Morga,
published in Mexico in 1609), Manila: Jose Rizal National Centennial Commission, p. 240-296.
Salazar, Zeus. “Pantayong Pananaw: Isang Pagpapaliwanag,” Accessed on August 4, 2018, https://bangkanixiao.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/zeus-salazar-pantayong-pananaw-isang-paliwanag.pdf
Scott, William. “Kalantiaw: The Code That Never Was” In Great Scott! The New Day William Henry Scott Reader. B. Ed. Uc-Kung. Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 2006, 76-87.
Solheim, Wilhelm II, “Taiwan, Coastal South China, and Northern Viet Nam and The Nusantao Maritime Trading Network,” JEAA 2, vol. 1-2 (2000): 273-284.
Visual Sources/ Movies:
NHCP. Maypagasa Ang Bantayog ni Andres Bonifacio. Published in March 19, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TwWbYirxHb4
Probe Team. Gintong Pamana. https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PL19057107A8965EC9
Historical Atlas of the Republic, 2016.
Paintings depicting Manifest Destiny.
Selected Photographs during the EDSA Revolution, February 22-25, 1986.
Excerpts from Laws/ Decrees/Treaties/ Speeches or Address/ Constitutions:
1935, 1973, and 1987 Phillippine Constitutions
1947 Military Bases Agreement
Act No. 1696 or the Flag law of 1907
Act No. 292 or Sedition Law of 1901
Act No. 518 or the Brigandage Law of 1902
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
Address to the People of the Philippines by Lieutenant General Masaharu Homma, August 3, 1942.
Cardinal’s Statement via Radio Veritas
Carlos P. Garcia’s Filipino First Policy excerpt from his Third SONA on January 25, 1960
General Order No. 1 and No. 2, September 22, 1972
Inaugural Address of President Jose P. Laurel, October 14, 1943
Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 or the Jones Law
Philippine Independence Act of 1934 or the Tydings McDuffie Act
Philippine Organic Act of 1902 or Cooper Act
Philippine Trade Act or 1946 or Bell Trade Act
Pres. William McKinley’s Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation, December 21, 1899
Proclamation 1081, September 21, 1972
Proclamation 889-A amended and issued by President Marcos on August 30, 1971
Proclamation No. 51 by President Manuel Roxas
Proclamation of General Douglas MacArthur to the People of the Philippines, October 23, 1944.
Republic Act No. 6657 or Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988
Republic Act. No. 3844 of the Agricultural Land Reform Code
Retail Trade Nationalization Act of 1954 or Republic Act No. 1180
Treaty of General Relations and Protocol of 1946 or the Treaty of Manila
Treaty of Paris, December 10, 1898
Prepared by:
HISTORY DEPARTMENT FACULTY MEMBERS
Checked by:
Approved:
CRIS HANNIBAL P. NON, MIH
History Chairperson
CARMELA G. ONG
Dean
Classroom policies
a. Health and Safety Protocol
Because of the present situation, the students must comply with the University health and safety protocols, including wearing face masks at all times; physical distancing will be maintained in all
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
instructional spaces; students will sit in assigned seats throughout the semester, which will be documented by faculty for purposes of any needed contract tracing; and protocols for staged entry to
and exit from classrooms and instructional spaces will be followed.
b. Attendance Policy
The student is expected to attend all class meetings and his/her absences will be noted as per University Policy, three consecutive absences, as well as six non-consecutive absences, are
considered DROPPED. Attendance will be checked at every meeting. A student is expected to arrive at class on time and not to leave before the end of the class Absences without valid reason are
not permitted. The student with valid reasons (health/emergency) will be given consideration. It is his/her responsibility to catch up.
c. Submission of Requirement/s
The student MUST submit all their requirements within the semester or right after it is scheduled. Submissions of requirements will vary to the instructor handling the course, and on which platform
they prefer to submit it. Failure to submit requirements within the semester will result in an incomplete (INC) grade.
d. Reporting Policy.
The reporter must master his/her assigned topic (and provide a summary or handouts of the same for the whole class). The assigned reporter who cannot deliver his/her report on the scheduled date
means that his chance will be forfeited.
e. Assessments/Examinations
Students are required to answer the Activity Sheets. Rubrics were provided for every activity or assessment to guide the students on how the instructor will assess the outputs. Submit it within the
semester. Scheduled exams will be announced based on the Academic Calendar.
e. Synthesis Paper (Optional, depends on the Instructor)
The course encouraged the students to improve their writing, speaking, and critical-thinking skills. In this course, the students must share their ideas, thoughts, reflections, critiques, or analyses of the
topics being read/discussed or any topic of his/her interest by writing a brief and original synthesis paper.
Note: Students will be informed when necessary change(s) in the learning plan is needed.
Consultation hours
You can consult your instructor on weekdays (Monday-Friday) from 8:00 AM – 5:30 PM via VLE, FB Group Chat of your Section, to his/her institutional email, or thru text.
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
CHAPTER 1
MEANINGS, CONCEPTS, AND RELEVANCE OF
HISTORY
� Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1) Define History as a discipline.
2) Identify the different Concepts of History
3) Discuss the relevance of studying History.
4) Explain what Pantayong Pananaw (From Us - To Us Perspective) is.
⌛Overview
History is the study of life in society in the past, in all its aspects, contemporary developments,
and future hopes. It is the story of men in time, an inquiry into the past based on evidence. History
investigates what happened in the past and how it happened. It analyzes the inevitable changes in
human actions and how these changes affect or influence society's present life patterns.
History also aims to help students understand current political, economic, and socio-cultural
conditions. Without knowledge and concern for the past, you cannot trace the relevance of doing and
observing cultures, traditions, customs, and others. Thus, History helps us to understand present-day
problems objectively.
This chapter consists of excerpts from various reading materials that introduce the students to the
meanings and relevance of History as a discipline in the 21st century. Further, the students will be guided
with the essential Concepts of History when analyzing historical evidence. Lastly, the students will be
familiarized with Pantayong Pananaw (From Us - To Us Perspective) in studying and understanding our
nation’s historical narratives.
 List of Reading Materials:
1. Carr, Edward. 1962. “Chapter 1. The Historian and His Facts” in What is History? 6-30.
New York: Knopf.
2. “The Historian’s Toolkit.” nd. Oxford Big Ideas. Accessed on August 3, 2018.
https://www/oup.com.au
3. Salazar, Zeus. 2012. “Pantayong Pananaw: Bilang Diskursong Kabihasnan”. Accessed
on August 4, 2018. www.bagongkasaysayan.org
HISTORY AS A DISCIPLINE
 Carr, Edward. 1962. “Chapter 1. The Historian and His Facts” in What is History? 6-30. New York:
Knopf.
Edward Hallett Carr (1892-1982) was both an international historian and a philosopher of history,
(1950-1978) most notable in the former capacity for his 14-volume History of Soviet Russia and for his
book What is History? (1961). What is History? discussed a variety of issues ranging from the importance
of facts, the relation of History to morality, clarification on the quite antithesis between individual and
society to moral or value judgments in History.
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
In Chapter 1 entitled “The Historian and His Facts," Carr emphasized historians' role in giving
meaning to facts and events. More so it focuses on the symbiotic relationship between the historian
and his facts. Thence, one ceases to be meaningful without the other. Put merely, Carr recommended
that a particular historian, as a researcher, must seek to bring into the picture all known or knowable facts
relevant, in one sense or another, to the theme in which he is engaged and to the interpretation proposed.
EXCERPT:
What is a historical fact? This is a crucial question into which we must look a little more closely.
According to the commonsense view, there are certain basic facts which are the same for all historians
and which form, so to speak, the backbone of history — the fact, for example, that the Battle of Hastings
was fought in 1066. But this view calls for two observations. In the first place, it is not with facts like
these that the historian is primarily concerned. It is no doubt important to know that the great battle was
fought in 1066 and not in 1065 or 1067, and that it was fought at Hastings and not at Eastbourne or
Brighton. The historian must not get these things wrong. But when points of this kind are raised, I am
reminded of Housman's remark that accuracy is a duty, not a virtue’.3 To praise a historian for his
accuracy is like praising an architect for using well-seasoned timber or properly mixed concrete in his
building. It is a necessary condition of his work, but not his essential function. It is precisely for matters
of this kind that the historian is entitled to rely on what have been called the ‘auxiliary sciences’ of
history - archaeology, epigraphy, numismatics, chronology, and so forth. The historian is not required to
have the special skills which enable the expert to determine the origin and period of a fragment of pottery
or marble, to decipher an obscure inscription, or to make the elaborate astronomical necessary to
establish a precise date. These so-called basic facts, which are the same for all historians, commonly
belong to the category of the raw materials of the historian rather than of history itself. The second
observation is that the necessity to establish these basic facts rests not on any quality in the facts
themselves but on an a priori decision of the historian. In spite of C. P. Scott's motto, every journalist
knows today that the most effective way to influence opinion is by the selection and arrangement of the
appropriate facts. It used to be said that facts speak for themselves. This is, of course, untrue. The facts
speak only when the calls on them: it is he who decides to which acts to give the floor, and in what order
or context. …
How in the middle of the century, are we to define the obligation of the historian to his facts? I
trust that I have spent a sufficient number of hours in recent years chasing and perusing documents, and
stuffing my historical narrative with properly footnoted facts, to escape the imputation of treating facts
and documents too cavalierly. The duty of the historian to respect his facts are not exhausted by the
obligation to see that his facts are accurate. He must seek to bring into the picture all known or knowable
facts relevant, in one sense or another, to die theme on which he is engaged in and to the interpretation
proposed. … But this, in turn, does not mean that he can eliminate interpretation, which is the lifeblood of
history. Laymen — that is to say, non-academic friends or friends from other academic disciplines —
sometimes ask me how the historian goes to work when he writes history. The commonest assumption
appears to be that the historian divides his work into two sharply distinguishable phases or periods. First,
he spends a long preliminary period reading his sources and filling his notebooks with facts: then, when
this is over, he puts away his sources, takes out his notebooks and writes his book from beginning to end.
This to me an unconvincing and unplausible picture. For myself, as soon as I have got going on a few of
what I take to be the capital the itch becomes too strong and I begin to write — not necessarily at the
beginning, but somewhere, anywhere. Thereafter, reading and writing go on simultaneously. The writing
is added to, subtracted from, re-shaped, cancelled, as I go on reading. The reading is guided and directed
and made fruitful by the writing: the more I write, the more I know what I am looking for, the better I
understand the significance and relevance of what I find. Some historians probably do all this
preliminary writing in their head without using pen, paper, or typewriter, just as some people play chess
in their heads without recourse to board and chessmen: this is a talent which I envy, but cannot emulate.
But I am convinced that, for my historian worth the name, the two processes of what economists all ' input
' and ' output' go on simultaneously and are, in practice, parts of a single If you try to separate them, or
to give one priority over the other, you fill into one of two heresies. Either you write scissors-and-paste
history without meaning or significance; or you write or historical fiction, and merely use of the past to
embroider a kind of writing which has nothing to do with history. Our examination of the relation of the
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
historian to the facts of history finds us, therefore, in an apparently precarious situation, navigating
delicately between the Scylla of an untenable theory1 of history as an objective compilation of facts, of
the unqualified primary of over interpretation, and the Charybdis of an equally untenable theory of
history as the subjective product of the mind of the historian who establishes the facts of history and
masters them through the process of interpretation, between a view of history having the centre of gravity
in the past and a view having the centre of gravity in the present. But our situation is less than it seems.
We shall encounter the same dichotomy of fact and interpretation again in these lectures in other guises
— the particular and the general, the empirical and the theoretical, the objective and the subjective. The
predicament of the historian is a reflexion of the nature of man. Man, except perhaps in earliest infancy
and in extreme old age, is not totally involved in his environment and unconditionally subject to it. On the
other hand, he is never totally independent of it and its unconditional master. The relation of man to his
environment is the relation of the historian to his theme. The historian is neither the humble slave nor the
tyrannical master of his facts. The relation between the historian and his facts is one of equality, of giveand-take. As any working historian knows, if he stops to reflect what he is doing as he thinks and writes,
the historian is engaged on a continuous process of moulding his facts to his interpretation and his
interpretation to his facts. It is impossible to assign primacy to one over the other.
The historian starts with a provisional selection of facts and a provisional interpretation in the
light of which that selection has been made – by others as well as by himself. As he works both the
interpretation and the selection and ordering of facts undergo subtle and partly unconscious changes,
through the reciprocal action of one or the other. And this reciprocal action also involves reciprocity
between present and past, since the historian is part of the present and the facts belong to the past. The
historian and the facts of history are necessary to one another. The historian without his facts is rootless
and futile; the facts without their historian are dead and meaningless. My first answer therefore to the
question ‘What is history?' is it is a continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts,
an unending dialogue between the present and the past.
CONCEPTS OF HISTORY
 “The Historian’s Toolkit.”
https://www/oup.com.au
nd.
Oxford
Big
Ideas.
Accessed
on
August
3,
2018.
Historians use seven concepts to help them investigate and understand the past. At times you will
use several of these concepts at once; at other times you may focus on just one. As you learn to apply
each concept, you will begin to think like a historian. The seven key concepts are:
1. Concept of Change and Continuity
Historians recognize that over time some things stay the same, while others change. This
concept is referred to as continuity and change. Examples of continuity and change can be seen across
every civilization and any given period of time. Historians refer to aspects of the past that have remained
the same over time as continuities. Aspects of the past that do not stay the same are referred to as
changes. Change can occur within a certain civilization or specific time period, but also across different
civilizations and time periods.
2. Concept of Multiple Causation (and Effect)
The concept of cause (and effect) is used by historians to identify chains of events and
developments, both in the short term and long term. Cause and effect aim to identify, examine and
analyze the reasons why events have occurred and the resulting consequences or outcomes. It helps to
think of cause and effect as the ‘why’ and ‘what’ of history.
Sometimes the link between cause and effect is very clear. For example, heavy rain over
many weeks (cause) leads to flooding and the destruction of crops (effect). However, often this
link is not quite so obvious. Generally, there are many causes (reasons) that lead to an event or
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History Department, MSU-GSC
action. There can also be many effects (outcomes). Sometimes the effects are simple to identify,
while in other cases they are more difficult to predict and may not even be observed until long
after the event.
3. Concept of Sources/Evidence
Evidence is the information gathered from historical sources. The concept of evidence Is
an essential part of historical inquiry. Evidence can come from different sources; for example, interviews
and accounts from people who lived at the time, letters, diaries, films, maps, newspapers, buildings,
paintings, photographs, song lyrics, nursery rhymes, clothing, photographs, and even cartoons. But how
do we use these sources to piece together the story of the past? We can make an educated guess (called
a hypothesis) and then look for evidence to support it.
Evidence can be gathered from two types of sources:
a. Primary Sources– objects created or written at the time of being investigated, for example during an
event
or
very
soon
after.
Examples
of
primary
sources
include:
official
documents, such as laws and treaties; personal documents, such as diaries and letters,
photographs or films; and documentaries. These original, firsthand documents are
analyzed by historians to answer questions about the past.
b. Secondary Sources – accounts about the past that were created after the time being
investigated and which often use or refer to primary sources and present a particular interpretation.
Examples of secondary sources include writings of historians, encyclopedia entries, documentaries,
history textbooks, films, illustrations, reconstructions, and websites.
Historians do not always agree on evidence, even when it is coming from the same source. They often
have different opinions or points of view. This is why historians are constantly
searching for new sources of evidence. They need to use a range of different sources to help them gain a
more picture of the past.
4. Concept of Significance
The concept of significance relates to the importance assigned to aspects of the past. This includes
people, events, developments, movements, and historical sites. History is so full of so many important
events, significant people, and interesting places that we could never study all of them. Instead, we need
to make a judgment about which of these is worthy of study. In order to determine if a person, event,
development, discovery, movement, or site is historically significant, historians may ask the following
questions:





How important were these people who lived at that time?
How many people were affected?
To what degree were people’s lives affected?
How widespread and long-lasting were the effects?
Can the effects still be felt today?
5. Concept of Framework
When historians discuss the past, they use frameworks like political, economic, social and
cultural. Frameworks like political, economic, social, and cultural allow historians to write about society
with greater depth, precision, and complexity while avoiding generalization.
 Political framework covers institutions, peoples, and processes responsible for leadership and
decision-making in society.
 Economic framework covers different sectors of economic production, wealth, land,
capital, money markets, and labor.
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 Social framework covers how societies are organized and how people live and behave.
 Cultural Framework has two interpretations:
- It refers to the unique ideas and customs of a society.
- It refers to the artistic and creative activities through which people express their
ideas, values, and feelings.
6. Concept of Context/Perspectives
The concept of perspectives is an important part of historical inquiry. Perspective is a point of
view – the position from which people see and understand events going on in the world around them.
People will have different points of view (perspectives) about a particular event, person, civilization, or
artifact depending on their age, gender, social position, and their beliefs and values.
Just like anyone else, historians have perspectives, which can influence their interpretation of the
past and how they write about it. Despite their own perspectives, historians must try to understand the
different values and beliefs that shaped and affected the lives of people who lived in the past.
Other concepts of history:
7. Concept of Empathy
The concept of empathy helps us to understand the impact of past events on particular
individual or groups, This includes an appreciation of the circumstances they faced and the motivations,
values, and attitudes behind their actions, Put another way, empathy is the ability to ‘walk in someone
else’s shoes’ to be aware of, and sensitive to, their feelings, thoughts, and experiences. Empathizing
brings history to life. It connects us as human beings regardless of how much time has passed.
8. Concept of Contestability
The concept of contestability relates to the explanations or interpretations of past events
that is open to debate. Historians around the world often have access to every different source.
Written records may contain errors or might have changed after they were written. Or
some artifacts may even have been destroyed. This can lead historians to draw different conclusions
about what they are seeing. Even historians studying the same sources can sometimes come to very
different conclusions about what the evidence is telling them. This is one of the exciting things about
history – open to debate. There is often no right answer, and historians are always seeking a more
complete understanding of the past.
STUDYING PHILIPPINE HISTORY FROM FILIPINO PEOPLE’S PERSPECTIVE
 Salazar, Zeus. 2012. “Pantayong Pananaw: Bilang Diskursong Kabihasnan” in Navarro, A., Mary
a.Jane Rodriguez and Vicente Villan, eds. Pantayong Pananaw: Ugat at Kabuluhan, Pambungad sa
Pag-aaral ng Bagong Kasaysayan. Quezon City: Palimbagan ng Lahi, 2000, 79-125. Accessed on
August 4, 2018. www.bagongkasaysayan.org
History is one of the most effective weapons of a once-colonized nation in the struggle to achieve
real independence. Conversely, History can also be used to carry on methods of subservience and
dependence on former colonizers. In the Philippines, Filipinos began to use History as an essential
representation of an independent country. However, this has not been easy to begin writing the nation’s
History. The History of the Philippines as a nation is the story of its rise, development, and outcome. It
explains the present and guides the way to the future. History is not meant to be mechanically memorized
and later forgotten. Nevertheless, it should be used to derive valuable insights and perspectives on what
we are and what we want to be.
In the Philippines, we can divide that there were three stages of how its History has been written:
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I.
Our image of ourselves and our past was shaped mainly by the colonizers' writings,
disregarding the sufferings of their colonies.
II.
Filipino historians consciously set themselves the task of writing from the Filipino point of
view. Their work emphasized the role Filipinos played in their History, described the abuses
perpetrated by the Spaniards, and presented Filipino responses to all colonizers with respect
and admiration. However, there were scant analyses of the American colonization. Overall, in
many instances, this is the point of view of the Filipino elite.
(Ladino  Secular Priests  Ilustrado  Pensionado 
Intellectuals) (Salazar 2012, 4-15).
III.
Fulbright/Mombusho Scholar 
The writing of the nation’s History from the point of view of the Filipino people. It means it
should be judged in terms of whether they advanced the Filipino masses' interests
(democratic participation and a better life for all). A people’s History will help significantly
eradicate our colonial mentality, the tendency to accept western ideas and products as
inherently superior, and the failure to pinpoint national interests apart from those of former
colonizers. With the writing of History following the Filipino's point of view, it will make the
citizens more nationalistic, more wary of their former colonizers, more zealous in
safeguarding the country’s resources for the people, and more determined to attain the
sovereignty of their political and economic life.
That is to say, Zeus Salazar, a Filipino historian and retired UP Professor, introduced to us Filipinos
the Pantayong Pananaw, a self-reflective perspective to appreciate further the value of writing our
nation’s History.
EXCERPT:
Ang buod ng pantayong pananaw ay nasa panloob na pagkakaugnay-ugnay at paguugnay ng mga
katangian, halagahin, kaalaman, karunungan, hangarin, kaugalian, pag-aasal at karanasan ng isang
kabuuang pangkalinangan -- kabuuang nababalot sa, at ipinapahayag sa pamamagitan ng isang wika;
ibig sabihin, sa loob ng isang nagsasariling talastasan/diskursong pangkalinangan o pangkabihasnan.
Isang reyalidad ito sa loob ng alin mang grupong etnolingguwistikong may kabuuan at kakanyahan, sa
atin at sa ibang dako man ng mundo.
Sa lahat ng mga wikang Pilipino, matatagpuan ang mga konseptong katumbas ng sa Tagalog o
P/Filipinong “kayo,” “kami,” “sila,” at “tayo.” Tinutukoy nitong huli ang nagsasalita at ang lahat ng
kanyang kausap, kasama kahit na iyong wala subalit ipinapalagay na kabahagi sa kabuuang
kinabibilangan ng nagsasalita at mga kausap. Halimbawa, ang ekspresyong “tayong mga Pilipino,” sa
pagkakaiiba nito sa “kaming mga Pilipino,” ay implisitong nagpapahiwatig na ang nagkakausap-usap
ay mga Pilipino lamang. Ibig sabihin, hindi kasali ang mga banyaga, ang mga di-Pilipino. Sa sitwasyong
ito, ang kalagayan, konsepto, kaisipan at ugali na maaaring pagtuunan ng pansin ay madaling
maintindihan, dahil napapaloob sa ating sariling lipunan-at-kalinangan, na kapwa ipinahihiwatig ng (at
nakabalot sa) isang wikang nauunawaan ng bawat isa. Maipagkakabit-kabit natin sila sa isa’t isa nang
hindi na kailangan pang tukuyin ang iba pang mga konsepto, tao, ugali at kaisipan na kaugnay nila. Sa
katunayan nga, maraming bagay at dalumat ang implisito nating nauunawaan at napag-uugnay-ugnay.
Sila at ang kanilang kaakibat na pag-uugali ang siyang bumubuo ng isang “mentalidad” (natatangi at
katangi-tanging kaisipan at pag-iisip) na mahirap maintindihan ng isang dayuhan na hindi pa
nakapapasok sa isang kalinangan-at-lipunang may pantayong pananaw.
Ibig sabihin, kung ang isang grupo ng tao ay nag-uusap lamang hinggil sa sarili at sa isa’t isa, iyan ay
maihahalintulad sa isang sistemang sarado o closed circuit -- isang “nakapinid na pag
uugnayan/pakikipag-ugnayan.” Nagkakaintindihan ang lahat nang hindi na dapat tukuyin ang iba pang
bagay na nasa labas o panlabas. Samakatuwid, ang isang lipunan-at-kalinangan ay may “pantayong
pananaw” lamang kung ang lahat ay gumagamit ng mga konsepto at ugali na alam ng lahat ang
kahulugan, pati ang relasyon ng mga kahulugang ito sa isa’t isa. Ito ay nangyayari lamang kung iisa ang
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
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code o “pinagtutumbasan ng mga kahulugan,” ibig sabihin, isang pangkabuuang pag-uugnay at
pagkakaugnay ng mga kahulugan, kaisipan at ugali. Mahalaga (at pundamental pa nga) rito ang
pagkakaroon ng iisang wika bilang batayan at daluyan ng pang-unawa at komunikasyon.
Madaling makita ito kung titingnan natin ang mga grupong etnolingguwistiko sa Pilipinas. Halimbawa,
ang mga Tagalog ay may iisang wika; nagkakaintindihan sila sa loob ng wikang ito kung ano ang ibig
sabihin ng lahat ng may kaugnayan sa kaugalian at kaisipan ng lahat. Kaya noong araw, pati ang
kanilang relihiyon ay iisa -- nananalig sila sa anito, at sa mga mitolohikal na personahe na ang
pinakasentral ay tinatawag nilang “Bathala.” Ang mitolohikal na tauhang ito ang siya ring prinsipal na
katauhan ng kanilang epiko o awit. Nang mawala ang awit na ito tungkol kay Bathala noong panahon ng
Kastila, ang ipinalit ay ang pasyon, subalit ang pangunahing katauhan nito ay isang “bathala” rin -- ang
diyos ng mga Kastila, si Kristo. Makikita natin na bago pa man makaugnay ng Kapilipinuhan ang mga
Kastila, bawat isa sa mga grupong etniko ay may sariling “pantayong pananaw,” o sariling kabuuan na
nasasalalay sa pagkakabit-kabit ng mga elementong pangkalinangan at panlipunan sa isa’t isa, na
naiintindihan at naipapamalagi ng mga kasapi ng grupong etnikong yaon sa pamamagitan ng sariling
wika.
Sa ganitong pagkakaunawaan, ang pantayong pananaw kadalasan ay hindi hayag sa (o halata ng) mga
kasapi mismo, kung buo ang kanilang lipunan-at-kalinangan. Ito ay dahil sa umiiral na reyalidad, dahil
sa iyon ang talagang kinagisnan nila. Wala nang iba pang kalinangan silang natututunan, maliban sa
mga sangkap na nakapasok sa (at naangkin na ng) kanilang batayang kalinangan. Nakikita ito sa
kanilang mga ugali, kilos at gawa na ipinahihiwatig ng, at nasasalalay sa iisang wika-at-kalinangan.
Para silang mga isda sa tubig. At kung mapapalabas sila sa kanilang kalinangan-at-lipunan, kailangan
pang maipaliwanag sa kanila o unawain ang mga gawa at ugali ng/sa ibang kultura-at-lipunan.
Pagkatapos, kailangan din nilang ibahagi ito sa kanilang kakalinangan (kababayan), sa pamamagitan ng
kanilang sariling wika, sa sariling pagdadalumat. Sa pagpapaliwanag na ito, ang pananaw ay
masasabing “pansila” -- ibig sabihin, patukoy sa iba at hindi sa kapwa -- hal., “ganito sila,” “ganito
ang ugali nila,” “ganito ang mga tagalabas o banyaga.” Kung patungo naman sa labas o sa banyaga
ang pagpapaliwanag, ang punto-de-bistang ginagamit nila ay “pangkami,” tulad ng naipahiwatig na.
Ang pagpapaliwanag dito ay tungkol sa sariling lipunan-at-kalinangan. Kakailanganing ikumpara ito sa
ibang sistema ng pag-uugali na ang mga kasapi/kabahagi ng naturang sistema ang siyang kinakausap.
Maaaring gamitin dito ang sariling wika o iba pang wika, depende kung alin ang mas laganap o mas
nakalalamang sa pag-uugnayang kultural o sosyo-pulitikal. Halimbawa, kung ang isang Tagalog noong
ika- 16 dantaon ay pupunta sa Brunei o sa Malakka kaya, ang mga paliwanag niya hinggil sa sariling
kaugalian at kalinangan ay maaaring sa wikang Malayo (ang lingua franca noon sa Timog Silangang
Asya) o sa Tagalog (kung nakakaintindi ng Tagalog ang mga kausap o kayaang mga ito’y sakop ng mga
Tagalog).
Halimbawa naman, kung makikipag-away ang mga Tagalog sa mga taga-Brunei at nagapi nila ang mga
ito at nasakop nang ilang panahon, pagsasabihan nila ang mga ito ng ganito, “Kayong mga tagaKalimantan ay iba; ganito kayo, hindi kagaya naming mga Tagalog; iba kayo.” Ang ganitong
pagtuturing/pakikipagtalastasan ang maaari nating tawaging “pangkayong pananaw.” Pangkayo ang
pananaw ng nakikipag-usap mula sa labas tungo sa mga tagaloob ng isang partikular na kalinangan,
tungkol sa mga tao at kaugalian nito.
Ang pinakabuod ng pantayong pananaw sa agos ng ating kasaysayan ay ang pangyayaring dahil sa
kolonyalismo’y nawala (o unti-unting nawasak) ang kabuuan ngmaraming mga grupong
etnolingguwistiko sa ating bayan. Ang paimbabaw na naipalit (o nailapat sa ibabaw) ay ang kabuuang
kolonyal na siyang magiging (o kaya’y gagamiting) batayan ng pagkatapos ay magiging “nasyong
Pilipino.” Dahil sa ang kabuuang kolonyal ay itinatag at ipinalaganap sa pamamagitan ng wikang
Kastila (na pagkatapos ay papalitan naman ng Anglo-Amerikano sa pamamagitan ng isang sistema na
“edukasyon” na hinangad at/o tinanggap ng nabanggit na elite para sa buong “nasyon”); at dahil sa
mga konseptong sosyopulitikal at kultural ng mga Kastila (at, pagkatapos, ng mga Amerikano) na bunga
ng paggamit ng banyagang wika, lalabas na lipos ng kontradiksyon ang nabuong
“nasyon”/nación/(nation). Kaya, ang nasyong “Pilipino” ngayon ay wala (o wala pang) pantayong
pananaw na bumabalot sa kabuuan. Samakatuwid, kung nais nating mabuo ang bansang Pilipino,
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kailangang pausbungin at pagyamanin ang pantayong pananaw ng kasalukuyang kabuuang sosyopulitikal, para sa buong bansa -- ibig sabihin, ang buong Kapilipinuhang may kasarinlan at
kakanyahan.
Table 1 below summarizes the important key points on how to distinguish the different
perspectives in writing the History of the Filipinos:
PANGKAMING
PANANAW
(FROM US – FOR
YOU)
PANSILANG
PANANAW
PANGKAYONG
PANANAW
PANTAYONG
PANANAW
(FROM US – FOR US)
▪ Written
by
the
Filipinos in English
▪ Written by foreigners
in English
▪ Written by foreigners
in English
▪
▪ Written by Filipinos in
Filipino/katutubong
salita
▪ POV
writers
Filipino
▪ POV of the foreigners
▪ POV of foreigners
▪ It is meant to be
read by foreigners to
understand our History
from our POV
▪ Meant to be read by
foreigners to
understand our History
(part/in relation) to their
History
▪ What is produced
when
texts
by
foreigners about our
History
of
▪ Used to correct or
argue against false
accusations written by
foreigners
▪ Example writers:
ilustrados (the elite
Filipino youth)
▪ Meant to be read by
Filipinos
 POV
of
writers
Filipino
▪ Meant to be read by
Filipinos
▪ Revolves around the
use of Filipino concepts
to explain other Filipino
concepts
Table 1. Tripartite Perspectives
References
“The Historian’s Toolkit.” nd. Oxford Big Ideas. Accessed on August 3, 2018. https://www/oup.com.au
Carr, Edward. 1962. “Chapter 1. The Historian and His Facts” in What is History? 6-30. New York: Knopf.
Salazar, Zeus. 2012. “Pantayong Pananaw: Bilang Diskursong Kabihasnan” in Navarro, A., Mary Jane
Rodriguez and Vicente Villan, eds. Pantayong Pananaw: Ugat at Kabuluhan, Pambungad sa Pagaaral ng Bagong Kasaysayan. Quezon City: Palimbagan ng Lahi, 2000, 79-125. Accessed on August
4, 2018. www.bagongkasaysayan.org
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CHAPTER 2
READING AND THINKING LIKE A HISTORIAN
Objective: At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:
1) Demonstrate how to interpret historical evidence utilizing historical thinking and reading skills.
 Overview
When historians read historical documents, they read at many different levels.
They
simultaneously pay attention to argument, purpose, context, content, and credibility. Too often, students
will read a historical document as if it is a textbook. Students need to learn that reading a historical
document is a different reading process and involves understanding the main point, contextualizing, and
asking skeptical questions.
In this chapter, the students will learn about how historians as researchers think and read. Aside
from the learned concepts of History in the previous chapter, the students will know more about the other
historical skills that a historian must possess. More so, the students will be encouraged to practice at all
times referencing.
List of Reading Materials:
1. Sharon Leon & Sarah Whelan, Historical Thinking Chart (CHNM, 2008), CC-NC-BY,
http://www.6floors.org/teaching/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Historical_Thinking_TAH.pdf
2. W. H. Scott, “Kalantiaw: The Code That Never Was” in Great Scott! The New Day William
Henry Scott Reader, B. Ed. Uc-Kung, (Quezon City: New Day Publishers, 2006), 76-87
3. Laguna Copperplate Inscription, 1990.
READING AND THINKING LIKE A HISTORIAN
A historian is an expert who studies and writes about the past. With the help of allied disciplines
like archaeology, the historian can describe the pre-historical events in the past, i.e., before the
invention of the writing system.
Because nobody can travel back in time to answer questions about the past, historians and
history students must work to reconstruct it by interpreting the evidence our predecessors have left
behind, making use of our existing historical knowledge about the period under investigation, and our
informed imaginations fill in the gaps. At its best, History is like detective work. Doing well requires a
particular set of skills that your instructor will help you learn, practice, and internalize. These skills consist
of specific ways of reading, thinking about, and analyzing the past to improve the critical thinking skills
you are honing in college.
History class should be a space where students learn to think and reason, not just memorize.
The researchers who study the discipline of history place a high value on critical thinking skills. Historians’
work focuses specifically on figuring out what happened in the past,
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which requires understanding and evaluating change and continuity over time, making appropriate historical evidence in answering questions, and
developing coherent interpretations and arguments about how and why things happened (Bedford/St. Martins 2015, 4).
 Sharon Leon & Sarah Wehlan created “A Model of Historical Thinking and Historical Reading Skills” to show how a historian read and think
(CHNM, 2008)
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
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OTHER HISTORICAL SKILLS
(From “The Historian’s Toolkit Concepts and Skills” nd, 368-378)
To conduct a historical inquiry, historians apply a range of different skills. Each skill area has
some specific skills that you will learn and practice during your study of History.
1. Comprehension: Chronology, terms, and concepts
To get a better understanding of the past, historians organize events in the order they happened.
This is known as chronology. Drawing a timeline is a useful way to visually represent the scope of the
time and the order of events. See Figure 2 below as an example. We can use chronology to look at
events in one place or society or compare events across many different places and societies.
Figure 1. Timeline of the Historical Period of the Philippines.
Once events have been placed in chronological order, historians can use various historical
concepts to analyze them in detail. These include cause and effect, significance, continuity, and change.
Terms and Concepts related to historical time included BC/BCE and AD/CE. A reference table for
periods BC and AD, divided into centuries, is provided below. You should be familiar with the terms used
to describe historical periods before you begin your depth studies.
Century BC
21st
20th
19th
18th
17th
16th
15th
Period
2100 to 2001
2000 to 1901
1900 to 1801
1800 to 1701
1700 to 1601
1600 to 1501
1500 to 1401
Century BC
14th
13th
12th
11th
10th
9th
8th
Period
1400 to 1301
1300 to 1201
1200 to 1101
1100 to 1001
100 to 901
900 to 801
800 to 701
Century BC
7th
6th
5th
4th
3rd
2nd
1st
Period
700 to 601
600 to 501
500 to 401
400 to 301
300 to 201
200 to 101
100 to 1
Century AD
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
Period
1 to 100
101 to 200
201 to 300
301 to 400
401 to 500
501 to 600
601 to 700
Century AD
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th
13th
14th
Period
701 to 800
801 to 900
901 to 1000
1001 to 1100
1101 to 1200
1201 to 1300
1301 to 1400
Century AD
15th
16th
17th
18th
19th
20th
21st
Period
1401 to 1500
1501 to 1600
1601 to 1700
1701 to 1800
1801 to 1900
1901 to 2000
2001 to 2100
Table 2. More than 2000 years before Christ', divided into centuries. When ordering time BC, remember to count
backward from 1.
Table 3. More than 2000 years of Anno Domini (in the year of the Lord) were divided into centuries. When ordering
time, remember to count forwards from 1).
2. Identify and locate relevant resources using ICT and other methods.
Sources provide information for historians. They can take many different forms, from historical artifacts
to written records in books or online. Some include human remains, coins, cave paintings, textbooks,
journals,
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online databases, newspapers, letters, cartoons, and diaries. Locating a range of relevant sources is a
valuable skill that usually involves several different search methods, such as:
 Checking catalogs at your school and local library
 Using online search engines such as Google, Yahoo, etc.
 Visiting museums and government websites
 Looking at newspaper and magazine archives
 Contacting local historical societies
 Interview
Primary sources in the Philippines are placed in several repositories around the country. Some of
these places are the National Archives, National Library, the National Museums, and other local
government repositories.
a. National Archives of the Philippines (NAP)
Organized under RA 9470 on May 21, 2007, the NAP was established to store, preserve,
conserve, and make available to the public the records, papers, periodicals, books, or other items,
articles, or materials, that have been selected for permanent reservation. These materials may be
in the form of electronic, audio-visual, or print, which by their nature and characteristics have
enduring value.
The NAP is holding about 60,000,000 archival documents with a Spanish Collection comprising an
estimated 13,000,000 manuscripts from the 16th to 19th century with 400 titles on various aspects
of Philippine history under a.) Spanish rule such as royal decrees of the Spanish monarchs,
reports of the governors-general, documents on Filipino uprisings, records of different provinces
and pueblos, royal titles on lands and landed estates, pastoral letters of the clergy, papers on
churches and convents, maps and architectural plans of buildings and houses, civil records like
birth, marriages, and death; b.) American and Japanese occupation records including the
Philippine National Guard records, civil service rosters, and war trials; and c.) recent records
composed of notarial documents, registers, civil service records, and 1000 cubic meters of inactive
records of national/local governments including those of abolished, transferred or merged offices.
b. National Library of the Philippines (NLP)
The NLP is the repository of the printed and recorded cultural heritage of the country and other
intellectual, literary, and information sources. It was established by a royal decree on August 12, 1887,
and named as Museo-Biblioteca de Filipinas. Its mission is to acquire, organize, conserve, and
preserve Filipiniana materials and provide equitable access to library resources through a system of
public libraries throughout the country.
It has one of the largest collections of materials in various forms in the country covering around 1.6
million books, manuscripts, newspapers, theses and dissertations, government publications, maps,
and photographs. Some of the valuable pieces it holds are Rizal’s novels, including the unfinished
novels, and the Philippine Declaration of Independence which are all kept in a special vault.
c.
National Museum of the Philippines (NM)
As an educational, scientific, and cultural institution, the NM operates the National Museum of Fine Arts,
National Museum of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, National Planetarium, and other
branch museums around the country. Its collection covers fine arts, archaeology, ethnography, and
natural history.
3. Analysis and Use of sources.
The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use primary
sources and other evidence to research and then write histories in the form of accounts of the past. The
study of historical method and writing is known as historiography.
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
According to Garraghan and Delanglez (1946), the historical method includes source criticism which
studies the internal and external validity of the sources, using the following questions as a guide:






When was the source, written or unwritten, produced?
Where was it produced?
By whom was it produced?
From what pre-existing material was it produced?
In what original form was it produced?
What is the evidential value of its contents?
The first five questions are considered to be part of external criticism. Historians determine the
authenticity of sources by examining the date, locale, creator, analysis, and integrity of the historical
sources. This information must be consistent with each other. It means, for example, that the materials
used in a source must match the time and place when it was produced.
The last question is treated as internal criticism as it helps historians determine the credibility of the
source. It studies the content of the source to know its truthfulness. For a source to be valid, its content
must be reasonable and historically precise. One should now rely on data that is not supported by
evidence.
Separating fact from opinion.
The conclusions drawn from the sources will determine their usefulness. In many cases, this
means separating fact from opinion. A fact is something that can be proved: when an event took place,
what happened, and who was involved. An opinion is based on what a person, or persons, may believe
to be true. A simple way to detect whether a statement is a fact or an opinion is to look closely at the
language used. The use of words like ‘might,’ ‘could,’ ‘think’ and ‘suggests’ all indicate an opinion is being
expressed.
REFERENCING
Referencing is the process of acknowledging historians, writers, or sources you have relied on
for information and evidence. References are integrated into your writing, either within the text (in-text),
as footnotes (at the bottom of the page), or as endnotes (at the end of your piece). Referencing is used
by academics and students across many subjects and disciplines, not only History. In most college or
university courses, referencing is a compulsory requirement; work submitted without referencing is either
marked down, failed, or not assessed. Therefore, students need to learn how to reference and begin
incorporating referencing into their own writing.
Why is referencing so important?
1. Referencing is evidence that validates your argument.
2. Referencing is evidence of effective research.
3. Referencing acknowledges the work of others.
There are three widely-used referencing styles or conventions. They are called the MLA (Modern
Languages Association) system, the APA (American Psychological Association) system, and the
Chicago Manual Style/Turabian system. Referencing Styles dictate the information necessary for a
citation and how the information is ordered, as well as the punctuation and other formatting.
The MLA system is a parenthetical system: i.e. bracketed references in the body of your essay
are linked to full-length citations in the bibliography at the end of your essay. The bracket in the body of
the essay contains only the author’s surname and the page number or numbers you are referring to. For
example: There are a number of different referencing styles or conventions but there are four that are
used most widely (Salazar, 17).
If your essay quotes from two or more works by the same author then the bracketed reference
should include a shortened version of the title to indicate which book is being referred to. (Salazar,
Pantayong Pananaw, 26)
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
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A bibliography compiled according to MLA conventions lists items alphabetically by the author’s
last name. Each entry should include, in the following order: the author’s name in full, the title of the book,
the place of publication, the publisher, and the date. For example: Teodoro Agoncillo. History of the
Filipino People. Quezon City: Garotech Publishing, 1990. Pay attention to how the entry is punctuated as
that is part of the system too.
The APA system is also a parenthetical system but the bracketed references in the body of your
essay are: the author’s surname, the date of publication, and the page or page numbers you are referring
to. For example: There are a number of different referencing styles or conventions but there are four that
are used most widely (Agoncillo, 1990, p. 17). The reference always goes at the end of the sentence
before the full stop.
A bibliography compiled according to APA conventions lists items alphabetically by the author’s
last name. Each entry should include, in the following order: the author’s surname, their first initial, the
date of publication in brackets, the title of the book, the place of publication, and the publisher. For
example: Agoncillo, T. (1990) History of the Filipino People. Quezon City: Garotech Publishing. Again,
pay attention to how the entry is punctuated as that is part of the system too.
The Chicago Manual of Style is the most standard referencing style in social sciences like History.
Most schools, colleges, and faculties specify a preferred method. Two of the most common referencing
systems are named for prominent universities: Oxford (UK) and Harvard (US).
The Oxford method is also known as ‘documentary note referencing” or simply ‘footnoting.”
The main feature of Oxford referencing is its use of footnotes at the bottom of each page. A section of
your text uses quotes, ideas, or information from another source. A small superscript number (like this1) is
added at the phrase's tail, sentence, or paragraph. Multiple superscript numbers can be used if you have
used more than one source (like this1,2). Each of these superscript numbers refers to a numbered citation,
n at the bottom of the page, for example:
_________________
1. Jones, S., Oxford Referencing for Beginners, Academic Books: London, 2002, p. 12.
2. Smith, W., Referencing the Easy Way, Columbia Books: New York, 2007, p. 33.
Most high-end word-processing programs, like Microsoft Word and Pages, contain automatic
features for Oxford footnoting. They allow you to insert footnotes without having to reorganize or reformat
your page. When adding footnotes, be aware that the Oxford system requires them to be organized and
formatted in a certain way.
The Harvard method of referencing uses in-text citations rather than superscript numbering. In
the Harvard system, references are added in parentheses within the text, immediately after the relevant
statement or quotation. Harvard references are usually very brief, listing just the author’s surname and the
date of publication. A page number is sometimes added when referring to a specific quote or piece of
information. If the author’s surname is already mentioned within your writing, it does not need to be
included in the parentheses. Full citations for each reference are then added to a reference list at the end
of the text. This paragraph contains three examples of how Harvard quotations can be used (Note: they
are dummy references and do not refer to actual sources):
Historians disagree about the level of authority that Hitler wielded within both parties and
states. Some suggest Hitler’s image as a totalitarian mastermind was the work of a
propaganda campaign dating back to the early 1920s (Smith, 2002). According to Brown
(2007), Hitler’s inability to rein in the SA was evidence of his limited authority within the
NSDAP. One historian describes the Nazi leader’s power as “much more public myth
than party reality” (White, 1995, p.188).
 Footnotes assist the audience in following the thoughts and processes questions posed by fellow scholars to shape their
arguments.
Why do researchers footnote?
As citation footnote, inform the audience where the author found the evidence that support a particular argument or case.


Indicate that the historian/researcher examined the original materials and used them fully to substantiate an argument

Provide the audiences the ability to locate, analyze and corroborate the evidence used in the paper, and enable them to
determine the validity of the conclusions reached.
Failure to footnote appropriately may result in charges of plagiarism, which is academic dishonesty of the highest order
15
Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
(UN)HISTORICAL MATERIAL: CODE OF KALANTIAW
Scott, William. “Kalantiaw: The Code That Never Was” In Great Scott! The New Day William Henry Scott
Reader (2006)
In the past, there were several historical materials in the Philippines believed to be factual. When
some historians researched this evidence, they claimed it to be unhistorical and considered hoaxes.
Examples of these were “The Story of Maragtas” and “Code of Kalantiaw.” In this section, let us see how
William Henry Scott employed the skills of how to “think and read like a historian” in his research about
these Pre-Hispanic materials, most notably the Code of Kalantiaw. First, let us have a brief review of his
profile.
A renowned scholar on the culture and history of the Filipino people, William Henery Scott
(91921-1993) is well known for his major works on precolonial Philippine society and the history of the
Cordilleras. He was not the first person to question the validity of our past, but it was Scott’s dissertation,
which was published in the book form as Pre-Hispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History,
which became a model of critical research for the newer generations of Filipino historians. They will in
time uncover more real history that Filipinos can truly be proud of, and other historical materials
considered hoaxes will be a thing of the past – so to speak.
EXCERPT:
I MET KALANTIAW FOR THE FIRST TIME in 1960. It was when I was beginning the study of Philippine
history, as most Filipinos begin it, with Gregorio F. Zaide's two-volume Philippine Political and Cultural
History. Here, in chapter 5, Kalantiaw was presented as the author of a penal code dated 1433, almost a
century before Magellan reached the archipelago. I was delighted Philippine history seemed to be largely
the history of what Spaniards and Americans did in the Philippines. But here was a genuine Philippine
penal code, complete with the name of the Filipino ruler who wrote it and the date on which it was
promulgated.114
Penal codes, of course, are very revealing of the society for which they were written. Therefore I
confidently told my students that the Sixth Order of the Code of Kalantiaw, which fixed a fine as payable
either in gold or honey, indicated that gold was as common as honey in the ancient Philippines. My
students all laughed. So the next year I told them that the Sixth Order indicated that honey was as
expensive as gold. But they also laughed. And they were right. If the Code wasn't laughable, it was at
least very peculiar. It prescribed capital punishment for entering a datu's house without permission, but
only a year’s slavery for stealing his wife.
Obviously there was something wrong – perhaps an error in translation. What language was this Code
originally written in, and where was that original? I determined to find out. The opportunity came when I
enrolled as a doctoral candidate in the University of Santo Tomas in 1965 and included the search in my
examination of prehispanic sources for the study Of Philippine history. As it turned out, the source of the
Code of Kalantiaw was Jose' Maria Pavon's 1838-1839 Las Antiguas ndas de la Isla de Negros (The
ancient Legends of the Island of Negros.)
LAS ANTIGUAS LEYENDAS by Father Jose Maria Pavon, parish priest of Himamaylan, was contained
in two leather-bound volumes, 16 x 11 cm. of 267 and 394 pages respectively, presented to the Philippine
Library in 1914 by Mr. Jose E. Marco of Pontevedra, Occidental Negros.115 … Director James A.
Robertson noted in his annual report to the Philippine Library Board for the year ending December 31,
1914, that the Leyendas “contains the only ancient criminal code of the Filipinos which has yet come to
light.” Then in 1917, he published an English translation in his “Social structure of, and ideas of law
among, early Philippine peoples; and a recently discovered pre-hispanic criminal code of the Philippine
Islands" in H. Morse Stephens and Herbert E. Bolton's The Pacific Ocean in History. …
Both the Leyendas and the Cuentos perished in the destruction of the Philippine Library in 1945, but
typescript copies of the text of the former survive in the libraries of the University of the Philippines and
the University of Florida, and in private collections in Manila. Photographic reproductions of three
16
Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
pages of Las Antiguas Leyendas were published in The Philippine History Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 1
(1919)…
THE MARCO-PAVON ANTIGUAS LEYENDAS is the source, and the only source, of the Kalantiaw
Code— chapter 9 of Part I. The Code therefore can be no more valid than the forgery which contains it. It
is entitled "The 17 theses, or laws of the Regulos in use in 150 since 1433," and was supposedly
discovered in the possession of a Panay ruler in 1614, its original being still in the possession of one Don
Marcilio Orfila of Zaragoza in 1839. The figure "150" must mean 1150 in accordance with the usual
custom of abbreviating dates and the example in the second chapter of Part Il where the year of a
Kalantiaw-built fortress is given as 433 instead of 1433. This makes the statement, "in use in 1150 since
1433," ridiculous, of course, but no more ridiculous than the fact that the fort-building date of 1433
appears in a source itself dated 1137. Despite these peculiarities, however, Robertson published an
English translation of the Code in apparent
good faith in 1917, the same year Soncuya published the Spanish version. …
This shift of the Code from Negros to Panay presumably began with Soncuya's conclusion that Rajah
Kalantiaw—as he called him—had written the code for Aklan because of the presence of two Aklanon
rather than Hiligaynon words in the text. By the time Zaide included the Code in his 1949 history, the
words "Aklan, Panay" had been added to the original rubric, "Echo en el afio 1433—Calantiao—30
regulo." This process of naturalization was completed in 1956 when Digno Alba announced that
Kalantiaw had organized his government in Batan as the ancient capital of the sakup of Aklan. A request
by the Philippine Government of the Spanish for the return of the original codex by the descendants of
Marcilio Orfila elicited the hardly surprising information that the Police Commissioner could find no
record of any such family in Zaragosa. …
The contents of the Code itself are no less peculiar. They were promulgated by a central authority of
sufficient power to put local chieftains to death for failure to enforce them, and prescribe 36 different
offenses irrationally grouped in 18 theses, punishable by 15 kinds of corporal and capital punishment,
bearing no relation to the nature or severity of the crimes. None of these theses can be duplicated in other
historic codices, many are hard to understand, some contradict others, and all are utterly unfilipino in
their harshness. Genuine Philippine custom law as described in early Spanish accounts permits even the
most serious offenses to be settled the payment of fines or debt servitude. Only Jose E. Marco thought that
chieftains ruled with "a strong arm and the severity and hardness fit and natural to the ancient
governments of the world" (Resefia Historica, 18).
Legalist commentators have not been wanting to cite the codes of Leviticus or Hammurabi for
comparisons of severity, but what is incredible about the Kalantiaw Code is not its severity but its
capricious viciousness. Its catalogue of punishments alone sounds like the fantasies of some uninhibited
sadist— plunging the hand into boiling water three times, cutting off the fingers, laceration with thorns,
exposure to ants, swimming for three hours, drowning weighted with stones, beating to death, or being
burned, boiled, stoned, crushed with weights, cut to pieces, or thrown to crocodiles. One wonders what
pedagogical mischief has been done to three generations of Filipino youth by the belief that their
ancestors suffered a society submissive to such a legal system.
References
“The Historian’s Toolkit Concepts and Skills.” N.D.
Laguna Copperplate Inscription (900AD)
Sharon Leon & Sarah Whelan, Historical Thinking Chart (CHNM, 2008), CC-NC-BY,
http://www.6floors.org/teaching/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Historical_Thinking_TAH.pdf
Scott, William. “Kalantiaw: The Code That Never Was” In Great Scott! The New Day William Henry Scott
Reader (2006)
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
CHAPTER 1 & 2 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS
Name:__________________________________________________
Date: __________________
Name of Instructor: _____________________________________
Class Section/Schedule: _________________________________
General Instruction: Answer the questions below. You will be rated according to the rubrics provided.
I. “History is written by the victors”—a well-known saying from centuries ago. Does the idea still applicable in the
present? If so, do you agree that the earlier statement proves that history is one-sided? State your position and
explain. (20 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
RUBRICS FOR ESSAY
GRADING SCALE
CRITERIA
5 pts
(Excellent)
3
(Satisfactory)
1
(Good)
0
(Needs
Improvement)
TOTAL
SCORE
IDEAS: Tells a story with ideas that are clearly focused on the topic and are thoroughly developed with specific
relevant details.
ORGANIZATION: Organization and connections between ideas and/or events are clear and logically sequenced.
STYLE: Command of language, including effective and compelling word and varied sentence structure, clearly
supports the writer's purpose and audience.
CONVENTIONS: Consistent, appropriate use of conventions of Standard English for grammar, usage. spelling,
capitalization, and punctuation for the age level.
II.
Using images and text, create a poster that illustrates and briefly explains the seven historical
concepts discussed (20 pts).
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
RUBRICS FOR POSTER
GRADING SCALE
CRITERIA
5 pts
(Excellent)
3
(Satisfactory)
1
(Good)
0
(Needs
Improvement)
TOTAL
SCORE
COVERAGE OF THE TOPIC: Applied the lesson concepts.
USE OF GRAPHICS: Images, texts are edited in a unique and creative way, as well as highly engaging.
ORGANIZATION: Exceptional ideas integrated with supporting details.
CONVENTIONS: Consistent, appropriate use of conventions of Standard English for grammar, usage.
spelling, capitalization and punctuation for the age level.
III.
In your understanding, what is Pantayong Pananaw? How relevant is this perspective in valuing our
nation’s history? (15 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
______________
IV.
Using Leon and Wehlan’s Model of Historical Reading Skills (2008), analyze the article about Laguna
Copperplate Inscription written by Antoon Postma. (20 pts)
SOURCING
CORROBORATION
CLOSE READING
CONTEXTUAL
ANALYSIS
19
Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
CHAPTER 3
GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES AND PEOPLING IN THE
PHILIPPINES
Objectives: At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:
1) Familiarize the important geographical features of the Philippine archipelago through a map quiz.
2) Compare and contrast the historical and cultural implications of the various theories of peopling in
the Philippines.
 Overview
To further understand a country's history, it is essential to know its geography, for it plays a vital
role in molding its people and, consequently, their collective destiny. The study of geography, which
includes the land and bodies of water, a country’s location, climate, and natural resources, contributes to
the unity and diversity of a people’s culture. It affects their outlook on life, habits, material culture, customs,
and traditions. This is very true in the Philippines, an archipelago of more than 7,000 islands (De Viana
2011, 1).
In this chapter, the students will have a brief review of the Philippines' physical geographical
features. This chapter also includes excerpts of readings related to the migration models on the peopling
of the country that began in the past.
List of Reading Materials:
a. Cole, Mabel. 1916. “Selected folktales” in Philippine Folktales, Chicago: A.C. McClurg &
Co. https://www.gutenberg.org/files/12814/12814-h/12814-h.htm
b. CIA. “Philippines”. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/geos/print_rp.html.
c. Bellwood, Peter. “A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins,” Asian Perspectives, xxvi (1),
1984 – 1985: 107-117.
d. Solheim, Wilhelm II, “Taiwan, Coastal South China, and Northern Viet Nam and The
Nusantao Maritime Trading Network,” JEAA 2, vol. 1-2 (2000): 273-284.
GEOGRAPHY
 CIA’s Factbook about Philippines
Area
total: 300,000 sq km
land: 298,170 sq km
water: 1,830 sq km
Climate
Tropical marine;
northeast monsoon (November to April); southwest monsoon (May to October)
Natural resources
timber, petroleum, nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, salt, copper
People and Society
Population
114,597,229 (2022 est.)
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
Ethnic groups
Tagalog 24.4%, Bisaya/Binisaya 11.4%, Cebuano 9.9%, Ilocano 8.8%, Hiligaynon/Ilonggo 8.4%,
Bikol/Bicol 6.8%, Waray 4%, other local ethnicity 26.1%, other foreign ethnicity 0.1% (2010 est.)
Languages
unspecified Filipino (official; based on Tagalog) and English (official); eight major dialects - Tagalog,
Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon or Ilonggo, Bicol, Waray, Pampango, and Pangasinan
Religions
Roman Catholic 79.5%, Muslim 6%, Iglesia ni Cristo 2.6%, Evangelical 2.4%, National Council of
Churches in the Philippines 1.1%, other 7.4%, none <0.1% (2015 est.)
Regions. As of 2020, the country is divided into 17 administrative divisions that primarily coordinate
planning and organize national government services across multiple local government units (LGUs).
Table 4 shows the list of provinces per region and its regional centers.
Region
Name of Region
NCR
National
Capital
Region (NCR)
I
Ilocos Region
II
III
Cagayan
Valley
Region
Central Luzon
IV-A
CALABARZON
IV-B
MIMAROPA
V
Bicol Region
CAR
VI
VII
VIII
Cordillera
Administrative
Region
Western Visayas
Region
Central
Visayas
Region
Samar-Leyte
Region
IX
Zamboanga
Peninsula
X
Northern Mindanao
XII
Davao
Local Government Units (LGUs)
(Provinces/ independent component
city)
Caloocan, Las Piñas, Makati, Malabon,
Mandaluyong, Manila, Marikina,
Muntinlupa, Navotas, Parañaque,
Pasay, Pasig, Pateros, Quezon City,
San Juan, Taguig, Valenzuela
Dagupan, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La
Union, Pangasinan
Batanes, Cagayan, Isabela, Nueva
Vizcaya, Quirino, Santiago
Angeles, Aurora, Bataan, Bulacan,
Nueva Ecija, Olongapo, Pampanga,
Tarlac, Zambales
Batangas, Cavite, Laguna, Lucena,
Quezon, Rizal
Marinduque,
Occidental
Mindoro,
Oriental Mindoro, Palawan, Romblon,
Puerto Princesa
Albay, Camarines Norte, Camarines
Sur, Catanduanes, Masbate, Naga,
Sorsogon
Abra, Apayao, Baguio, Benguet,
Ifugao, Kalinga, Mountain Province
Aklan, Antique, Bacolod, Capiz,
Guimaras, Iloilo, Iloilo City, Negros
Occidental
Bohol, Cebu, Cebu City, Lapu-Lapu
Coty, Mandaue, Negros, Siquijor
Biliran,
Eastern
Samar,
Leyte,
Northern Samar, Ormoc, Samar,
Southern Leyte, Tacloban
Isabela, Zamboanga City, Zamboanga
del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur,
Zamboanga Sibugay
Bukidnon, Cagayan de Oro, Camiguin,
Iligan, Lanao del Norte, Misamis
Occidental, Misamis Oriental
Davao City, Davao de Oro, Davao del
Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao
Occidental, Davao Oriental
Regional Center
Manila
San Fernando, La Union
Tuguegarao
San Fernando, Pampanga
Calamba
Calapan
Legazpi
Baguio
Iloilo City
Cebu City
Tacloban
Pagadian
Cagayan de Oro
Davao City
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Readings in Philippine History (GEC 105)
History Department, MSU-GSC
XII
XIII
BARMM
SOCCSKSARGEN
South Cotabato, Cotabato, Sultan Koronadal
Kudarat, Sarangani, General Santos
City
CARAGA
Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Butuan
Butuan, Dinagat Islands, Surigao del
Norte, Surigao del Sur
Bangsamoro
Basilan (excluding Isabela City), Cotabato City
Autonomous
Cotabato City, Lanao del Sur,
Region in Muslim
Maguindanao del Norte, Maguindanao
Mindanao
del
Sur, Sulu,
Tawi-Tawi, 63
barangays in Cotabato City
Table 4. Administrative Divisions of the Philippines
PEOPLING OF THE PHILIPPINES
Who were the first people to live in the Philippines? Where did they come from? What happened
to them?
These questions about the past cannot fully be answered even by the scientists who studied our
early ancestors.
The following readings are excerpts related to the collective stories of ethnic groups in the country
as well as the scholastic works of our social scientists to explain where the Filipinos originated.
Mabel Cook Cole (1846–1923) was a writer and anthropologist. She specialized in the study of ancient
man and in studying the people of the Philippines. Her books include The Story of Primitive Man, The
Story of Man, Savage Gentleman, and Philippine Folk Tales. The following are excerpts about creation
stories according to the beliefs among the Tagalogs and Blaans in Mindanao.
Read “Selected folktales” excerpt from Philippine Folktales by Mabel Cole (1916).
EXCERPT:
The Creation Story (Tagalog)
When the world first began there was no land, but only the sea and the sky, and between them was a kite.6
One day the bird which had nowhere to light grew tired of flying about, so she stirred up the sea until it
threw its waters against the sky. The sky, in order to restrain the sea, showered upon it many islands until
it could no longer rise, but ran back and forth. Then the sky ordered the kite to light on one of the islands
to build her nest and to leave the sea and the sky in peace.
Now at this time the land breeze and the sea breeze were married, and they had a child which was a
bamboo. One day when this bamboo was floating about on the water, it struck the feet of the kite which
was on the beach. The bird, angry that anything should strike it, pecked at the bamboo, and out of one
section came a man and from the other a woman.
Then the earthquake called on all the birds and fish to see what should be done with these two, and it was
decided that they should marry. Many children were born to the couple, and from them came all the
different races of people.
After a while the parents grew very tired of having so many idle and useless children around, and they
wished to be rid of them, but they knew of no place to send them to. Time went on and the children
became so numerous that the parents enjoyed no peace. One day, in desperation, the father seized a stick
and began beating them on all sides.
This so frightened the children that they fled in different directions, seeking hidden rooms in the house—
some concealed themselves in the walls, some ran outside, while others hid in the fireplace, and several
fled to the sea.
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Now it happened that those who went into the hidden rooms of the house later became the chiefs of the
Islands; and those who concealed themselves in the walls became slaves. Those who ran outside were
free men; and those who hid in the fireplace became negroes; while those who fled to the sea were gone
many years, and when their children came back they were the white people.7
The Story of the Creation16 Bilaan (Mindanao)
In the very beginning there lived a being so large that he can not be compared with any known thing. His name
was Melu,17 and when he sat on the clouds, which were his home, he occupied all the space above. His teeth
were pure gold, and because he was very cleanly and continually rubbed himself with his hands, his skin
became pure white. The dead skin which he rubbed off his body18 was placed on one side in a pile, and by and
by this pile became so large that he was annoyed and set himself to consider what he could do with it.
Finally Melu decided to make the earth; so he worked very hard in putting the dead skin into shape, and when
it was finished he was so pleased with it that he determined to make two beings like himself, though smaller, to
live on it.
Taking the remnants of the material left after [140] making the earth he fashioned two men but just as they
were all finished except their noses, Tau Tana from below the earth appeared and wanted to help him. Melu
did not wish any assistance, and a great argument ensued. Tau Tana finally won his point and made the noses
which he placed on the people upside down. When all was finished, Melu and Tau Tana whipped the forms
until they moved. Then Melu went to his home above the clouds, and Tau Tana returned to his place below the
earth.
All went well until one day a great rain came, and the people on the earth nearly drowned from the water
which ran off their heads into their noses. Melu, from his place on the clouds, saw their danger, and he came
quickly to earth and saved their lives by turning their noses the other side up.
The people were very grateful to him, and promised to do anything he should ask of them. Before he left for the
sky, they told him that they were very unhappy living on the great earth all alone, so he told them to save all
the hair from their heads and the dry skin from their bodies and the next time he came he would make them
some companions. And in this way, there came to be a great many people on the earth.
However, for other scientists, it is believed that man came from apelike creatures who lived
thousands of years ago in caves and have very crude tools. When discovered in 1965, Tabon Man was
thought of as the first man in the Philippines who lived in caves at Tabon, Southwest Palawan province,
about 25,000 years ago. It was believed that he belonged to the Stone Age Era because of the stone
tools and weapons discovered. The Tabon Caves (Same as the Great Cave of Niah in Sarawak) was the
only Old Stone Age sited in the Pleistocene period in Southeast Asia.
In 2007, a team of archaeologists headed by Armand Salvador Mijares discovered a fossilized remain
in Callao Caves in Peñablanca, Cagayan. The said fossilized remain is a 61 mm-foot bone (metatarsal).
With the use of Uranium-series ablation, the team confirmed that the genus of the fossilized remains is
Homo. However, they were uncertain of its species classification. Then, last 2019, after discovering an
additional 12 new specimens, they reassigned the remains to a new species, Homo luzonensis, deriving
from the name of the island.
Gascon, Melvin. “Callao Man’ makes PH rock star in human history.” Philippine Daily Inquirer. Posted on April
15,
2019,
https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1106726/callao-man-makes-ph-rock-star-in-humanhistory#ixzz5vnACW2BY.
EXCERPT:
‘Callao Man’ makes PH rock star in human history
By: Melvin Gascon - Correspondent / @melvingasconINQ
Philippine Daily Inquirer / 07:24 AM April 15, 2019
SIGNIFICANT FIND Armand Salvador Mijares, leader of an
international multidisciplinary team, presents the fossils of the
newly discovered Homo luzonensis dug up inside Callao Cave in
Peñablanca, Cagayan province. —JAM STA. ROSA
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PEÑABLANCA, Cagayan — Barely a day after announcing the breakthrough discovery of the remains of
a prehistoric human species found at a cave in Cagayan province, University of the Philippines (UP)
scientist Armand Salvador Mijares took off for another excavation project last Friday, this time at a cave
in Bulacan province.
Mijares, according to friends and acquaintances, is all “pumped up” in his continuing quest to explore
the country’s wealth of resources in the history of human evolution.
“He’s naturally excited. One discovery as significant as this would really get one well pumped up,” said
Eusebio Dizon, Mijares’ professor and mentor at UP and a member of the Callao archaeological team.
Mijares, along with a team of Filipino, French and Australian archeologists, took the world of
anthropology by storm last week after he announced the discovery of Homo luzonensis, a prehistoric
human species previously unknown to science.
Before its declaration as a distinct species, the fossil find in Cagayan had been referred to by scientists as
“Callao Man,” after the cave system that spans five villages in Peñablanca town on the foothills of the
Sierra Madre Mountain range. …
Its new name is derived from Luzon, the main island in northern Philippines on which the species is
believed to have lived. …
Patience, persistence
Dizon did not hide his admiration for his prodigy’s patience and persistence in pursuing his projects, not
only at Callao but at other sites as well.
“To his credit, he never stopped looking for grants to fund his projects. At times, when we were already
about to give up, he would still hang on,” he said of Mijares. Mijares began his excavation at Callao
Cave in 2003 as part of his dissertation for doctorate study at UP. Months of diggings yielded nothing.
But just when his colleagues thought it was time to call off the dig, he told them he still saw some
“encouraging signs.” He plodded on.
In that study, he said he aimed to “understand the transition from the stratigraphically lower flake tool
assemblages found in the caves into the upper Neolithic assemblages that are found both in the caves and
in the open sites (by) looking for evidence of changes in material culture and subsistence strategies
through time.”
The team’s excavation in 2007 unearthed a breakthrough—a foot bone that belonged to a human. It
would be confirmed later as the earliest human remains in the country, at about 67,000 years old.
Initially named “MT 3,” scientists theorized that the foot bone belonged to a “small-bodied Homo
sapiens.” After getting additional funding, Mijares and his team returned to the cave in 2009 but failed to
make significant progress.
Promising results
In 2011, the team struck pay-dirt anew. Members found two foot bones, two hand bones, five teeth and a
femur, or thigh bone. The promising results of the dig encouraged Mijares to push on. “We were hoping
to get at least a human mandible,” he said.
Four years after the major dig discovery, the team found another molar that, according to Mijares,
confirmed the existence of the same human species from at least three individuals—two adults and a
juvenile. The team subjected their fossil finds to months of laboratory identification and DNA analysis,
uranium-dating, and years of consultations with other global experts in archaeology, according to Dizon.
“This is the reason it took more than five years from the last find before this announcement,” he said.
According to Mijares, scientists agreed that their fossil find belonged to a different species, after these
exhibited a “mosaic” of different modern H. sapiens features, as well as archaic characteristics.
Multiple roots
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H. luzonensis’ teeth had multiple roots as opposed to one or two for modern humans, Mijares said. It also
possessed the smallest teeth among the Hominin species. Hominin refers to a group of modern humans,
extinct human species and all their immediate ancestors, including members of the genera Homo,
Australopithecus, Paranthropus and Ardipithecus.
Scientists noted H. luzonensis’ curved finger and toe bones, which supposedly suggest that climbing was
an important activity for the species. In addition, H. luzonensis’ premolars were big in relation to its
molars, Mijares said.
“One thing that differentiates Homo luzonensis from other homo is the strong development and proximal
projection of the dorsal beak, which indicates that this is a strong individual,” he said. According to
Dizon, the discovery makes the Philippines the new “rock star” in the world of archaeology.
World attention
“Before this, scientists were not minding us. But now, we got their attention,” he said.
Now the property of the Philippine government, the fossils of H. luzonensis would be turned over to the
National Museum. This also opens up prospects for Mijares and his team to conduct further excavations
at Callao.
At the same time, the findings confirmed the significance of the Callao system as an archaeological site,
prompting the provincial government of Cagayan to seek its declaration as an important cultural
property by the National Museum.
Aside from Callao, the nearby caves at Musang and Lattu-Lattu have been made off-limits to the public,
after earlier studies confirmed that these contained important archaeological artifacts.
“[The discovery of H. luzonensis] would give us enough reason to be proud as people of Callao, and
more reason to protect it. We hope to be able to educate all those who visit the caves about its
significance to the history of human evolution,” Babaran said.
MODELS OF MIGRATION
Watch the following videos: “Xiao Time: Austronesians, Ang Pinagmulan ng Lahi at Kulturang Pilipino”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=331I3Uw2pAE
and The Austronesian Migration (Crossroads –
Civilization) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yvAwYX_pR8Y
There had always been a debate as to how the original Filipino people migrated to the Philippines. H.
Otley Beyer was the first to propose a theory called the Wave Migration Theory. Based on his study, the
Filipinos' ancestors arrived in different “waves” of migration traversing land bridges that emerged during
low tide and later arrived by sea on prehistoric craft. These waves are as follows: Dawn Man, Negritos,
Indonesian group, and Malays. Unfortunately, Beyer has been unable to find definite evidence that
supports his theory. One particular issue is its reliance on progressive evolution theory, which suggests
that species all innately develop towards a particular goal. Meanwhile, modern evidence also suggests
that no land bridge would have allowed the Negritos to travel over the Philippines and no evidence to
support a “Dawn Man” theory. Despite this, Beyer has arguably influenced some theorists and remains a
prominent figure in Filipino history and anthropology.
Another migration model was the Core Population Theory. F. L. Jocano, a UP Professor and
anthropologist, hypothesized that there were no clear finite waves of migration. Early humans in the
Philippines lived thousands of years ago with similar cultures (base culture). Due to a gradual process
over time, they were driven by environmental factors and then differentiated themselves.
He related the three essential characteristics of his theory:
1. “They stand co-equal as ethnic groups, without anyone being the dominant group, racially or
culturally.”
2. “The differences are due to the differences in their response to their environment.”
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3. “Similarities are due to the adjustment to their environment.”
But there are also modern models of migration which are more acceptable to explain the peopling of
the Philippines comprised of Bellwood’s and Solheim’s theories.
a. Bellwood’s Austronesian Diffusion Theory/Out-of-Taiwan Theory
Peter Bellwood (b. 1943) is a retired/Emeritus Professor at Australian National University in
Canberra since 2013. His areas of specialization include the prehistory of Southeast Asia and the Pacific
from archaeological, linguistic, and biological perspectives; origins of agriculture and resulting cultural,
linguistic, and biological developments; interdisciplinary connections between archaeology, linguistics,
and human biology. He has written and edited several books, including Man’s Conquest of the Pacific
(1978); The Polynesians (1978 and 1987); Prehistory of the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago (1985, 1997, and
2007); The Austronesians (co-edited 2002); Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis (coedited 2002); Southeast Asia: from Prehistory of Human Migration (edited 2015); and First Islanders the
Prehistory of Island Southeast Asia (2017).
Bellwood’s theory is the most widely accepted. Though it is based initially on linguistics, it also
relies on archaeological, cultural, and genetic findings. He believed that between 4500 – 4000 BC, the
agricultural technology development in Yunnan Plateau, Mainland China created pressures that drove
certain people to migrate to Taiwan. These people were called Austronesians, who used the ProtoAustronesian language. From Taiwan, they rapidly spread downwards to the rest of the Philippines and
Southeast Asia islands and voyaged further east to reach Marianas Islands and west in Madagascar.
“A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins,” by Peter Bellwood (1984-1985)
EXCERPT:
It is perhaps at this point that I should present my own model for Austronesian expansion, using a
narrative style which I am gratified to see does have a place in scientific hypothesizing (Landau 1984).
1.
2.
3.
By 4000 B.C., the southern coastal provinces (Zhejiang, Fujian, Guangdong) were settled in part by
agricultural communities with an economic and technological repertoire of domesticated rice and other
plants and animals, pottery, polished stone adzes, spindle whorls (and weaving), skilled bone and
woodworking traditions, and most probably some expertise in fishing and canoe construction.
Sometime during the 5th millennium B.C. members of these communities (probably from Fujian) crossed
the Formosa Strait to Taiwan. Presumably they used canoes, and presumably the groups were small –
one or a few families. Such movements may have occurred on several independent occasions, and to
guess precise individual reasons for their occurrence would clearly be a fruitless exercise.
These groups were able, first of all, to survive and probably to establish nonhostile relations with existing
hunting and gathering groups, and secondly to establish viable agricultural economies in which cereal
cultivation (rice, millet) played a major role. Features of homeland cultural systems which were
transferred by these settlers were probably reproduced with rapidly occurring variation caused by
cultural loss and innovation2, and by the time the Tapenkeng culture becomes visible in the
archaeological record of the 4th millennium B.C. there is no remaining indicator of any precise homeland
on the Asian mainland. Once viable productive systems were established on Taiwan the population was
able to commence a process of agricultural and population expansion which still continues among
Austronesian -speaking populations today, as, for instance, at the interface between Filipino
agriculturalists and Aeta hunters in northern Luzon (Griffin 1985). …
By 3000 B.C., according to this hypothesis, Austronesian-speaking populations with an agricultural
lifestyle had occupied suitable environments over most, perhaps, all of Taiwan. They may or may not
have experienced localized population pressure, and this is, in fact, rather a trivial side. By 3,000 B.C. or
before, the process of expansion was repeated again with respect to Luzon and the islands between it and
Taiwan, and thereafter it occurred innumerable times., with dramatically less success amongst the
already-agricultural populations of parts of western Melanesia. The ball still rolls today – Javanese
transmigration, land-hungry cultivators versus remote tribes in the Philippines – and although the
reasons for expansion have changed population pressure really does matter now) the overall result might
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almost be regarded as the same – an increase in the numbers and geographical extent of Austronesian
language speakers.
Basically, therefore, this narrative hypothesis can explain linguistic evidence, and it can also explain
the understandably ambiguous stylistic evidence of archaeology, insofar as it relates to past
ethnolinguistic relationships. It also fits the economic evidence which points to southern China as the
known focus of systematic rice cultivation, and it fits the evidence that, in Southeast Asia, rice cultivation
has been a major factor in recent expansions (for instance, the Iban of Sarawak).
Finally, however, I must reiterate that local evolution does occur in all situations and acts constantly
via both random and directed processes on previously-occurring cultural variation. The cultural
variations and past achievements of Austronesian-speaking populations are obviously due to both
internal growth and external linkage, and to try to read the prehistoric purely in either local or some kind
of diffusion model seems to me to be rather pointless, and clearly counterproductive.
Common Characteristics Among




b.
Austronesians:
Practice of Tattooing
Outrigger Canoes
Prehistoric Art Styles (present in jars,
potteries and jewelries)
Social characters (Sea as basic tenet
of life)
Solheim’s Nusantao Maritime
Figure 2. (From Left to Right) A Cordillera Man with tattoos; A Filipino Outrigger Boat; and Manunggul Jar.
Trading Network
Wilhelm “Bill” Solheim (b. 1924-2014) was a pioneer and influential leader in the field of
Southeast Asian archaeology, until and after his retirement from the University of Hawaii at Manoa in
1991. Wilhelm “Bill” Solheim II is considered a founder of today’s Southeast Asian archaeology and has
been called “Mr. Southeast Asian Archaeology” (Paz 2004: xii). His doctoral research on collections from
the central Philippines developed into a lifelong interest in connections between the Visayas (central
Philippines) and the Sa Huynh culture (central Vietnam) and interregional networks that knit together
islands across a vast Southeast Asian seascape. Bill’s geographic scope of interest continued to expand
as he worked in the region and – like his University of Arizona mentor, Emil Haury – learned the region’s
culture histories and artifact assemblages.
For Solheim, it is an alternative model based on people's maritime movement over different
directions and routes. It suggests that the Nusantao (an artificial term derived from Austronesian root
words
Nusa “south” and tao “people”) in the Southeastern Islands, possibly in the present-day coastal eastern
Vietnam and Southern China, around 5000 BC or possibly earlier. These seafarers traversed Asia-Pacific
Region from southward going northward. Further, he suggested an indication of a maritime network by
describing the movement of artifacts as found in the Philippines, northern Vietnam, coastal South China,
Taiwan, Korea, and Japan. Some artifacts to be associated with rice cultivation, are stepped and pediform
adzes, and plain pottery.
 “Taiwan, Coastal South China, and Northern Viet Nam and The Nusantao Maritime Trading Network” by
Wilhelm Solheim II (2000)
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EXCERPT:
My concept of the Nusantao (and its proper spelling) has evolved over time:
I now define Nusantao as natives of Southeast Asia, and their descendants, a maritime oriented culture
from their beginnings, those beginnings probably in southeastern Island Southeast Asia a bit before 5000
B.C. A majority of the people with this culture, at any one time, probably spoke a Malayo-Polynesian
language but there was no doubt a varying sized minority of them, from time to time, who did not speak a
related language (Solheim 1975a:158).
The Nusantao were no doubt directly associated with the development and spread of Malayo Polynesian
languages. At any one time there were also many other Malayo-Polynesian speakers living in the interior
of the larger islands who were not maritime-oriented, and I would not consider these as Nusantao. The
Nusantao and the nonmaritime Malayo-Polynesian speakers no doubt were constantly mixing genetically,
culturally, and linguistically. Their genetic ancestry no doubt varied from time to time and place to place
to include Southern Mongoloid and I would suggest that this may well have been the case from their very
beginning (Solheim 1984-1985:85-86 revised). My defnition of Southeast Asia for many years has
included South China (Solheim 1967a: 3; 1973: 25; 1975a: 154; 1975b:108; 1979: 200; 1984-1985:13;
1992).
Within Southeast Asia itself, I feel the most compelling evidence for a widespread maritime trading
network during the first millennium B.C. is the distribution of jade earrings, called lingling-o, and much
rarer, but related, a probable earring or pendant two-headed animal made in jade. These jade objects are
distinctive and have been found in Botel
Tobago off southern Taiwan, the northern
Philippines, Palawan in west central
Philippines, Sarawak, coastal central and
peninsular Thailand, but most commonly in
coastal Viet Nam (Loofs-Wissowa 19801981; Solheim 1982-1983). In addition, the
considerable overlapping in time and space
with the early distribution of carnelian and
early glass beads and bracelets in
Southeast Asia, probably at first brought in
from India, seemed to me to strongly
suggest a very widespread trade.
Figure 3. Map of the Peopling of the Philippines based on
Bellwood and Solheim's Theories. Source: Historical Atlas of the
Republic (2016)
The early trade, or barter, did not make
anyone wealthy, but provided a living for
many people of varying but similar cultures.
It presented a communication network that
could pass around ideas, tool types, and
elements of many different shared
technologies. It provided a method of
movement of portable luxury products and
some relatively rare materials needed for
tools, such as obsidian, which was traded
very widely in Island Melanesia, and even
into western Indonesia from Melanesia, by
the Lapita people from around 1500 to 500
B.C. …
I hypothesize that the Early Nusantao Maritime Trading Network, after advancing from south to north
through the Philippines, reached southern Taiwan and coastal southeastern China sometime shortly
before 5000 B.C. Nusantao peoples made contact, cultural and genetic, with the Middle Neolithic people
of southeast China. This included the peoples up the lower Yangtze River, for I hypothesize that any time
that maritime people in their explorations would come across the mouth of a large river, they would have
moved up the river making contact with the local inhabitants and not have stayed totally along the coast.
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Thus, it would have been these Nusantao maritime traders, who, while continuing to have contact with
southwestern Taiwan, brought back the seeds of the Dapenkeng Culture to Taiwan.
I would also hypothesize that these people were very adaptable to new conditions. With their knowledge
both of the ocean and of land based economic activities such as hunting, gathering, and horticulture, they
quickly incorporated the new cultural elements they came into contact with, forming a somewhat new and
different culture in their sand dune and shell mound located sites. I hypothesize that these Middle
Neolithic sites along the China coast were the land portion settlements of the Nusantao. Due to their
rapid amalgamation with the local cultures with which they came into contact, their material culture in
their land settlements would have varied from site to site as they moved north and south from
southeastern coastal China. This Nusantao combination of land settlement and expanding maritime
trading network is, to my knowledge, unique in the world, so there is no existing model which can be
looked to, except for the no doubt much evolved maritime cultures still in existence in Asia and the Pacific.
References
Bellwood, Peter. “A Hypothesis for Austronesian Origins,” Asian Perspectives, xxvi (1), 1984 – 1985: 107-117.
Cole, Mabel. “Selected folktales.” Philippine Folktales,
https://www.gutenberg.org/files/12814/12814-h/12814-h.htm
Chicago:
A.C.
McClurg
&
Co.,
1916.
Solheim, Wilhelm II, “Taiwan, Coastal South China, and Northern Viet Nam and The Nusantao Maritime Trading
Network,” JEAA 2, vol. 1-2 (2000): 273-284
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CHAPTER 4
PRE-COLONIAL FILIPINO CULTURES AND
TRADITIONS
Objectives: At the end of the session, the students will be able to:
1) Describe the pre-colonial Filipino cultures and traditions.
2) Pinpoint, which is among the pre-Hispanic Filipino traditions, still exists at present.
 Overview
The Filipinos already had a culture of their own before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers. The
culture is distinct from the neighboring countries. It is a combined result of adaptation to the environment,
socialization among the inhabitants, and contact with other countries. The natives formed their traditions
handed down through generations (De Viana 2011, 49).
In this chapter, the students will encounter excepts of reading materials related to Filipinos' precolonial culture, focusing on their socio-cultural, political, and religious beliefs and practices. As expected,
the student will analyze selected readings written by Spanish missionaries and civic officials about their
personal experiences when they encountered the early Filipinos.
List of Reading Materials:
1. Pictures from Boxer Codex. circa 1595
2. Blair, Emma, and Robertson, James, Eds. The Philippine Islands 55-Volumes, Cleveland,
Ohio: The A. H. Clark Company, 1903-1909.
Excerpts from:
 Relation of the Worship of the Tagalogs, Their Gods and Their Burials and
Superstitions by Fr. Juan de Plasencia, (Vol. VII).
 Relacion de las Islas Filipinas by Fr. Pedro Chirino, (Vol. XII)
 Labor Evangelica” OF the Government and Political Customs by Fr. Francisco Colin,
S.J. (Vol. XI).
 Relacion de las Islas Filipinas by Miguel de Loarca (Vol. V)
Pre-Colonial Culture and Society
Before the coming of the Spaniards to colonize the archipelago, our Filipino ancestors had their
own culture and lifestyle, which included their customs, society, government and laws, writing and
language, literature, music, religion, superstitious beliefs, economy and arts, and sciences.
1. Religious Beliefs and Practices
Fray Juan de Plasencia, who entered the Franciscan order in early youth, came to the Philippine
Islands as one of the first missionaries of that order, in 1577. Only two months after their arrival in Manila,
Fr. Juan de Plasencia and another confrere, Fray Diego de Oropresa, were already preaching around the
Laguna de Bay area and as far as Tayabas (the present Quezon Province) converting souls to the
Catholic fold. His untiring work and missionary zeal pushed him further in the foundation and organization
of several towns not only in Laguna and Tayabas but also in the present provinces of Bulacan and Rizal,
and these were: Tayabas, Calilaya, Lucan, Mahayhay, Nagcarlang, Lilio, Pila, Santa Cruz, Lumbang,
Pangil, Siniloan, Morong, Antipolo, Taytay, and Meycawayan.
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He was distinguished, in his labors among the natives, for gathering the converts into reductions
(villages in which they dwelt apart from the heathen, and under the special care of the missionaries), for
establishing numerous primary schools, for his linguistic abilities – being one of the first to form a
grammar and vocabulary of the Tagal language – and for the ethnological researches embodied in the
memoir which is presented in our text. He died at Lilio (Liliw), in the province of La Laguna, in 1590.
 Relation of the Worship of the Tagalogs, Their Gods and Their Burials and Superstitions by Fr.
Juan de Plasencia, (Vol. VII), 185-191.
EXCERPT:
In all the villages, or in other parts of the Filipinas Islands, there are no temples consecrated to
the performing of sacrifices, the adoration of their idols, or the general practice of idolatry. It is true that
they have the name simbahan, which means a temple or place of adoration; but this is because, formerly,
when they wished to celebrate a festival, which they called pandot, or worship," they celebrated it in the
large house of a chief. There they constructed, for the purpose of sheltering the assembled people, a
temporary shed on each side of the house, with a roof, called sibi, to protect the people from the wet when
it rained. They so constructed the house that it might contain many people — dividing it, after the fashion
of ships, into three compartments. On the posts of the house they set small lamps, called sorihile; in the
center of the house they placed one large lamp, adorned with leaves of the white palm, wrought into many
designs. They also brought together many drums, large and small, which they beat successively while the
feast lasted, which was usually four days. During this time the whole barangay, or family, united and
joined in the worship which they call nagaanitos. The house, for the above-mentioned period of
time, was called a temple.
Among their many idols there was one called Badhala, whom they especially worshiped. The
title seems to signify all powerful," or maker of all things." They also worshiped the sun, which on
account of its beauty, is almost universally respected and honored by heathens. They worshiped, too, the
moon, especially when it was new, at which time they held great rejoicings, adoring it and
bidding it welcome. Some of them also adored the stars, although they did not know them by their
names, as the Spaniards and other nations know the planets — with the one exception of the
morning star, which they called Tala. They knew, too, the “seven little goats” [the Pleiades] — as
we call them— and, consequently, the change of seasons, which they call Mapolon; and Balatic,
which is our Greater Bear. They possessed many idols called lic-ha, which were images with
different shapes; and at times they worshiped any little trifle, in which they adored, as did the
Romans, some particular dead man who was brave in war and endowed with special faculties, to
whom they commended themselves for protection in their tribulations. They had another idol
called Dian Masalanta, who was the patron of lovers and of generation. The idols called Lacapati
and Idianale were the patrons of the cultivated lands and of husbandry They paid reverence to
water-lizards called by them buaya, or crocodiles, from fear of being harmed by them. They were
even in the habit of offering these animals a portion of what they carried in their boats, by throwing
it into the water, or placing it upon the bank.
They were, -moreover, very liable to find auguries in things they witnessed. For example, if they
left their house and met on the way a serpent or rat, or a bird called Tigmamanuguin which
was singing in the tree, or if they chanced upon anyone who sneezed, they returned at once to
their house, considering the incident as an augury that some evil might befall them if they should
continue their journey — especially when the above-mentioned bird sang. This song had two
different forms: in the one case it was considered as an evil omen; in the other, as a good omen,
and then they continued their journey. They also practiced divination, to See whether weapons,
such as a dagger or knife, were to be useful and lucky for their possessor whenever occasion
should offer.
These natives had no established division of years, months, and days; these are determined
by the cultivation of the soil, counted by moons, and the different effect produced upon the trees
when yielding flowers, fruits, and leaves: all this helps them in making up the year. The winter and
Summer are distinguished as sun-time and water-time— the latter term designating winter in
those regions, where there is no cold, snow, or ice.
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It seems, however, that now since they have become Christians, the seasons are not quite
the same, for at Christmas it gets somewhat cooler. The years, since the advent of the Spaniards,
have been determined by the latter, and the seasons have been given their proper names, and
they have been divided into weeks.
Their manner of offering sacrifice was to proclaim a feast and offer to the devil what they
had to eat. This was done in front of the idol, which they anoint with fragrant perfumes, such as
musk and civet, or gum of the storax-tree and other odoriferous woods and praise it in poetic
songs sung by the officiating priest, male or female, who is called catalonan. The participants
made responses to the song, beseeching the idol to favor them with those things of which they
were in need, and generally, by offering repeated healths, they all became intoxicated. In some
of, their idolatries they were accustomed to place a good piece of cloth, doubled, over the idol,
and over the cloth a chain or large gold ring, thus worshiping the devil without having sight of him.
The devil was sometimes liable to enter into the body of the catolonan, and, assuming her shape
and appearance, filled her with so great arrogance — he being the cause of it— that she seemed to shoot
fames from her eyes; her hair stood on end, a fearful sight to those beholding, and she uttered words of
arrogance and superiority. In some districts, especially in the mountains, when in those idolatries the
devil incarnated himself and took on the form of his minister, the latter had to be tied to a tree by his
companions, to prevent the devil in his infernal fury from destroying him. This, however, happened but
rarely. The objects of sacrifice were goats, fowls, and swine, which were flayed, decapitated, and laid
before the idol. They performed another ceremony by cooking a jar of rice until the water was evaporated,
after which they broke the jar, and the rice was left as an intact mass which was set before the idol; and
all about it, at intervals, were placed a few buyos — which is a small fruit wrapped in a leaf with some
lime, a food generally eaten in these regions—as well as fried food and fruits. All the above-mentioned
articles
were
eaten
by
the
guests at the feast; the heads (of the animals), after being offered," as they expressed it, were
cooked and eaten also. The reasons for offering this sacrifice and adoration were, in addition to whatever
personal matters there might be, the recovery of a sick person, the prosperous voyage of those embarking
on the sea, a good harvest in the sowed lands, a propitious result in wars, a successful delivery in
childbirth, and a happy outcome in married life. If this took place among people of rank, the festivities
lasted thirty days.
2. Languages, System of Writing, Civilities
Fray Pedro Chirino was born in 1557 in Osuna of Andalucia. He graduated in both civil and canon
law at Sevilla and entered the Society of Jesus at the age of twenty-three. Having been appointed to the
mission in the Filipinas in place of Father Alonso Sanchez, he arrived there in 1590 with the new governor,
Gomez Perez Dasmariñas. He acted as a missionary to the Tagalogs and Pintados and was Superior of
the Jesuit college at Manila and Cebu. He cultivated the friendship of Esteban Rodriguez de Figueroa,
whom he advised to found the college of San Ignacio and the seminary of San Jose in Manila. On July 7,
1602, he left Cavite for Acapulco by the vessel “San Antonio” with the appointment by Visitor Diego
Garcia as procurator of the mission, in order to take the mission at both the royal and pontifical courts. He
obtained a decree from Father General Claudius Aquavia, by which the mission in the Filipinas was
elevated to a vice-province, independent of the province of Mexico.
His relation was written in 1603 and passed the censorship of vice-provincial Luis de la Puente in
Valladolid. Later, it was transformed into a massive two-volume History of the Philippine Province of the
Society of Jesus. The latter discusses not just the Jesuit missions but also the Catholic conversion of the
Filipinos in general.
On July 17, 1606, he returned to Manila. The village of Taitai was removed to its present site by
him. His death occurred September 16, 1635.
 Relacion de las Islas Filipinas by Fr. Pedro Chirino, (Vol. XII), 235-236; 240-244.
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EXCERPT:
Of the Languages of the Filipinas. Chapter XV
There is no single or general language of the Filipinas extending throughout the islands; but all of them,
though there are many and different tongues, are so much alike that they may be learned and spoken in a
short time. …. Only the language of the Negrillos is very different from the rest, as, in España, is the
Vizcayan [i.e., Basque]. There is not a different language for each of the islands, because some of them—
as, for example, Manila, and even Panai, which is more than four hundred leguas smaller — contain
several languages; and there are languages each of which prevails in several islands. In the island of
Manila alone, there are six different tongues; in Panai, two; in some others, but one. The languages most
used, and most widely spread, are the Tagal and the Bisayan; and in some regions of the Pintados
another tongue is also prevalent, called Harayan. The Tagal embraces the greater part of the coast and
interior of the islands of Manila, Mindoro, Luban, and some others. Bisaya is in use through all the
islands of the Pintados, although in some of the villages therein the Harayan is spoken. Of all these
languages, it was the Tagal which most pleased me and which I most admired. As I told the first bishop,
and, afterward, other persons of dignity in the islands and in Europe, I found in this language four
qualities of the four greatest languages of the world, Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and Spanish: it has the
abstruseness and obscurity of the Hebrew; the articles and distinctions in proper as well as in common
nouns, of the Greek; the fullness and elegance of the Latin; and the refinement, polish, and courtesy of the
Spanish.
Of the civilities, terms of courtesy, and good breeding among the Filipinos. Chapter XVI.
The Filipinos are not so ceremonious in their actions as are the Chinese and Japanese; yet they have
their politeness and good breeding, especially the Tagalos, who are very civil and courteous in word and
action. Upon meeting one another, they practice our custom of uncovering the head — not that they used
hats, caps, or bonnets; but they wore a piece of cloth like a towel, some three or four palmos long, which
they wound around the head in becoming a fashion, like the ancient crowns or diadems. This they
removed, as they now do the hat (sombrero] — which they have adopted, in imitation of us, abandoning
the potong, as they called the towel or diadem which they formerly wore. As among them it is not courtesy
to remain standing before a person whom they respect, they seat themselves upon the ground, or rather
on their heel-bones. Seated in this way, with head uncovered and the potong thrown like a towel over the
left shoulder, they talk with their superiors. The mode of salutation upon entering or meeting anyone is as
follows: They draw the body together and make a low reverence, raising one or both hands to the face,
and placing them upon the cheeks; they next sit down waiting for the question that may be put to them, for
it is considered bad manners to speak before one is spoken to. Their greatest courtesy is in their form of
address; for they never speak to one as “thou”, or in the second person, whether singular or plural, but
always use the third person, saying for example — “Does the lord, or the chief, wish for this or that?"
There are many examples of this to be found in Holy Scripture or sacred Language, and particularly in
the psalms. In the relations of man with woman, woman with man, or woman with woman, they are very
careful —even when they are quite equals, and, too, among the middle class—to use, after every
important word, nothing but my Lord," or my Lady;" as, My Lord, as I was coming up the river, I saw, my
Lord," etc. This term and pronoun are used as agreeable and even affectionate, even in the languages of
much greater importance, as Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, which are the three most venerable tongues. In
polite and affectionate intercourse, they are very extravagant, addressing letters to each other in terms of
elaborate and delicate expressions of affection, and neat turns of thought. As a result of this, they are
much given to musical practice; and although the guitar that they use, called cutyapi, is not very
ingenious or rich in tone, it is by no means dis-agreeable, and to them is most pleasing. They play it with
such vivacity and skill that they seem to make human voices issue from its four metallic cords. We also
have it on good authority that by merely playing these instruments they can, without opening their lips,
communicate with one another, and make themselves perfectly understood – a thing unknown of any other
nation. The Bisayans are more rustic and less civil in manners, just as their language is harsher and less
polished. They have not so many terms of courtesy, as formerly they had no letters until, a very a few
years ago, they borrowed theirs from the Tagalogs. As we have already treated of their languages, it
would be advisable to make mention of their letters.
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Of the Letters of the Filipinos. Chapter XVII.
All these islanders are much given to reading and writing, and there is hardly a man, and much less a
woman, who does not read and write in the letters used in the island of Manila – which are entirely
different from those of China, Japan and India. This will be seen from its alphabet, which is as follows:
The three vowels serve as five, and are:
The consonants are only twelve, and in writing are used with the vowels in the following form.
The letter alone with no point above or below it, is pronounced with the vowel-sound A:
By placing the point above, each is pronounced with the vowel-sound E or I:
By placing the point below, they are pronounced with the vowel-sound O or U:
Consequently, to pronounce cama, two letters without points are suffi.
If a point is placed above the
we have
If a point is placed below each character
or que-ma.
the word is co-mo.
Final consonants are suppressed in all forms of expression: accordingly cantar is written
, baba,
By means of these characters they easily make themselves understood and convey their ideas
marvelously, he who reads supplying, with much skill and facility, the Consonants which are lacking.
From us they have adopted the habit of writing from left to right. Formerly they wrote from the top to the
bottom, placing the first line on the left (if I remember aright), and continuing the rest at the right,
contrary to the custom of the Chinese and Japanese —who, although they write from top to bottom, begin
from the right and continue the page to the left.
They used to write on reeds and palm-leaves, using as a pen an iron point; now they write their
own letters, as well as ours, with a sharpenéd quill, and, as we do, on paper. They have learned our
language and its pronunciation, and write it even better than we do, for they are so clever that they learn
anything with the greatest ease. I have had letters written by themselves in very handsome and fluent style.
In Tigbauan I had in my school a very young boy, who, using as a model letters written to me in a very
good handwriting, learned in three months to write even better than l; and he copied for me important
documents faithfully, exactly, and without errors. Let this, however, suffice for the matter of languages
and letters, and let us return to our employment for souls.
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3. Government and Social Classes
Fr. Francisco Colin (1592-1660) was one of the most prominent Jesuit missionaries and
historians of the early colonial period. In his posthumously-published work Labor Evangelica (1663), Colin
discusses the customs and traditions of the natives of the Philippines as well as people from other parts
of Southeast Asia such as Sumatra and Moluccas.
Colin’s Labor Evangelica was considered an attempt to expand Chirino’s Relacion thereby
becoming the Jesuits' official account in their mission in the Philippines. In this work, the Tagalogs and the
Visayans were the groups being described studying their physical appearance, clothing, marriage, eating
patterns, songs and dances, and even their bathing habits.
His other contemporary prominent Jesuit writers were Francisco Combes (1620-1665) and
Francisco Ignacio Alcina (1610-1674).
 Labor Evangelica” OF the Government and Political Customs by Fr. Francisco Colin, S.J. (Vol. XI),
82-86
EXCERPT
CHAPTER XVI
Of the government and political customs of these peoples
114. There were no kings or rulers worthy of mention, throughout this archipelago; but there were many
chiefs dominated others less powerful. As there were many without much power, there was no security
from the continual wars that were waged between them. Manila had chiefs, uncle and nephew, who had
equal and authority. They were at war with another chief, who was chief alone; and he was so near that
they were separated from one another by nothing more than a not very wide river. The same conditions
ruled in all the rest of island, and of even the whole archipelago, until the entrance of the faith, when they
were given peace — which they now esteem much more than all that they then obtained from those petty
wars and their depredations. They were divided into barangays, as Roma into districts, and cities into
parishes or collations. They are called barangays, which is the name of a boat, preserving the name from
the boat in which they came to settle these islands. Since they came subject to one leader in their
barangay, who acted as their captain or pilot— who was accompanied by his children, relatives, friends,
and comrades— after landing, they kept in company under that leader, who is the dato. Seizing the lands,
they began to cultivate them and to make use of them. They seized much of the sea and near-by rivers as
they could preserve and defend from other barangay, or from many barangays, according as they had
settled near or far from others. Although on all occasions some barangays aided and protected others, yet
the slave or even the timua or freemen could not pass from one barangay to another, especially a married
man or a married without paying a certain quantity of gold, and giving a public feast to his whole where
this Was not done, it was an occasion for war between the two barangays If a man of one barangay
happened to marry a woman of another, the children had to be divided between the barangays, in the
same manner as the slaves.
115. Their laws and policy, which were not very barbarous for barbarians, consisted wholly traditions
and customs, observed with so great exactness that it was not considered possible to break them in any
circumstance. One was the respect of parents and elders, carried to so great a degree that not even the
one’s father could pass the lips, in the same way as the Hebrews [regarded] the name of God. The
individuals, even the children, must follow the general [custom]. There were other laws also. For the
determination of their suits, both civil and criminal, there was no other judge than the said chief, with the
assistance of some old men of the barangay. With them the suit was determined in the following form.
They had the opponents summoned and endeavored to have them come to an agreement. But if they would
not agree, then an oath was administered to each one, to the effect that he would abide by what was
determined and done. Then they called for witnesses and examined summarily. It the proof was equal [on
both sides), the split; but, if it were unequal, the sentence was given in favor of the one who conquered. If
the one who was defeated resisted, the judge made himself a party to the cause, and all of them at once
attacked the armed hand the one defeated, and execution to the required amount was levied upon him.
The judge received the larger share of this amount, and some was paid to the witness of the one who won
the suit, while the poor litigant received the least. In criminal causes there were wide distinctions made
because of the rank of the murderer and the slain; and if the latter were a chief all his kinsmen went to
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hunt for the murderer and his relatives, and both sides engaged in war, until mediators undertook to
declare the quantity of gold due for that murder, in accordance with the appraisals which the old men
said ought to be paid according to their custom. One half of that amount belonged to the chiefs, and the
other half was divided among the wife, children, and relatives of the deceased. The penalty of death was
never imposed by process of law, except when the murderer and his victim were common men and had no
gold to satisfy the murder. In such a case, if the man's dato or maginoo (for these are one and the same)
did not kill him, the other chiefs did, spearing him after lashing him to a stake.
117. In a matter of theft, if the crime were proved, but not the criminal, and more than one Person was
suspected, a canonical clearance from guilt had to be made in the following form. First, they obliged each
person to put in a heap - bundle of cloth, leaves, or anything else that they wished, in which they I night
discover the article stolen. If the article stolen was found in the heap, at the: end of this effort, then the
suit ceased; if not, one of three methods was tried. First, they were placed in the part of the river where it
is deepest, each one with his wooden spear in his hand. Then at the same time they were all to be plunged
under the water, for all are equal in this, and he who came out first was regarded as the criminal.
Consequently, many let themselves drown for fear of punishment. The second was to place a stone in a
vessel of boiling water, and to order them to take it out. He who refused to put his hand into the water
paid the penalty for the theft. Thirdly, each one was given a wax candle of the same wick, and of equal
size and weight. The candles were lighted at the same time, and he whose candle first went out was the
culprit.
4. Slavery
As one of the first conquistadores to arrive in the archipelago, Miguel de Loarca observed the native
cultural traditions before they were fully acculturated to Christianity. In 1575, Loarca, along with two friars,
traveled to China and witnessed the grandeur of the “great kingdom”. He was also one of the first
Spaniards to conduct the colony’s earliest census. As a loyal Spanish military officer, Loarca became one
of the earliest encomenderos in the country when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi granted him lands in Panay
Island, particularly in Oton.
In his Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas (1582), Loarca documented the customs and traditions of early
Filipinos. His work discussing the natives is significant since it was one of the earliest Spanish accounts
coming from a layman. He divides his account into 11 chapters.
 Relacion de las Islas Filipinas by Miguel de Loarca (Vol. V), 143-153.
EXCERPT:
Chapter NINTH
Which treats of Slavery in the Filipinas Islands
Laws of slavery. No Indian in this country is made a slave or is put to death for any crime which he
commits, even if it be theft, adultery, or murder — except that for each crime there is an established fine,
which they have to pay in jewels or gold, and if the culprit is unable to pay the fine he will borrow the
money, and pledge himself to the man from whom he borrows. As a result, he becomes a slave, until he
shall repay what was lent to him; after that, he is free again. Therefore, according to the crime committed,
they are slaves; and there are three classes of slaves in these islands. The first, and the most thoroughly
enslaved, is the bondman of him who is served in his own dwelling; such a slave they call ayuey. These
slaves work three days for the master, and one for themselves.
Kinds of Slavery. Another class of slaves are those called tumaranpoc. They live in their own houses and
are obliged to go to work for their master one day out of four, having the three days for themselves. If
they fail to work for their master, in order to cultivate their own fields, they give the master each year ten
chicubites of rice, each chicubite being equal to one fanéga. There are other slaves, whom these people
hold in most respect, who are called tomatabans; these work in the house of the master only When there
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is some banquet or revel. On such occasions they bring small gifts and share in the drinking. But when
one of these slaves dies, the property left by the slave is shared with his children by the master. During
their lifetime, these slaves are bound to work for their master five days in a month; or, if they do not work,
they annually give the master five chicubites of rice.
Value of the slaves. The ayueys are worth among these people two gold taes of Labin Sian, the equivalent
of twelve pesos. The tumaranpoques are worth the same sum. The tumatabans are worth one tae, or six
pesos. The ayuey women, like their husbands, work in the houses of chiefs. The tumaranpoque women, if
they have children, serve half of the month in spinning and weaving cotton, which their masters supply;
and during the other half of the month they work for themselves. The tumataban women spin only one
hank of cotton each month for their masters, who furnish to them the cotton in the boll. Only the ayueys
receive food and clothing from their masters; to the others the masters give nothing. When these slaves
die the masters take away all their property, except from the tomatabans, as we have said above. Those
whom these natives have sold as slaves to the Spaniards are mostly the ayueys. The rules which they
observe for punishing any one so severely as to enslave him are as follows: for murder, adultery, and
theft; and for insulting any woman of rank or taking away her robe in public and leaving her naked or
causing her to flee or defend herself so that it falls off, which is considered a great offense.
Thieves. If a thief commits a great robbery, he and all his relatives (or at least his nearest kin) are fined.
If they are unable to pay the fine, they are made slaves. This law applies to all classes, and even to the
chiefs themselves; accordingly, if a chief commit any crime, even against one of his own slaves or
timaguas, he is fined in the same manner. But they are not reduced to slavery for lack of means to pay the
fine; as, if they were not chiefs, they would be slaves. In case of a small theft, the punishment falls upon
the thief alone, and not on his relatives.
In time of famine. When there is a famine the poor, who have not the means pf sustenance, in order not
to perish, go to the rich — and almost always they seek their relatives and surrender themselves to them
as slaves— in order to be fed.
Another kind of slavery. There is another kind of lordship [slavery: crossed out in MS.], which was first
introduced by a man whom they call Sidumaguer — which, they say, occurred more than two thousand
years ago. Because some men broke a barangay belonging to him — in Languiguey, his native village,
situated in the island of Bantayan — he compelled the descendants of those who had broken his barangay
to bequeath to him at their deaths two slaves out of every ten, and the same portion of all their other
property. This kind of slavery gradually made its way among all the Indians living on the coast, but not
among the Tinguianes.
Real timaguas. The freemen of these islands, who are called timaguas, are neither chiefs nor slaves. This
is their mode of life. If a timagua desires to live in a certain village, he joins himself to one of the chiefs
for each village usually has many chiefs, each of whom has his own district, with slaves and timaguas,
well known to him — to whom he offers himself as his timagua, binding himself to obsarve the following
laws: When feasts are given to other chiefs he must attend; for it is the custom that the timagua drink first
from the pitarrilla, therefore any chief does so. He must, with his weapons, accompany the chief when he
goes on a journey. When the latter enters a boat the timagua must go to ply the oar, and to carry his
weapons for the defense of the vessel; but if the vessel sustain any damages he receives no punishment for
this but is only reprimanded. For this service the chief is under obligation to defend the timagua, in his
own person and those of his relatives, against anyone who seeks to injure him without cause; and thus, it
happens that, to defend the timaguas, fathers fight against their sons, and brothers against one another. If
the timagua goes to any other village and there is wronged, the chief will endeavor, with all his forces, to
avenge him to the same extent. Thus, the timaguas live in security, and are free to pass from the service of
one chief to that of another, whenever they so desire, and without any obstacle being placed in their way.
Captured chiefs. If any chief were taken captive, he was well treated; and if any friend ransomed the
captive because he was far from home, the captive returned to him double the amount that his friend had
paid for him, because of his good offices in withdrawing the chief from captivity; for the latter would,
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otherwise, always remain a prisoner. When a chief was taken captive, or committed adultery or murder,
all his relatives contributed toward his ransom, each according to the degree of his kinship; and if the
relatives had not meant to do this the chief remained a slave.
Borrowing. If they lent rice to anyone, one year was allowed for repaying it, since it is something that is
planted. If the loan were not repaid after the first harvest, double the amount was to be paid at the second;
at the third harvest, fourfold was due on an unpaid loan; and so on, regularly increasing. This was the
only usury among them, although some have stated otherwise; but those persons were not well informed.
Now, some who are lazy, and unwilling to exert themselves to pay the tribute, ask a loan for this purpose,
and repay a somewhat larger sum.
Inheritances. It is their custom to share inheritances in the following manner. If a man died and left four
children, the property and the slaves were divided into four equal parts, and each one of the children took
his own share. If the dead man left a bastard child, the latter would receive only what the brothers were
pleased to give him; for he had no right to one ff the shares, nor could he take more than what his
brothers voluntarily gave him, or the legacy made by his father in his favor. If the father chose to favor
any of his children in his will, he did so. If the dead man left no children, all his brothers inherited his
property, having equal shares therein; and if he had no brothers, his cousins-german would inherit; if he
had no cousins, all his kinsmen. His property, then, went to the children, if he had any; if not, his brothers
were necessarily the heirs; if he had no brothers, his first cousins; and in default of these, all his relatives
shared the estate equally.
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5. Clothing and Ornamentation
Professor Charles R. Boxer purchased this manuscript volume in 1947 from the sale of books and
manuscripts from Lord Ilchester's library at Holland House. It dates from the late sixteenth century and
contains about 270 pages of text, written probably by a Spanish and possibly by a Filipino clerk, and
drawn from a variety of sources. There are also seventy-five colored drawings of the inhabitants of China,
the Philippines, Java, the Moluccas, the Ladrones, and Siam; eighty-eight smaller drawings of birds and
fantastic animals; and a double-fold drawing depicting a Spanish ship off one of the Ladrone islands
surrounded by the small canoes of the natives of the island. The text of the volume consists of
contemporary accounts describing these places, their people and customs, and the European contact
with them. (From: Rebecca Cape and Stephen Cape, The Friends of the Lilly Library Newsletter 23 (Fall
1994).)
 Pictures from Boxer Codex. circa 1595.
Figure 4. Illustrations of the Early Filipinos based on Boxer Codex
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6. Goldworking
Watch: Gintong Pamana
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=amFkFwsVIcs&list=PLB02B6EBCD8359F01
The gold pieces were wrought through sophisticated and complicated techniques, bearing the
deep-seated knowledge and unparalleled skill of the ancient panday-ginto (gold artisan). These artifacts
could be classified according to its origin, i.e., geographic areas where they were recovered, revealing
their widespread distribution and the historical movements of the people, patterns of pre-colonial
interisland trade, and cultural exchange.
RIZAL’S S ANNOTATION OF SUCESOS DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS
Another reliable primary source to note in describing the Filipino
cultures and traditions before the colonial period is the annotated work of Dr.
Jose Rizal on the book of Don Antonio de Morga entitled “Sucesos de las Islas
Filipinas”. This book is believed to be a first-hand account of the early Spanish
colonial venture in Asia, published in Mexico in 1609 and based on Don
Antonio de Morga’s personal experiences or documentation from
eyewitnesses of the events described. Don Antonio de Morga was a Spanish
lawyer and a government official during the 17th century. According to the
preface part, why he intended to write this book to commemorate the
‘achievements of our fellow Spaniards in these days, in their discovery,
conquest, and conversion of the Philippine Islands and their varied adventures
that have had at the same time in the great heathen-kingdoms surrounding
these islands.” In addition, he wrote it to give detailed information about the Figure 5. Cover page of
Philippines to convince them their conquest was beneficial to the natives from Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas
1493 to 1603.
by Morga.
Inspired to defend the Filipinos being a civilized society prior to the colonial
rule of Spain and with his friendship with Ferdinand Blumentritt, he decided to annotate and republish a
new edition of Morga’s account in 1890. It began in 1888 when he found a rare copy of the book while in
London at the British Museum’s reading room. He hand-copied the whole 351 pages of the book and
annotated every chapter. In his preface, Rizal states that he did not change a single word in the text, save
those required respelling in modern Spanish orthography, or correct punctuation.
Las Islas Filipinas is the Spanish translation for “The Philippine Islands.” Sucesos means the work of
an honest observer, a versatile bureaucrat who knew the administration's workings.
The work consists of eight chapters. The first seven chapters of the Sucesos are a chronological
rehearsal, down to his Morga’s day, of the deeds in Asia of the Spaniards based in the Philippines.
Various themes run like threads through the story, mainly concerning the political events in the colony
during the terms of the first eleven governors-general in the Philippines, beginning with Miguel Lopez in
1565 to Pedro de Acuña, who died in June 1606.
The last chapter (Chapter 8) is a survey of the Spanish settlement and the Filipinos' customs and
culture. This chapter is orderly and formalistic in structure. It deals first with the islands' geographical
situation and names, the climate and seasons, and the peoples in different areas, beginning with Luzon.
He depicts native dress, before and after the coming of the Spaniards, native customs, languages, habits,
hygiene, food, drink, etc. He describes the animals, plants, and products of the different islands. Morga
also discusses the different social classes among the Filipinos whom he knew, details their arts, crafts,
and industries, this skill in metalwork, weaving, agriculture, and boatbuilding, their high rate of literacy,
and ease of writing. There is an account of Filipino methods of government, the legal system, marriage
and sexual customs, religious beliefs, and burial practices. This section ends with a note on Islam in the
Philippines.
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Contextual Analysis
From the Filipino point of view, we can see that three discursive points can be discussed in the
readings. First, the issue of the authorship; second, the discourse of power in colonial writing; and lastly,
the sense of binarism, i.e. the “West-Other” concept.
In the first issue, the authorships play a vital point in putting relevance to their texts—the authors,
Fr. Plasencia, Fr. Chirino, Fr. Colin, and Governor-General Miguel de Loarca, were not natives. However,
they were early foreign missionaries and officials to arrive in the Filipinas. The Highest Authority tasked
them, the King of Spain, to document the customs and traditions of the colonized natives based on their
observations and judgments. Notably, their initiatives to write these accounts were a usual practice of the
colonizers to enhance their superiority over the colonized and the validity of their duties and legacies, i.e.,
to civilize the uncivilized by introducing western culture and converting them to Christianity. During the
Spanish colonial era, the Spanish colonizers, spearheaded by missionaries, drew a wide variety of texts
ranging from travel narratives and the colony's accounts.
More so, the missionaries tried to avoid discussing conflicting reports about the natives through
their observation to obtain the truth. However, this truth is debatable. The texts were based on the two
focal points: the observer (missionaries and Spanish officials), with their background, subjectivities, and
biases, and the observer’s subject (natives/Filipinos), seen as the “Other.” In a colonial situation, the
colonized and colonizer's relationship drifts in the opposite direction, with the colonizer as the
dominant/superior, while the colonized is an inferior one. This Western-Other relationship is a Eurocentric
perspective view that the Westerners were at the center and looked toward the colonizers at the periphery.
Hence, the colonizers find their identity in a compelling situation as “dominating” versus the inferior
colonized as “Other.”
In Morga’s original version, his work serves as the first history of the Spanish Philippines to be
written by a layman instead of religious chroniclers. Despite the repetition, Chapter 8 is influenced by the
Spanish government's standard set of questions when demanding information on the newly discovered
territories. Nevertheless, Morga, like many other colonists, did not go inland. He had relied on other
sources for his ethnographical and other data about the up-country areas and their inhabitants. Here he
would draw upon the reports coming into the audiencia from friars working in the field as missionaries. On
the other hand, Rizal began writing the first Philippine history from the viewpoint of a Filipino. It is the first
history written by a colonized, not the colonizer.
Why did Rizal choose Morga over other Spanish chronicles? Because of …
a. The original book was rare.
b. Morga was a layman, not a religious chronicler.
c. Rizal felt Morga was more “objective” than the religious writers whose accounts included
more stories than religious chroniclers and was more sympathetic to the Indios.
d. Morga was not only an eyewitness but a major actor in the events he narrates.
Rizal’s objectives to annotate Morga’s Sucesos were due to:
 The Early Filipino Pride - to awaken the consciousness of the Filipinos regarding their
glorious ways of the past.
 History as a Propaganda Weapon - to correct what has been distorted about the Philippines
due to the Spanish conquest.
 Advanced Civilization - to prove that Filipinos were civilized even before the coming of the
Spaniards.
Though the works of early Spanish colonial writers showcased that our culture is a significant
reflection of our significant and complex history to some extent, the accounts revealed that Filipinos' preHispanic culture is influenced by most of the people we have interacted with. With the influence of
Chinese, Indian, Arab, and other Asian cultures, a blend of the Austronesian culture contributes to the
customs and traditions of the Filipinos.
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EXCERPT:
SUCESOS DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS
(HISTORICAL EVENTS OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS)
Source: Rizal, Jose. “Chapter 8”, Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas porel Doctor Antonio de Morga, obra
publicada en Mejico el año de 1609 nuevamente sacada a luz y anotada (Events of the Philippine
Islands of Dr. Antonio de Morga, published in Mexico in 1609), Manila: Jose Rizal National
Centennial Commission, p. 240-296.
CHAPTER EIGHT
Narrative of the Philippine Islands and their natives, their antiquity, customs and Government, both during their gentility (nonconversion) and after the Spaniards had conquered them; and other peculiarities.
The Islands of the waters of Oriental Ocean, adjacent to the farthest part of Asia, belong to the Crown of
Spain, and are commonly called “The Islands of the West” by those who sail to them through the Castile
Demarcation line, and the seas and lands of America, for the reason that, from the time one leaves from East to
West, the same as the one traveled by the sun. For a similar reason, they are called “Oriental Islands” by those who
navigate through India of Portugal, from West to East. The travelers going both ways, go around the globe through
opposite routes, until they come to meet on the same Islands. Those properly called Philippine Islands are numerous,
large and small, subject to the Crown of Castile. They lie between the Tropic of Cancer and extend from twenty-four
degrees North latitude, up to the equinoxial line, which passes through the Malaccan Island. There are many
others on the other line within the Tropic of Capricorn, which extends up to the twelve degrees, South latitude.1
The ancients have alleged that most of these Islands were deserted and uninhabitable,2 but experience has
already demonstrated that this belief is fallacious, as they count with good temperature, many people, food
supplies and other factors favorable to the maintenance of human life. They likewise have many minerals, rich
metals, precious stones, and pearls, animals, and plants, in which Nature has not shown laxity.
The totality of islands of this large Archipelago both large and small is innumerable. Those which are
included in the name and government of the Philippine Islands, properly speaking, number approximately fortysix large without any smaller ones. They are all extensive and the principal and best-known ones are Luzon,
Mindoro, Tendaya3 , Capul, Burias, Masbate, Marinduque, Leyte, Samar, Ibabao4 , Cebu, Panay, Bohol,
Catanduanes, Calamianes, Mindanao, and other less important ones.
The first island which the Spanish conquered and settled was Cebu5 where the conquest was began, and
continued in all the other surrounding islands which are all inhabited by natives
1 More exactly from 25°40’ lat. No. until 12° lat. S., ifwe are to include in the group of Formosa, inhabit also by the same race.
2 We confess our ignorance with respect to the origin of this belief of Morga who, as it can be noted, did not believe thus at the beginning of chapter one.
But already since Diodorus Siculus (first century before Christ) in Europe they had news of these islands through a certain Iamboul, a Greek, who reached
them (Sumatra at least) and later wrote account of his voyage, giving detailed information on the number of the islands, their inhabitants, their writing,
navigation, etc. Ptolemy in his geography indicates three islands which in the Latin text are called Sindae, inhabited by XYIVVXTXL, which Mercator
interprets as Celebes, Gilolo, and Amboina; of the island of XYX Oeu Sxlporo (Borneo); of five islands Sxpoubbxl (Mindanao, Leite, Sebù, etc.); of three
bxbxSsibxl (Java group xbxSvor); often rxbrlodxl where a large magnet stone is found. Colin supposes that these are the Manilas.
3 It is very difficult now to determine exactly which was this island ofTendaya, called for some years “Isla Filipina”. According to the accounts of Fr.
Urdaneta, his island was far to the east of the group, passing through the meridian of the Moluccas. Mercator places it in Panay and Fr. Colin in Leyte,
between Abuyog and Cabalian against the opinion of others who place it in Ibabao, or south of Samar. But according to other documents of the epoch,
there was no island with this name, but a chief called Tandaya, lord of a town located in that part, and because the Spaniards could not understand the
Indios of the time, so many contradictions in their accounts occurred. We see in Legazpi’s expedition (document, 27-1565 Academia dela Historia) that while
the Spaniards were talking of islands, the Indios were talking of a man, etc. After looking for Tendaya for ten days, they had to leave without having
found it: “And we pass on without seeing either Tendaya or Abuyo.” It seems,however, that the Spaniards continued giving this name to the southeastern
part of Samar, called Ibabao or Zibabao, the southeast, and Samar the north of the same island.
4 Southeastern part of Samar.
5 Sugbú in the language of the country.
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residing therein known as Visayans, otherwise called the “tattooed ones” for the reason that the most important
male residents hare have since their childhood, decorated their bodies by painting their skins, following a pattern
therein drawn6 and by putting certain black powder where the blood oozes out, and this can never be removed.
However, as the capital of government and the principal settlement of the Spaniards were transferred to the island
of Luzon, which is a large and nearer Island to the marine frontier of the great country of China and Japan, let us
first discuss said the Island of Luzon, for the reason that most of what can be said of the same can likewise be said
of the others, and the particular specialties and peculiarities of each province will be mentioned in the
corresponding place.
The island of Luzon has a length from itstrip or head where one enters the Philippine Islands, from the mouth
of the Capul Channel which lies on the thirteenth and one-half degrees North latitude, up to the Cape of
Bajeador, in the marine frontier of China on twenty degrees latitude, over two hundred leagues away. In some
places, the width of the island is less than in others, particularly in the middle of the same which is so narrow
that it is only less than thirty leagues wide. The entire islands have approximately over four hundred leagues
around the same.
The temperature on this island is invariable, but changes in various regions and provinces thereof. In the
head and beginning of the island, near the channel, the beaches7 are warm while in the interior, where the city of
Manila is situated, it is mild. The site is warm because it is low and close to the sea while in its communities not
far from the City proper, there are localities and settlements which are more cool, where the heat does not annoy,
and it is likewise thus at the head of the island in the marine frontier of China, named Cagayan. The seasons of the
year, i.e., winter and summer, are the opposite of those in Europe, as the rains generally fall over all these Islands
from the month of June up to September, bringing heavy downpour or rain, whirl-winds, and storms, both land, and
sea. In summer from October up to the end of May, the skies are clear and the sea is smooth, although in some
provinces winter or cold season and the heavy rains begin earlier than in others8 and in Cagayan, the winter and
summer seasons are similar to those in Spain and they last as long.
The people who inhabit the large island of Luzon in the province of Camarines and even in the neighboring
provinces around Manila, both by sea and by land, to the quince fruit, and both the men and women have god
features, with very black hair, scarce beard and are quite ingenious in every way, keen and quick-tempered and quite
resolute. They all live in in the farm by their manual labor, fisheries, and trading, sailing from one island to
another and going from one province to another by land.
The natives of other provinces of this island as far as North as Cagayan, are of the same kind and fortune;
except that it is known by tradition that those of Manila and other neighboring communities, were not natives
of said island but immigrated therein, settled down and peopled the same in past times, they being Malayan natives
or natives of their islands and remote lands.9
In some provinces of Luzon, there is likewise a number of natives who are of black complexion, the
men and women having kinky hair, not so tall in stature, although clever and with robust bodies. They are barbarians
with very little mental capacity, who have no fixed homes or settlements. They live in groups and settlements,
roving through mountains and crags, moving along according to the weather, from place to place, maintaining
themselves by making clearings
6 That is, drawing first on the skin what has to be tattooed. As it will be seen further, the Bisayans used the same method the Japanese use today,
7 Marinas, meaning beaches.
8 Morga takes the rainy season as winter and the rest of the year summer. However, this is not quite exact, because in Manila by December, January,
and February thethermometergoesdown morethan inthe monthsofAugustand Septemberandtherefore with regard to the seasons it resembles Spain as
all the rest ofthe Northern Hemisphere.
9 Ancient traditions make Sumatra the place of origin of the Filipinos. These traditions were completely lost as well as the mythology and
genealogies that old historians tellus about, thanks to the zeal of the religious in extirpating every national, gentile or idolatrous memento. With respect to
the ethnology of the Philippines, as the space atour command does not allow us to discuss the matter extensively, werecommend to the reader the most
interesting work of Professor BlumentrittVersuch einer Etnographie der Philippinen (Gotha, Justus Perthes, 1882).
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or kaingins and improvised paddies or terraces, likewise by hunting game with their bows and arrows in which
they are quite proficient, by collecting wild honey from the forests and picking edible roots and tubers from the
ground. They are wild tribes of whom one cannot be safe, as they are inclined to kill and attack the settlements of
the natives, to whom they cause considerable damages; and it has been unable to devise any measures to prevent
them from this conduct or to defeat to pacify them, although it has often been tried to do this by good or by violent
means10 , as the opportunity had determined them.
The province of Cagayan is settled by natives of the same complexion as the others in the island, more
physically able and more brave and warlike than the others. Their hair is long and hangs down their shoulders.
They had risen up and rebelled two times after they had first been pacified, and there was a considerable effort
made to defeat and pacify them again.
The dress which these native of Luzon wore before the advent of the Spaniards in the land, consisted of the
following: for the men, clothes made of cangan fabric without collar, sewn in front with short sleeves extending
down to beyond the waist, some blue and some black, while the headmen used red ones which they called
chininas11 and a colored blanket wrapped around the waist they wore the bahaque12 the legs being bare and the
feet also bare, the head uncovered, with a narrow kerchief tied around it tightly over the forehead and temples, called
potong.13 Around the neck they wore a long chain of engraved gold links the same as we wear it, some links being
larger than the others. On their arms they wore thick and engraved gold bracelets called colombigas made
in different designs. Some men used strings of stones, red agate and of other colors and blue or white stones, which
to them are valuable.14 As garters, they used on their legs some strings of these stones and some strings painted
black and tied around their legs, several times.15
In a certain province named Zambales, they shave their heads closely from the middle of the forehead, with a
large clock of loose hair16 on the back of the head. The women throughout this province wear sayas or dresses
with sleeves called varo17, of the same cloth or of different color, without any chemise except white cotton sheets
wound around the waist falling down to their feet. Others use colored ones around their bodies as shawls, with
much gracefulness. The principal women use scarlet or silk ones or other fabrics, interwoven with gold thread
adorned with fringes and other ornament. They use many gold necklaces around their necks, bracelets around their
writs, and heavy earrings made of engraved gold, and rings of gold and stone on their fingers. Their black hair is
gracefully tied with a ribbon or knot on the head. After the Spaniards came to the land, many native men ceased to
wear gee-strings and instead they wore balloon-trousers
10 More often by bad means rather than by good ones until a point was reached when the Government had to order to refuse them everything in
order to compel to submit to see if cruel and inhuman treatment would fill up the inefficacy of the missionaries.
11 We don’t know the origin of this word which does not seem to usa being derived from China. If we may be allowed to make a conjecture, we would
say that perhaps a wrong phonetic transcription had been made of chinina the word tinina (from tina) which in Tagalog means dyed, name of this garment,
almost always monochromatic, which indicated its origin. The chiefs used the red color and the cloth is “fine gauze from India”, according to Colin. The
fondnessfor red,whichwe alreadyfound amongthe Romans, subsists among the barbarous tribes of Mindanaw.
12 Bahag, “rich colored cloth and quite foten with gold stripes”, among the chiefs.
13 They put in different ways, sometimes in Moro style like a turban, sometimes wrapped around the head like a small head- dress. Those who took
pride in being brave let fall the ends of the cloth, elaborately decorated, and so long they reach until the legs. And on it, they display the colors of their
principality and the mottos of their exploits and achievement. It was not proper for anyone to use red potong until he has killed at least one man. And to
wear certain stripes on it, like a crown, he must have killed seven men.” (Colin, book I, 59). Even now, an Indio can be seen wearing the balindang in the
style ofthe potong, means to crown, that is, to put something around the head.
14 There were also of ivory. (Colin, loc cit.)
15 “Many rings of gold with stones on the fingers.” “The loasst accessory of the gala dress is like our sash,a richly colored cloak thrown over the
shoulder andjoined under the arm” (even today men wear lambong or mourning) … The Bisayans, instead of this, use robes, well-made without collar, long,
reaching until the feet and with colored stripes. The whole garb, in short, Moorish style, and really elegant and rich, they wear even now.” (Colin, loc. cit)
16 This mannerofwearingthe hairandthe longattireofthe Bisayans haveananalogytothecoiffure and kimonooftheJapanese.
17 Baro
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made out of the same blankets and cloths, also hats on their heads, The headmen wear dresses decorated with
pounded gold-braid of various workmanship, and many of them wear shoes. Likewise, the principal women
were curiously shod and many of them wear velvet shoes with gold trimmings, also white sheets as undershirts.
Both men and women, particularly the prominent people, are very clean and neat in their persons, and
dress gracefully, and are of good demeanor. They dye their hair and pride themselves with keeping it quite
black. They shampoo it with the boiled bark of a tree called gogo18 and anoint it with oil of sesame, perfumed with
musk and other sweet-smelling substances. They are all careful of their teeth, and from their early age, they file and
even up their teeth with grinders and other implements of stone,19 etc., and give them a permanent black color which
is preserved until their old age, even if be unpleasant to the eyes.20
The young and the old ordinarily bathe their entire bodies in the rivers and streams without regard whether
this may be injurious to their health 21 because they find it to be one of the best remedies to be healthy; and
when a child is born, they immediately bathe it and likewise the mother. As a matter of pastime and occupation,
the women work with the needle with which they are proficient and they engage in all kinds of needlework. They
also weave blankets and spin cotton and keep house for their husbands and parents. They pound the rice which is to
be cooked for their meals22 and prepare the rest of the food. They raise chickens and pigs and do the house chores
while their menfolk engage in the work of the fields, fishing, boating, and farming. The women both married and
otherwise, are not so chaste, while the husbands, parents, and brothers are scarcely jealous or careful regarding this
matter. Men and women are covetous and money- loving so that when there is a price, they easily yield23 and
when the husband catches his wife committing infidelity, he is appeased and satisfied without difficulty. Some of
those to appear more cultured than the others have sometimes been known to have killed the adulterers. When both
men and women, especially the prominent people, go out for a walk along the streets or to church, they walk with a
slow measured dignified step, well-accompanied by male and female slaves who carry silk-parasols which they
always carry with them for protection from the sun and rain. The ladies walk ahead followed by their female
servants and slaves, their husbands, fathers, and brothers walking behind them, followed in their turn by their male
servants and slaves.24
18 Rather than the bark it is the body itself of a shrub that is crushed but not cooked. It is strange that Father Buzeta and Bravo, in speaking of the gogo,
mentions it suse in mines and washing clothes and not its most common use, which is for washing the hair, as it is used until now by almost all the
Indios.
19 This practice is still done.
20 This custom also is found in Japan among married women, as a proof ofvirtue. Today it is declining.
21 The Spaniards think so but they are mistaken. The Indios are very careful not to take a bath during siesta, after luncheon, the first two days of a
catarrh, when they are herpes, some women during menstruation, etc., etc., Fr. Chirino says (Chapter X): “They take a bath with the body bent and almost
seated for modesty, immersed in the water until the throat, with the greatest care not to be seen, though there may not be anybody who can see them. The
most common and most general bathing-hour is sunset, after the day’s work and to carry water home. After the funeral they bathe.” This hygienic custom
of the inhabitants of the tropics has been preserved in Japan, like many other things that prove the southern origin of the some of her inhabitants.
22 Though theirwork is not very hard, for the pestle is light. It is now done generally by men, leaving to the women the cleaning of the rice.
23 This weakness of Indio women that historians relate, it seems, can be attributed not only to the sincerity with which they obey nature and their own
instincts but also to a religious belief that Fr. Chirino tells us about. “A doctrine planted the devil in some women of these islands and I believe in all
who cannot be saved, be they married or marriageable, is the women who does not have some lover. Because they say he will help them in the next life
by leading them by the hand in crossing a timber which must be crossed in order to reach what they call Kalualhatian.” (Chirino, Chapter XIX). A s to the
rest, the priest-historians relating the missions in the first years of Christianization, give numerous examples of the chastity of young women who resisted
and preferred death to surrendering to the violence and threats of the soldiers and encomenderos . This weakness for the “pay”, we believe, is not a
defect world, in Europe itself so satisfied with its morality and throughout its history, many times connected with crimes, scandals, etc., etc. The cult
of Venus, Priapus, Bacchus, etc., the orgies and Bacchanalia, the history popes, prove that in this matter there is no nation that can throw the first stone.
At any rate, today the Filipino women have no reason to blush before the women of the most chaste nation ofthe world.
24 This custom can still be seen in some places.
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Their regular daily food is rice, crushed by wooden pilons or pounders, which is cooked and is then called
morisqueta,25 and this constitutes the daily mainstay for the entire country, together with boiled fish of which there
is an abundance, and pork or venison, likewise meat of wild buffalo or carabao. They prefer meat and fish, saltfish
which begin to decompose and smell.26 They also eat boiled sweet-potatoes which resemble the ordinary potatoes,
kidney bean, quilitis, and other vegetables, all kinds of bananas, guavas, pineapples, anonas or custard-apples,
oranges and other citruses, and other various kinds of fruit and vegetables which abound in the land.
They drink that which drips out of the tender flowers of the coconut-trees and of the nipa- palms which are
abundant, and which are raised like vineyard-rapes although with less care and difficulty. Upon taking the tuba27
juice from the palms, they distil the same in their containers, stoves and other utensils, and when it is fermented it
becomes strong or light liquor which is drunk throughout the islands. It becomes a clear fluid like water but very
strong and dry. When used moderately, it is medicinal for the stomach and good for phlegms and other kinds of
rheums. When mixed with Spanish wine, it becomes a pleasant liquor which is tasteful and wholesome.
The natives of these Islands drink liquor in the day and night without end in their meetings, weddings, feasts
and circles, accompanied by singing by a few who are so inclined and who came to drink and have a good time,
although this habit does not carry with it, according to their estimation, any dishonor or infamy.28
In some provinces, the weapons of these people consist of bows and arrows but generally, throughout the
Islands, the arms are medium spears with well-made iron spearheads, shields of light wood with their “coats-ofwood” which are smooth inside, which cover them from head to foot and which they call caracas.29 On their waist
they war four-inch wide dagger, with a sharp-point a foot long, the handle being uncovered and made of gold and
ivory with two plain double edges, and they called it Bararaos and have two edges with wooden scabbards or of
finely engraved buffalo horns30 . They are very dexterous when they go after their adversary, by holding him, by
the hair and with the other hand, they cut his head off with a single blow of the balaraw, and carry it away in order to
hang it in their house to show it off, so that people will consider them brave and vengeful of their enemies and the
evildoers.
After they had watched the Spaniards handle their arms, many of them can handle the arquebusque and
musket very well. Formerly they and possessed brass mortars and other pieces of tempered steel with which they
defended their forts and towers although their gunpowder was not as refined as that used by the Spaniards.
Their vessels and craft are among are of many types. In the river and streams inland, they use one-mast large
canoes or bancas made of boards attached to the keels. They are also the viceroy type and the barangay craft which
are straight and light craft, with low body held together with wooden trees-nails, as strong in the prow as in the
stern, accommodating many rowers on
25 Morisqueta to the Spaniards, because the Tagalogs call it kanin.
26 There is another preoccupation of the Spaniards who, like any other nation, in the matter of the food, loathe that to which they are not accustomed or
is unknown to them. The English, for example, is horrified on seeing a Spaniard eating snails; to the Spaniard beefsteak is repugnant and he can’t understand
how raw beefsteak can be eaten; the Chinese who eat tahuri and shark and cannot stand Roquefort cheese, etc., etc. The fish that Morga mentions does not
taste better when it is beginning to rot; all on the contrary: it is bagoong* and all those who have eaten it and tasted it know that it is not or ought not to be
rotten.
* Bagoong is fish or fish eggs preserved with plenty of salts. Filipinos serve it as relish or sauce.
27 From the Tagalog tuba,juice or sap of the palm tree.
28 It must be admitted that Filipino people have improved in this regard, thanks perhaps tothe wine monopoly. Today hardly can one see in the provinces
one or so drunkard and in manila only foreign sailors are given to this vice. That drunkenness, however, was not rather, after drinking, they preserve
proper respect and circumspection. They only become gayer and more talkative and say some amusing things. But it is known that none of them after
leaving a banquet, even at a late hour of the night, fail to reach their home. And if they offer to buy or sell, and touch and weigh gold or silver, they do it
with so much circumspection that neither does their hand tremble nor do they make a mistake.” (Book I, 61)
29 Kalasag.
30 This weapon has been lost and not even it name remains. A proof of the backwardness of the present-day Flipinos in their industries is the
comparison of the weapons made today with those described by the historians. The hilts of the tailbones are neither of gold or ivory, nor their
scabbards of horn, nor are they curiously worked.
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both sides, which craft, likewise have paddles used outside of the craft by expert paddlers who propel the same in
unison31 , thanks to the chanting of their singers of native heroes and their deeds, in their native tongue,32 for
the purpose of quickening or slowing down the rowing of the vessel. Above the rowers’ seats, there is a
passage-deck made of bamboo whereas many fighting-men as the size of the craft requires, pass to and fro,
without disturbing the rowers’ post. From there is handled the sail, which is square and of canvas through a lift
made of two thick bamboos, which serves as mast, and when the vessel is large, it also has a foremast of the same
kind with their pulleys to lower the sail when the wind is adverse, also its helmsman at the stern to steer the vessel.
The vessel also carries another compartment made of bamboo on the same passage-deck on which, when the sun
is hot, is placed a cover made of palm-leaves woven together closely to make a thick roof named
Cayanos,33 under which is covered the entire personnel and vessel. There is also a cage-like devise made of
thick bamboos on both extremes of the vessel, which is strongly attached to it and which barely touches the water
but does not interfere with the rowing but serves to balance and prevent the craft from turning over, howsoever rough
the sea may get or howsoever strong the wind may hit the sails. It often happens that the uncovered vessel get gets
filled with water and capsizes and is destroyed yet it does not sink to the bottom in view of the bamboo balancing
devise which serves as a buoy, and also prevents drifting away. This kind of vessels were used throughout the
Islands since ancient times, likewise larger vessels known as bancas or vintas uncovered rowing-craft, lapis or
tapakes. They are used to transport the merchandise and are very appropriate for the purpose because they are
roomy and can float on shallow water and can be beached at the mouth of rivers and canals on which they often
navigate without going out to sea or far from the land. All natives are able to handle and navigate them. Some
are so large that they can carry one hundred rowers sitting on the border and thirty soldiers to top, but the common
draft are the barangays and the viceroy-type vessels using smaller sails and fewer crew. Many of them no longer
used the wooden tree-nails but assorted metal nails, and their rudders and bows use fender-beams and so forth,
Spanish style.34
The land is covered with shadows35 everywhere from trees of various kinds and fruit-bearing ones which
beautify the country throughout the year, both along the coastline and the meadows and mountains. It is full of
large and small rivers giving good drinking-water which flows down to thesea and are navigable and abound in
tasteful fishes of all species. There is also an abundance of timber which is cut down and taken to the saw-mills and
many logs are floated down the rivers which are mostly navigable. The timber is good for building houses and
edifices and for making large and small vessels. Many trees are straight and thick, fit for use as masts for galleys
and galleons, both light and flexible, so that any vessel can be equipped with a single mast without
31 Jostrar means tojoin, to match rowing or any other movement, to move in right musical time, (Dominguez, Diccionario dela Lengua, etc.)
32 “Some songs that they know by memory and they sing in their boats to the movement of the oars, in their rejoicings, feasts, and funerals, and even
in their work when they are many. In these songs, they relate the fabulous genealogies and vain deeds of their gods.” (Colin, book I, chapter XV) It is
lamentable that these songs had been preserved. Through them perhaps much of the past of the Filpinos could be known and perhaps also of the history
ofthe adjacent islands.
33 In Tagalog it is called Karang.
34 The Filipinos, like the inhabitants if the Marianas who are no less famous and skilled in the art of navigation, far from progressing have
become backward, for, though now boats are built in the Islands, we can say that they are almost all of European model. The ships that carried on hundred
rowers as crew and thirty fighting soldiers disappeared. The country that at one timewith primitive methods-built ships of about 2,000 tons (Hernando delos
Rios,p. 24), now has to resort to foreign ports, like Hong Kong, to giveaway the gold wrested from the poor in return for unserviceable cruisers. The rivers
are obstructed, interior navigation dies, die to the obstacle created by a timid and distrustful system of government. And of all that naval architecture
hardly one name or so is remembered, killed without being replace by modern advancement in proportion to the centuries that have elapsed, as it has
happened in the adjacent countries. And those old vessels in their kind and for their time were so perfect and light, above all those of the Marianas, that
sailors and pilots said: “While we moved in one shot at arquebus they gave us six turns so graceful that they cannot be more.” (Doc. 47. Academia dela
Historia). And they sailed also against the wind and the Spaniards called them shuttles for their swiftness. Why did they not think of perfecting this kind of
vessels?
35 Shady because of the trees.
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need of dovetailing or cutting it into pieces. There is likewise an abundance of timber for hulls of vessels, for their
keels, framework, toptimber and any futtock-timbers, breast-hooks, knees and small-knees, upper works and good
timber for decks and sides.36
There are many fruit trees on the land such as santol, mabolo, tamarind, nanca or jack-fruit, anonas, papayas,
guayaba and various kinds or oranges both small and large, sweet and sour, citrus and lemons, about tenor twelve
varieties of bananas,37 very tasteful and wholesome, many kinds of coconuts with good-taste, from which liquor
and common oil is made, very useful for wounds, and other wild palm-trees of the mountain which yield no nuts
but which, however, give good trunks, and from the husks of which oakum is obtained, very useful for calking
vessels. Efforts have been made to raise olives and quince and other European fruits but so far, they have not
succeeded excepting pomegranates and grapes which yield excellent fruits after two years, and quite abundantly
and three times a year; likewise figs. Vegetables of all kinds thrive in abundance but they do not seed well,
and it is necessary to bring seeds from Castile, China or Japan.
In the Province of Cagayan there are chestnuts-trees that produce nuts and in the other places, there are
pine trees which produce large kernels and good-tasting nuts which are known by the name piles.38 There is an
abundance of cedar called which is called calanta and also fine red timber called asana, also ebony, a variety of
which is better than the rest, and other much- esteemed woods fit for every elaborate purpose. The meats
usually eaten are pork which is abundant, tasteful and wholesome; beef of which there is plenty in many parts
of the islands, considerable breeding-stations, and ranches39 where cattle are raised. They originated in China and
New Spain. The cattle from China are small and very prolific and have small and curved horns which they use
and butt with. They carry a large hump on their shoulders and are quite tame. There is a large variety of
chickens like those of Castile and others still larger, the breed having been brought over from China, and they taste
well and make good capons. Some of the hens are black in their feathers, skin, flesh, and bones and they taste
good.40 There are broods of geese, swans, duck and tame doves or squabs brought over from China. There
is an abundance of wild game such as deer and wild boar, and in some places, porcupine, buffalos called
carabaos which are raised in the fields and there are fierce carabaos aside from the same ones brought from China,
of which there are a great number, and very beautiful ones only useful for dairy purposes, their milk being thicker
and better tasting than cow’s milk.
Goats are also raised although owing to the dampness of the land, their flesh does not taste good and they
easily get sick and die on this account, also because they eat certain poisonous plants. Although sheep have been
imported several times from New Spain, they have never multiplied, so that they are scarce in the land now41 as
it seems that both the climate and pasture lands are not quite appropriate for them. There were no horses, mares or
donkeys in the Islands until the Spaniards had them brought over from China and New Spain. There are donkeys
and mules but few in number, but a great number of horses and mare; and some ranches are full of them, and most
of these have been raised here and are half-breeds, and good specimens, having fine colors and are well-developed and
very satisfactory for work even if only middle-sized. Those brought from China are small, strong and have a good
pace, quite treacherous, restless and not so well-developed. There are brought from Japan some horses with good
colors, stout, heavy and bristly with large bones and feet, looking like dray horses, with large heads, strong mouths,
36 It seems that because of the excessive construction of ships that later took place some species disappeared or at least became scarce, one
of them being the Betis (See S. Vidaly Soler).
37 Buzeta and Bravo say that there are more than 57 species. (p. 35)
38 Pili nut.
39 There was such an abundance of cattle that Fr. Gaspar de San Agustin says, speaking about Dumangas (p. 259): “This
convent has an extensive farm of cattle, of so many cows that there was a time when they were over 30,000 … and this farm also has many very fine
horses.”
40 The flesh of these chickens that the Tagalogs called ulikba is said to have a medicinal value.
41 They exist however now, though little esteemed.
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are poor runners but good pacers, live-by and with good determination.
year is the green camalote,42 unhusked rice which makes them become fat.
Their regular fodder throughout the
There is an abundance of country-fowl, wild game of fine colors, very nice in appearance. There are also no
singing birds fit to keep in cages, although from Japan, there have been brought some calendar larks which are
smaller than the Spanish kind which sing finely and are called fimbaros. There are many turtle-doves some are
very green-colored pigeons beside wild doves or pigeons, said green ones having very red feet and bills, while some
pigeons are white with red spot on the breast like the pelican. In the place of quails, there are fowl resembling them
although smaller known as ponos43 and some small maya birds. There are likewise some wild cocks and chickens
which very small and which taste like partridges are. They also have loyal herons both white and brown also flycatchers and seabirds, ducks, lauancos, egrets, sea-crows, eagles, buharros44 and other birds of prey, although
one of them are used like falcons for hunting.45 There are jays and thrushes as in Spain, storks and cranes. They do
not raise turkeys, rabbits46 or hares, although they sometimes they use them too. They either eat or destroy the
wild, destructive animals living in the mountains and fields such as wild cats, foxes, badgers, large and small rats
which abound, also other land-animals.
An infinite number of small and large monkeys thrive and sometimes bend the branches of the trees,
throughout the Islands. There are likewise green and white parakeets47 but they are poor talkers, also very small
parrots bearing green and red colors, called kulasisi which also do not talk48 . The hills and settlements abound in
snakes of different color, the ordinary ones have been seen in mountains which are strangely large and
admirable in appearance. The most dangerous snakes are very thin and shorter, and they drop from the trees where
they usually live, on those who pass below and sting them. Their poison is so active that the victim dies of madness
within four hours.
In the rivers and streams there are very large and small scorpions and a great number of very fierce and cruel
crocodiles which frequently get the natives from their bancas on which they ride. They work a great havoc on the
cattle and horses in the ranches when they goto the river to drink water. However much the people may trap, catch
and kill them, these reptiles hardly seem to diminish in number. For this reason, the natives build on the border of
their rivers and streams in their settlements where they bathe, - raps and fences with thick enclosures and bars of
bamboo and timber within which they do their bathing and washing, secure from these monsters which they fear
and respect to the degree of veneration, as if they were somehow superior to them.49 Likewise these reptiles are
involved or mentioned in their oaths, execrations, etc. hurled to their important hated people, - even among
Christians, - in the Buhayan Moro language, thus: “May the crocodiles kill him!” and there have been cases
where God has permitted those who have sworn falsely or broken their promise, to become victims of the crocodiles,
in view of their violation of the authority ad purity of the truth or promise.50
Fishing of all kinds of fish in the sea or in fresh waters of rivers and streams, is very greatly indulged in and
is quite productive; in fact this industry us quite general in the entire country and is considered a natural activity for
the self-support of all the people. There is an abundance of good sardines, bass, seabreams called bacocos,
dace ells, bicuda, tanguingue, flounders,
42 Zacate or sakate, that is, grass fodder.
43 Pogos from the Tagalog pugo,a small bird.
44 Buhosa species ofowl.
45 It might alludeto falconry or huntingwithfalcons.
46 Now there are house rabbits and turkeys abound.
47 Kakatua or katala.
48 Kulasisi, Tagalog name.
49 Perhaps for the same reason, other nations have great esteem for the lion and bear, putting them in their shields and giving
them honorable epithets. The mysterious life of the crocodile, the enormous size that sometimes reaches, its feticidal aspect, without counting any more its voraciousness, must have
influenced greatly the imagination ofthe Malayan Filipinos.
50 All there have been friars eaten by crocodiles while the Indios who accompanied them were able to escape; in this case, however, historians give a favorable explanation of the
happening and a different onewhen thevictim is an Indio.
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plantanos51 and tarakitos, pin-pointed fish, golden fish, eels, large and small oysters, mollusks, crabs, shrimps,
sea-spiders, marine crabs and all kinds of mollusks, etc. also shad and whitefish. In the Tagus River52 (Rio Grande)
of Cagayan, in the proper season there is an abundance of booby-fish which come to shallow water in the bay to
spawn. In the Bonbon lake, many tunny fish not as large as those in Spain, although having the same shape, flesh
and taste, can be caught during the proper season. Theseas are full of large fishes such as whales, sharks, caellas,
bufeo cetaceans and other unknown species having unusual size and shape. In the year fifteen hundred nine-six, during
a great storm occurring then in the Islands, there was a stranded fish so large and strangely deformed that
although the water was three and one half brazas or three meters deep, it was no longer able to swim again, and
it died there. The natives said they have never seen before an animal having a similar appearance, and it had two
horns on it which dropped down its back. Another such fish was brought to Manila and it was covered with its
thick skin or hide, having no bristles or scales, being white, large and about twenty feet long, bulky from the head
and torso and thinning down proportionately to its tail, being a little hunch-backed and not quite round-looking,
very solid and, all in all, causing extreme surprise among those who saw it.53
Approximately five leagues from Manila there is a large fresh-water lake having considerable fish in it, to
which several streams flow, and which debouches to the sea by means of a river running through Manila. It is
called the Lake of Bai. It is thirty leagues around it, having an uninhabited island54 in the middle where
much hunting can be had. Along the coast of the lake are several towns inhabited by native who navigate
extensively on the same from one coast to another with their craft. At times its waters become very troubled and
dangerous to those sailing thereon and especially when the North winds blow, roughening it extremely although its
coasts are easy to land on.
There is another lake in the province of Bonbon (Batangas) bearing the same name, and although it is not
so large, it abounds with fish. The method of fishing used by the natives is that of making corrals or traps made of
rattan vines which are very flexible, strong, thin and solid, made into the strong cable for their vessels and other
purposes. These traps are attached posts stuck into the bottom of the lake and they gather the fish caught from said
traps through wicker ad bamboo baskets and smaller and various fishing-nets besides other contrivances and also
fishing-rods. The ordinary food of the natives is a very small fish which is netted, dried in the sun or air, then
cooked in various ways, and they enjoy them better than the larger fishes. Among them, they call this fish
laulau.55
In lieu of olives and other aperitive fruits, they have a green, very small fruit, more diminutive than a nut,
called paos56 which comes in several sizes, but all smaller than the mango, which when properly prepared for
eating has a good taste when served as pickles or brined. They likewise prepare charas57 and other vegetables
in a similar manner, making good appetizers.
There is an abundance of ginger which is eaten raw, in vinegar or pickled, likewise much cachumba,58 a
plant giving both taste and color, used in cooking in the place of saffron and spices. The regular delicacy offered
throughout these Islands and in other countries in the Asian mainland, is the buyo or betel which is made out of a
leaf of plant59 or vine resembling the mulberry
51 Ifour memory does not fail us, in the Philippines there is a fish called pompano.
52 The Rio Grande.
53 Informertimes and about the middle ofthis century, therewere found also along the Pacific coasts of Luzon,various monsters which we don’t know if
they have been studied.
54 Talim Island.
55 What is now called lawlaw is the salted and dried sardine. It seems that the author refers to the tawilis of Batangas, or dilis, which is small and a
large quantity of it is eaten by the natives.
56 Paho. A kind of mango, very small, 1 ½ to 5 centimeters long, with soft stone and strong smell.
57 Pickles.
58 In Tagalog, kasubha. It comes from the Sanskrit Kasumbha. Malay Kasumba. T. H. Pardo de Tavera (El Sanscrito en la lengfua tagalog).
59 It is not a tree but a vine which is cultivated by making it climb bamboo poles placed in the middle of small canals that serve for watering every two
days. A plantation of betel, or ikmoas the Tagalogs call it.
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leaf, coupled with a seed or nut from the areca palm60 which is whitish inside. This nut called bonga is cut
lengthwise into slices and placed inside the rolled betel leaf with a bit of every wet quick-lime.61 This rolled tidbit
is placed in the mouth and chewed. It is so strong and stimulating that later it induces sleep and intoxication. Those
not used to it get their mouth feeling as if burned. It addicts get their mouth and saliva turn red like blood, and obtain a
taste which is not unpleasant. After it has been chewed for some time and it has no longer any juice, it is spit out of
the mouth as zapa62 or bagasse. Whatever juice may have entered the stomach is advantageous and tastes good to the
user and for certain ailments, it strengthens and fortifies the teeth and preserve the gums from any rheums; and
many claim it to be a panacea with wonderful results for many illnesses. What one can observe is that the
buyo-chewing is indulge in by the natives and the Spaniards, both laymen and priests, men and women, so
commonly and regularly, that in the morning and afternoon, during meetings visits, whether sitting alone in
the house or with company, everybody is affected by the buyo rage or fashion which makes use of certain
well- presented buyo or betel golden plates or service sets, just as in New Spain they also indulge in sipping
chocolate. Many have been given poison through there means and have died of it, and this occurrence is not
infrequent.
It is a habit among the well-to-do natives, as show of greatness and luxury, to carry with them when they go out
of their houses, their brassware service and sets of buyo or betel, the buyo rolls being placed on the containers apart
from the loose leaves, the bonga or nuts and the wet lime. These sets curiously made of brass and other
materials and substances include separate containers for the scissors or cutters and other rate containers for
handling this delicacy extensively as well as the articles that go to make a buyo service or set.
As to poisons and venoms, the natives of these Islands ordinarily use the herbs having these properties which
abound in every one of them. They are so deadly and efficacious that they produce miraculous results. There is
a lizard somewhat greenish-black and abounding especially in buildings, one palm’s length and three fingers thick,
known in Spanish as chacon63 which, enclosed tightly in a bamboo cylinder emits a certain fluid or saliva
which,64 when mixed with food or drink, renders the same poisonous. By pressing the body of this lizard this
liquid is obtained and when mixed as already stated with anything to be eaten or drunk, however small the quantity
may it becomes a strong poison. There are also other plants or herbs known to and gathered by natives for the same
purpose, some used dry and others fresh, which are given with food or used in fumigation as the case may be, while
some others need only to be touched by the hands and feet, or so be set down or laid down on, to take effect actively
and thus poison the victim to death. The natives are so clever in making compounds of this nature that they prepare
and apply the herbs so that the same may produce the deadly effect immediately or after a long or short time as
may be desired; inf act even at the end of one year.65 Ordinarily many persons die miserably by poisoning,
particularly the Spaniards who are imprudent, bad behaving or whoa e hated for ill- treating the natives with whom
they have any dealings in connection with the collection of taxes or in other matters in which the natives are
employed against their will, the matter being beyond any remedy. There are some herbs which are so poisonous
that when they go to gather them they carry with them some herb-antidotes’ and in the very island of Bohol, there
is a plant that in order to cut it from the main trunk, they approach it from a direction against the wind for the reason
that the mere smell of it carried by the wind is deadly. Nature has left this danger unprovided for, because in these
Islands there are other herbs and rots which are so effective and potent that they render the poison from other
plants ineffective and harmless and they used when there is a great for them. Thus, when it is known what
particular poisonous plant has been used, it is not
60 Everybody knows that this fruit is not ofthe betel or buyo but of the bonga (Tagalog bunga), or of the areca palm.
61 Not quicklime but very hydrated lime.
62 Sapá.
63 Tagalog tukó
64 The period must be a typographical error (in the Spanish original).
65 The presenttoxicology inthe Philippines isvery backward,a backwardnessthat perhapsshould be appreciated science ought
to regret it. There remains very little empirical knowledge.
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difficult to offset it when it is done on time by applying the herb which is contrary to said poison has happened on
certain occasions that the suspect of having caused the poisoning has been forcibly compelled to bring the
antidote-herb and thus prevent the evil. There also other general antidote herbs for the purpose of preserving one’s
system as well as for off-setting the poison administered. However, the most effective ones are certain violetcolored flies or wood-bugs to be found among the bushes of the Visayan Islands (of the tattooed natives) which, when
enclosed in a clean bamboo cylinder tightly stopped, multiply inside and are fed with pounded rice and kept enclosed
for about eight days after which the rice is removed and new rice given them to keep them alive. Six of these flies
when taken in a spoonful of wine or water, - they have no offensive odor and taste like common cress-produce a
miraculous effect. This is usually done as a preventive against poisoning, when one goes dinners or feasts of
a suspicious nature, and it preserves and secures one from every danger of poisoning.
Throughout these Islands are certain places where there is an abundance of rich gold deposits and other
mineral products which are collected by the natives through washing or placer- mining. However, after the Spaniards
had settled in the land, the natives became more lax in the mining of gold,66 contenting themselves with what
they already had in the form of jewelry and ancient ingots of gold, inherited from their forebears, which were
abundant in themselves. In fact, poor and indigent was indeed the one who did not possess gold-chains, bracelets,
and earrings.
In Paracale, in the Province of Camarines, certain placer and other mines were developed and worked.
Likewise, in Ilocos this commodity was also being traded, because behind this province which is on the seacoast, there are highlands which run and extend to Cagayan inland where along the sources of the streams, live
many natives who have not been as yet pacified, called Igorrots, whose country has not yet been penetrated by
outsiders. They have rich mines of gold besides silver, of which they get as much mineral as they need for their uses.
They take their still unrefined and unperfected gold to certain appointed places where they meet the people from
Ilocos, where, for their gold, they are given in trade, rice, pigs, carabaos, blankets and other articles which
they need. 67 The Ilocanos refine and finish the gold and market the same throughout the plains and the
country. Although efforts have been made in order to ascertain the whereabouts of their mines and the manner in
which they work them and get the mineral from the ground, nothing has been learned or ascertained regarding
the matter, because they were suspicious that the Spaniards would not hesitate to go and get their mines for
themselves. It was said that the Igorrots felt that their gold was kept more securely in the ground than in their own
homes or settlements.68
In the rest of the Islands, there is the same abundance of placer and other mines, particularly in the
Visayas, Butuan River in Mindanaw and Cebu, where presently a mine called Talibon is being developed, which
yields very good gold. If all the activities and efforts of the Spaniards were concentrated on the development of
gold-mining, there could be obtained from any of these Islands as much gold as from any possessions in the world.
However, since they are giving more importance to other industries than to gold-mining, they will be discussed in the
proper place more extensively that the latter.
In the waters along the coasts of these islands, there are to be gathered, ostia de perlas69 particularly in the
Calamianes, and some have been obtained which are quite large and fine and very oriental. Neither is there any
business of importance done in this line and throughout the country everywhere there is often to be found inside the
ordinary mother-of-pearl shells, imperfect
66 The Indios on seeing that wealth aroused the capacity of the encomenderos and soldiers, abandoned the work in the mines, and priest-historians
relate that, in order to save them from vexations, they recommended to them such procedure. However, according to Colin, “informed from good
sources” in his time was obtained from the Islands the value of 100,000 pesos in gold on an average annually after 80 years of discouragement and
abandonment. According to “a manuscript of an old and serious person” of these Islands,the first tribute of only the provinces of Ilocos and Pangasinan
amounted to 109,500 pesos. One encomendero alone in 1587 sent from Manila on the ship Santa Ana that Cavendish seized, 3,000 taels of gold.
67 This was forbidden later.
68 And in truth they were right!
69 Mother-of-pearl.
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pearls and mother-of-pearls as large as warrior-shields, out of which curious articles are made by hand. There are
likewise sea turtles throughout the islands, so large that their shells are profited by the natives who sell them as
trade-commodities to the Chinese, the Portuguese and other nationals, who come to buy them and who esteem
them very much because they make many curious out of them.
Along the coasts of any of these Islands, there are many shining shells or cowries called siguey. The
natives pick them and sell them by measure to the Siamese, Cambodians, Portuguese and other nationals of
the mainland, where said shells are used as currency with which they purchase things like they do in New Spain
with cocoa-beans.
The horns of the carabaos constitute a commodity for China, also the skins of deer, and red-wood for
Japan. The natives profit by all these articles in trading with them with these nationals and derive much advantages
thereby.
In this Island of Luzon, especially in the provinces of Manila, Pampanga, Pangasinan and Ilocos, there are
to be found ancient earthen tibors or jars, brown in color and not so beautiful to look at. Some are of middle size
and others are smaller, bearing certain marks and seals, and they cannot explain where they got them from or in
what period. At present they are no longer obtainable neither are they manufactured in these Islands, and they are
in great demand on the part of the Japanese who prize them very much for the reason that they have discovered
that these are the only receptacles in which to properly keep and preserve the roots and leaves of a plant called cha,
70 the beverage of which they drink hot and which the Japanese so highly esteem; so that they constitute their most
precious and valuable possessions, which they keep in their stores and chambers. A jar is worth a great deal of
money, and is adorned on the outside with finegold-plating with much elaboration, and iscovered with brocade
cloth, so that there are vases which are worth or sold for two thousand eleven-reales (pieces of eleven) taels each, or
less, as the case may be, even if it is slightly dented or has a flaw, for the reason that this is of no
consequence so long as tea can be safely kept in them. The natives of these islands sell these articles to the
Japanese as best they can, and take pains to look for them for this purpose; and as a matter of fact, these vases have
become very scarce owing to the great demand there is for them.71
Once in a while, the natives find large chunks of ambergris along the coasts, which they are already
acquainted with, inasmuch as they know that the Spaniards esteem it very much, and have made it a commodity for
trading. Last year, sixteen hundred and two, in the Island of Cebu, the natives found a large piece of ambergris, and
as the news of it spread and reached the ears of the encomendero or grant-holder, he took it secretly for himself,
charging it to tribute or taxes. It was said that it weighed a great number of pounds, and that it was sold by the ounce
at a high price.72
In the Island of Mindanao, in the province and river of Butuan, which have been pacified and granted as
encomienda to the Spaniards, the natives have another industry or trade which is quite profitable. Inasmuch as there is
an abundance of wild or civet cats, although they are smaller than the Guinea civets, the natives get the musk or
perfume out of the cats and sell or trade the same, doing good and easy business thereby. During the crescent moon,
the natives go out with
70 Tea, which was not much used then.
71 Dr. Jagor, in his famous work Reisen in den Philippines (Berlin, 1873) in chapter XV deals with these jars, describing some, giving very curious and
interesting details about their history, shape, and value, some of which reach enormous prices, like those of the sultan of Borneo who scorned the price of
100,000 pesos offered for one of them. Dr. Jagor himself, while in the Philippines, was able to get one, found in one of the excavations undertaken in
Lagmanan (Camarines Sur) with other prehistoric objects belonging to the bronze age, as attended by knives made of this metal and the absence of iron,
etc. It is a pity that those objects had not been studied better. Discovering these very precious jars in Cambodia, Siam, Cochin-china, the Philippines, and
other adjacent islands, and their manufacture dating to a very remote epoch, the study of their form, structure, seals and inscriptions, would perhaps
give usa key to finding a common center of civilization for these peoples.
72 “ And not long ago”, says Colin, (1663) “ was found close to the island of Joloa piece that weighed more than eight arrobas of the best quality that
there is, which is the gray”. It seems that this piece came into the possession of the Jesuits and later a governor took a part of it.
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nets to catch civets, a considerable number of which get caught. Once they have removed the musk out of them,
they let them loose again. 73 Likewise, they keep them all over the country at modest prices.
Cotton is also raised throughout the islands, and they spin it into the thread and sell it by skeins to the
Chinese and other nationals who come over to trade in it. They also weave blankets in various ways which they also
sell or trade, 74 likewise clothes made out of the fibre of bananas, 75 the cloth known as medriñaque.
The Babuyanes consist of many but small islands, and they lie on the head or point of Cagayan
Province, inhabited by natives whose principal trade is to come to Cagayan in tapaque vessels carrying pigs,
chickens, provisions and ebony spears, to sell. These islands are subject to no encomienda or grant, neither is any
tribute collected from them, and there are no Spaniards living among them, as they are less civilized and orderly
people. There have been no converts to Christianity among them, neither have they any system of Government. 76
On the opposite end of Luzon, there are other islands on the frontier of Camarines province, on
fourteen degrees latitude north of the Espiritu Santo channel, and they are called the Catandaunes islands. They are
well populated by natives who are good and subject to Spanish encomenderos, having parish schools, churches and
a mayor who governs them. Most of them are laborers, while others are engaged in working placer gold-mines
and in trading from one province to another on the Luzon mainland, which is very near to them. 77
There is in the coast of the Island of Luzon in the South, less than one hundred leagues from the Cape of
Espiritu Santos, through which the Capul Channel is entered, a bay about thirty leagues wide having a narrow
channel; and in the middle thereof, there is an island lying across it making it narrower, and is called Miraveles.78
It is approximately two leagues long, and a half league-wide, with elevated thickly-wooded land, having a settlement
of about fifty natives,79 where the guard or sentinel of the bay has his headquarters and residence. There are channels
on both points of the island through which to enter the bay, one being half a league on the South with a lighthouse
in the middle called the Friar Island, and another on the northern part which is narrower; and through these two
channels all ocean-going vessels enter and leave the bay. The entire bay is fathomable and clear, having many
landing-places everywhere. From these channels to the
73 It seems that this industry is now very much forgotten, for nothing more is heard of it.
74 “ Not only did they have large harvest of rice but also of cotton which they wove into textile for their garments and which is very much esteemed
in New Spain…Out of cotton textile alone there was an encomendero who left a fortune of more than 50,000 accumulated in a few years.” This is what
Chirino says, writing in 1903, that is, 31 years after the creation of the encomiendas . This is not surprising, because it is known how the encomenderos
exploited the Indios. Now they demanded from them blankets at the lowest prices that did not reach the eighth part of their real value, now they cheated
them in weights and measures, etc. which also discouraged the industrious Filipinos that little by little they abandoned their looms destroying them and
burning them for which they were vexed and oppressed.
75 Perhaps Morga referstothe sinamay, anabaca textile, made ofthefiberof MusaTextilis; the abaca is obtainedfromthetrunk and not from the leaves.
76 Besides this the islands are so very small that the little benefit that they could give did not arouse either the zeal or the charity of the missionaries.
77 The men of these islands are great carpenters and shipbuilders “who make many of them and very light ones and they take them to be sold in the
territory in a very strange way: They make a large ship without covering nor iron nail or futtock timbers and they make another that fit in the hollow of it,
and inside it they place another so that in a large birocotherego ten and twelve boats that they call biroco, virey, barangay, and binitan.” They went “painted,
and they were such great rowers and sailors that thought they sink many times, they never drown.” The women are very manly. “They don’t drink from
the river though the water is very clear because they loathe it…”The women’s dress is modest and elegant because they wear their skirts in Bisayan
style, of fine stuff. Their hair is gathered and very well dressed. They put a flower on top of their head. On the forehead they wear a band of very fine
hammered gold, two fingers in width, very elegantly made, and lined with colored silk on the side where it touches the forehead. They wear on their ears,
on each on three hoops of gold, one in the place where the Spanish women wear theirs, and the two above it. On their feet they wear some brass
ornaments that make a sound when they walked… (Colin, book 1, chap. VI) These islands have also gone backwards.
78 Today it is called Island of Corregidor.
79 It seems that its present population (if there is any) has greatly diminished.
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settlement of Manila and the river sand-bar, there are eight leagues. Two leagues from Manila in the Southern part
of the bay, there is a large cove having an elevated point which covers the same, on which is a settlement of
natives, called Cavite, and the cove acquires its name from the town. It serves as a port for all vessels, is very large
and safe from the Southeast, Southwest, West and Southeast, North-north-east and North winds. It has a good,
clear and fathomable landing-place. There is a good channel, over one league and a half wide, through which
the vessels may enter and leave the port. All around the bay are good and abundant fish supplies and
communities thickly settled twenty leagues in size called Pampanga, having many streams and canals which irrigate
the same, all of which flow to the Bay, said province being well-populated by natives, and abounding in rice,80 fruits,
fish, meat and other supplies and provisions.
The sand-bar of the Manila River in the same bay lies by the City of Manila (walled city) on the one-side,
and Tondo on the other, and is scarcely anchorable in view of the sand banks or deposits it contains, which are
continually being added to by the heavy rains and floods; so that even past said sand-bar any vessel can anchor
in said river. However, with the exception of frigates, viceroy-type craft, and other small vessels, ocean-going
vessels cannot generally enter the river; and the galleys, galliots and Chinese junks which can anchor in shallow
water, cannot come in unless they are first unloaded, in spring-tides or by towing. These larger vessels have to
anchor in the bay beyond the sand-bar; and inasmuch as there is not much security from unfavourable
weather there, they usually proceed to the port of Cavite.
Twenty leagues from the Capul Channel in the same island of Luzon, there is another port protected from the
winds having a good entrance-channel and anchorage, called Ibalon,81 where vessels find as haven whenever they
are lashed by storms and where they are repained until fair weather enables them to enter Manila waters, which are
eighty leagues away.
Along the coasts of Pangasinan, Ilocos and Cagayan, there are some ports and sand-bars where vessels may
come and anchor, such as Marihuma,82 the port of the Friar,83 Bolinao, the Pangasinan sand-bar, Vigan.
Camalayuga bar at the mouth of the Tagus River, two leagues upstream of which is the principal settlement of
Cagayan, aside from other rivers, sand-bars, coves and other lesser havens available for smaller vessels, along the
coasts of Luzon Island.
Near the large Island of Luzon, there are several other large and small islands similar to the former
inhabited by natives who are like those of Luzon. They work in placer mines84 and farms and are engaged in
other industries as well. Said islands are Marinduque, Tables, Masbate, Burias, Banton, Bantonillo and other lesser
ones of which latter the one nearest Manila is Mindoro, which is over eighty leagues long and almost two hundred
leagues in circumference. It has many settlements of similar natives85 on the side where it bounds with the
province of Balayan (Batangas) and Calilaya, and is so near the Island of Luzon that it is only separated from it by
a narrow strait which is featured by strong currents, and troubled waters about half a league-wide, through which
vessels ply to and from Manila under strong currents and winds, most of the time.
80 This province half a century later had so declined in population and agriculture that Gaspar de San Agustin said: “In these days the people do not
have as much as in the past on account of the rebellion of that province when Mr. Sabiniano Manrique de Lara was governor of these Islands and the
continuous work of cutting of timber for the building of ships of His Majesty which prevent them from cultivating the very fertile lowland that they
have.” And further, speaking of Guagua or Wawa: “Formerly this town was very rich for the numerous chiefs it had and the abundant harvests they
gathered in some spacious lowlands which at present are overflown with seawater.”
81 Now the Port of Sorsogon.
82 The present port of Mariveles?
83 Subik?
84 It seems that it can be deduced from the frequent mention of placers that in those times the Indios devpted themselves with eagerness to gold
mining not only to washing the sand for gold but also to doing the real work of the mines, because the Spaniards inspected gold mines often estados deep
and they found some implements used by Indios.” (Gasparde San Agustin).
85 Now Mindoro is so depopulated that the Minister of Overseas Colonies, in order to remedy this effect of Spanish colonization, wants to send to that
island the most dissolute from Spain to see if great beasts can be made into good settlers and farmers. Any way, considering the condition of the people
who are going there, undoubtedly the following generation will know how to defend themselves and live so that the island will not be depopulated again.
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Here lies the principal settlement in the island of Mindoro which has a port call The Veradero or shipyard for large
vessels, aside from the other places of anchorage and sand-bars in the same island for smaller vessels, also many
settlements of natives all along the coast of the island; all of which localities abound in rice and food supplies,
placer-mines and all kinds of game and forest products.
The Cape of Espiritu Santo which is sighted upon entering Philippine waters from vessels coming from
New Spain, on an island called Tendaya86 is situated thirteen degrees latitude, and twenty leagues further along the
coast from said Cape of Espiritu Santo. To the South is the island of Piri and other ones, which become visible when
a channel can be entered leading to Cebu Island called San Juanillo, made by these islands, which is neither
satisfactory nor clear for ocean- going vessels. However, on the Northern side after leaving the said channel, the
Island of Capul is reached, causing a strait and channel with strong currents and waves, halfway of which stands an
island called San Bernardino where the vessels pass. Said strait is formed by the coast of the Island of Luzon and that
of Capul. The channel must be a league long, and less than one league wide.
Having entered this channel, and as one leaves the same, there are three small islets in triable called
Naranjos (orange) Islands, which are high with steep rocks, against which vessels may be dashed owing to the
strong currents there; and great inhabited, but the others,87 are large ones, having several large native settlements
which are provided with all kinds of food supplies.
To the southern part of these, lie the Visayan Islands called the lands of the tattooed people, which are
many and well-populated and are named Leyte, Ibabao,88 Samar, Bohol, Island of Negros, Cebu, Panay, Cuyo, and
the Calamianes. All the natives who inhabit them, both men and women, are good-looking and of good disposition.
Living in better conditions and having noble manners than those in the island of Luzon and surrounding ones.
They differ in the way they wear their hair, as the men wear a queue as was the old custom in Spain, and their
bodies are tattooed with many designs, with the exception of the face.89 They wear large earrings of gold and ivory,
also bracelets of the same material on their arms,a kerchief around their head making a hollow in the manner of a
turban, interwoven with golden strips with graceful knots, vaquero shirts, with tight sleeves without collar, falling
down to the middle of the thighs, closed in front and made of colored hemp or silk fabric. They don’t use undershirts or drawers but long gee-strings with many folds, with which they cover the middle parts when they remove
their garments. The women are good-looking, neat and they walk gracefully. They have long black hair wound
around the head, wear multi-colored blankets or sheets around the waist falling down their legs, and dresses of the
same material, without any collar. The men and women
86 Samar. This is a proof against Colin who places Tendaya in Leite.
87 Capul, Viri, and others.
88 Southeast of Samar.
89 The paintings are very elegant and very proportional…if they would bring them to Europe they would earn much money by exhibiting them.” (Chirino,
chap. VII). Colin says, however, that they painted their chins and eyebrows. Concerning the manner how they did it, Colin gives more details: “The
painting was done (after the artisans had made the drawing according to the proportion of the parts of the body and to the sex) with some kind of
abrush or a bundle of thin cane nibs with which they pricked and marked the body until blood came out. On this they sprinkled a powder or soot made of
pitch of black color that would never be erased. They did not paint the whole body at once but part by part and formerly they did not begin to paint until after
they have done some deed of valor. Children were not painted but the women painted one whole armand part of the other. Men painted their bodies on this
island of Manila also in the Ilocos, but not as much as in the Bisayas. (Colin, book I, chap. XIV) In the Philippines the Negritos, Igorots, and other
independent tribes are now tattooed. The Christians have forgotten the practice. As we have noted in another part, this tattooing has much resemblance to
what the Japanese practice today. Nevertheless, it seems that the Filipinos did not use any other color but black, while the Japanese used various colors, like
blue and red, bringing the art to a rare perfection. On other Pacific Islands, women tattoo themselves almost as much as men do, which differentiate them
from Japanese women and Filipino women of old. Consult the interesting work of Dr. Wilhelm Joest about tattooing: Taetowiren Narbenzaichnen und
Koerperbemahlen, Berlin, 1887, in which he discusses the subject succinctly.
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go out without any outer garments and barefooted,90
earrings and bracelets.
but well-adorned with gold-chains and engraved
Their weapons consist of long knives and short and curved ones with single-edged ones, spears, and
cuirasses. They use vessels and sea-craft similar to those used by the natives of Luzon, and are engaged in the
same occupations and raise the same fruits and have the same industries as in all the other islands. These Visayans
are less inclined to tilling of the soil and are proficient seamen and fond of the spoils and prizes of war and aggressive
expeditions which they call Mangubat91 or warlike enterprises, which are equivalent to going out to pillage.
In the Island of Cebu, and near the principal settlement, there is a fine port for all kinds of vessels, having
a good entrance-channel protected from all adverse weather conditions, with good anchorage and landing
facilities, aside from the other ports and sand-bars for lesser craft, and smaller in importance and reputation,
existing in all the other islands.
This island of Cebu is one over one hundred leagues in circumference and has abundant provisions, having
mines and gold placers, and is inhabited by natives.
Opposite the same, there are very good, well-populated islands, especially the Island of Panay which is
large and has a circumference over one hundred leagues, having many native settlements,92 and is abundant in
rice and wine-producing palm-trees and all kinds of food supplies. Its settlements along the Panay river are
good and rich, the most important one being Oton, having a port and sand-bar for galleys and vessels, shipyards
for building ocean-going vessels and a good supply of timber for construction purposes.
There are many natives who are proficient in building ocean-going vessels, and close to this island there
is an islet eight leagues in circumference, which is well settled by natives who are all carpenters and good artisans
who are not engaged in any trade other than said occupation. Although there is not a single tree of any consequence in
their island, they profess this trade with great dedication, and they furnish the rest of the islands with artisans in this
line, that is, carpentry. They call it the island of the Cagayans.93
Next to the Island of Cebu to the South, is Mindanao Island, which has a circumference of over three
hundred leagues, then follows Jolo or Sulu which is small. To the South of this is Borneo, which is a very
large island having a circumference of over five hundred leagues, all of which islands are very well-populated,
although this island of Borneo has not yet been pacified and neither is Mindanao entirely so, except only the
settlements along the Butuan River, Dapitan and the province and coast of Caraga.
To the South of this Island, and before getting to Borneo are the Calamines Islands numbering
several large and small, being well-populated ones with some food provisions, its people being engaged in
several lines of industry, but mostly in navigation, trading and communication between the islands also and
particularly in fishing. Those who live nearer Borneo, engage in corsair pursuits and in pillaging the natives of other
islands.
Their weapons consist of long knives and short and curved ones with single-edged ones, spears and
cuirasses. They use vessels and similar to those by the natives of Luzon and are engaged in the same
occupations and raise the same fruits and have the same industries as in all the other islands. These Visayans are
less inclined to tilling of the soil and are proficient
90 This is incomprehensible after all that has been said and what Chirino tells us: “Not even for that do they go about naked…and in all places they are
circumspect and careful in covering their naked…and in extreme modesty and bashfulness.” (Chap. VII) It seems that what Morga wants to say here is
that they wore nothing over their ordinary dress when they went out in contrast to the Tagalogs, men and women, who always put on a kindof cloak for
outside the house.
91 Gubat in Tagalog is forest or field; mangubat means togo hunting in the forest and even to fight.
92 When the Spaniards arrived at this island (Panay), it was said there were on it more than 50,000 families, but they diminished greatly…and at present
they are about 14,000 taxpayers, 6,000 of the Crown and 8,000 of private encomenderos.” (Gaspar de San Agustin,p.259).They had manygold minesand in
Panay Rivertheygotgold bywashing the sand;“but driven by thevexations they received from some provincial governors”, the same historian says, “they
have abandoned the work, preferring to live in poverty to suffering such hardships.”
93 Comparing all this with the present state of things, one need to console himself with the number of employees and friars that swarm all over the
Islands in order not to regret too much the backwardness intowhich we have fallen.
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seamen and fond of the spoils and prizes of war and aggressive expeditions which they call Man94gubat' or
warlike enterprises, which are equivalent to going out to pillage.
In the Island of Cebu, and near the principal settlement, there is a fine port for all kinds of vessels, having
a good entrance-channel protected from all adverse weather conditions, with good anchorage and landing
facilities, aside from the other ports and sand-bars for lesser craft, and smaller in importance and reputation,
existing in all the other islands.
This island of Cebu is one over one hundred leagues in circumference and has abundant provisions, having
mines and gold placers, and is inhabited by natives.
Opposite the same. there are very good, well-populated islands, especially the Island of Panay which is
large and has a circumference over one hundred leagues, having many native settlements95 , i and is abundant
in rice and wine-producing palm-trees and all kinds of food supplies. Its settlements along the Panay river are
good and rich, the most important one being Oton, having a port and sand-bar for galleys and vessels, shipyards
for building ocean-going vessels and a good supply of timber for construction purposes.
There are many natives who are proficient in building ocean-going vessels, and close to this island there is an
islet eight leagues in circumference, which is well settled by natives who are all carpenters and good artisans who
are not engaged in any trade other than said occupation. Although there is not a single tree of any consequence in
their island, they profess this trade with great dedication, and they furnish the rest of the islands with artisans in this
line, that is, carpentry. They call it the island of the Cagayans96 .
Next to the Island of Cebu to the South, is Mindanao Island, which has a circumference of over three
hundred leagues, then follows Jolo or Sulu which is small. To the South of this is Borneo, which is a very
large island having a circumference of over five hundred leagues, all of which islands are very well-populated,
although this island of Borneo has not yet been pacified and neither is Mindanao entirely so, except only the
settlements along the Butuan River, Dapitan and the province and coast of Caraga.
To the South of this Island, and before getting to Borneo are the Calamines Islands numbering several
large and small, being well-populated ones with some food provisions, its people being engaged in several
lines of industry, but mostly in navigation, trading and communication between the islands also and particularly
in fishing. Those who live nearer Borneo, engage in corsair pursuits and in pillaging the natives of other islands.
The ebb and flow, low and high tide of the seas in these islands are irregular, in view of the strong currents
running between the islands and of the secret workings of the influence of the moon for which no satisfactory
explanation can be found, because even according to the effect of the lunar influence of the month of March, the
tides flow higher than other times of the year, yet there is a great variety of daily tides causing surprise and
confusion. Some davs there are two tides, in the day and night-time. while on other days there is only one tide, while
still at other times, the increase of the tide is slight in the daytime while that of the night is considerable whereas
ordinarily there is no fixed time for the changing tides. One day it is high at noon-time, while on the next day it
happens earlier or later by several hours; or one day the increase is small and the next daywhen it is not so expected,
it becomes considerable.
The languages spoken in Luzon and adjoining islands is very different from that spoken in the Visayans97 .
In Luzon island there is no uniform language; the Cagayans have their own dialect, the Ilocanos have their
own, The Zambeleños too have theirs, and the Pampangos have
94 Gubat in Tagalog is forest or field; mangubat means togo hunting in the forest and even to fight.
95 When the Spaniards arrived at this island (Panay), it was said there were on it more than 50,000 families, but the diminished greatly… and at present
they are about 14,000 taxpayers, 6,000 of the Crown and 8,000 of private encomenderos.” (Gaspar de San Agustin,p. 259). They had many gold mines and in
Panay River they got gold bywashing the sand; “but driven by the vexation they received from some provincial governors”, the same historian says, “they
have abandoned the work, preferring to live in poverty to suffering such hardships.”
96 Comparing all this with the present state of things, one need to console himself with the number of employees and friars that swarm all over the
Islands in order not to regret too much the backwardness into which we have fallen.
97 It is not greater than the difference that there is between Spanish and Portuguese or Italian.
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a dialect all their own, different from the others. The people of Manila province called Tagalogs have a rich and
abundant language whereby all that one desires to say can be expressed in varied ways and with elegance, and it is not
difficult to learn and to speak the same.
Throughout the Islands, writing is well developed98 through certain characters or signs resembling the
Greek or Arabic, numbering fifteen signs in all, three of which are vowels which serve in lieu of our five vowels.
The consonants are twelve. With these and certain points or signs and commas, everything one desires to say can be
expressed and spoken fully and easily, just like with our own Spanish alphabet99 .
Writing was done on bamboo pieces or on paper, the line beginning from the right to the left as in the Arabis
writing.100 Almost all the natives, both men and women, know how to write in
this dialect, and there are few who do not write it well and properly.
This language of the province of Manila is understood as far down as the entire province of Camarines and
other islands adjoining Luzon, where they do not differ very much from each other, except that in some provinces the
language is spoken with greater purity than in others.
The buildings and houses of the natives in all these Philippines Islands as well as their settlements are of
the same design, because they build them on the shores of the sea besides the rivers and streams or canals, the
natives generally living near each other by forming barrios or villages and towns where they plant rice and raise
their palm-trees, nipa plantations, orchards of bananas and other fruit-bearing trees, and where they establish their
implements and devise for trapping fishes, also their navigating craft. The minority of the natives live inland, such
as the Tinguians who also seek homesites near rivers and streams, where they settle in similar fashion.
All the houses of the natives are generally built on poles or posts high from the ground, with narrow rooms and
low ceiling made of interwoven strips of wood and/or bamboo and covered with palm-leaf (nipa) roofing, each house
standing by itself and not joined to any other. On the ground below, they are fenced by rods and pieces of bamboo
where they raise their chickens and animals and where they pound and clean their rice. One goes up the house
through stairs made of two bamboo trunks which can be pulled up. On the upper part of the house they have
their open batalan or back piazza where the washing and bathing are performed. The parents and the
98 The same thing can’t be said today. The government in print and in words tries to educate the Filipinos, but in deed and at bottom, it foments
ignorance, placing education in the hands of the friars who are accused by Spaniards, Filipinos, and foreigners of wanting the brutalization of the country
and they themselves prove it with their behavior and writings.
99 This assertion and the Tagalog spirit,a lover of simplicity and clarity, contradict the error later adduced by other writers with respect to the
imperfect writing and the consequent difficult reading of those characters. We are far from believing that alphabet offers the simplicity and clarity of the
Latin, but neither can we accept the belief of other authors who, without knowing thoroughly that writing, claim to find it very imperfect for the difficulty
of pronouncing the quiescent consonants. Perhaps the “commas” mentioned served for this purpose, the dots being the signs of the vowels just as we
see in a manuscript reproduced by Mas the sign to represent the silent m, n, t, etc. On this subject many have written, like Chirino, Colin, Gasparde San
Agustin, J. de San Antonio, Chamisso, Mas, and others and in later epochs and with greater thoroughness, Jacquet (Journal Asiatique) and the
Filipino Doctor T. H. Pardo de Tavera whose interesting pamphlet Contribución para el studio de los antiguos alfabetos filipinos (Lausanne, 1884) is
almost a resumé and a critical appraisal of all the former writers besides an inquiry into its origin and relationship to other alphabets in India.
Alfred Marche (Lusonet Palaouan) gives however newer and more recent data taken from the Tagbanua tribe (Paragua) who still use this alphabet and
these data modify greatly the knowledge of this subject until recently in vogue.
100 With respect to the direction of the writing of the Filipinos there are some very contradictory opinions. it must be noted that the writers who have
taken up the subject in these recent times, except Marche, believe it to be horizontal. Jambuolo, however, who seems to have seen this writing centuries
before Christ, agrees with Chirino who says: “They wrote from the top to the bottom (x r w o e r x n t w)” Colin, Ezguerra, and Marche believe in the
opposite direction, from the bottom to the top. The horizontal direction was adopted after the coming of the Spaniards as Colin attests, the direction that
Pardo de Tavera supposes and which Mas believes to be the only one by the piece of manuscript he reproduces, subsequent to the coming of Legazpi
which could induce him to err like the others and also our Morga.
What can be deduced it seems is that they wrote in two ways, vertical and horizontal; Vertical in the first epoch when they wrote on canes and palm
leaves because in that way the writing was much easier, and horizontal when the use of paper becomes general. As to the rest, the form of the
characters lends itself to these different directions.
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children room together, and their house called bahandin101 has scant decorations and items of comfort.
Aside from the above-described houses which belong to the ordinary people of less importance, there
are those of the prominent people which are built on tree-trunks and thick posts containing many rooms both
sleeping and living ones, using well-elaborated, strong and large boards and trunks and containing many pieces of
furniture and items of luxury and comfort and having much better appearance than those of the average people.
However, they are covered by roofs of the same palm-leaves called nipa, which give much protection from the rains
and the heat of the sun, and are much better than the ones with tiles and shingles even if they involve greater danger
of fire.
The lower part of the houses of the natives is not used for lodging, because they use it for raising their fowl
and animals, in view of the wetness and/or heat of the ground, and likewise owing to the numerous large and
small rats which are destructive to the houses and country- fields. Besides, the houses are ordinarily built close
to the shore of the sea and the rivers and canals, so that the grounds of the houses are penetrated by the waters and
are thus left open to the same.
Throughout these islands, there were neither kings nor lords to rule them in the same manner as in kingdoms and
provinces102 elsewhere. Instead, in every island and province many principals were known among the natives, some
being more important and outstanding than others, each having his own followers and henchmen, forming barrios
and families who obeyed and respected them. Those principal men used to have friendship and relationship
with each other, and sometimes even wars and differences103 with each other.
These principaliag or high social stations, were inherited by succession from father to sons and heirs, and in
their default, to brethren andolateral kinsmen. Their duty was to govern and rule their subjects and henchmen, and to
attend to their problems and needs; and in exchange for this, they received the peoples’ respect and esteem,
together with their support and help in their wars, expeditions, general work in farming, fishing, building houses and
structures whenever they should be called upon to perform the same by their principals, upon which they would
respond with punctuality. They also paid their tribute with the fruits of their toil which they called buis, some paying
more than others. Furthermore, the descendants of these principales or nobles and their kinsmen were esteémed
and respected, even if they had not inherited their distinction, and the former were considered and treated as
noblemen, and as exempt from rendering service which was demanded from Timaguas104 or plebians. The
privileges of a principalship were also enjoyed by the women of noble birth on a par with the men.105 When any of
these principal men became more outstanding than the others in war and in other matters, he thereby acquired
(illegaba106) more privileges and a greater following of henchmen, and he governed other people even
101 In Tagalog, house is called bahay; pamamahay, what is inside together with the house, the home. It is very possible that bahandin has been
printed for bahayin, an obsolete derivative.
“In all these islands there were no kings or lords who ruled them like in other kingdoms and provinces…” (1) (p-293)
102 They were right because, “…in view of the lack of rapid communications, if the government of all the islands resided in only one hand one sole will,
and for everything people had to go and consult in one place, the life in the towns would be greatly paralyzed. In our times while Manila is consulted
about the repair of a bridge, months and years pass and when the decree comes, it turns out that nothing more remains of the bridge, not even the
buttresses. And what is true of the bridge, not even the buttresses. And what is true of the bridge is true of other things. Moreover, considering the
circumstances then, if the fate of these islands depended upon one person •alone, many fates and many lives would be exposed; many fortunes would
depend on the will of one man alone, who maybe ignorant, brutal, ambitious, avaricious, and who does not know or love the subjects he governs.
“…some chiefs having friendship and relation with others and sometimes wars and disagreements.” (2) (p-293)
103 It can be deduced from this that friendly relations were more common than wars.
104 Timawa
105 “In this regard the Filipinos acted very much in conformity with natural laws, being ahead of the Europeans, whose women lose their nobilitywhen
they marry plebians and among descent is along the male line which offers the least guarantee. This proves besides the high consideration that the woman
in these Islands had enjoyed since antiquity.”
106 Perhaps the wordyllegaba in the Spanish original should bellevaba or allegaba.
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principals107 themselves, while retaining for himself his own authority over his particular Barangai108
or clan with datus and other particular leaders who attended directly to the needs of the Barangai.
The authority which these principal men or leaders that they considered its components as their subjects, to
treat well or mistreat, disposing of their persons, children and possessions at their will and pleasure without any
opposition from the latter, nor duty on their part to account for the principals’ action. Upon their committing any
slight offense or fault, these henchmen were either punished, made slaves109 or killed. It has happened that for
having walked in front of lady principals while these were having their ablutions in the river110 ; for having
looked at them with scant respect; or for other similar reasons, these henchmen have been made permanent
slaves.111
Whenever any native had any controversies of differences with others on pecuniary matters, on property
regarding insults and physical injuries to their persons there were appointed elders among the same clan or group,
who heard them in the presence of the parties, and their witnesses whenever evidence was necessary, and then decided
the matter on their findings, thus following the same procedure used by their forefathers in similar cases. Thus, their
decision was respected and executed without any further processor delay. 112
107 They formed a kind of confederation, like the states of the Middle Ages, with their barons, counts, dukes who elected the bravest to lead them or
they accepted the authority of the most important of them.
108 “From the Tagalog balangay, name of a vessel onwhich it is supposed the Indios who now inhabit the Philippines came.
109 These slaves were not always in such dismal condition. Argensola says that theyate with their master at the same table and afterward they married
members of the family. But, tyrants and brutal men who abused their authority were not lacking, though they could not have surpassed the
encomenderos, for history mentions rebellions and assassinations of encomenderos by their tenants while it does not record a single native leader for
reasons of revenge.
110 Between this and that Roman noblewoman who did not brush undressing in the bath in the presence of a slave, there is in truth avast distance. The
Roman noblewoman acted thus because of her great contempt of her modesty and high regard of her person.
111 After the conquest the evil became worse. The Spaniards made them slaves without these pretexts and even if the Indios. were not under their
jurisdiction. Besides, they sold them, taking them from their towns and islands. Hernando de Ríos, speaking of naval constructions in the time of Mr.
Juande Silva, wrote to the king: “The masts of a galleon, according to the governor of the province of La Laguna de Bay where they were cut, took 6,000
Indios to drag them 7 leagues across very mountainous region 3 month and they were paid by the towns each monthly 40 reales (vellon)* without food.
I don't mention the bad and inhuman treatment that they received and many of them who died in the mountains... Neither do I tell Your Majesty about the
Indios who hang themselves, who left their wives and children, and harassed, fled to the mountains, those who were sold as slaves to pay for the imposts
that were assessed to them, the scandal of the Gospel, and the irreparable damage caused by the shipbuilding, and what inhuman treatment the wretched
Indios received and not only what was necessary was done to them but what the inordinate avarice of the officials took away from them behind their back…”
(p. 25). The letter of Philip Il to Bishop Domingo Salazar was full of this, but neither this nor the efforts of the friars who realized the danger to their
missionary work of the repugnance that the natives were beginning to feel towards Christianization remedied the evil. Philip Il, recriminating the bishop,
said that the Indios had diminished by more than one third, that they were compelled to pay three times more than the rates fixed, and that they were
treated worse than slaves. and many of them were sold as such by one encomendero to another, and some died of beating, and women who died and
broke down because of heavy loads, of others and their sons who are made to work on the farms and sleep in the fields and there give birth and nurse
their babies and die bitten by poisonous snakes, and many hang themselves. they starve, and others take poisonous herbs. And there are mothers who
kill their children afterbirth…” (Gasparde San Agustin.)
112 “This is very simple and crude but it was more speedy, and the judges were persons of the locality, forming a jury, elected by both parties who
knew the case the customs and usages better than the gowned judge who comes from outside to make his. fortune, tojudge a case he does not know and
who does not know the usages, customs and language of the locality. Proofs of the backwardness into which we have fallen are the multitude of laws,
contradictory royal orders and deerees; the discontent of both parties who, in order to seek justice, now have many time have to resort to the Supreme
Court of Spain (ifthey can and can .afford a 36-daytrip)where tbejudges are more honest and incorruptible, if not better informed •about the country; the that
last an eternity, handed down from fathers to son. and grandsons, the enormous expenses that the aggrieved party has to defray so that he may get justice,
etc., etc.
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Their laws throughout the Islands were along similar lines following the tradition and
customs of their ancients in accordance with the unwritten statutes.113 In some provinces, there were different
customs in certain things, although generally speaking, they had uniform usages and procedure throughout the
Islands.114
There were three social stations among the natives of these Islands constituting the commonwealth, to
wit: Principal people, according to what has already been stated; timawas which is equivalent to plebeians; and
slaves both of the principals and of the Timaguas.115
These slaves were of various kinds. Some were for all purposes and servitude just as we have them and
these were called Saguiguilires116 who served inside the apartments whose children also served in the same
manner. Others had their own houses for their family apart from the house of their master and who would come to the
house from time to time to help in the tilling of the land and in harvesting, also to serve as crewmembers when
their masters made sea- voyages; those who helped in building the master's house and to serve frequently as
helpers in the same when there are guests, and to serve there whenever the master requires them to do so, also
without any compensation, and the latter are known as Namamahayes117 slaves whose children and
descendants are also slaves to serve in the same capacity. These saguiguilires and namamahay slaves are fulltime,
half-time and part-time or one fourth-part slaves. And it happens that if one of the parents of a child was free and
the child was the only one, then he was a half- time slave, being only one-half free. If they had more than one
child, they were distributed as follows: the first child followed the station of the father being either bond or free, the
second child followed the status of the mother, and if there is an uneven-numbered child, the latter was half- slave
and half-free. The children of these mixed parents, i.e., bond and free, became only one- fourth part slaves, for
being such children of a free father or mother and of a half-slave.
These half or fourth-part slaves, whether saguiguilid or namamahay ones, serve their masters
alternately, that is, for one moon, and are free the next moon, and so on, according to the rules of slavery.118
113 Which in noway affected the peace of the people because many times a custom has more force than a written or printed law, especially when
the written laws area dead letter to those who knowhow to evade them or who abuse of their high position. The force of law is not that it is written on a
piece of paper but if it is engraved in the memory of those for whom it is made, if they know it since their tender age, if it is in harmony with their
customs and above all if it has stability. The Indio, since childhood learned by heart the traditions of his people, live and was nourished in the atmosphere
of his customs and however imperfect those laws might be, he at least knew them, and not as it happens today that wise laws are written, but the
people neither know nor understand them, and many times they are changed or become extinct at the whim of persons entirely alien to them. It is the ease
of the sling of David and the arms of Saul.
114 This agreement of the laws at bottom and this general uniformity prove that the relations of the islands among themselves were very strong and
the bonds of friendship were more common than wars and differences. Perhaps a confederation existed, for we know through the first Spaniards that the
ruler of Manila was a generalissimo of the Sultan of Borneo. Moreover there exist other documents of the XII century that attest this.
115 This is the eternal division that is found and will be found everywhere, in all kingdoms and republics: the ruling class, productive class, and
servant class; head, body, and feet.
116 We can't find the etymology of this word which in its Tagalog form ought to be Sagiggilid. The root gilid means in Tagalog “edge”, "bank" "shore".
The reduplication of the first syllable, if it is tonic, means active action in the future, and if it is not, and to the root is added the suffix an, it denotes the
place where the action of the verb is often executed: the preposition sa indicates place, time, reference. The unaccented reduplication can mean also
pluralityand inthis casethe name in singularwould be sagilid, that is, “on the border”, the last, this is the slave.
Timawa means now in Tagalog “in peace,” “in repose” “peaceful” “free”. etc. Maginoo from the root ginoo, dignity, is now the title of the chiefs and their
group is called kaginoohan. Colin says, however, that the chiefs used the title Gator Lakan (Gat Pulintang, Gat Maitan, Lakan Dula, etc. and the women
Dayang (Dayang Mati). The title of mamá that today is used for men corresponds to “uncle”, “sir”, “monsieur”, “mister”, etc. and ale is its feminine
counterpart.
117 Namamahay from bahay (house), one who lives in his own house. This kind of slaves, if they can be called slaves, still exist and are called kasamá
(for being now the partners or laborers of a capitalist or farmer.) Bataan means servant, kampon, tao, etc.
118 This proves the high spirit of strict justice that prevailed in Filipino-Malayan communities. The principle of the law was mathematically
observed, and it was applied rigorously and impartially
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The same thing happens with regard to partitions among the heirs: a slave may serve many masters, each
one on his own time. When a slave is not entirely so but only half or one-fourth part slave, he is entitled in view
of his part-free status, to compel his master to compensate him at ajust rate,119 for his used part-time freedom from
service, which price is based on the persons according to the standing of the saguiguilid or namamahay slave
whether half or four-part slave. However, in the case of a regular full-time slave, the master cannot be compelled to
exempt him or compensate him at any price.
Among the natives the ordinary price for a saguiguilid slave is usually not over ten taels of good gold worth
eighty pesos120 each, and only half of this amount if he is a namamahay slave and the rest at a proportionate
price according to the person, and his age.
There is no definite origin or source of this system of slave among the natives, because they all belong to these
Islands and are not foreigners. It is believed that this matter started with the controversies and wars between
themselves, and it seems certain that those who could do so, took this opportunity for whatever slight differences
or reasons there might be, and reduced the vanquished to slavery. Likewise, slavery also resulted from debt and
usurious loan-contracts between the natives, the amount of which increased with time owing to failure to settle them
and to misfortune, the debtors then becoming slaves. Thus, all this system of slavery can be traced to unsavory and
unjust causes, among them the suits between the natives, which have engaged the attention of the Courts of Justice
and confessor and the human conscience.121
These slaves constitute the greatest possessions and wealth of the natives of these Islands, for the reason that
they are very useful and necessary to them in their work and activities. They are sold, traded and made the object of
contracts, like any other commodity, among themselves, in the common markets of the towns, provinces and of
the Islands. Thus, in order to avoid innumerable lawsuits that would ensue if these cases of slavery would be
brought to Court, and their origin ang beginning inquired into, the system and the slaves are now preserved in the
same condition in which they existed heretofore.122
119 Because the free half had the rights of a freeman. It proves also that the laws were not tyrannical despite their being rigorous, the custom of asking
charge of the rights of the free half, rather than the degradation of the slave half.
120 Dasmariñas, however, compelled the encomenderos not to pay more than two tatls gold for slave bought by force. (See note 2, page 29.) Some
became slaves on account of unpaid loans and usurious rates of interest.
121 This kind of slaves still exists in many places and especially in the Province of Batangas, but it must be admitted that their condition is very
different from that of the slave in ancient Greece and Rome, from that of the Negro, and even from that of those who were made slaves by the Spaniards.
Thank. to their social condition and to their number at that time, Spanish rule encountered little resistance and the Filipino chiefs easily lost their
independence and liberty. The people. accustomed to bondage. would not defend them against the invader nor would they fight for the people it wasjust a
change of matters. The nobles. accustomed to tyrannize byforce. had to accept foreign tyranny when they found it to be stronger than theirs, and not finding
either love or lofty sentiments among the enslaved masses, found themselves without arms and without strength. Between a people with a tyrannical
aristocracy and another with an unbridled democracy the people are balanced equally. Both easily fall under the rule of the first foreign invader, the first
for weakness and the second for anarchy. Many of the colonies that are repressed due to the systematic brutalization of the inhabitants by one social class,
caste, or race that surrounds itself with tinsel and which in order to maintain itself has to defend absurdities with a false principleto be logical, end up
without doubt like the tyrannized peoples. like Persia, India, etc., succumbing before the first foreigner. The Philippines, despite So many centuries of
Christianization, despite the efforts of a few noble spirits, religious as well as civil. still continue, and it is desired that they continue, almost in the same
state as before, because those who lead them consider more the present than the future and because they are guided more by fear than confidence. The
efforts of the religious corporations to improve this condition were never so efficacious or so powerful as could be expected from them. Witnesses are the
doubts of Fr. Alonso de Castro,a missionary of those times:
“If some stolen Indios, or Indio, made slaves by the Spaniards are in your possession and given to the convents by way of donation or sale... to what
are they bound if they were free on their own lands or other people’s slaves and if it would be lawful to give them freedom in case they become
Christians so that they can return to their lands.” Fr. Juan Quinones also had scruples “about the excessive tributes or assessment of taxes of the
encomenderos and the ease with which Spaniards make slaves of the infidels… but the Father Provincial Manrique ordered him not to touch in the
confessional such points.” (Gasparde San Agustin, p. 355)
122 Sothat Catholicism not only did not free the poor classfrom the tyranny ofthe oppressor butwith its coming tothe Philippines it increased te number
of tyrants. Time alone and education that brings with it more gentle customs, will end up by redeeming the
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Marriages among the natives are generally between the principals and their fellow principals or nobles.
Likewise timawas marry among those of their own station, and the regular slaves also marry their fellow. slaves, but
sometimes they intermarry among different castes.123 The natives have one wife each with whom a man may wed
and she is called the Inasawa,124 but behind her are other women as friends. The children of the first wife were
held to be the legitimate ones and full heirs of their parents, but the children of the other women were not so
considered, but some provision125 was usually made for them, but they never inherited.
The groom was the one who contributed a dowry, given by his parents, while the bride did not bring
anything126 to the marriage community until she inherited in her own right from her
parents.127 The solemnization of marriage consisted in the mutual agreement between the
parents and kinsmen of the contracting parties, the paying of the concerted dowry to the father of the bride,128
and in the gathering of all the relatives in the house of the bride’s parents for the purpose of celebrating with eating
and drinking the whole day until sunset. At night, the groom
carried the bride to his home where she remained in his care and protection. The spouses could separate and
dissolve their marriage ties owing to trivial causes and upon proper hearing had
before the relatives of both parties and some elders who participate therein,129 and who parians of the Philippines, for
we see that against their oppressor, the priests of peace do not feel courageous enough to fight, and that is in times of great faith, but
rather they contribute indirectly to their misfortune, as we see in preceding lines.
123 This proves that the relations of these classes among themselves are not only far from resembling those of the masters of the West and their
servants but that theywere even more cordial than those ofthe patricians and the Roman people among whom at the beginning itwasforbiddento establish
family ties throughweddings. If the chiefs and timawa Filipinos had been so tyrannical towards their inferior as they are depicted to us, there would not
have been such unions. Hatred and contempt would have separated the classes.
124 Inasawa more correctly asawa (consort)
125 Another proof of the benignity and foresight of the laws.
126 She brings nothing.
127 This custom continued the union between the parents and the children, a wiser practice than that which is followed in many parts of Europe where
cases are found of children neglecting their parents once they have taken possession of their patrimony, or of parents who do not consent to the marriage
of their children in order not to part with their property. In Europe can be seen sons who are richer and in more comfortable circumstances than their
parents, who let pass months and years without seeing them. There are parents who prefer their sons to be conscripted than to be married, which does
not happen in the Philippines, not even now, because this custom survives. We say that this custom continues the union and not affection, because this is
a sentiment that is always taken for granted, this affection in many people bordering on veneration. While the father or mother lives, the home continues,
eventhough all the children are married and live apart Dowry in the Philippines. Naturally the woman did not and does not carry a dowry. The character
of the Filipino woman, to be a help rather than a burden to the husband, reject this custom, necessaryto the Europeanwoman because if she is not a
burden, ingeneralshe increasesthe husband’s budget. Inthe Philippines the woman does notfishfor a husband, but she chooses a husband; the husband does
nottake a heavy burden orthe matrimonial yoke, but a companion to help him and to introduce economy in the irregular life of bachelor.
128 “This dowry, if it can be called thus, for the parents of the bride for the care and education of their daughter. The Filipino woman, never being a
burden on anyone, neither on her parents noron her husband but all on the contrary, represents a value for whose loss the possessor must be
compensated. And this is so true that even in our times parents consent with great difficulty to part from heir daughters. It is almost never in the Philippine
the sad spectacle that many European families present who seem to be in a hurry to get rid of their marriageable daughters, not infrequently the mothers
playing a ridiculous role. As it will be seen, neither is there a sale or purchase in this custom. The Tagalog wife is free and respected, she manages and
contracts, almost always with the husband’s approval, who consults her all his acts. She is the keeper of the money, she educates the children, half of
whom belong to her. She is not a Chinese woman or a Muslim slave who is bought, sometimes from the parents, sometimes at the bazaar, in order to look
her up for the pleasure of the husband or master. She is not the European woman who marries, purchases the husband’s liberty with her dowry, and
loses her name, rights, liberty. initiative, her true dominion being limited to reign over the salon,to entertain guests, and to sit at the right of her husband.
129 In which matter they were more advanced than the modern French and English with their divorce laws. The relatives ofboth parties and the elders
from a jury for family disputes, more sacred than all the doctors and judges however wise they might be, over the business affairs of their relatives and
the convenience or inconvenience of the marriages. Without wishing to touch here the question of the indissolubility of marriage, we believe that when the
spouses make their relatives and the eldersjudges of their dispute and these decide that divorce is desirable, despite the fact that they have to return the
dowry, the motives could not be trifling. Other historians. among them Fr. Aduarte, say however that when they came to have children. they never
separated any more out of love for them, a thing that certainly does prevent divorce in Europe.
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rendered judgment, upon which the dowry received was returned to the husband, and it was
called
130
vigadicaya
as a voluntary offering, except in cases where the separation was caused by said husband’s fault,
when it was retained for the parents of the wife to keep.
Their property which had been acquired in common by both spouses, was divided between them in equal
shares, and each disposed of his part as best he or she desired. If any of the spouses had any gain or income
unknown to and not participated in by the other spouse, it became the property of the said spouse, to own by
himself or herself.
People could adopt any person in the presence of the relatives; and the adopted child or person would then
deliver whatever he or she possessed, as a present to the adopting party, upon which the adopted person remained
in his house and under his protection, thereby acquiring the right to inherit together with the children of the foster
parents.131
Adultery was not punished physically but instead, the guilty spouse would pay to the aggrieved spouse
such indemnity as the elders adjudged to be right, and which said parties agreed among themselves. The
grievance was thus forgiven and the husband acknowledged to be satisfied, and he retained his honor and resumed
his married life with his wife, and no mention would hereafter be made of the matter.132
In the matter of inheritance, all legitimate children inherited equally all the property which the parents had
acquired. However, if there was any personal or real property left by the parents, in the absence of legitimate
children and by the asawa, they were inherited by the nearest relatives from the collateral branches of the main
family-tree. This was effected either by will or testament or, in its absence, by custom. No solemnity was required in
the making of a will aside from simply leaving it in written form, or by stating the wish verbally in the presence of
well-known persons.133
If any principal or nobleman was a chief of a barangai or clan, he was succeeded in the office or dignity, by his
eldest son had by his asawa or married wife, and in his default, by the second son had by her. In the absence of
male children, by his daughters in the same order. In the absence of legitimate children, the succession reverted
to the nearest of kin belonging to the same lineage and family of the principal who last possessed it.134
In the event that any native having female slaves, should have had intercourse with any of them and come to
have children as a result thereof, her child as well as herself became free thereby,135 but if she failed to have
any, she remained a slave.
The children of slave-mothers and those had by another man's wife, were considered children of ill-repute, and
they did not succeed like the legitimate heirs to the estate, neither were their parents bound to bequeath any
property to them; and even if they were children of dignity or
130 Bigay-kaya means to give what one can, a voluntary offering, gift ofgoodwill. This confirms further that in the case of marriage there was no sale, unlike
in the already known “alms” for scapulars, rosaries, belt, etc. in which one does not give what one can but what is demanded, with fixed price that can be
altered notwithstanding, by increasing it. This Bigay-kaya, according to Colin, was returned intact to the spouses if the son-in-law was obedient to his
parents-in-law and if not, it was divided among all the heirs. “Besides the dowry members of the principal class used to give some gifts to the parents
and relatives and even to the slaves according to the rank of the newly married.” (Colin,book I, chap. XVI)
131 This sacred custom still exists, thanks to Providence, though little by little it is disappearing.
132 This custom which the Filipinos have lost as a result of their contact with other people is being adopted now by many sensible nations of Europe,
among them the English. It seems more rational and morejust than to challenge the adulterer and often expose the husband ascocuet batu (cuckold and
beaten). Other consideration aside.
133 And there was no need for more. The memory of the parents, so sacred and revered, the belief that the spirits of ancestors came to live among
their descendants, punishing them or protecting them according to their later behavior, prevented anyviolation of the wills or disobedience on the part of the
heirs. Only since the missionaries convinced the Indios that their ancestors remained toasted and buried in Purgatory or Hell did they have a need for
notaries, stamped paper. and to engage in lawsuits and intrigues forever and ever.
134 The same law of succession is now followed by the royal families of Spain, England, Austria, etc., etc.
135 A custom more merciful than the conduct of Abraham toward Hagar and Ihsmaelin spite ofthe fact that hewas thejust man chosen by the Lord.
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nobility or to the privileges of their fathers , and only remained in their station and were considered ordinary timawaplebians136 like the rest of them.
The contracts and negotiations with the natives were generally considered illegal, so that each of them had
to take care of himself or see how he could best attend to his business.137
Loans made for profit were very common, and they bore excessive interest, thus doubling or increasing the
more their settlement was being delayed, until the creditors would take everything their debtors had, together with
their persons and their children, if they had any, in the capacity of slaves.138
The common way of doing business was the trading of certain things for others, such as supplies, blankets,
cattle, fowl, lands, houses, fields, slaves, fisheries, palm-trees, nipa swamps and forests; and sometimes when there
was a price fixed, it was paid in gold as might be agreed upon, also in metal bells coming from China, which
articles are considered precious jewels. The latter look like large pots giving very good sound,139 and are much
used in their festivals, and are usually taken in their vessels in going to war and expeditions, and used in the place of
drums and other metal instruments. There were often delays and extensions given for the payments of debts, needing
bondsmen who participated elements of profit and very usurious interest.
The offenses were punished upon complaint of the aggrieved parties. Thefts were particularly punished with
severity by making slaves out of the thieves, and sometimes sentencing them to death,140 likewise, oral
defamations and insults particularly those uttered against the principals.
136 All these distinctions between legitimate children who inherited, the children of free concubines who did not inherit, but received something
the children of slaves who received nothing, but who freed and saved their mothers, and the children of married women, though they belonged to the
principal class, who did not even inherit the status of their fathers but rather degenerated, prove the high degree of culture and morality of the ancient
Filipinos.
morality of the ancient Filipinos.
137 So are the contracts of all nations and of all people and so also is and was the spirit of the contracts of the first Spaniards with the Filipino chiefs
and God grant they might have always adhered to the letter ofthose contracts!
138 1 This is grievously true and so true that it survives to this day. In many provinces and in many towns everything Morga says takes place word for
word. It is to be regretted that not only the Indios are engaged in usury but also the mestizos, the Spaniards, and even some religious. And it has reached
such a point that the Government itself not only permits it, but also demands the property and even the person of the debtor to pay for the debts of
other persons as it happens to the cabeza de Barangay (head of the barangay). Read what Plaridel says on this in his magnificent pamphlet La Soberanía
Monacat (Barcelona, 1889).
139 The tam-tam and the pum-piang (gongs) that are still used.
140 This horror of theft was so general before the coming of the Spaniards that the most anti-Filipino historians could never accuse the Indios of
thievery despite their most trifling faults and of interpreting unjustly and attributing to the whole race the faults and defects that are found in individuals of
all countries. Today this horror is already so deadened that not only malefactors and highwaymen have multiplied but also they steal chickens, fruits,
animals etc., or the very same ones whose duty is to watch over the security ofthe citizens, like the members ofthe Civil Guard, forced owners to sell them
their properties cheaply. To the gradual destruction of that sacred custom have contributed perhaps the lukewarmness, and we would even say a certain
participation of the friars in the stolen things, as can be gathered from the doubt of Fr. Alonso de Castro: “If it was lawfulfor the Religious to receive for their
sustenance and buildings for their churches and convents stolen goods by wav of alms…”
Here are some ways how the ancient Filipinos investigated thievery: "If it consists of the offense but not of the offender, if the suspects are more
than one.... each one was first required to place in a pile a bundle of cloth, leaves or what they liked. which could cover the stolen article and if after this
formality the article was found in the pile, the case ended.” This practice that leaves a door to repentance and saves the honor of the repentant ought to
have been imitated by the Europeans. Between this barbaric practice and the civilized practice that we now have of investigating theft by force of electric
machines, whipping. stocks, and other inquisitorial tortures, there is quite a distance. However, if the object did not show up after the first attempt. the
ancient Filipinos used another method already more perfect and civilized inasmuch as it resembled the judgment of God and the practices of the Middle
Ages. They submerged them in water at the sametime “como quiencorreparejas”, each one with a pole in his hand. “The one who came out of the water
first was held guilty”, and thus many were drowned for fear of punishment.” (Colin. p. 70). That is, they preferred to die to being feared as thieves, for
however terrible the penalty might be, it would not be more than drowning oneself,a difficult death which, needs a firm and determined will. The ancient
Filipinos, according to other historians, were guided in this by the principle that the guilty, being more afraid than the innocent, fear accelerated the
palpitations of his heart and physiologically the circulation of the blood and consequently the respiration which was thereby shortened. Based on the
same principle that the guilty one swallowed his or his, mouth dried up, they also made them chew rice, spit it out afterwards, declaring guilty the one
who spit it out dry and badly chewed All this is ingenious, but it can happen, and it happens, that an innocent man.
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There was a list of many things and words considered extremely insulting and discrediting when uttered against
men or women, which were excused with more difficulty than offenses committed against persons, or injuries
against their bodies.141
Not much importance was given to immoral attachments, seductions and incests, unless they were commited on
the persons of principal ladies; and it was an ordinary occurrence for a man to marry a woman after living immorally
with sister for sometime, also for one to have had for a long time, sexual intercourse with his mother-in-law, before
commencing to live martially with his wife, all of this in the presence and knowledge of all the relatives.142
Single young men were called Bagontaos,143 meaning recently-made men, and the marriageable
young women, dalaqas. Men and women alike scarcely practiced continence, as from their early youth, they
intermingled with each other very frequently and with scant self- restraint. They have no regrets for whatever
happened to them, and neither did their parents, brethren and relatives, especially if any pecuniary considerations
were involved, and very little of this element was necessary for certain things to happen.144
During all this time that the natives had lived as gentiles or non-Christians, they did not learn practicing
depraved and sinful offense against nature or sodomy. After the arrival of the Spaniards in the land, and their
consequent association with them, the natives particularly after the arrival of the Sangleys (Chinese) coming from
China, who are much given to this depravity, both men and with a fine sense of honor may be affected in such away upon
being accused, or may fear an accident, and for this appear as guilty. They had other practices besides so like those of the Middle
Ages, like the boiling water and the candle, which we shall let pass. We must not forget, however, that lately another famous usage had
been in vogue. There was in Pulo an old friar, parish priest of the town, who had the reputation of being a soothsayer, and he was
consulted about robberies, thefts, etc. The writer of these notes, as a child, in 1873, went to him once, accompanying a person who
was going to consult him. The friar not only did not dispel his error or suspicions but he even confirmed them. Nowthey also consult old
hysterical women, impostors, etc., showing that the intellectual level has gone down a great deal. Before, they reasoned, now, they are
satisfied with asking and believing. For the enemies of reasoning this is called progress.
141 What a high opinion the ancient Filipinos must have of moral sensibility when they considered offenses to it more serious than the offenses to
the body! European civilization at that time and even that of today never took this into consideration in spite of their pretensions of idealisms, in spite Of
always placing the soul before that of the and of considering the word as the sign of reason, always holding as more serious a direct attack on the body
and placing the senses before sentiment. The saying “There they give me all” attributed to Ferdinand VII describes sufficiently this manner of feeling. For
this reason the friars are surprised that the Indios should prefer even now whipping to a bad word or an insult and this which ought to make them think
and reflect, only suggests to them the deduction that the Indio is a kind of monkey or something like an animal. It is obvious that the animals on the earth
of the friars, contrary to what is happening to them, know how to feel better the meaning of a word than the force of the whipping.
142 It was not impossible that these things had happened, for similar cases and even worse are recorded in sacred and profane histories. in the annals
of the great peoples and families of Christian and devout Europe, and in the lawsuits that are not heard in modern courts, in the naturalist novels, etc.
Nevertheless, perhaps there was some exaggeration in saying that “it was very ordinary”, for even now after more thanthree centurieswe see Spanish
historias relate the most absurd and ridiculous things when it is a matter denigrating the Indios. This is said without wishing to compare a Morga with an
employee-writer of our times. They say, for example, that because the family sleeps in one room, the father is wont to mistake the daughter, the mother,
the son, etc. Inorder to assert such dirty stupidities it is necessary to have witnessed them, or believe himself capable of doing the same if •placed in
the same circumstances. Neither is there such mixing in bed nor have the Indios. reached yet such depravity.
143 From bago, new, and tao, man, onewho hasjust become a man.
144 Because they saw nothing sinful in the act of the reproduction of the species. The ancient peoples. like many other peoples, did not see in it more
than a natural instinct which has to be satisfied. The same Mosaic religion did not prohibit it except adultery. Only Christianity made the act a mortal sin,
because, (perhaps agreeing with the agnostics) it saw everything carnal as corrupt, bad, like something from the devil, giving rise to that horror of the
flesh that dominated the Cenobites, hermits, etc., etc. in the first centuries. disgusted perhaps by the moral laxity of decadent Rome and of all pagan
society. Between prostitution, however. and Cenobite anti-naturalism, gloomy and barren, there is a middle ground: Obedience to natural laws without
adultering them or frustrating the purposes that things have. As to the rest, Filipino writer P. A. Paterno in his erudite work La Antigua Civilizacion
Tagalog, refutes magnificently in the chapter “Woman” (p. .27) this imputation of Morga that later other writers repeated. Paterno cites texts and
testimonies. against it furnished by various missionary writers and travelers.
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women, have somewhat been contaminated with it, and instances have not been lacking in this respect.145
The natives of the Islands of the tattooed people or Visayas, especially the women-folk, are much given to
vicious practices and sensuality, and their instincts have led them to invent sordid ways for men and women to get
together intimately. They have acquired a bad habit from youth. the boys making an incision or hole in their
private organ, close to its head, and to it a sort of snake-head of metal or ivory, which is secured to the hole
made in the organ, by means of a device of the same substance to keep it in place. With this contrivance on,
the youth has intercourse with the woman, and he is only able to take it out much later after the act, both thereby
indulging in a protracted frenzied delight, notwithstanding the spilling of considerable blood and suffering other
injuries. This contrivance is called sagra, but only a few of them exist now, because after the natives became Christians,
much care has been taken to stop these practices and vices, with a certain degree of success.
Among the natives, there have generally existed certain herbalists and sorcerers146 who have not been
persecuted and restrained until they caused any particular injury or damage to people, and it was very seldom that
the latter could be ascertained or even discussed.
There were also men whose occupation was to brake in or devirginize the maidens, and they were held in regard
and paid for their services, on the theory that when men married virgins, they would not have to bother themselves
with overcoming their bride's maiden-hood.147
In matters of religion, they proceeded in primitive fashion and with more blindness than in other matters,
for the reason that, aside from being Gentiles, without any knowledge of the true God,148 they did not take pains to
reason out how to find Him, neither did they envision a particular one at all. The devil ordinarily deceived them with a
thousand and one errors and blind practices. He appeared to them in various forms as horrible and fearful as
ferocious animals which held them in dread, making them tremble, and very often they worshipped him
through images
145 'This confirms that the incontinence of the pagan Filipinos was not looseness but an excess of naturalism and absence of religious or moral
prohibition. It has been observed that men fall into the abominable crime of sodomywhen they become disgusted with prostitution as can be seen in many
southern regions of Europe and China, or when excessive privation compels nature to adulterate itself by wandering through mistaken paths, as it is
experienced in certain unisexual convents and schools. Study the history of peoples and all of civilizations.
Despite what Morga says and despite the fact that almost three centuries have already elapsed since then, the Filipinos continue abhorring this crime and
they have been so little contaminated that in order to commit it the Chinese and other foreigners have to make use of their fellow countrymen, of the Indio
women who are their wives, or of some wretched vagabond children.
146 The witches. In the time of Morga there was still a strong belief in the power of witches and the Inquisition persecuted them. Even the very Túkang
or snake-tamers, who still abound in the Philippines, were considered witches.
147 The direct consequence of his manner of thinking about this matter. If dancing were considered sin and is permitted only among spouses, the
parents would not pay dancing masters for their daughtersandmen would wrangle over a young woman who least knowshow to move her feet or who is
heaviest in a waltz, etc., so that they would perspire, lose tine, and betampledon their corns. Dr. Pedro Mata in his Legal Medicine, quotes also the Filipinos’
horror of virginity, taking them for those of the kingdom of Arakan which he supposes is a kingdom of the Philippines. Well now, as a kingdom of this
name has never been found the Archipelago but in Burma, on the east coast of the gulf of Bengala, we believe it idle to refute this assertion of the
illustrious Mata, considering it a lapsus of geography, repeated and believed later by other Spanish physicians and writers.
148 In this matter of the true God, every people believe what is their own, and as until now there has not been found a reagent for the discovery the
true God and distinguish Him from the false ones, Morga, who was a person of superiorjudgment to many of his contemporaries, can only be forgiven for
such pretension for the sake of the dominant ideas then and the fact that Philip II has just terminated his reign.
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representing him.149 kept in caves in private houses, where they offered to him sweet smelling perfumes, food
and fruits,150 , calling them Anitos.151
Others worshipped the sun and the moon, indulging in feasting and orgies during their conjunction.152
There were those who worshipped a certain bird with yellow color which lives in the mountains, called Batala,153
and they also worshipped and revered the crocodiles when they saw them, kneeling down with their arms crossed, in
view of the harm often done to them by these animals, on the belief that by doing this, the monsters would be
appeased and leave the people alone.
Their oaths, imprecations and promises as has already been stated, are to this effect: “May the crocodiles
devour you if you do not tell the truth and fulfill your promise! and words to said effect.
There were no temples or houses of common worship of idols anywhere in the Islands, and each one
performed in his own house,154 whatever worship of his anitos he pleased, without any
149 Pigafetta describes in the following manner the idols he saw in Sebú: “These idols are of wood, hollow or concave, without the parts behind; the
arms are open and the legs apart, with the legs turned upward. The face is rather large with four enormous teeth similar to the fangs of the wild boar; all
are covered with paint.” Some historians following speak of idols of silver, gold. ivory, stone, bone, etc., that they found in Luzon, some in the possession
of the Babaylanas. The Tagalogs had anitos for mountains and country, for the planted fields, thesea, to whom they entrusted their fisheries and sea
voyages, anitos for the house among whom they put their ancestors, they called their images. (Colin, p. 54). These idols do not always have the shape
that Pigafetta attributes to them. Sometimes they are seated with their arms crossed, their elbows resting on their knees. Sometimes the arms are stuck
to the sides with the hands above the abdomen or crossed over the breast and the hands over the clavicles, etc. They are not always found with teeth or
fangs and thosewhich have them are probably the images of malevolent genii.
150 Morga evidently reproduces here the account of the missionaries then who saw devils everywhere, for it is incredible that the author had attended
the heathen ceremonies of the Indios. All the histories written by religious before and after Morga, until almost our days, abound in stories of devils,
miracles, apparitions, etc., these forming the bulk of voluminous histories of the Philippines.
151 It seems that they called Anito atutelary spirit. whether of the family or whether alien to it. Now, with the new religious ideas, the Tagalogs, imbued
with the zeal of the missionaries, call Anito every superstition, false cult, idol, etc.
152 The rational and grateful man is recognized in the cult of the sun and the moon, sometimes he would see divinities, sometimes symbols in those
celestial bodies. What is more natural than to worship the symbol of the beautiful, of the eternal, of light, of life, of Divinity itself? What being is there in
nature, within the reach of the senses of man, more grandiose, more useful, more beautiful, and more apparently eternal than the sun? In the moon they
saw the wife of the sun, the goddess, and for this reason they also worshipped it. In our world there is no being that can give a better idea of God than the
sun and to worship it is less blindness than to worship a man however great and extraordinary he might be.
153 Bluebird, say the Jesuits Chirino and Colin who in their capacity as missionaries ought to be better informed. “Ofthe size of a thrushthat they called
Tigmamanukin they assigned to him the name Bathala, says Colin. Well now; we don't know any bluebird either of this size or of this name. There is a
yellow (though not completely so) bird and it is kuliawan or golden oriole. Probably this bird never existed and if it existed at one time, it must have
been like the eagle of Jupiter, the peacock of Juno, the dove of Venus, the different animals of Egyptian mythology, that is, symbols which the populace and
the ignorant laymen confuse with the divinities. This bird, blue or yellow, would be the symbol of God the Creator whom they called Bathala May Kapal, in
the words of the historians, that is why they would call him Bathala, and the missionaries who had little interest in understanding things in which they did
not believe and which they despised, would confuse everything, as an Igorot or a Negrito would do should he see worshipped the image of the Holy
Ghost or the symbols of the Apostles represented at times only by a bull, an eagle, or a lion, and would relate in the mountain among the laughter of his
friends that the Christians worshipped a dove, a bull,a sparrowhawk, or a dog as those symbols appear represented many times.
Concerning the name Bathala that many linguists say is derived from the Sanskrit, P. A. Paterno gives a very ingenious interpretation in his
work (p. 36) that we cited above.
154 Others and Morga himself speak of oratories in caves where the idols were and before whom they burned perfume in small pans. Father Chirion
found in Taytay shrines joined to the principal houses in the form of a “small tower of bamboo, wrought neatly… It was really dedicated to the Anito,
though they did not make sacrifices there nor it serve for anything more than being dedicated to it. Also in some places in the intados I found at the
entrance to the town a small house with only a roof over it and an entresol that served as a sacrificing place…” (chap. XXI) Pigafetta alluded to this when
he mentioned destroyed idols in “many tabernacles built along the seashore.” (molti tabernacoli construiti in riva almare.) Probably they dedicated
temples only to the Anitos or spirits of their ancestors for the reason that Chirino suspects: “Perhaps so that they (Anito) may rest there when they are
travelling.” It seems that they did not raise temples to Bathala MayKapal nor did they ever offer him sacrifices, perhaps for believing that God, Creator ofthe
Universe, did not needsuch little nor housesto beentertainedorapplaudedwithsacrifices,for He remained
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particular ceremony or solemnity neither was there any priest orman of religion who should attend to religious matters
except some old men or women Catalonas ( pythonesses), great sorcerers and wizards who deceived the people
and communicated to them whatever they wished, and according to their needs, and answered to them questions
with a thousand and one lies and absurdities. They made prayers and offered ceremonies to the idols in behalf of
their sick people; they believed in omens and superstitions which the devil inspired them to do, so that they could
tell whether their sick persons would live or die155. They made treatments and cures and other sortileges to
ascertain the future or any event through various ways. And God permitted apparently that the people of
these Islands be prepared with the least possible assistance, to receive the preaching of the Gospel so that they
might know the truth with more ease, and so that there would be less effort exerted to take them away from darkness
and error in which the devil held them in bondage for many years. They never practiced human sacrifice like people
in other kingdoms. They believed that there was a further life beyond where those who had been brave and had
performed daring deeds were rewarded and where those who had done evil would be punished accordingly, but
they were, however, at a loss to determine where these things would happen or the why and wherefore of them.156
They buried their dead in their own houses, keeping their bodies and bones for a long time in boxes, and
venerating their skulls as if they were living in their presence.157 In their funeral rites, neither pomp nor processions
played any part, except only those performed by members of the always just, good, wise and incorruptible, in contrast to
the Anitos• who, like men, little houses, offerings, and gifts. The shrines were called ulango dedicated to the Anito.
155 Colin says that these priests, called by others Catalona and Babaylan, “ordinarily are rich people and well dressed and adorned with jewels,
but they were not honored or esteemed because they considered them loafers who lived by the sweat of their fellowmen.” This proves that everywhere
and in every religion the profession of priest has always been productive. Speaking of the sick and Anitos to prove their falsehood, Fr. Chirino tells the
case of Francisco Armandao who, while sick, offered half of his body to the Anito to see if he would be cured. then half of his body was paralyzed and
he could not move, and the missionary concluded that “this was public testimony of his heathenism.” But, if the half that was not paralyzed had been
offered to the Anito? What would be said now of those who die, despite all the Masses offered to the different Virgins, despite the figures of wax. silver, and
other more attractive and tempting offerings?
156 In which they did right by confessing sincerely their ignorance of the matter. Other historians, however, say that they called Hell Solad (G. de San
Agustin), Heaven, Kalualhatian (a noun that survives until now) and in poetic language Ulugan. In Panay, however, they had their Olympus and Elysia fields
in the Madias mountains to which the blessed Bisayan souls went.
157 We find it much more natural pious for them to venerate the remains of the parents to whom they owe everything and they call “second godson
earth”, than to venerate the memory. bones, hair, etc., of certain saints, many of whom were foreign maniacs and of doubtful sanctity to whom can be
applied what St. Augustine said: “That they are worshipped where they are not and where they are burned.” Idolatry for idolatry, we prefer that of our
parents to whom we owe our being and our education to that of some dirty friar, maniacal hermit. or fanatical martyr whom we don’t know and with
whom we have no dealings who probably will never remember us.
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household158 of the deceased;—and after grieving for the deceased, they indulged in eating and drinking to the
degree of intoxication among themselves, the relatives and friends.159
158 There was something more, however. There were mourners who eulogized the dead in the style of what is done today. “To the sound of
this mournful music they washed the body, perfumed it with the gum of the storax-tree or benzoin and other tree- gums that are found in all
these mountains. After this they shrouded the body, wrapping it up in more less cloth in accordance with the rank of the dead. The more
important ones they anointed and embalmed, in the style of the Hebrews, with aromatic liquors, which preserved the bodies from putrifaction
particularly the one done with aloes that they called “Eagle” wood very acceptable and much used in all thsi India outside of the Ganges. They
also used for this the sap of the leaf of the buyo… They put a quantity ofthis sap through the mouth so that it would go inside the body. The grave of
the poor was a hole in the ground of his own house. The rich and the powerful, after holding them for three days mourning, were placed in a
box or coffine of indestructible wood, decorated with richjewels and with a covering of thin sheets of gold on the mouth and eyes. The coffin was
of a single piece... and the cover was so well adjusted that no air could get in. And because of this carefulness, at the end of many years,
numerous bodies were found intact. These coffins were placed in one of three places in accordance with the wishes and order of the
deceased—in the house among the jewels, or below it, above the ground, or on the ground itself, in an open hole and fenced around with
railings, without covering the coffine with earth. Beside it they usually place another box containing the best clothes of the deceased and from
time to time they placed several dishes containing food. Beside the men they placed his weapons and beside the women their looms or other
tools they had used. (Colin, p. 67).
Pigafetta came to Sebú eighty years before and funeral rites he saw almost in the same manner. He mentioned besides the mourning
clothes of the Bisayans, which were white, the cutting of the hair of the deceased, done by a woman, alternating with the lamentations of the wife
embracing the body of the husband. The modern discovery of the tombs and funeral urns (Alfred Marche, Luson at Palaoan, Paris, 1887)
confirms the accuracy of these descriptions. Nevertheless, now always were they buried in their houses or near them. Sometimes the tombs
were on the seashore, over a rock, or inside a house built there for the purpose. Neither was the coffin always made as described.
Sometimes whole vessels served as coffins, especially for those who in life had been great sailors or were fond of sailing.
When they died a natural death, or they knew that their end was approaching, they prepared themselves for this critical moment with such a
tranquility and contentment that could only suggest the conviction that they were going to be reunited with theirAnitos. The aged especially died
with this conviction, sure of going to Heaven. “And generally”, says Colin, “whoever can getaway with it, attributed divinity to his father when he
died.” We see nothing censurable in this, contrary to the Jesuit’s opinion. This filial piety of venerating the memory of his progenitors is less
reprehensible than the monastic fanaticism of making saints of their confreres, availing themselves of the most ridiculous inventions and
grasping, so to speak, even at the beards, like that of Bishop Aduarte, etc., etc. “And the old men themselves died with these pride and fraud
making appear at the time of their sickness and death a seriousness and crisis that to them seemed divine.” Between this tranquility, sweet
solace that was offered by that religion at the last moments of life, and the anguish, fear, the terrifying and cheerless scense that monastic
fanaticism infused in the mind of the dying, the mind free from every preoccupation canjudge. If the lofty judgment of God is not unknown to us;
if the Omnipotent has given us life for our ruin, why embitter the last hours of life, why torture and discourage a brother, precisely at the
most terrible moment of his life and on the threshold of eternity? It will be said: so that he may mend and reform It is not the means, nor the
occasion. nor is there time left.
In this connection, “… that primitive religion of the ancient Filipinos was more in conformity with the doctrine of Christ and of the first
Christians than the religion of the friars.* Christ came to the world to teach the doctrine of love and hope that may console the poor in his misery,
that may lift up the downcast and may serve as a balm for all the sorrows of life.
159 It is not surprising that the funerals should end in banquets and feast that they called Tibao. according to Fr. San Antonio (Descripción
de las Islas Filipinas), considering the belief that the one who died was going to be happy and in this regard the Filipinos were logical. The
“banquets” that are still held today and which were adversely interpreted by the Spanish writers, have no more significance that the custom of
the Filipinos to compliment all those who are at their homes at meal time. Well now; as many come to help and console the family of the
deceased, not only by word of mouth but by deed—giving money and other gifts— it is natural that in the eyes of the superficial observer, it would
seem a feast. The evidence that it is not is that noone is invited to it who is not already in the house and the guests do not wait to be begged
as the custom at parties is. The Pasiam with the Katapusan is nothing more than a nine-day prayer for the repose of the soul of the deceased
and the friends who come to pray for him and to console and accompany the family are complimented for the same reason as stated above with
tea and sweets, which is not a feast, for a Filipino does not invite anyone just to offer him tea. The Katapusan (the final. the last day of prayer)
has the appearance offeast. because it is more than a tea and in fact it is asupper; but this is due to the general custom ofwanting always to end
things with something grander and better and the Filipino does not find anything intermediate between tea and supper. Naturally there reigns
more animation at that occasion, because more friends come, whether because it is the last day or for any other motive, and not having the
custom of putting on a sedate appearance, they usuallyforget conventionalitieswhich have made many Spaniards believe that the Katapusan was
a feast, later applying this name to all feasts, like Mr. Cañamaque who was so satisfied with the word “Paco”* that he made it synonymous of
cemetery.
*He refers to certain friars during the Spanish regime.
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Some natives of the Island of Borneo began to come to the Island of Luzon, particularly the settlements of
Manila and Tondo, with their wares and merchandise, a few years before the Spaniards pacified the people and
the inhabitants of the Islands and intermarried among themselves. The newcomers being Mohamedans, they thus
commenced to spread the creed of their sect among the natives, distributing among them their religious literature,
ceremony rituals and handbooks, through some crazizes160 who had arrived with them, so that many of the principal
men began to adopt Mohammedanism and even circumcising themselves,161 and to assume Moorish names; and
if the Spaniards had delayed their arrival further, this religion would have spread over the Island, over every other
place in the Islands; and it would have been difficult to demohammedanized them. The mercy of God put a timely
remedy to that. Since this sect had just began to spread in the country, it was successfully uprooted from the Islands
as they were freed from the same, at least as to the regions which the Spaniards had pacified and placed under the
Government of the Philippine Islands; while it has been extensively spread over the rest of the Islands which are
outside of said Government, the inhabitants of which are already entirely Mohammedan, ruled and taught by the
Mohammedan priests and other morabites, who sail periodically through the straights of Malacca and the Red Sea
to these Islands, to preach and teach them.
160 According to Lord Stanely, it is a wrong use of the Arabic word Kasla, meaning Christian priest.
161 This custom has not been lost among the Filipinos, even among the Catholics themselves.
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CHAPTER 3 & 4 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS
Name: ____________________________________
Date: _________________
Class Section/Schedule: _______________________________________________
Name of Instructor: ____________________________________________________
General Instructions: Answer the given questions below with the rubrics provided.
RUBRICS FOR ESSAY
GRADING SCALE
CRITERIA
5 pts
(Excellent)
3
(Satisfactory)
1
(Good)
0
(Needs
Improvement)
TOTAL
SCORE
IDEAS: Tells a story with ideas that are clearly focused on the topic and are thoroughly developed with specific
relevant details.
ORGANIZATION: Organization and connections between ideas and/or events are clear and logically sequenced.
STYLE: Command of language, including effective and compelling word and varied sentence structure, clearly
supports the writer's purpose and audience.
CONVENTIONS: Consistent, appropriate use of conventions of Standard English for grammar, usage. spelling,
capitalization and punctuation for the age level.
Note: Submit your answers as per instruction of the instructor handling this course.
I. In absence of present usage of non-alphabetical scripts in the Philippines (with the exemption of Hanunó'o
and Kulitan in Luzon; Jawi, i.e., Arabicized local writing and reading, in Mindanao), should the government
adapt Baybayin, the Tagalog writing script, as official script of the country? Or should we create an artificial
writing script out of several ancient writing scripts found in the
Philippines? Or should we not? State your position and explain. (20 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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III. A. Arrange chronologically, which among these different groups of people made the first contact with the
Filipino natives before the arrival of the Spanish colonizers in the 16th century. Write numbers 1 to 5 only. (5
pts)
_________ Vietnamese
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__________ Arab
___________ Chinese
__________ Indian
_________ Japanese
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B. Identify to which different foreign groups the following specified cultures were influenced and being
practiced by the Filipinos. Write the letters only. (10 pts)
A. Indian
B. Chinese
C. Arab
_______ 1. Filipino literature like Ilokano’s Biag-ni Lam-ang
_______ 2. Wearing of putong among men and sarong among women
_______ 3 Throwing of rice grains to the newlyweds after the matrimonial ceremony
_______ 4. Natives learned from them the brewing of tea for drinking
_______ 5. Manufacture of gun powder
_______ 6. Haggling between the merchant and customer to arrive at a price for a commodity (tawaran)
_______ 7. Hajj or Pilgrimage to Mecca
_______ 8. Kite-flying
_______ 9. Sultanate
_______ 10. Okir or ukkil in their artwork designs
IV. Pinpoint, which among the pre-Hispanic culture and traditions still exists at present and continued to
practice by the Filipinos. (10 pts)
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CHAPTER 5
COLONIAL PERIOD: SPANISH COLONIAL RULE
(1521 – 1898)
Objectives: At the end of the chapter, the students will be able to:
1) Identify and explain the factors that led to Spanish colonization.
2) Determine the instruments of ‘pacification’ and ‘exploitation employed by Spaniards for colonization.
3) Evaluate the impact of Spanish colonialism on Philippine society and culture.
 Overview
Our ancestors lived a life of peace and prosperity. The early Filipino society attained a
considerable level of civilization, as evidenced by its political, economic, cultural, and social facets.
Nonetheless, these early practices underwent radical and sweeping changes due to the arrival of the
European colonizers. The event, which marked the Age of Discovery and Exploration in the 15th to 16th
centuries, motivated the Western world beyond the seas, searching for new lands. Among the earliest
lands “discovered” was the archipelago, which is now called the Philippines.
In this chapter, the students will have a brief background about the events and factors that led to
the Philippines' ‘rediscovery’ and the Spanish colonization beginning in the 16th century. Excerpts from
different readings will also determine the Spaniards' different instruments for its ‘pacification’ and
‘exploitation’ campaign for colonization. Lastly, the chapter will present the impact of Spanish colonialism
on Philippine society and culture.
List of Reading Materials:
Blair, Emma, and Roberstons, James, Eds. The Philippine Islands 55-Volumes, Cleveland, Ohio: The A. H.
Clark Company, 1903-1909.
Excerpts from:
a. Pope Alexander VI’s Inter Cætera (May 4, 1493)
b. Treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494)
c. Treaty of Zaragoza (April 22, 1529)
d. Letter from the King of Castile to Fernando de Magalhaes and Ruy de Faleiro (Vol. I)
e. First Voyage Around the World by Antonio Pigafetta (Vol. XXXIII)
f. Instruction to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi from the Royal Audiencia of New Spain (Vol. II)
g. Relation to the Conquest of the Island of Luzon (Vol. III)
h. Encomiendas Assigned by Legaspi (Vol. XXXIV, 304-310)
i. Memorial of Bishop Domingo de Salazar on the Abuses Committed by Spaniards (Vol.5)
j. Order Issued by the Governor for Collection of the Tributes (Vol. VIII)
k. “Opinion of Fray Martin de Rada on Tributes Coming from Indians” (Vol. III)
l. Decree Regulating Services of Filipinos” (Vol. XVII)
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SPAIN’S COLONIAL MOTIVES
How and why the Europeans came to the “Orient” is a long story. To understand where it began,
let’s analyze the treatises agreed by the Spain and Portugal monarchs in the 15th century:
Treaties Dividing the World: Inter Caetera and Treaty of Tordesillas
 Pope Alexander VI’s Inter Cætera (May 4, 1493) and Treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494).
The Papal Bull “Inter Caetera” issued by Pope
Alexander VI on May 4, 1493, also known as the “Doctrine of
Discovery,” played a central role in the Spanish conquest of
the New World (present Americas). The papal bull supported
Spain’s strategy to ensure its exclusive rights to Columbus's
discovered lands the previous year. It established a
demarcation line one hundred leagues west of the Azores
and Cape Verde Islands. It assigned Spain the exclusive
right to acquire territorial possessions and trade in all
lands west of that line. All others were forbidden to approach
the lands west of the line without a special license from Spain's
rulers. This effectively gave Spain a monopoly on the lands in
the New World.
Moreover, the Bull stated that any land inhabited by
Christians was available to be “discovered,” claimed, and
exploited by Christian rulers and declared that “the
Figure 5. Map of Inter Caetera and Treaty of
Catholic faith and the Christian religion be exalted and be
Tordesillas.
everywhere increased and spread, that the health of
souls is cared for and that barbarous nations be overthrown and brought to the faith itself.”
EXCERPT:
INTER CAETERA – MAY 4
Alexander, etc., to the illustrious sovereigns, our very dear son in Christ, Ferdinand,
King, and our very dear daughter in Christ, Helisabeth [Isabella], Queen of Castile and Leon, Aragon,
Sicily, and Granada, health, etc. Among other works well pleasing to his divine Majesty and cherished of
our heart, this assuredly ranks highest: that in our times especially the Catholic faith and the Christian
law be exalted and everywhere increased and spread as well as that the health of souls be procured, and
barbarous nations overthrown and brought to the faith itself. … In sooth we have learned that according
to your purpose long ago you were in quest of some far-away islands and mainlands, not hitherto
discovered by others, to the end that you might bring to the worship of our Redeemer and the profession
of the Catholic faith the inhabitants of them with the dwellers therein; that hitherto having been earnestly
engaged in the siege and recovery of the kingdom itself Of Granada you were unable to accomplish this
saintly and praise-worthy purpose; but at length, as was pleasing to the Lord, the said kingdom having
been regained, not without the greatest hardships, dangers, and expenses, that with the wish to fulfil your
desire, you chose our beloved son, Christopher Colon, a man assuredly worthy and of the highest
recommendations as well as furnished with ships and men equipped for like designs, to make diligent
quest for these far-away, unknown mainlands and islands through the Sea, where hitherto no one has
sailed; who in fine, with divine aid, nor without the utmost diligence, sailing in the Ocean Sea discovered
certain very far-away islands and even mainlands that hitherto had not been discovered by others,
wherein dwell very many peoples living in peace, and, as reported, going unclothed, nor users of flesh
meat; and, as your aforesaid envoys are of opinion, these very peoples living in the said islands and
countries believe in one God, Creator in heaven, besides being sufficiently ready in appearance to
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embrace the Catholic faith and be trained in good morals. … In certain islands and countries already
discovered are found gold, spices, and very many other precious things of divers kinds and species.
Wherefore, as becoming to Catholic kings and princes, after earnest consideration of all matters,
especially of the rise and spread of the Catholic faith, as was the fashion of your ancestors, kings of
renowned memory, you have purposed with the favor of divine clemency to bring under your sway the
said mainlands and islands with their inhabitants and the dwellers therein, and bring them to the
Catholic faith. … by the authority of Almighty God conferred upon us in blessed Peter and of the
vicarship of Jesus Christ, which we hold on earth, in order that with greater readiness and heartiness you
enter upon an undertaking of so lofty a character as has been. entrusted to you by the graciousness of our
apostolic favor, by tenor of these presents should any of said islands have been found by your envoys and
captains, we do give, grant, and assign to you and your heirs and successors, kings of Castile and Leon,
forever, together With all their dominions, cities, camps, places, and towns, as well as all rights,
jurisdictions, and appurtenances, all islands and mainlands found and to be found, discovered and to be
discovered towards the west and south, by drawing and establishing a line from the Arctic pole, namely
the north, to the Antarctic pole, namely the south, no matter whether the said mainlands and island are
found and to be found in the direction of India or towards any other quarter, the said line to the west and
south to be distant one hundred leagues from any of the islands commonly known as the Azores and Cabo
Verde with this proviso however that none of the islands and mainland; found and to be found, discovered
and to be discovered beyond that said line towards the west and south, be in the actual possession of any
Christian king or prince up to the birthday of our Lord Jesus Christ just past in the present year one
thousand four hundred and ninety- three. … Besides under penalty of ex-communication late sententie to
be incurred ipso facto, should anyone thus contravene, we strictly forbid all persons of whatso- ever rank,
even imperial and royal, or of whatsoever estate, degree, order, or condition, to dare, without your
special permit or that of your aforesaid heirs and successors, to go, as charged, for the purpose of trade
or any other reason to the islands and mainlands found and to be found, discovered and to be discovered,
towards the west and south, by drawing and establishing a 'line from the Arctic pole to the Antarctic pole,
no matter whether the mainland' and islands found and to be found lie in the direction Of India or
towards any other quarter whatsoever, the said line to the west and south to be distant one hundred
leagues from any Of the islands commonly known as the Azores and Cabo Verde, the apostolic
constitutions and ordinances and other decrees whatsoever to the contrary notwithstanding. … Given at
Rome at St. Peter's in the year, etc., one thousand four hundred and ninety-three, the fourth Of May, and
the first year of our pontificate.
Meanwhile, the other treaty, the Treaty of Tordesillas, is an agreement between Spain and
Portugal's monarchs to settle conflicts over lands newly discovered or explored by Christopher Columbus
and other later 15th-century voyagers. This treaty divided the New World by drawing an imaginary line in
the Atlantic Ocean, about 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Thus, all lands west of the line
were claimed by Spain, while Portugal claimed all lands east of the line. Both countries can conduct their
trading activities and other colonizing rights for all newly discovered lands. This treaty was signed by the
respective representatives of the Spanish and Portuguese monarchy, June 7, 1494, at the City of
Tordesillas. Full powers were conferred upon these representatives in special letters, that of the Catholic
sovereigns being given on June 5 at Tordesillas, and that of King Don Joan of Portugal, on March 8. The
former sovereigns, as well as their son Don Juan, signed the treaty in person, at Arevalo, on July 2; the
King of Portugal, on September 5, at Setubal — each ratifying it fully.
EXCERPT:
Thereupon it was declared by the above-mentioned representatives of the aforesaid King and Queen of
Castilla, Leon, Aragon, Seçilia, Granada, etc.; and of the aforesaid King of Portugal and the Algarbes,
etc.: That, whereas a certain controversy exists between the said lords, their constituents, as to what
lands, of all those discovered in the Ocean Sea up to the present day, the date of this treaty, pertain to
each one of the said parts respectively; therefore, for the sake of peace and concord, and for the
preservation of the relationship and love of the said King of Portugal for the said King and Queen of
Castilla, Aragon, etc., it being the pleasure Of their Highnesses, they, their said representatives, acting in
their name and by virtue of their powers herein described, covenanted and agreed that a boundary or
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straight line be determined and drawn north and south, from to pole, on the said Ocean Sea — from thé
Arctic to the Antarctic pole. This boundary, or line shall be drawn straight, as aforesaid, at a distance of
three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cabo Verde islands, being calculated by degrees, or by any
Other manner, as may be considered the best and readiest, provided the distance shall be no greater than
above said. And all lands, both islands and mainlands, found and discovered already, or to be found and
discovered hereafter by the said King f Portugal and by his vessels on this side of the said line and bound
determined as above, toward the east, in either north or south latitude, on the eastern side of the said
bound, provided the said bound is not crossed, shall belong to, and remain the possession of, and pertain
forever to the said King of Portugal and his successors. And all other lands— both islands and mainlands,
found or to be found hereafter, discovered or to be discovered hereafter, which have been discovered or
shall be discovered by the said King and Queen of Castilla, Aragon, etc., and by their vessels, on the
western side of the said bound, determined as above, after having passed the said bound toward the west,
in cither its north or south latitude, shall belong to, and remain in the possession of, and pertain forever
to the said King and Queen of Castilla. Leon, etc., and to their successors. …
Yten [Item): the said representatives promise and affirm by virtue of the powers
aforesaid, that from this date no ships shall be as follows: the said King and Queen of Castilla, Leon,
Aragon, etc., for this part of the bound, and its eastern side, on this side the said bound, which pertains to
the said King of Portugal and the Algarbes, etc. nor the said King Of Portugal to the other part of the
said bound which pertains to the said King and Queen of Castilla, Aragon, etc.,— for the purpose of
discovering and seeking any mainlands or islands, or for the purpose of trade, barter. or conquest of any
kind. But should it come to pass that the said ships of the said King and Queen of Castilla, Leon, Aragon,
etc., on sailing thus on this side of the said bound, should discover any mainlands or islands in the region
pertain to and belong forever to the said King of Portugal and his heirs, and their Highnesses shall order
them to be surrendered to him immediately. And if the said ships of the said King of Portugal discover
any islands and mainlands in the regions of the said King and Queen of Castilla, Leon, Aragon, etc., all
such lands shall belong to and remain forever in the possession of the said King and Queen of Castilla,
Leon, Aragon, etc., and their heirs, and the said King of Portugal shall cause such lands to be
surrendered immediately.
Yten: In order that the said line or bound of the said division may be made straight and
as nearly as possible the said distance of three hundred and seventy leagues west of the Cabo Verde
islands, as hereinbefore stated, the said representatives of both the said parties agree and assent that
within the ten months immediately following the date of this treaty, their said constituent lords shall
despatch two or four caravels, namely, one or two by each one of them, a greater or less number, as they
may mutually consider necessary. These vessels shall meet at the island of Grande Canaria [Grand
Canary Island] during this time, and each one of the said parties shall send certain persons in them, to
wit, pilots, astrologers, sailors, and any others they may deem desirable. But must be as many on one side
as on the Other, and certain of the said pilots, astrologers, sailors, and others of those sent by the said
King and Queen of Castilla, Aragon, etc., and who are experienced, shall embark in the ships of the said
King of Portugal and the Algarbes; in like manner certain of the said persons sent by the said King of
Portugal shall embark in thc ship or ships of the said King and Queen of Castilla, Aragon, etc.: a like
number in each case, So that they may jointly study and examine to better advantage the sea, courses,
winds, and the degrees of the sun or of north latitude, and lay out leagues aforesaid, in order that, in
determining the line and boundary, all sent and empowered by both the said parties in the said shall
jointly concur. …
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Description:
Manuscript on parchment. 4 plies (8 sheets:
330 x 250 mm)
Authenticity
The Portuguese version of the Treaty preserved
by the Royal Castilian Chancery. The Castilian version
is held in Lisbon in the Tombo Tower Archive.
The Castilian version of the Treaty, with
validation signatures of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and
Queen Isabella II of Castile, is preserved by the Royal
Archives of Torre de Tombo.
Since 2007, the document was recommended
for inclusion in the Memory of the World Register.
Figure 6. Front page of the
Tratado de Tordesillas (Spain,
June 7 1494)
ARMADA DE MALUCO – MAGELLAN EXPEDITION
Spain's most significant venture was led by Ferdinand Magellan, widely regarded as an
outstanding seaman and navigator. Magellan did more than follow in earlier Portuguese navigators'
footsteps because he ventured into uncharted waters by sailing not eastwards but westwards to Asia. His
seamanship in sailing from Spain to the Philippines was remarkable when viewed in terms of the
inaccurate geographical/ cartographical data and the primitive navigational technology that were just only
available in 1519.
In 1513, accompanied by Enrique, a Malay slave, whom he acquired in Malacca, he returned to
Lisbon, Portugal. Afterward, he took part in the Portuguese campaign against the Moors in Africa. This
was when he was pierced by the enemy’s lance, which caused him to limp for the rest of his life. When he
proposed to King Manuel about his plan to navigate the Spice Islands via the westward route, the king
ignored it. The only person who believed in him was Ruy Faleiro, a learned astronomer. Then, Magellan
renounced his Portuguese citizenship and went to Spain. He met Diego de Barbosa, another Portuguese,
and befriended his son Duarte, another navigator, and married his daughter Beatriz. Through Diego de
Barbosa's influence, he approached the royal court of King Charles I (Charles V). He even presented a
proposal to find a new route to the Moluccas. Magellan believed that the Moluccas lay within Spain’s
global sphere of influence as defined by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494. Magellan used a world map
created by Pierre Regnel (reference from Martin Behaim) and letters from Francisco Serrao in the
Moluccas to convince the King of Spain's validity and viability claim to the Spice Islands. Aside from
theoretical knowledge based on maps and globes, Magellan could state his practical experience in
Southeast Asia from his voyages to the trading port of Malacca in 1508 and the Moluccan Spice Islands
in 1511-1512 under the command of Alfonso de Albuquerque. There is a conjecture that he also visited
the Philippines. The Spanish king approved Magellan’s confidence to accomplish his objective (Field
2006, 313-314).
The authorization letter was made from the King and Queen of Spain's command by Francisco
delos Covos, Secretary of the Queen. The said letter authorizes Ruy de Faleiro and Ferdinand Magellan
to do their following expeditions comfortably. The King of Spain gives them the authority to explore every
land or sea and exclude those who needed and who want to execute. They were also authorized to be
the commander of the said fleet which is in line with the expedition. Magellan completed the preparation
of his expedition, which consisted of five ships (namely, Trinidad, Victoria, Concepcion, Santiago, and
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San Antonio) and 270 men Spaniards, and the rest were foreigners. In the expedition were his Malay
slave, Enrique of Malacca (acting as interpreter), Father Pedro de Valderrama (fleet chaplain),
Antonio Pigafetta (Venetian knight and chronicler of the expedition), and Duarte de Barbosa
(Magellan’s brother-in-law).
 Letter from the King of Castile to Fernando de Magalhaes and Ruy de Faleiro (Vol. I).
EXCERPT:
Inasmuch as we have commanded a certain contract and agreement to be made with you, Ruy Falero,
bachelor, and Fernando de Magalhayns, knight, natives of the Kingdom of Portogal, in order that you
make an expedition Of discovery in the Ocean Sea; and inasmuch as for the said voyage we have ordered
five ships to be armed, manned, provisioned, and supplied with whatever else is necessary for said voyage,
having confidence that you are such persons as will guard our service, and that you will execute fully and
loyally what we command and entrust to you : it is our will and pleasure to appoint you — as by this
present we do—as our captains of the Said fleet. We also authorize you so that, during the time of your
voyage and until (with the blessing of Our Lord) you shall return to these kingdoms, you may and shall
hold office as our captains, both on sea and land, in your own names and those of your lieutenants, in
every case and in everything relating and pertaining to said office. You shall see that there is proper
execution of our justice in the lands and islands that you shall discover, according to and in the manner
followed by those who have been our sea captains hitherto. By this our letter, we command the masters,
mates, pilots, seamen, roustabouts, boys, any other persons and officials of the said fleet, and whatsoever
persons may see this present, and shall reside in the said lands and islands that you shall discover, and
whomsoever the contents of this letter may concern or affect in any manner whatever, that they regard,
accept, and consider you as our captains of the said fleet. As such, they shall obey you and fulfil your
commands, under the penalty or penalties which, in our name, you shall impose, or order imposed, and
which, by this present, we impose and consider as imposed. We authorize you to execute sentence on their
persons and goods, and that they observe and cause to be observed all the honors, favors, grace,
privilege, liberties, preeminences, prerogative and immunities, which as our captains, you should hold
and enjoy, and which must be kept for you. It is our pleasure and we command that, if during the voyage
of said fleet, there should be any disputes or differences, either on land or sea, you shall be empowered to
sentence, judge, and execute justice in brief form, summarily and without process of law. We authorize
you to decide and judge the said disputes, and to execute all the remaining contents of this our letter and
whatever is incumbent upon and pertains to said office of captain, with whatever may be incident,
dependent, or connected in any way with the same; and neither yourselves nor others shall act contrary
to this.
Given at Valladolid, the xxii day of March, of the year one thousand five hundred and eighteen. I, the
King. l, Francisco de Ios Covos, Secretary of the Queen and of the King, her son, our Sovereigns, write it
by their command.
Pigafetta’s Primio Viaggio
 First Voyage Around the World by Antonio Pigafetta (Vol. XXXIII (Vol. II), 103-185
Pigafetta’s account narrated the situation of their voyage. The following were the significant events
that happened when they arrived and “rediscovered” the Philippines until their captain died in 1521:
EXCERPT:
At dawn on Saturday, March sixteen, 1521, we came upon a high land at a distance of three hundred
leguas from the islands of Latroni —an island named Zamal [i.e., Samar). The following day, the captaingeneral desired to land on another island which was uninhabited and lay to the right of the abovementioned island, in order to be more secure, and to get water and have some rest. He had two tents set
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up on the shore for the sick and had a sow killed for them. On Monday afternoon, March 18, we saw a
boat coming toward us with nine men in it. Therefore, the captain-general ordered that no one should
move or say a word without his permission. When those men reached the shore, their chief went
immediately to the captain-general, giving signs of joy because of our arrival. Five of the most ornately
adorned of them remained with us, while the rest went to get some others who were fishing, and so they
all came. The captain-general seeing that they were reasonable men, ordered food to be set before them,
and gave them red caps, mirrors, combs, bells, ivory, bocasine, and other things. When they saw the
captain's courtesy, they presented fish, a jar of palm wine, which they call uraca [i.e., arrack), figs more
than one palmo long [i.e., bananas]" and others which were smaller and more delicate, and two
cocoanuts. They had nothing else then but made us signs with their hands that they would bring umay or
rice, and cocoanuts and many other articles of food within four days…
Those people became very familiar with us. They told us many things, their names and those of some
of the islands that could be seen from that place. Their own island was called Zuluan and it is not very
large. We took great pleasure with them, for they were very pleasant and conversable In order to show
them greater honor, the captain-general took them to his ship and showed them all his merchandise —
cloves, cinnamon, pepper, ginger, nutmeg, mace, gold, and all the things in the ship. He had some
mortars fired for them, whereat they exhibited great fear, and tried to jump out of the ship. They made
signs to us that the abovesaid articles grew in that place where we were going. When they were about to
retire they took their leave very gracefully and neatly, saying that they would return according to their
promise. The island where we were is called Humunu; but inasmuch as we found two springs there of the
clearest water, we called it Acquada da li buoni Segnialli [i.e., “the Watering-place of good Signs”] for
there were the first signs of gold which we found in those districts. We found a great quantity of white
coral there, and large trees with fruit a trifle smaller than the almond and resembling pine seeds. There
are also many palms, some of them good and others bad. There are many islands in that district, and
therefore we called them the archipelago of San Lazaro, as they were discovered on the Sabbath of St.
Lazarus They lie in x degrees of latitude toward the Arctic Pole, and in a longitude of one hundred and
sixty-one degrees from the line of demarcation.
Pieces of gold, of the size of walnuts and eggs are found by sifting the earth in the island of that
king who came to our ships. All the dishes of that king are of gold and also some portion of his house, as
we were told by that king himself. According to their customs he was very grandly decked out [molto in
ordine] and the finest looking man that we saw among those people. His hair was exceedingly black and
hung to his shoulders. He had a covering of silk oh his head and wore two large golden earrings fastened
in his ears. He wore a cotton cloth all embroidered with silk, which covered him from the waist to the
knees. At his side hung a dagger, the haft of which was somewhat long and all of gold, and its scabbard
of carved wood. He had three spots of gold on every tooth, and his teeth appeared as if bound with gold.
He was perfumed with storax and benzoin. He was tawny and painted [i.e., tattooed] all over. That island
of his was called Butuan and Calagan. When those kings wished to see one another, they both went to
hunt in that island where we were. The name of the first king is Raia Colambu, and the second Raia Siaui.
Early on the morning of Sunday, the last of March, and Easter-day, the captain-general gent the
priest with some men to prepare the place where mass was to be said; together with the interpreter to tell
the king that we were not going to land in order to dine with him, but to say mass. Therefore, the king sent
us two swine that he had killed. When the hour for mass arrived, we landed with about fifty men, without
our body armor, but carrying our other arms, and dressed in our best clothes. Before we reached the
shore with our boats, six pieces were discharged as a sign of peace. We landed; the two kings embraced
the captain-general and placed him between them. We went in marching order to the place consecrated,
which was not far from the shore. Before the commencement of mass, the captain sprinkled the entire
bodies of the two kings with musk water. The mass was offered up. The kings went forward to kiss the
cross as we did, but they did not offer the sacrifice. When the body of our Lord was elevated, they
remained on their knees and worshiped Him with clasped hands. The ships fired all their artillery at once
when the body of Christ was elevated, the signal having been given from the shore with muskets. After the
conclusion of mass, some of our men took communion. The captain-general arranged a fencing
tournament,'" at which the kings were greatly pleased. Then he had a cross carried in and the nails and a
crown, to which immediate reverence was made."' He told the kings through the interpreter that they
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were the standards given to him by the emperor his sovereign, so that wherever he might go he might set
up those his tokens. If any of their men were captured, they would be set free immediately on that sign
being shown. It was necessary to set that cross on the summit of the highest mountain, so that on seeing it
every morning, they might adore it; and if they did that, neither thunder, lightning, nor storms would
harm them in the least. They thanked him heartily and [said) that they would do everything willingly. The
captain-general also had them asked whether they were Moros or heathen, or what was their belief. They
replied that they worshiped nothing, but that they raised their clasped hands and their face to the sky; and
that they called their god Abba. …
On asking them which port was the best to get food, they replied that there were three, namely, Ceylon,
Zubu, and Calaghann, but that Zubu was the largest and the one with most trade. They offered of their
own accord to give us pilots to show us the way. The captain-general thanked them, and determined to go
there, for so did his unhappy fate will. After the cross was erected in position, each of us repeated a Pater
Noster and an Ave Maria, and adored the cross; and the kings did the same. Then we descended through
their cultivate fields, and went to the place where balanghai was… It lies in a latitude of nine and twothirds degrees toward the Arctic Pole, and in a longitude of one hundred and sixty-two degrees from the
line of demarcation. It is twenty-five from the Acquada and is called Mazaua.
We remained there seven days, after which we laid our course toward the northwest, passing
among five islands, namely, Ceylon, Bohol, Canighan, Baybai, and Gatighan… There is a distance of
twenty leguas from Mazaua to Gatighan. We set out westward from Gatighan, but the king of Mazaua
could not follow us [closely], and consequently, we awaited him near three islands, namely, Polo,
Ticobon, and Pozon. When he caught up with us he was greatly astonished at the rapidity with bwhich we
sailed. The captain-general had him come into his ship with several of his chiefs at which they were
pleased. Thus, did we go to Zubu from Gatighan, the distance to Zubu being fifteen leguas.
At noon on Sunday, April seven, we entered the port of Zubu, passing by many villages, where we
saw many houses built upon logs. On approaching the city, the captain-general ordered the ships to fling
their banner. The sail' were lowered and arranged as if for battle, and all the artillery was fired, an
action which caused great fear to those people. The captain sent a foster-son of his as ambassador to the
king of Zubo with the interpreter. When they reached the city, they found a vast crowd of people together
with the king, all of whom had been frightened by the mortars. The interpreter told them that that was our
custom when entering into such places, as a sign of peace and friendship, and that we had discharged all
our mortars to honor the king of the village. The king and all of his men were reassured, and the king had
us asked by his governor what we wanted. The interpreter replied that his master was a captain of the
greatest king and prince in the world, and that he was going to discover Malucho, but that he had come
solely to visit the king because of the good report which he had heard of him from the king of Mazaua,
and to buy food with his merchandise. The king told him that he was welcome [literally: he had come at a
good time], but that it was their custom for all ships that entered their ports to pay tribute, and that it was
but four days since a junk from Ciama [i.e., Siam) laden with gold and slaves had paid him tribute. As
proof of his statement the king pointed out to the interpreter a merchant from Ciama, who had remained
to trade the gold and slaves. The interpreter told the king that, since his master was the captain of so
great a king, he did not pay tribute to any seignior in the world, and that if the king wished peace he
would have peace, but if war instead, war. … If they are treated well, they will give good treatment, but if
they are treated evil, evil and worse treatment, as they have done to Calicut and Malaca. The interpreter
understood it all and told the king that his master's king was more powerful in men and ships than the
king of Portogalo, that he was the king of Spagnia and emperor of all the Christians, and that if the king
did not care to be his friend he would next time send so many men that they would destroy him. The Moro
related everything to the king" who said thereupon that he would deliberate with his men and would
answer the captain on the following day. Then he had refreshments of many dishes, all made from meat
and contained in porcelain platter', besides many jars of wine brought in. After our men had refreshed
themselves, they returned and told us everything. The king of Mazaua who was the most influential after
that king and the seignior of a number of islands, went ashore to speak to the king of the great courtesy of
our captain-general.
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Monday morning, our notary, together with the interpreter, went to Zubu. The king, accompanied
by his chiefs, came to the open square where he had our men sit down near him. He asked the notary
whether there were more than one captain in that company, and. whether that captain wished him to pay
tribute to the emperor his master. The notary replied in the negative, but that the captain wished only to
trade with him and with no others. The king said that he was satisfied, and that if the captain wished to
become his friend, he should send him a drop of blood from his right arm, and he himself would do the
same. [to him] as a sign of the most sincere friendship. The notary answered that the captain would do it.
Thereupon, the king told him that all the captains who came to that place, were wont to give presents one
to the other [i.e., mutual presents between the king and the captain), and asked whether our captain or he
ought to commence. The interpreter told the king that since he desired to maintain the custom, he should
commence, and so he did.
Tuesday morning the king of Mazaua came to the ships with the Moro. He saluted the captaingeneral in behalf of the king [of Zubu), and said that the king of Zubu was collecting as much food as
possible to give to him, and that after dinner he would send one of his nephews and two others of his chief
men to make peace… After dinner the king's nephew, who was the prince came to the ships with the king
of Mazaua, the Moro, the governor, the chief constable, and eight chiefs, to make peace with us. … After
the conclusion of the peace, the captain had refreshments served to them. Then the prince and the king [of
Mazaua] presented some baskets of rice, swine, goats, and fowls to the captain-general on behalf of their
king, and asked him to pardon them, for such things were but little [to give] to one such as he. The
captain gave the prince a white cloth of the finest linen, a red cap, strings of glass beads, and a gilded
glass drinking cup. Those glasses are greatly appreciated in those districts. He did not give any present to
the king of Mazaua, for he had already given him a robe of Cambaya, besides other articles. To the
others he gave now one thing and now another. Then he sent to the king of Zubu through me and one
other a yellow and violet silk robe, made in Turkish style, a fine red cap, some strings of glass beads, all
in a silver dish, and two gilt drinking cups in our hands. When we reached the city we found the king in
his palace surrounded by many people. He was seated on a palm mat on the ground, with only a cotton
cloth before his privies, and a scarf embroidered with the needle about his head, a necklace of great
value hanging from his neck, and two large gold earrings fastened in his ears set round with precious
gems. He was fat and short and tattooed with fire in various designs. From another mat on the ground he
was eating turtle eggs which were in two porcelain dishes, and he had four jars full of palm wine in front
of him covered with sweet-smelling herbs and arranged with four small reeds in each jar by means of
which he drank. Having duly made reverence to him, the interpreter told the king that his master thanked
him very warmly for his present, and that he sent this present not in return. for his present but for the
intrinsic love which he bore him. We dressed him in the robe, placed the cap on his head, and gave him
the other things; then kissing the beads and putting them upon his head, I presented them to him. He
doing the same (i.e., kissing them] accepted them. Then the king had us eat some of those eggs and drink
through those slender reeds. The others, his men, told him in that place, the words of the captain
concerning peace and his exhortation to them to become Christians. The king wished to have' us stay to
supper with him, but we told him that we could not stay then. Having taken our leave of him, the prince
took us with him to his house, where four young girls were playing [instruments] — one, on a drum like
ours, but resting on the ground; the second was striking two suspended gongs alternately with a stick
wrapped somewhat thickly at the end with palm cloth ; the third, one large gong in the same manner; and
the last, two small gongs held in her hand, by striking one against the other, which gave forth a sweet
sound. They played so harmoniously that one would believe they possessed good musical sense.
Those girls were very beautiful and almost as white as our girls and as large. They were naked except
for tree cloth hanging from the waist and reaching to the knees. Some were quite naked and had large
holes in their ears with a small round piece of wood in the hole, which keeps the hole round and large.
They have long black hair, and wear a short cloth about the head, and are always barefoot. The prince
had three quite naked girls dance for us. We took refreshments and then went to the ships. Those gongs
are made of brass [metals] and are manufactured in the regions about the Signio Magno which is called
China. They are used in those regions as we use bells and are called aghon. …
On Friday We showed those people a shop full of our merchandise," at which they were very much
surprised. For metals, iron, and other large merchandise they gave us gold. For the other smaller articles
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they gave us rice, swine, goats, and other food. Those people gave us x pieces of gold for xiiii libras of
iron (one piece being worth about one and one-half ducados). The captain-general did not wish to take
too much gold, for there would have been some sailors who would have given all that they owned for a
small amount of gold and would have spoiled the trade forever. On Saturday, as the captain had
promised the king to make him a Christian on Sunday, a platform was built in the consecrated square,
which was adorned with hangings and palm branches for his baptism. The captain-general sent men to
tell the king not to be afraid of the pieces that would be discharged in the morning, for it was our custom
to discharge them at our greatest feasts without loading with stones.
On Sunday morning, April fourteen, forty men of us went ashore, two of whom were completely
armed and preceded the royal banner. When we reached land all the artillery was fired. Those people
followed us hither and thither. The captain and the king embraced. ... The captain told the king through
the interpreter that he thanked God for inspiring him to became a Christian; and that [now] he would
more easily conquer his enemies than before. The king replied that he wished to become a Christian, but
that some of his chiefs did not wish to obey, because they said that they were as good men as he. Then our
captain had all the chiefs of the king called, and told them that, unless they obeyed the king as their king,
he would have them killed, and would give their possessions to the king. They replied that they would
obey him. … A large cross was set up in the middle of the square. The captain told them that if they
wished to become Christians as they had declared on the previous days, that they must burn all their idols
and set up a cross in their place. They were to adore that cross daily with clasped hands, and every
morning after their (i.e., the Spaniards] custom, they were to make the sign of the cross (which the
captain showed them how to make) ; and they ought to come hourly, at least in the morning, to that cross,
and adore it kneeling. The intention that they had already declared, they were to confirm with good works.
The king and all the others wished to confirm it thoroughly. The captain-general told the king that he was
clad all in white to demonstrate his sincere love toward them. They replied that they could not respond to
his sweet words. The captain led the king by the hand to the platform while speaking these good words in
order to baptize him. He told the king that he would call him Don Carlo, after his sovereign the emperor;
the prince, Don Fernando, after the emperor's brother; the king of Mazaua, Johanni ; a chief, Fernando,
after our chief, that is to say, the captain; the Moro, Christoforo; and then the others, now one name, and
now another. Five hundred men were baptized before mass. After the conclusion of mass, the captain
invited the king and some of the other chiefs to dinner, but they refused, accompanying us, however, to
the shore. The ships discharged all the mortars; and embracing, the king and chiefs and the captain took
leave of one another.
After dinner the priest and some of the others went ashore to baptize the queen, who came with
forty women. We conducted her to the platform, and she was made to sit down upon a cushion, and the
other women near her, until the priest should be ready. She was shown an image of Our Lady, a very
beautiful wooden child Jesus, and a cross. Thereupon, she was overcome with contrition, and asked for
baptism amid her tears. We named her Johanna, after the emperor's mother; her daughter, the wife of the
prince, Catherina; the queen of Mazaua, Lisabeta; and the others, each their [distinctive] name.
Counting men, women, and children, we baptized eight hundred souls. The queen was young and
beautiful and was entirely covered with a white and black cloth. Her mouth and nails were very red,
while on her head she wore a large hat of palm leaves in the mariner of a parasol, with a crown about it
of the same leaves, like the tiara of the pope; and she never goes any place without such a one. She asked
us to give her the little child Jesus to keep in place of her idols; and then she went away. In the
afternoon,"'
the
king
and
queen,
accompanied by numerous persons, came to the shore. Thereupon, the captain had many trombs of fire
and large mortars discharged, by which they were most highly delighted. The captain and the king called
one another brothers. That king's name was Raia Humabon. Before that week had gone, all the persons of
that island, and some from the other islands, were baptized. We burned one hamlet which was located in
a neighboring island, because it refused to obey the king or us. We set up the cross there for those people
were heathen. Had they been Moros, we would have erected a column there as a token of greater
hardness, for the Moros are much harder to convert than the heathen…
Before mass one day, the captain-general had king come clad in his silk robe, and the chief men of
the city, [to wit], the king's brother and prince's father, whose name was Bendara; another of the king's
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brother, Cadaio; and certain ones called Simiut, Sibuaia, Sisacai, Maghalibe, and many others whom
shall not name in order not to be tedious. The captain made them all swear to be obedient to their king,
and they kissed the latter's hand. Then the captain had the king declare that he would always be obedient
and faithful to the king of Spagnia, and the king go swore.
One day the captain-general asked the king and the other people why they did not burn their idols
as they had promised when they became Christians; and why they sacrificed so much flesh to them. They
replied that what they were doing was not for themselves, but for a sick man who had not spoken now for
four days, so that the idols might give him health. He was the prince's brother, and the bravest and wisest
man in the island. The captain told them to burn their idols and to believe in Christ, and that if the sick
man were baptized, he would quickly recover; and if that did not so happen they could behead him [i.e.,
the captain] then and there. Thereupon, the king replied that he would do it, for he truly believed in
Christ. We made a procession from the square to the house of the sick man with as much pomp as
possible. There we found him in such condition that he could neither speak nor move. We baptized him
and his two wives, and x girls. Then the captain had him asked how he felt. He spoke immediately and
said that by the grace of Our Lord he felt very well. That was a most manifest miracle [that happened] in
our times. When the captain heard him speak, he thanked God fervently. Then he made the sick man drink
aome almond milk, which he had already had made for him. Afterward he sent him a mattress, a pair of
sheets, a coverlet of yellow cloth, and a pillow. Until he recovered his health, the captain sent him
almond milk, rose-water, oil of roses, and some sweet preserves. Before five days the sick man began to
walk. He had an idol that certain old women had concealed in his house burned in the presence of the
king and all the people. He had many shrines along the seashore destroyed, in which the consecrated
meat was eaten. …
There are many villages in that island. Their names, those of their inhabitants, and of their chiefs
are as follows: Cinghapola, and it's chiefs, Cilaton, Ciguibucan, Cimaningha, Cimatichat, and Cicanbul;
one, Mandaui, and its chief, Apanoaan; one Lalan, and its chief, Theteu; one, Lalutan, and chief, Tapan;
one Cilumai; and one, Lubucun.All those villages rendered obedience to us, and gave us food and tribute.
Near that island of Zubu was an island called Matan, which formed the port where we were anchored.
The name of its village was Matan, and its chiefs were Zula and Cilapulapu. That city which we burned
was in that island and was called Bulaia…
On Friday, April twenty-six, Zula, a chief of the island of Matan, sent one of his sons to present two
goats to the captain-general, and to say that he would send him all that he had promised, but that he had
not been able to send it to him because of the other chief Cilapulapu, who refused to obey the king of
Spagnia. He requested the captain to send him only one boatload of men on the next night, so that they
might help him and fight against the Other chief. The captain-general decided to go thither with three
boatloads. We begged him repeatedly not to go, but he, like a good shepherd, refused to abandon his
flock. At midnight, sixty men of us set out armed with corselets and helmets, together with the Christian
king, the prince, some of the chief men, and twenty or thirty balanguais. We reached Matan three hours
before dawn. The captain did not wish to fight then, but sent a message to the natives by the Moro to the
effect that if they would obey the king of Spagnia, recognize the Christian king as their sovereign, and pay
us our tribute, he would be their friend; but that if they wished otherwise, they should wait to see how our
lances wounded. They replied that if we had lances they had lances of bamboo and stakes hardened with
fire. (They asked us) not to proceed to attack them at Once, but to wait until morning, so that they might
have more men. They said that in order to induce us to go in search of them; for they had dug certain
pitholes between the houses in order that we might fall into them. When morning came forty-nine of us
leaped into the water up to our thighs and walked through water for more than two crossbow flights
before we could reach the shore. The boats could not approach nearer because of certain rocks in the
water. The other eleven men remained behind to guard the boats. When we reached land, those men had
formed in three divisions to the number of more than one thousand five hundred persons. When they saw
us, they charged down upon us with exceeding loud cries, two divisions on our flanks and the other on
our front. When the captain saw that, he formed us into two divisions, and thus did we begin to fight. The
musketeers and crossbowmen shot from a distance for about a half-hour, but uselessly; for the shots only
passed through the shields which were made of thin wood and the arms [of the bearers]. The captain
cried to them, “Cease firing! cease firing!” but his order was not at all heeded. When the natives saw that
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we were shooting our muskets to no purpose, crying out they determined to stand firm, but they redoubled
their shouts. When our muskets were discharged, the natives would never stand still, but leaped hither
and thither, covering themselves with their shields. They shot so many arrows ae us and hurled so many
bamboo spears (some of them tipped with iron) at the captain-general, besides pointed, stakes hardened
with fire, stones, and mud, that we could scarcely defend ourselves. Seeing that the captain-general sent
some men to burn their houses in order to terrify them. When they saw their houses burning, they were
roused to greater fury. Two of our men were killed near the houses, while we burned twenty or thirty
houses. So many of them charged down upon us that they shot the captain through the right leg with a
poisoned arrow. On that account, he ordered us to retire slowly, but the men took to flight, except six or
eight of us who remained with the captain.
The natives shot only at our legs, for the latter were bare; and so many were the spears and stones
that they hurled at us, that we could offer no resistance. The mortars in the boats could not aid us as they
were too far away. So we continued to retire for more than a good crossbow flight from the shore always
fighting up to our knees in the water. The natives continued to pursue us and picking up the same spear
four or six times, hurled it at us again and again. Recognizing the captain, so many turned upon him that
they knocked his helmet off his head twice, but he always stood firmly like a good knight, together with
some others. Thus, did we fight for more than one hour, refusing to retire further. An Indian hurled a
bamboo spear into the Captain's face, but the latter immediately killed him with his lance, which he left in
the Indian's body. Then, trying to lay hand on sword, he could draw it out but halfway, because he had
been wounded in the arm with a bamboo spear. When the natives saw that, they all hurled themselves
upon him. One of them wounded him on the left leg with a large cutlass," which resembles a scimitar,
only being larger. That caused the captain to fall face downward, when immediately they rushed upon
him with iron and bamboo spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our
comfort, and our true guide. When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see whether we were
all in the boats. Thereupon, beholding him dead, we, wounded, retreated, as best we could, to the boats,
which were already pulling off. … And that this the truth was seen openly, for no other had had so much
natural talent nor the boldness to learn how to circumnavigate the world, as he had almost done. That
battle was fought on Saturday, April twenty-seven, 1521. The captain desired to fight on Saturday,
because it was the day especially holy to him. Eight of our men were killed with him in that battle, and
four Indians, who had become Christians and who had come afterward to aid us were killed by the
mortars of the boats. Of the enemy, only fifteen were killed, while many of us were wounded.
In the afternoon the Christian king sent a message with our consent to the people of Matan, to the
effect that if they would give us the Captain and the other men who had been killed, we would give them
as much merchandise as they wished. They answered that they would not give up such a man, as we
imagined [they would do], and that they would not give him for all the riches in the world, but that they
intended to keep him as a memorial.
On Saturday, the day on which the captain was killed, the four men who had remained in the city to
trade, had our merchandise carried to the ships. Then we chose two commanders, namely, Duarte
Barboza, a Portuguese and a relative of the captain, and Johan Seranno, a Spaniard. As our interpreter,
Henrich by name, was wounded slightly, he would not go ashore any more to attend to our necessary
affairs, but always kept his bed. On that account, Duarte Barboza, the commander of the flagship, cried
out to him and told him, that although his master, the captain, was dead, he was not therefore free; on the
contrary he [i.e., Barboza) would see to it that when we should reach Espagnia, he should still be the
slave of Dona the wife of the captain-general. And threatening the slave that if he did go ashore, he would
be flogged, the latter arose, and, feigning to take no heed to those words, went ashore to tell the Christian
king that we were about to leave very soon, but that if he would follow his advice, he could gain the ships
and all our merchandise. Accordingly they arranged a plot, and the slave returned to the ship, where he
showed that he was more cunning than before.
On Wednesday morning, the first of May, the Christian king sent word to the commanders that the
jewels which he had promised to send to the king of Spagnia were ready, and that he begged them and
their other companions to come to dine with him that morning, when he would give them the jewels.
Twenty-four men went ashore, among whom was our astrologer, San Martin de Sivilla. I could not go
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because I was all swollen up by a wound from a poisoned arrow which I had received in my face. Jovan
Carvaio and the constable
returned and told us that
they saw the man who had
been cured by a miracle
take the priest to his house.
Consequently, they had left
that place, because they
suspected
some
evil.
Scarcely had they spoken
those words when we
heard loud cries and
lamentations.
We
immediately
weighed
anchor and discharging
many mortars into the
houses, drew in nearer to
the
shore.
While
thus
Figure 9. Demarcation Lines Between Spain and Portugal based on the two treatises.
discharging [our pieces] we
saw Johan Seranno in his shirt bound and wounded, crying to us not to fire any more, for the natives
would kill him. We asked him whether all the others and the interpreter were dead. He said that they were
all dead except the interpreter. He begged us earnestly to redeem him with some of the merchandise; but
Johan Carvaio, his boon companion, [and others] would not allow the boat to go ashore so that they
might remain masters of the ships. But although Johan Serrano weeping asked us not to set sail so quickly,
for they would kill him, and said that he prayed God to ask his soul of Johan Carvaio, his comrade, in the
day of Judgment, we immediately departed. I do not know whether he is dead or alive.
Moluccas Issue
After Magellan’s expedition, when the ship Victoria reached Spain on September 6, 1522, the
Pacific area came into play, particularly the Spice Islands (Moluccas), which both countries claimed.
Several expeditions were sent by the King of Spain, claiming that those were in his zone, according to the
Treaty of Tordesillas. See Figure 8 below shows the successive Spanish expeditions after the Armada de
Maluco.
In 1524, both kingdoms organized the Junta de Bajadoz-Elvas to resolve the issue: find Tordesillas'
antemeridian's
exact
location, which would
divide the world into two
equal hemispheres. Each
kingdom appointed three
astronomers
and
cartographers, and three
mathematicians. The junta
met several times at
Bajadoz and Elvas without
reaching an agreement
since the knowledge at
that time was insufficient
for an accurate calculation
of the longitude.
To ease an agreement on
the Moluccas, in 1525,
Charles V’s younger sister
Catherine
of
Austria
married
John
III
of
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Portugal. Meanwhile, always needing money for his European wars, Charles V of Spain sought a
practical solution to the “Moluccas issue” after marrying Isabella of Portugal in 1526. He signed a new
treaty with Portugal in Zaragoza, Spain, on April 22, 1529. These political marriages strengthened the ties
between the two kingdoms.
The Treaty of Zaragoza provided an antemeridian to the line established by the 1494 Treaty.
Portugal paid Spain 350,000 ducats for the Moluccas. To prevent further Spanish encroachment, the new
demarcation line was established almost three hundred leagues (or 17º) to the east of these islands.
Portugal got control over all of the lands to the west line, including Asia, and Spain claimed most Pacific
Ocean. Spanish interest in the Philippines, shown by the new treaty to be on the Portugal side of the line,
would become an issue later in the sixteenth century.
 Treaty of Zaragoza (April 22, 1529).
EXCERPT:
First, the said grand chancellor, the bishop of and the commander-in-chief of Calatrava,
attorneys of the said and sovereign of Castilla declared that they, in his name, and by virtue of their said
of attorney would sell and in fact did sell from this day and tor all time, to the said King of Portugal, for
him and all the successors to the crown or his kingdoms, all right, action, dominion, ownership, and
possession or quasi possession, and all rights of navigation, traffic, and trade in any manner whatsoever;
that the said emperor and king of Castilla declares that he holds and could hold howsoever and in
manner in the said Maluquo, the islands, places, lands, and seas, as will be declared hereafter ; this, with
the declarations, limitations, conditions, and clauses contained and stated hereunder for the sum of three
hundred and fifty thousand ducats of gold, paid in the current money, of gold or Silver, each ducat being
valued in Castilla at three hundred and seventy-five maravedis. The said King of Portugal will give and
pay this amount to the said emperor and king of Castilla, and to the persons whom his majesty may
appoint, in the following manner: one hundred and fifty thousand ducats to be paid at Lixboa, within the
first fifteen or twenty days after this contract, confirmed by the said emperor and king of Castilla, shall
have arrived at the city of Lixboa, or wherever the said King of Portugal may be; thirty thousand ducats
to be paid in Castilla — twenty thousand at Valhadolid and ten thousand at Sevilla, by the twentieth day
of the month of May of this present year; seventy thousand ducats to be paid in Castilla at the May fair of
Medina del Campo Of this same year, at the terms of the payments of said fair, and the hundred
thousand ducats remaining at the October fair at the said of Medina del Campo of this game year, at the
of the payment of the same — all to be paid over and above the rate of exchange. If necessary, note will
be given for the said time; and, if said emperor and King of Castilla wishes to take in exchange the said
hundred thousand ducats at the said May fair of this said year in order to avail himself of their use, he
shall pay the said King of Portugal exchange at the rate of five or six Fr. Cent, the rate which his
treasurer, Hernand Alvarez, is accustomed to exact from fair to fair. The aforesaid sale is made by the
said emperor and king of Castilia to the said King of Portugal on condition that, at whatever time the
said emperor and king of Castilla or his successors, should wish to return, and should return, all of the
said three hundred and fifty thousand ducats without any shortage to the said King Of Portugal or his
successors, the said sale becomes null and void and each one of the said sovereigns shall enjoy the right
and authority which he now holds and claims to hold, both as regards the right of possession or quasi
possession, and as regards the proprietorship, howsoever and in whatever manner they belong to him, as
if this contract were not made, and in the manner in which they first held possession and claimed to hold
it, and this contract shall cause no prejudice or innovation.
Item: It is covenanted and agreed by the said attorneys in the name of their said
constituents, that, in order to ascertain what islands, places, lands, seas, and their rights and jurisdiction,
are sold, henceforth and forever, by the said emperor and king of Castilla, by this contract under the
aforesaid condition, to the said King of Portugal, a line must be determined from pole to pole. that is to
say, from north to south, by a semicircle extending northeast by east nineteen degrees from Maluquo, to
which number of degrees correspond almost seventeen degrees on the equinoctial, amounting to two
hundred and ninety-seven and one-half leagues east of the islands of Maluquo, allowing seventeen and
one-half leagues to equinoctial degree. In this northeast by east meridian and direction are situated the
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islands of Las Velas and of Santo Thome, through which the said line and semicircle passes. Since these
islands are situated and are distant from Maluquo the said distant, more or less, the deputies determine
and agree the said line be drawn at the said two hundred and ninety-even and one-half leagues to the east,
the equivalent of the nineteen degrees northeast by from said islands of Maluquo, aforesaid. The said
deputies declare that, in order to ascertain where the said line should be drawn, two charts of the same
tenor be made, conformable to the chart in India House of Trade at Sevilha, and by which the fleets,
vassals and subjects of the said emperor and king of Castilla navigate. Within thirty days from the date of
this contract two persons shall be appointed by each side to examine the aforesaid chart and make the
two copies aforesaid conformable to it. In them the said line shall be drawn in the manner aforesaid; and
they shall be signed by the said sovereigns, and scaled with their seals, so that each one will keep his own
chart; and the said line shall remain fixed henceforth at the point and place so designated. This chart
shall also designate the spot in which the said vassals of the said emperor and king of Castilla shall
situate and locate Maluquo, which during the time of this contract shall be regarded as situated in such
place, although in truth it is situated more or less distance eastward from the place that is designated in
the said charts. The seventeen degrees eastward shall be drawn from the point where Maluquo is situated
in said charts. For the good of this contract the said King of Portugal must have said chart, and in case
the aforesaid be not found in the House of Trade of Sevilha, the said persons appointed by the said
sovereigns shall make said charts within one month, signed and sealed as aforesaid. Furthermore
navigation charts shall be made by them, in which the said line shall be drawn in the manner aforesaid,
so that henceforth the said vassals, natives, and subjects of the said emperor and king of Castilia shall
navigate by them; and so that the navigators of cither pa shall be certain of the location of the said line
and Of the aforesaid distance of the two hundred and ninety-seven and one-half leagues between the said
line and Maluquo.
LEGAZPI EXPEDITION
After King Charles I (Emperor Charles V) abdicated the Spanish throne in 1556, his son, Philip II,
became the King of Spain. Later, he wrote a letter to the Mexican Viceroy Luis de Velasco, ordering him
to prepare an expedition for the Philippines' conquest and colonization. However, before the expedition
set, the Viceroy died. The instructions were issued by the President and Auditors of the Royal Audiencia
of Mexico. The commander of the expedition was given to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi. He was
accompanied by Fr. Andres de Urdaneta (acting as the chief pilot), Captain Felipe de Salcedo (Legazpi’s
grandson), Guido de Lavezaris (survivor of the Villalobos expedition), Melchor de Legazpi (fleet
accountant and Legazpi’s son), and five Augustinian missionaries.
 Instruction to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi from the Royal Audiencia of New Spain (Vol. II)
EXCERPT:
The following were the main specific instructions of the King of Spain to Legazpi:
“The fleet, setting sail, shall proceed in search of and to discover the Western Islands situated toward
the Malucos, but you shall not in any way or manner enter the islands of the said Malucos, but you
shall enter other islands contiguous to the, for instance, the Filipinas, and others outside the said
treaty, and within this majesty’s demarcation, and which are also reported to contain spice. They are
to labor for the evangelization of the natives, to ascertain the products of the islands, and to discover
the return route to New Spain… When you have arrived at the said Filipinas Islands, and other
islands contiguous to them and the Malucos, without, however, you shall try to discover entering the
latter, and examine their ports, and to ascertain and learn the settlements minutely therein and their
wealth; the nature and mode of life of the natives; the trade and barter among them, and with the
nations; the value and price of spices among them… Urdaneta must return with the ship or ships sent
back to discover the return route, because of his experience.”
Here were the other significant events that happened during the expedition, beginning from their
arrival in the Philippines in 1565 until they were able to establish a settlement in Maynila in 1571:
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February 13, 1565: Anchored near the island of Cebu. Unable to land at the island due to
Cebuano hostilities.
February 22, 1565: Sailed to Samar and was welcomed by Chief Urrao and made a blood
compact.
March 9, 1565: Landed at Limasawa and the Chief Bankaw hospitably received them.
March 1565: Made a blood compact after befriended the native kings, Sikatuna and Sigala
April 27, 1565: The expedition sailed to Cebu, and Chief Tupas defied the Spaniards. The attacks
of Legazpi’s force defeated Cebuanos.
o As the first established Spanish settlement, Cebu named “Villa del Santisimo Nombre
de Jesus (City of the Most Holy Name of Jesus) after an image of Sto. Niño was found in
one of the native houses.
June 4, 1565: Legazpi and Rajah Tupas concluded a treaty with the condition that Chief Tupas and
the other datus recognize Spanish sovereignty and friendship.
o Augustinian missionaries began the spreading of Christianity to the natives of Cebu
1569: Due to Cebu's scarcity of food provisions, the Spaniards transferred to Panay, where the
people peacefully welcomed them. They established a second settlement on the bank of the Panay
River.
1570: Having heard of Luzon's riches, Legazpi dispatched Martin de Goiti to explore the northern
region. Landing in Batangas with a force of 120 Spaniards and 600 Visayans from Cebu and Panay
islands, de Goiti explored the area.
May 8, 1570: They arrived in Manila Bay. The natives welcomed them. Goiti’s soldiers camped
there for a few weeks while allying with the Muslim leader Raja Soliman, a vassal under Brunei's
Sultan. He refused to submit to the Spanish vassalage and defended his area from the Spaniards.
May 24, 1570: Goiti and his men captured Maynilad and Soliman, and his warriors retreated.
o In the same year, more reinforcements from Spain arrived in the Philippines
May 1571: Legazpi followed Goiti and Salcedo to Maynilad. He formed a peace pact with the
natives and the local rulers Rajah Suleiman and Lakan Dula.
June 3, 1571: Although both local rulers befriended Legazpi, some Filipinos in Central Luzon
defied the Spaniards. Bambalito, a Pampango warlord, rallied the warriors from different towns to
resist Spanish invaders' resistance. Their war boats sailed down the Channel of Bankusay, off the
north shore of Manila Bay, ang engaged de Goiti’s forces in a naval battle. However, Bambalito
was killed, and their plan failed.
June 24, 1571: Legazpi established a settlement. He proclaimed Maynilad as the island’s capital
and the Spanish government seat in the East Indies.
o Years later, King Philip II, by his Royal Decree of June 1, 1574, named Manila as Insigne y
Siempre Leal Ciudad (Distinguished and Ever Loyal City).
SPANISH COLONIAL SYSTEM IN THE PHILIPPINES
Spain was the first European country to rise as a great colonizing power in modern times. At the
zenith of her glory and grandeur during the 16th century, her Siglo de Oro (Golden Century) established
many colonies in Africa and in the New World (Latin America) and Asia. These were the first global
colonial empire in history, making King Philip II the first monarch to justly boast that the sun never set on
his realm. To rule their colonies, Spain created and compiled their enacted colonial laws into a convenient
code called Recopilacion de los Leyes de los Reynos de las Indias (Laws of the Indies). This is
composed of numerous decrees issued over the centuries to regulate their colonial territories' social,
political, and economic life.
Patterns of Colonization
The colonization of the Philippines by Spain could not have been achieved without the help of
native allies. Also, historians always attributed the success of Spanish colonization to the missionaries'
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zeal and the superiority of Spanish arms. Despite their minimal numbers, the Spaniards managed to
achieve the colonization of most of the Philippines.
The colonizers did not entirely develop their own initiated pacification method in the islands but to
comply with the Royal Ordinance on Pacification issued in 1573. The colonizers gathered information
about the natives' culture, their languages, and divisions of the natives in the provinces and the leader
they obeyed. The Spaniards were to seek friendship with these native leaders through trade and barter.
Also, colonization's success was primarily due to the Spanish explorers' practice befriending the
local chieftains. Reflecting a medieval tradition by offering friendship and protection is given by the
Spaniards to recognize the Spanish monarch's power by the natives. The Spaniards were willing to do
native practices to achieve the native leaders' goodwill through sandugo or blood compact to seal the
friendship. Though the native pact symbolizes brotherhood and equality, the Spaniards never actually
believed in its importance as long as it is secured the Spanish aim of conquest. Moreover, to ensure the
loyalty of the datu class, the Spaniards exempted them and their descendants from payment of taxes, the
conduct of polo or community labor, and other colonial impositions. Some of them received appointments
as local officials and other titles.
Later, the Spaniards used the divide and rule method by using one group against another in
quelling revolts throughout its rule. Aside from titles and exemptions from tribute, another incentive was
the attraction of booty. The prospect of booty is reflected in the repartimiento system. The term came
from the Spanish repartir – to allot. It was the system of assigning quotas of exploitable goods, services,
and persons. Under this system, it allows the Spaniards to seize the wealth and food of the natives.
Since the country was divided into thousands of scattered barangays, it became necessary to
gather the population in places where colonial and religious officials could conveniently administer them.
The process called reduccion was responsible for forming the nucleus of many towns and pueblos. The
barangays were placed “under the bells” (bajo las campanas), where the natives were placed within
tolling distance of the parish church bells. The natives were brought into the reducciones either by force
or by persuasion and were converted to Christianity. The colonizers called the baptized natives Indios
and separated from the infieles or the unpacified natives (De Viana 2011, 78-82).
Political Changes: Centralized Government
In organizing the central government, the Spanish authorities saw that they would be guided by
their experience in Mexico and South America. The Spanish colonizers organized a highly centralized
form of government. It meant that the central or national government was so powerful that almost
everything had to be done with its knowledge and consent. From 1565 to 1821, Spain governed the
Philippines indirectly through the Viceroy of New Spain (Nueva Espana in Mexico). As a crown colony,
the Philippines is governed by the Council of Indies (Consejo de las Indias). The King is the supreme
lawmaker and administrator of all and colonies and was guided by the Recopilacion de los Leyes de las
Indias. In 1863, the Council of Indies was replaced by the Ministry of Overseas Colonies (Ministerio de
Ultramar).
The governor-general who carried the rank of Captain-General headed the executive branch of
the central government. Combining the Captain-General's powers as President of Audiencia, Vice-Royal
Patron, and Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces, he was a truly powerful official. This power was
best shown in the right of cumplase bestowed upon him by the King. The cumplase was the governor's
right to suspend or veto the operation of a Royal decree or order relative to the Philippines if, in his
opinion, the said decree would not be beneficial to the country's administration.
The Audiencia and lower courts exercised the judicial powers of the government. It was
established in 1583 to administer justice to the aggrieved people in the colony and was the highest court
insofar as civil and criminal cases. In the absence of the Governor-General, the Audiencia exercised
political and administrative powers. It also audited the finances of the government.
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Since the Philippines was too far to be governed by Spain, the outgoing governor-generals'
performance was reviewed by a residencia at the end of their office term. Officials found guilty of
misconduct were punished by fines and imprisonment. Also, a royal visitor or visitador-real came to the
Philippines unannounced and incognito to check the Spanish officials' performance. They reported
directly to the Council of Indies, and the wrongdoers were fined or imprisoned.
Under the central government was the provincial government. The local government begins with
alcaldias (pacified districts) and the corregimiento (unpacified and strategic military districts). An alcalde
mayor headed the alcaldia. At the same time, the corregimiento was led by a military or a naval officer
called corregidor. Under the provincial government was the municipal government. The town or
municipality, composed of several barrios, was headed by a gobernadorcillo, also called capitan
municipal. At the barrio level has consisted of the Cabeza de barangay, whose duty was to collect taxes
and other contributions, recruit labor, and maintain peace and order within a jurisdiction.
The chart (See Figure 10 on page 78) shows the political structure of the centralized government
implemented by the Spanish government in the Philippines, as its colony.
Union of Church and State
Various religious orders were deployed in the various parts of the country, mainly: the
Augustinians (1571) were given the islands of Cebu, Iloilo, Manila, Pangasinan, and Ilocos region; the
Franciscans (1577) were sent to southern Tagalog and the Bicol region; the Jesuits (1583) were sent to
evangelize Eastern Visayas, Cebu, Bohol, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao; the Dominicans (1587) were
assigned to Bataan, Pangasinan and the rest of northern Luzon, and the Batanes; the Recollects (1606)
in northern Mindanao, Palawan, and Zambales and some of the Jesuit missions following the expulsion of
the Jesuit missionaries from the Philippines in 1759; and Benedictines (1895). These missionaries
worked hard to convert the natives to Catholicism.
Because the early Kings of Spain helped much in propagating and defending the Catholic faith,
they became closely identified with the Church. There was a Union of Church and State. The same
union was introduced to the Philippines. The officials appointed by the King and his representative in the
colony were also defenders of the faith. On the other hand, the friars were not only priests but also agents
of the Spanish King. Because of this union, the governor-general had the authority to appoint priests in
parishes. At the same time, the clergy were also active in the government and had political powers. They
became members of the Central government. In the local government, the friar-curate was always the
census enumerator, the health officer, the inspector of schools, the examiner of pupils who wanted to
study in primary school, the censor who approved and disapproved writings to be published, and the
auditor of the local government. To the people of every town, the friar-curate performed many duties. In
this way, he became very powerful. In some cases, the highest church official was eligible to become
Governor-General during the latter’s absence of illness (Agoncillo and Mangahas 2020, 59).
Spain’s Economic Policy
To sustain itself, the Spanish colonial government devised ways of earning income. The following
were the various economic impositions implemented by the Spaniards (Agoncillo and Mangahas 2020,
62-67):
1. Encomienda
The encomienda, in principle, was not a piece of land but a favor from the King, under which the Spaniard
receiving the favor was given the right to collect tributes or taxes from the natives of an area assigned to
him. The man who received this favor was called encomendero. The encomienda, therefore, was an
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administrative duty. The first encomendero was Governor-General Legazpi and later gave lands to those
who had helped in the Philippines' conquest. The size of the encomienda was determined by the
number of people living in it and the value of the land on which the natives lived. At first, an encomienda
could be held for three generations, but it was later reduced to two generations. However, instead of
doing the duties of the encomenderos to teach the natives about Christian doctrine and protect them, they
abused their authority and maltreated the Philippines.
There were three kinds of encomienda: Royal, which belonged to the King; Ecclesiastical, which
belonged to the Church; and Private, which belonged to a private individual.
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 Encomiendas Assigned by Legaspi (Vol. XXXIV, 304-310); Memorial of Bishop Domingo de Salazar on the
Abuses Committed by Spaniards (Vol.5).
ENCOMIENDAS ASSIGNED BY MIGUEL LOPEZ DE LEGAZPI
EXCERPT:
In the testimony given by the notary Fernando Riquel in the city of Manila, June 2, 1576, and which
was taken from the government records, appears an attested relation of the encomiendas which were
distributed among the original Spanish conquistadors of Filipinas. From this document especially
noteworthy from the viewpoints of history, geography, and politics, it appears that the islands at the time
of Sande's arrival, had been divided into encomiendas in the following manner. In Cebu, Legazpi
assigned to his Majesty the port and the village as far as Canipata (January 16, 1571). In the rest of the
island he apportioned (January 25, 1571) 3,000 Indians to Jerónimo de Monzón; 2,000 to Cristóbal
Sánchez; and 1,000 to Francisco Carreño. In Panay, he assigned to his Majesty (January 16, 1571 ) the
river and settlement of Panay from the coast to Catitlán. On October 31, he apportioned about 4,000
Indians of Sogut (the mouth of the Araut River) and Malpa, with their tingües (mountains) and hills to the
chief-constable Gabriel de Ribera; about 6,000 Indians on the Araut River near the coast from the
villages of Dayt, Payán, Pinabao, Tongo, Pandán, Nonoc, Dumangal, Cararao, Balig, Bantao, Mata,
Harún, Daripe, and the villages of the tributary that flows into the Bumey River between Potocán and
Bulney with their tingües and hills, to Captain Luis de la Haya; to Lope Rodriguez and Diego Lopez de
Valdepeñas, 2,000 Indians apiece, in the villages of Cali and Sibucao up the river (at the entrance of the
Araut River) past the village of Daripe and as far as Sicapurut. On November 2, he assigned 4,000
Indians of the Pua River between Bago and Marianao, and the branch of Barbarán, with their tingües
and hills, to the soldiers Baltasar Rodriguez and Alonso Sánchez; 2,000 Indians apiece on the tributary of
the Sibalinte between Amindan and Banga to the soldiers Francisco de Ribera and Diego Garcia; the
Indians of Maluhud and its creeks to the soldier Alvaro de Angulo; 2,000 Indians of the bay of Moguin,
namely, the Indians of the creek of Batán, Aguísan, Initantarón, Capulanbaril, Dinao, Moguin, and
Manuc, with their tingües and hills, to the soldier Gonzalo Riquel; and 2,000 on the tributary of the Mayo
to the soldier Francisco Rey. On November 3, 2,000 Indians on the river of Daclan, and the villages of
Amacatan and Tagaun, with their tingües and hills, to Antonio Flores; the Indians of the villages of
Guimba; Caranga, Argahao, Marabagui, and Bugau, with their tingües and hills to Hernando de Monroy;
the Indians of the river of Arui, and the natives of Barugo, Uyungin, Cuyuran, Naorguán, Bangot, Tibao,
Lonio, Cabáyan, Lalac, and Tabangan, with their tingüues and hills to Rodrigo de Vargas; the Indians of
Tibaguán and Baguinguin, with their tingües hills to Estéban Rodriguez; and the Indians of the river of
Xaro and those of the villages of Calataca, Pasanhan, Cabuga, Alenguen, Samble and Sunamburi, with
their tingües and hills, to Francisco Durán. On April 5, 1572, the natives of Xaro and the others whom
Francisco Durán had held to Luis Pérez. On April 15, the Indians of Dulúngan, Antique, Bunital, and
Aslúman to Diego Ximénez. On June 1, the Indians of the villages of Otón with its tingües and hills to
Miguel de Loarca. In Cibabao and Paita, on January 25, 1571, Legazpi assigned the 2,000 first Indians
to Bartolomé Cindila; 2,000 to Juan de Aguera; 2,000 to Diego de Quintanilla; I,SCX) to Diego Godinez;
1,500 to Damián González; 1,500 to Antonio Ginovés; and the same number each to Juan Méndez,
Francisco de Torres, Andrea de Luca, de la Xari, and Juan Pérez; 1,000 on the river of Panae Of the said
islands to Augustin Duerto. On above two islands in order to avoid disputes among February 14, Legazpi
united the encomiendas of the encomenderos, giving the Indians of Limanca, Vaván, and Samal to
Augustin Duerto and Bartolomé Andrea ; those of Paita to Juan Griego; those of Caguayin to Juan
Méndez; those of Buri to Felipe de la Xara; those of Tunaoyiran to Juan Pérez; those of Paranas to
Andrés de Luca; those of Calviga to Juan Gutiérrez; and those of Bondó to Miguel Godinez and Antonio
Ginovés. …
For brevity we omit the encomiendas assigned by Lavezaris and Doctor Sande, which are also named in
this document. This document shows 143 encomenderos whose names are expressed in it.
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2. Polo y Servicios The Spanish officials ordered the natives, 16 to 60 year-old males to work in
constructing churches, roads, bridges, and ships, and hauling and cutting timber industries for forty days.
However, some conditions were set for forced labor, which included the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
The Filipinos to be drafted for work must be paid for their work.
The Filipino laborers should not be made to work in distant places to return to their families.
Drafting of the laborers should not coincide with the planting and harvesting season.
Physically incapable men should not be overworked.
Forced labor should be resorted to only in cases of absolute necessity.
The number of laborers drafted should be diminished as soon as laborers from other
countries (probably the Chinese) had volunteered to work.
In practice, these provisions were disregarded. Filipinos were not paid their wages. They were
separated from their families by sending them to far-flung provinces. They were not given food, but
instead, they had to provide their food. Moreover, they were overworked, and as a result, thousands of
Filipino laborers died.
For a Filipino laborer to be exempted from forced labor, he had to pay a fee called falla. The fee
was unreasonably high, and the laborers could not afford to pay it.
 “Decree Regulating Services of Filipinos”.
EXCERPT:
DECREE REGULATING SERVICES OF FILIPINOS
We order that, in the Filipinas Islands, no Indians be distributed in repartimiento, in any number,
for private or public meant Of gain; since for the cutting of wood, navigation of caracoas, and other
works of this sort, in which our royal treasury is interested, and for the public convenience, the Chinese
and Japanese found on any desired occasion in the city of Manila must be (as they are) hired; and, as is
understood, there will be a sufficient number of workmen among them, who will engage in these services
for the just price Of their toil. From them shall be employed those who wish to hire themselves out, in
order to avoid the concourse of Indians [at Manila]. In case that the repartimiento cannot be entirely
avoided, as will be provided, and if the Chinese and Japanese are either unwilling or unable to satisfy the
actual need of those public works, the governor and captain-general shall take measures with the Indians
so that they may aid in the works freely and voluntarily, making use of the means that seem advisable to
him to effect it. But, granted that there be a lack of voluntary workers, we permit that some Indians be
forced to work in these occupations, under the following conditions, but in no other manner.
That this repartimiento shall be made only for necessary and unavoidable affairs; for in so odious a
matter, the greater benefit to our royal treasury, or the greater convenience of the community, cannot
suffice; and all that which is not necessary for their preservation, weighs leu than the liberty of the
Indians.
That the Indians in the repartimiento shall be lessened in number as the voluntary workers shall be
introduced, whether the latter be Indians or those of Other nations.
That they shall not be taken from distant districts, and from climates notably different from that of
their own villages. The choice of all shall proceed without any partiality, and so that both the hardship of
distances, the burden of the occupations, and compensation for the other circumstances in which there
will be more or less grievance, shall be shared and distributed equally, So that all may share the greater
and less toilsome services, so that the benefit and alleviation shown to some may not be changed into
injury toward others.
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That the governor assign the number of hours that they shall work each day, taking into
consideration the lack of strength and weak physical constitutions. That they be given in full the wages
that they earn for their work. And they shall be paid personally each day, or at the end of the week, as
they may choose.
That the repartimientos be made at a time that does not embarrass or hinder the sowing and
harvesting of land products, or the other occasions and periods upon which the Indians have to attend to
the profit and management of their property; for our intention is that they be not deprived of it, and that
they may be able to attend to everything. Therefore, we order the governor that, at the beginning of the
year, he shall take note of the building and other matters of our service in which the Indians have to be
employed; for if the time is chosen, it may be arranged in such a way that the Indians may receive no
considerable injury to their property or persons.
That, granting the poor arrangement and plan of the caracoas, and that when remanded to them
many Indians generally perish, because of sailing a deck, and exposed to the inclemencies: of storms, we
order that these craft be improved and built in such a manner that the Indians may manage the oars
without risk of health and life.
In all the above, and in all that may touch their preservation and increase, We order the governor
to proceed with the care and vigilance that we expect, and that he punish signally and rigorously the illtreatment received by the Indians from their caciques or from the Spaniards —especially should the latter
be our officials, upon whom the penalties must be more rigorously executed. We request and charge both
the secular prelates and the provincials of the orders to exercise the same attention in the punishment of
offenses of this nature, committed by the ministers of instruction and other ecclesiastical persons. And we
order that any omission Of the governors, justices, and officials entrusted, in whole or in part, with the
observance and fulfilment of this law be made a matter of their residencia.
[Law passed in the reign of Felipe III and dated Aranjuez. May 26,1609.]
3. Tributo
The Filipinos were compelled to pay a tribute, in cash or in-kind, in full or on an installment basis, to the
Spanish colonial government. The tribute was a form of recognition of their loyalty to the King of Spain.
In 1570 when it was introduced, the amount was eight reales (one real = 12.5 centavos). Those who paid
were persons above 16 years old up to 60 years old. In 1589, the tribute was raised, of which a small
portion was given to the church. This was called the Sanctorum.
Because of the opposition to the tribute and the abuse committed with its collection, the King abolished it
in 1884, and the cedula personal was introduced. This is the present equivalent of the Residence
Certificate Class “A.”
 Order Issued by the Governor for Collection of the Tributes (Vol. VIII); “Opinion of Fray Martin de Rada on Tributes
Coming from Indians” (Vol. III).
EXCERPT:
ORDER ISSUED BY THE GOVERNOR FOR COLLECTION OF THE TRIBUTES
I, Gomez Perez Dasmariñas, governor and captain-general of these Islas Philipinas for the king
our lord : … Accordingly, by this present I do order and command that in the collection of tributes, not
only in the encomiendas of the king but in all others, the following rules and conditions shall be observed:
First: In the encomiendas of his Majesty as well as in those of private persons, where they have
Christian instruction and the administration Of secular justice for the maintenance of law and order, the
entire tribute levied may be collected from the natives; and the encomendero is bound, with that part of
the tribute which falls to him, to aid in the support of the minister or ministers of religion who belong to
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his encomienda. The said tribute shall be collected in its entirety in the aforesaid encomiendas where
justice and religious instruction exist, and equally from all the Indians therein, whether believers or
unbelievers. I also order all encomenderos who are or shall be appointed in the encomiendas, to provide
with the utmost punctuality and promptness, each in his own encornienda, that part of the tribute which is
due from them for the maintenance of religious teaching, churches, and all Other purposes of religion,
under penalty of being deprived of their encomiendas; and the collectors, under the penalties hereinafter
written, which will be most vigorously executed.
Item: In those encomiendas where justice is administered, but where, through lack of ministers,
there is no religious instruction, the tribute shall be collected, reserving that part which would be due to
the minister, if they had one— namely, a fourth part of the tax, a little more or less, which part shall be
left and freely surrendered to the Indians.
Item: In those encomiendas which, on account Of their remoteness, have neither justice nor
religious instruction, no tribute shall be collected until such time as God shall order the affairs of these
islands; and his Majesty, informed of their condition, shall make other provisions, in order that he may be
better served.
Item: The same is decreed for those encomiendas which are disaffected or have never been pacified.
No collection shall be made in this case except from those encomiendas which, having once been pacified,
and having rendered obedience to his Majesty, shall without any just cause rise in rebellion, From those
encomiendas may be taken such part Of the tribute as can conveniently be collected, for their
preservation and by way of recognition; and whatever small portion his Majesty may order, and what the
lord bishop cites, may be collected.
And since, according to the above, no tribute is to be levied where there is no justice, occasion is
offered for many parts of these islands — which, on account of their great distance, are beyond its reach
— to become turbulent and rebellious as soon as they realize that they are released from tribute which is
now collected from them. Most pernicious consequences [would follow (?) — illegible in MS.] and many
Other districts would be disloyal and rebellious; and it would be necessary, when they should have
sufficient religious instruction, to go back and win them and [illegible in MS.] anew. Assiduous efforts
shall be made to provide, as quickly as possible, justice in the aforesaid encomiendas. Where it is now
lacking, charge the encomenderos to inform me of such districts and territories, with their topography
and location; also Of the number of those who pay tributes, so that I may appoint accordingly, in each
encomienda, an alcalde-mayor, or a deputy, or others, if necessary, who may be suitable persons for such
offices. They will have salaries suffciently large to enable them to administer justice to the natives,
protecting and defending them against anyone who would injure them, and maintaining such intercourse
and friendship with them as will incline them to receive religious instruction when they shall have it. Thus
in all the encomiendas which have this justice and preparation, as Soon as it is known what benefits are
conferred upon the natives by those ministers of justice, in influencing and governing them, as above
stated, authority will be given to the encomenderos to collect the three-fourths of the tribute, as I have
Said. But in the meantime, none of it shall be imposed Or levied; and as soon as justice is established,
efforts shall also be made, until religious ministers shall come, to employ a layman or laymen of virtuous
life and example, in order to in- struct the natives, to the best of their ability, in the things of our holy
faith; and such persons shall receive some benefice, in accordance with the royal right of presentation.
The encomenderos shall fulfil and observe all the aforesaid orders, under penalty of being deprived
of their encomiendas. In encomiendas belonging to his Majesty, and in those of other and private persons
when the encomenderos shall —by order, or through any other lawful impediment— be prevented from
making the collections personally, in case these collectors should exceed just bounds they shall be fined
five hundred pesos for his Majesty's treasury, and half the expenses of any war thus caused. In addition,
they shall make good-any losses caused by them to the said Indians and shall pay all costs. The aforesaid
persons are likewise ordered to make the collections with all possible gentleness and equity, observing
the Other instructions of his Majesty concerning the manner of collecting tributes. The Indians shall pay
in kind, or in such articles as they prefer to give. I also order that an authorized copy of this my decree be
furnished to each and every one of the encomenderos or collectors who shall engage in the aforesaid
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collections. This decree I order and command to be observed, fulfilled, and executed, under the penalties
above stated, for the present and until such time as his Majesty, when well informed of the present state of
affairs in this land, which has been mentioned above, shall make suitable provisions ira these and all
other matters, according to his pleasure. Upon the first occasion that offers itself there shall be sent on
my part and that Of the encomenderos Of this commonwealth, to his Majesty, a detailed and careful
account Of what is here decreed and ordered, as well as what the lord bishop suggests and advises; so
that his Majesty, having examined both sides of this question, may make such provisions and so direct our
course that God and his Majesty may be best served, and all may have the same subject. Done in Manila,
on the twenty-eighth of February in the year 1591.
Aside from tribute, Filipinos also paid other taxes, namely:
Diezmos prediales: A tax which is consisted of one-tenth of the produce of the land
Donativo de Zamboanga: A tax explicitly used for the conquest of Jolo
Vinta: A tax paid by the people of some provinces along the western coast of Luzon for the
defense from Muslim raids.
1. Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade
Early Spanish officials encouraged trade between Manila and other East countries because it was
lucrative to make them wealthy quickly. Ships from Japan, Siam, China, India, Cambodia, India, Malacca,
and Indonesia are anchored in Manila to unload and trade their valuable cargo. These, in turn, were
shipped by the Spanish traders to Acapulco, Mexico, where they commanded high prices. Later,
commercial restrictions were placed on the trade. These restrictions consisted of 250,000 pesos worth of
goods sent to Mexico and 500,000 pesos worth of goods sent from Mexico to Manila. This trade across
the Pacific is called Galleon Trade.
Only privileged persons, such as high-ranking officials of the State, the Church, and the galleons'
crews, were allowed to trade.
The galleon trade was so
restrictive that the Spaniards'
prosperity in Manila depended
solely on the voyage's success
to and from Mexico. In some
cases, the galleons were
captured
by
the
English
buccaneers. Others, however,
sank on the southern coast of
Luzon near Samar.
`In the 19th century, the
monopolistic
galleon
trade
declined, which resulted in the
opening of other ports within the
Philippine
islands
for
international trading.
In the conduct of ManilaAcapulco Galleon trade, Real Situado
(Mexican Subsidy) is being brought back
to the Philippines. The Philippines, as a colony, became a burden to Spain. To prevent the government
from becoming bankrupt, the Viceroyalty of Mexico sent to the Philippines an annual subsidy called the
situado. This subsidy was enough to save the colonial government in the Philippines. However, the
money received was not spent for the improvement of the conditions of the colony. A large portion of the
subsidy went to the pockets of Spanish officials, employees, and priests in the form of salaries. The
Mexican subsidy was finally stopped when Mexico became independent in 1821.
Figure 11. The Galleon Trade
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5. Sociedad Economica de los Amigos del Pais (Economic Society of Friends of the Country)
Governor-General Jose Basco y Vargas founded the Sociedad Economica de los Amigos del
Pais in 1781 to effectively implement economic policy in the colony. According to the King’s decree, this
gave him the right to establish a society “of selected persons who are capable enough to produce useful
ideas.” The society was divided into sections: factories and manufacturies; industry and popular
education; natural history; domestic and foreign commerce; and agriculture and rural economy.
Under the auspices of the Society, economic subjects were discussed by government officials,
traders, and merchants; pamphlets on the cultivation of indigo, coffee, sugar, cacao, hemp, and other
plants were published and widely distributed; agricultural implements from the United States were
imported to improve agriculture and thus increase production, and advanced agricultural methods were
also introduced. As a result of these activities, in 1784, the Society was able to export indigo to Europe for
the first time in Philippine history. It also founded the Academy of Drawing in 1824 and granted
scholarships to those interested in the art of dyeing. In 1861, the Society founded an agricultural school in
Manila for training farmers in advanced agricultural methods.
6. The Government Monopolies
Governor Basco was also remembered for establishing government monopolies. The most important
of which was the tobacco monopoly. Seeing the advantages of a monopoly of this agricultural crop, he
recommended the King for its establishment. In 1780, a royal decree was issued, but it was after two
years that being established in the colony. The following were the provisions of the decree:




Tobacco cultivation was prohibited except for the provinces selected to grow it (Ilocos, Nueva
Ecija, the Cagayan Valley, and Marinduque).
Contraband sale of tobacco was forbidden.
The government had the exclusive right to purchase all tobacco products, inspect and classify the
tobacco plant, and prepare and manufacture cigars and cigarettes.
The government had the right to prohibit the exportation or importation of tobacco by any agency
not connected with the government.
Its bad results offset the advantages of the monopoly. For example, the Spanish officials in charge of
inspection and classification of tobacco committed abuses like seizing tobacco farmers' lands who failed
to produce tobacco's required quota. In other cases, the tobacco farmers were not paid the tobacco crop's
value; instead, they received nothing but promissory notes saying that they would receive the amount due
to them. This amount was not paid because of the dishonesty of Spanish officials and employees. What
was worse was that tobacco farmers themselves could not smoke the tobacco they produced. They could
not afford to buy cigars manufactured by the government because of its high price. Because of the
anomalies, the King ordered its abolition in 1881.
Other monopolies established were those on local wine or liquor, gunpowder, playing cards,
cockfights, and buyo or anise. While it was confirmed that these monopolies gave the government a high
income, at the same time, they were a burden to the Filipinos.
7. Real Compania de Filipinas (The Royal Company of the Philippines)
Governor Basco’s administration was also highlighted by the establishment of the Real
Compania de Filipinas in 1785. The company aimed to promote progress to the Philippines by
improving the foreign trade of the colony with Spain and developing the Philippines' natural resources by
encouraging industry, manufacturing, and agriculture. To implement this program, the King granted the
company many privileges. For instance, it was given the monopoly of trade between Spain and the
Philippines. Products that the Philippines exported to Europe were exempted from tariff duties. Moreover,
the company’s hips were allowed to visit oriental ports. The prohibition that Manila merchants could not
trade with China and India was lifted.
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Because of these privileges, commercial relations between the Philippines and Europe were
promoted, consequently increasing its revenues. The company's encouragement of the cultivation of
indigo, sugarcane, pepper, and other spices led to increased agricultural production. Yet, the Company
failed and was abolished in 1834 due to the following causes:




the Spanish merchants in the Philippines, who were accustomed to the galleon trade, did not
cooperate wholeheartedly with the Company;
it was not able to establish direct commercial contact with Japan, China, and India, so it had to
buy commodities from these countries through Manila merchants, resulting in paying higher
prices;
it was not well-managed because its officials spent their time in activities that were not connected
with the promotion of the Company; and
Instead of the Company’s vessels, foreign vessels brought Manila such items like groceries,
wines, canned goods, and other European products.
The Opening to World Trade
With the acceptance of the liberal laissez-faire economic doctrine in the 19th century, Spain
relaxed its restrictive mercantilistic policy. After the Royal Company was abolished in 1834, Manila was
opened to world trade. One of the immediate effects of Manila's opening to world trade was establishing
foreign commercial firms in Manila and opening foreign consulates. By 1856, there were 13 foreign
commercial firms in Manila – two American, seven British, two Swiss, one German, and one French.
The Rise of Banks
The Philippines' earliest banking institution was Obras Pias, charitable organization under the
different religious orders' supervision. Their funds were donated by wealthy pious persons who died and
bequeathed part of their wealth to the organization for pious works. The Obras Pias gave loans to
businessmen at various rates of interest.
The first government bank in the Philippines was the Banco Español-Filipino, established by the Royal
Decree of Queen Isabel in 1851. The bank was authorized to issue banknotes. This bank is now the Bank
of the Philippine Islands.
Improvement of Transportation and Communication
Another factor contributing to the economic progress in the 19th century was the improvement of
transportation and communication. Spain built many roads and bridges, especially during the decade
1830-1840. To aid sea navigation, lighthouses were built. The first lighthouse (farola) was built in the
mouth of the Pasig River in 1846.
The first steamships arrived in Manila Bay in 1848. The first railroad (the Manila-Dagupan Railway) was
established in 1891. In Manila, a tramcar service (tranvia) was opened to the public in 1893. Two years
later, the first electric light system appeared in Manila.
New means of communication were introduced. In 1854, a monthly mail service between Manila and
Hong Kong was established. The first Philippine stamp was established in 1854. In 1873, a steamship
line between Manila and Spain was also established. The first telegraph line was opened in 1873. The
first telephone appeared in Manila in 1890.
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PHILIPPINE SOCIETY DURING SPANISH RULE
With colonization, the natives of the Philippines came to be called Indios. Philippine society was
divided according to racial lines. Spaniards themselves were divided into Peninsulares (Spaniards born
in the Iberian Peninsula) or Insulares (Spanish parents born in the Philippines). These people were
called “Filipinos Insulares” or simply “Filipinos.” Spaniards born in other colonies like the Americas were
called Criollos or Creoles.
The racial divisions became a means of self-identity as Peninsulares banded against the creoles
and the Insulares. When Spain’s colonies in America fought for independence in the 19th century, the
Philippines' creoles were viewed with suspicion and outright hostility. This attitude was also shown to the
insulares, and even mestizos suspected them of separatism.
The Indios or natives were divided into the pacified ones or infieles. The pacified Indios live at the
pueblos while the latter live in the mountains or unconquered areas.
At the bottom of the society were the Sangleys (Chinese immigrants). They were heavily taxed.
They were also classified as Christians or non-Christians. The Christian Chinese were allowed to remain,
while the non-Christian ones had to leave once the trading season was over. Despite the discrimination,
the Chinese community was part of the workforce of colonial society. They performed jobs like metallurgy,
masons, artisans, bakers, and other skills that the Indios had insufficient knowledge.
Interbreeding with the Indios, Chinese, Creoles, and Spaniards resulted in the mestizos. Many
mestizos accumulated some capital and engaged in business. A number entered the government to
become minor government officials. Others entered the priesthood. With a combination of racial progeny,
improved economic status, and better education, the mestizos would later form the basis of the middle
class of the 19th century. They would fight for national identity (De Viana 2011, 86-87).
References
Blair, Emma, and Roberstons, James, Eds. 1903-1909. The Philippine Islands 55-Volumes, Cleveland,
Ohio: The A. H. Clark Company.
Decree Regulating Services of Filipinos” (Vol. XVII)
Encomiendas Assigned by Legaspi (Vol. XXXIV, 304-310)
First Voyage Around the World by Antonio Pigafetta (Vol. XXXIII)
Instruction to Miguel Lopez de Legazpi from the Royal Audiencia of New Spain (Vol. II)
Letter from the King of Castile to Fernando de Magalhaes and Ruy de Faleiro (Vol. I)
Order Issued by the Governor for Collection of the Tributes (Vol. VIII)
Pope Alexander VI’s Inter Cætera (May 4, 1493)
Treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494)
Treaty of Zaragoza (April 22, 1529)
De Viana, A. 2011. The Philippines A Story of a Nation. Manila, Phil.: Rex Book Store.
PCDSPO. 2016. Historical Atlas of the Republic: Charting the History of the Philippines. Philippines:
Presidential Communication Development and Strategic Planning Office.
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SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS:
NHCP. Latest Ruling on the 1521 Easter Sunday Controversy or The Final Report of the Mojares Panel of
the Butuan-Limasawa Controversy on the Location of the 1521 First Easter Mass in the Philippines.
Open this link to access the documents: https://nhcp.gov.ph/official-position-of-the-national-historicalcommission-of-the-philippines-on-the-site-of-the-1521-easter-sunday-mass-2/
TEDEd. 2017. How Magellan circumnavigated the World. https://youtu.be/pFdiX8mj0Es
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CHAPTER 6
THE RESPONSES OF THE FILIPINOS AGAINST
SPANISH COLONIALISM
Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1) Determine the causes and results of the early Filipino revolts during the Spanish era.
2) Explain the impact of European political, economic, and intellectual influences on the development of
Filipino nationalism.
3) Compare and contrast La Solidaridad (Propaganda Movement) and Katipunan in terms of their
objectives, methods, and its relevance to the development of Phil. nationalism.
 Overview
The Filipino natives' responses to Spanish colonialism varied in the different regions because of
geographical particularism, the nature of Spanish colonial rule, and Catholic missionaries' impact on precolonial Filipino society. Filipino natives of these islands were not passive recipients of the culture created
by the Spanish conquest. Their responses varied from acceptance to indifference and rejection.
Acceptance came in the form of conversion and tribute-paying. Indifference or rejection often presented
itself in either active resistance (outright revolt) or passive resistance. Later, in the 19th century, specific
events and developments led to a further awakening of the Filipino people’s consciousness as a nation
with common grievances against Spanish colonial rule.
In this chapter, the students will determine the causes of the early Filipino revolts beginning the
Spaniards' colonial period until the 19th century. The students will also explain the impact of European
influences on the development of the sentiment of nationalism among Filipinos. Lastly, in this chapter, the
students will compare and contrast the two different movements, namely the Propaganda Movement and
Katipunan, that emerged in the late 19th century that expressed Filipino nationalistic sentiment.
 List of Reading Materials:
1. Blair, Emma and Robertson, James, Eds. 1903-1909.The Philippine Islands 55Volumes, Cleveland, Ohio: The A. H. Clark Company:
1. “Conspiracy against the Spaniards” in Vol. 7: 95-98
2. “Insurrections by Filipinos in the Seventeenth Century” in Vol. 38: 82-94; 99-104;
141-144)
3. “Events in Philippines, 1739-62” Vol. 48: 147-148
2. “La Solidaridad”. February 18, 1889, Vol. 1 No. 1
3. Lloyd Tronco. “Fray Botod by Graciano Lopez Jaena Is Amusing When Read in 2016”,
Talonggo, Posted on January 21, 2016.
4. Salcedo, Chrissa, “Dasalan at Tocsohan ni Marcelo H. del Pilar”, Handiog, posted on
October 11, 2014, https://handiog.wordpress.com/2014/10/11/dasalan-at-tocsohan-nimarcelo-h-del-pilar/
5. Jim Richardson, Katipunan: Documents and Studies. http://www.kasaysayan-kkk.info/
a. “Casaysayan, Pinagcasunduan, Manga Daquilang Cautosan”, Posted on
October 9, 2014.
b. “Andres Bonifacio Katungkulang gagawin ng mga Z. Ll. Posted on April 1,
2013.
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EARLY FILIPINO REBELLIONS
During the Spanish colonization of the Philippines, several rebellions against Spain were undertaken
for various reasons. However, it can be agreed upon that the common underlying cause of these was the
generally repressive policies of the Spanish colonial government against the native Filipinos. Agoncillo
(2007) categorized the causes of these revolts into:
1. Personal, led by former political (datus, maharlikas, and maginoos) and religious leaders
(babaylans or katalonas);
2. Resistance to oppressive Spanish-introduced economic as well as religious institutions, and
3. Land problems (102).
Many of the early revolts against Spanish rule were caused chiefly by the people’s desire to
regain their lost freedom and happiness. Illustrative of these were the Revolt of Lakan Dula and Raha
Sulayman (1574), the Tondo Conspiracy in 1587-1588, the Malong Rebellion (1660-1661), the Dagohoy
Rebellion (1744-1829), the Silang Rebellion (1762-1763), and the Palaris Rebellion (1762-1764).
Other revolts were caused by oppression due to excessive tribute collection, forced labor, and
religious persecution. Among the revolts sparked due to these causes were the First Pampanga Revolt
(1585), the Magalat Revolt (1596), the Revolt of the Irrayas (1621), the Cagayan Revolt of 1639), the
Sumuroy Rebellion (1649-1650), and the Maniago Revolt (1660).
Some revolts were due to economic reasons caused by agrarian disputes with the friars who
grabbed the natives' lands. The Filipinos, contesting the friar haciendas' land titles, rose in arms to fight
for their ancestral lands. These agrarian uprisings broke out in the provinces of Batangas, Bulacan,
Cavite, and Laguna in 1745-1746.
Finally, some Filipino revolts were religious. They flared up because of the Spanish religious
bigotry or because the people in certain regions wanted to go back to worshiping their ancestral gods.
Among these religious revolts were the Igorot Religious Revolt (1601), the Tamblot Revolt (1621-1622),
the Bankaw Religious Revolt (1621), Tapar Revolt (1663), and of the revolt led by Apolinario de la Cruz
or known as Hermano Pule (1840-1841) (Zaide 1999, 179-201).
Indeed, the Spaniards' longest and bloodiest attempt was the colonization and Christianization of
the Muslims in Mindanao. The process was not only the longest but also the most frustrating for the
Spaniards. The Muslims (or Moros, the Spaniards’ term referring to them) remained unconquered and
unconverted until the end of the Spanish rule in 1898. The details about these so-called Spanish Moro
Wars will be discussed in another History course – H003 (History of Muslim Filipinos and IPs in
MINSUPALA).
The following are examples of resistances derived from the reports of officials on how these
events occurred:
 “Conspiracy against the Spaniards” in Blair, Emma and Robertson, James, Eds. The Philippine Islands 55Volumes, Cleveland, Ohio: The A. H. Clark Company, 1903-1909, Vol. 7.
EXCERPT:
CONSPIRACY AGAINST THE SPANIARDS
From Testimony in certain investigations made by Doctor Santiago de Vera, president of the Philipinas,.
Written by Estevan de Marquina, 13 July 1589
In fulfillment of the command and decree of Doctor Santiago de Vera, governor and captain-general
of these islands, and president of the royal Audiencia, l, Estevan de Marquina, notary-public for the king
our sovereign, of the number [authorized] in the city of Manila, testify that a trial and criminal process
has been conducted and is still pending before the said governor and captain-general. The parties are the
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royal department of justice of the one part, and certain Indian chiefs, natives of the villages of Tondo,
Misilo, Bulacan, and other villages in the neighborhood of Manila, of the other part. The cause of this
contention seems to be that on the twenty-sixth of October of last year, one thousand five hundred and
eighty-eight, Doctor Santiago de Vera, governor and captain-general of these islands, and president of
the royal Audiencia, learned that the following persons: Don Agustin de Legaspi, one of the chiefs of this
land; Martin Panga, governor of the village of Tondo, and his first cousin; Magat Salamat, the son of the
old lord of this land; and other chiefs, had not long ago sent a present of weapons and other articles to
the king of Burney, and that they were quite intent upon holding meetings and their usual drunken feasts,
swearing to keep secret whatever they discussed. He also learned that they had sold and were selling
their landed property. In order to ascertain what the condition of affairs is, the governor made an inquiry
and many witnesses were summoned. From this inquiry and other investigations and inquests made in the
course of the trials, it appears that the said Don Agustin de Legaspi and Magat Salamat had sent a
quantity of shields, arquebuses, and other weapons to Xapon and to the petty king of Burney, who has
thus been enabled to put himself on a war-footing. They warned these powers to fortify themselves in their
strongholds, because the Spaniards intended to go there. They added that the said Don Agustin would
notify them in person of what was taking place; and that, for this purpose, he would ask permission to set
out on his commercial enterprises. Likewise, we learned that the people of the kingdom of Burney were
thinking of manning a fleet for the purpose of attacking the Spaniards; and that they had killed a
Franciscan friar and other Spaniards while on their way to Malaca from Manila with messages and
despatches for the king, our sovereign. It appears that on the fourth of November of the said year, when
the inquiry had not gone further than this, Captain Pedro Sarmiento arrived in this city from the
Calamianes, which are islands near Burney; and brought the news and information that he had left
behind in the said Calamianes three Indian chiefs of Tondo, namely, Magat Salamat, Don Agustin
Manuguit, son of Don Phelipe Salalila, and Don Joan Banal, brother-in-law of the said Magat. Through
Don Antonio Surabao, his Servant and chief of his encomienda, he had learned that these men were going
as ambassadors to the petty king of Burney, in order to induce him to send a fleet to attack the Spaniards,
and to join the chiefs of Jolo, and Sumaelob, chief of Cuyo, who had already come to terms and offered to
help them with two thousand men. They had persuaded the said Don Antonio Surabao to accompany them
and carry out their plans; but the latter while on the one hand he promised to help them, in order not to
arouse their suspicion, on the other hand unfolded the plan to Captain Sarmiento. He added, moreover,
that Amarlangagui, chief of Baibai, who was within the jurisdiction of Manila and held the office of
master-of-artillery, had told him, while in this city, that all the chiefs of this neighborhood had plotted
and conspired with the Borneans to rebel against the service of the king our sovereign, and to kill the
Spaniards of this city, while they were off their guard.
 “Insurrections by Filipinos in the Seventeenth Century” in Blair, Emma and Robertson, James, Eds. The
Philippine Islands 55-Volumes, Cleveland, Ohio: The A. H. Clark Company, 1903-1909, Vol. 38.
INSURRECTIONS BY FILIPINOS IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
In Bohol and Leyte, 1622
The majority Of the ministers in the island Of Bohol had gone to Zebu, to celebrate the feasts of the
beatification Of St. Xavier; in their absence Lucifer attempted to possess himself again of those souls. The
divata, or demon, appeared to some Indians in the woods —its face covered, like that Of one taking the
discipline — and commanded them to quit the gospel ministers and the Spanish vassalage, and take
refuge in the hills; and to build him a chapel, where he would aid them and give them whatever they
needed to pass their lives in happiness and abun-dance, without the encumbrance of paying tribute to the
Spaniards or dues to the churches. Two Or three Indians, who on account of their evil deeds were
wandering as fugitives, became priests Of this divata, in order to persuade the people to apostasy and
rebellion; and, to take away the fear which they naturally feel toward the Spaniards, these priests told
them that, if they would attack the Spaniards, the divata would cause the mountains to rise against their
foe; that the muskets of the latter would not go off, or else the bullets would rebound on those who fired
them; that if any Indian should die, the demon would resuscitate him; that the leaves of the trees would be
converted into uffici (which is a large fish) ; that when they cut bejucos, these would distil wine instead of
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water; that from the banana-leaves they would make fine linen; and, in short, that all would be pleasure,
enjoyment, and delight. With these magnificent promises, so attractive to men — and especially to the
Indians, who are so inclined to idleness and sloth — four villages revolted; only Loboc (which is the chief
villas” and Baclayon remained firm in the faith, and in loyalty to the king.
Information of this reached Zebu, and immediately Don yuan de Alcarazo, alcalde-mayor of Zebu,
went to quiet the island;” he invited them to make peace, for which the rebels did not care. Their boldness
increasing, they burned the four villages and their churches; they flung on the ground the rosaries and
crosses and pierced an image of the blessed Virgin eighteen times with javelins — although afterward in
Zebu some tried to make amends to her with the most affectionate demonstrations of reverence, and she
was placed in our church. Thereupon the chief ordered troops from Zebu, fifty Spaniards and a thousand
friendly Indians, accompanied by a father; and on New Year’s Day, 1622, he began the march to the
mountains, where the insurgents were. For five days they traveled through rugged hills and deep ravines,
crossing marshes where the mud came to their knees, or even to their waists, and shedding their blood on
the thorns and briars. On the fifth day, the insurgents killed a friendly Indian ; this they celebrated with
loud shouts, and it greatly increased their arrogance. On the following day, more than 1,500 rebel
Indians attacked our vanguard, which consisted of sixteen Spaniards and three hundred Indians; but
when our muskets were fired So many fell dead that the rebels began to retreat to a bamboo thicket. When
we followed them, a heavy rain fell, which encouraged the rebels, for they said that our muskets were
then useless. But heaven favored our cause with a marvel, since, although the pans of the musket-locks
were full of water, the soldiers declared that the powder never failed to catch fire, nor did the matches go
out. At this the rebels fled into the mountains; and Our men arrived at a village of more than a thousand
houses, in the midst of which was the temple of their divata. Our troops found there much food, various
jewels of silver and gold, and many bells of the sort those people use — all which was given to our
Indians. The rebels were in a fortification of stone, in which they had placed many stones and clods of
earth to throw at our men ; but the latter, covering themselves with their shields, seized the redoubt, with
the death of many of the enemy,” and in a fortnight returned to Loboc. Captain Alcarazo, who was
foremost in all these engagements, commanded that some of the rebels be hanged, and published a
pardon to the rest; and he returned to Zebu,” where the victory was celebrated. This success had very
important results, for it checked the revolt of other islands and other villages— who were expecting the
favorable result which the demon had promised them, so that they could shake off the mild yoke of Christ,
and with it their vassalage to the Spaniards. Many of them. Now undeceived, accepted the pardon; but
others, who were stubborn, fortified themselves at the summit Of a rugged and lofty hill, difficult Of
access, and closed the road [to it] with brambles and thorns.” They also filled the paths with very sharp
stakes driven into the soil, and placed among the branches of the trees many crossbows,” in order that
these, being discharged as our men passed them, might wound the soldiers; and above they provided
many stones to throw at the Spaniards, hurling them from the top of the hill. Six months later the same
Don Juan Alcarazo returned, to dislodge those rebels with forty Spaniards and many Indians. After
suffering great hardships in making the paths accessible, nearly all his men were hurt, by the time they
reached the fort, by the many stones which the enemy hurled down from the summit; but our soldiers
courageously climbed the ascent, firing their muskets, and killed many of the rebels, putting the rest to
flight. Thus was dispersed that sedition, which was one of the most dangerous that had occurred in the
islands — not only because the Boholans were the most warlike and valiant Of the Indians, but on
account of the conspiracy spreading to many other tribes. Noble examples of fidelity in this great
disturbance are not lacking. [Murillo Velarde here mentions two instances of this.]
The natives of Carigara in the island of Leyte became impatient, and revolted without waiting for the
result in Bohol, incited thereto by Bancao, the ruling chief of Limasava—who in the year received with
friendly welcome Miguel Lopez de Legazpi and the Spaniards who came to his island, supplying them
with what they needed, for which Phelipe Il sent him a royal decree, thanking him for the kind hospitality
which he showed to those first Spaniards. He was baptized and, although a young man, showed that he
was loyal to the Christians; but, conquered by the enemy [of souls], he changed sides in his old age.”
This man lived in the island of Leyte, and with a son of his and another man, Pagali (whom he chose as
priest of his idolatry), erected a sacred place to the divata, or devil; and they induced six villages in the
island to rebel. In order to remove from them their fear of the Spaniards, these men told their followers
that they could change the Spaniards into stones as Soon as they saw them, by repeating the word bato,
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which signifies “stone;” and that a woman or a child could change them into clay by flinging earth upon
them. Father Melchor de Vera went to Zebu to give warning of this sedition and obtain aid to check it.
Captain Alcarazo equipped an armada of forty vessels, in which were embarked some Spaniards and
many friendly Indians, also the father rector of Zebu and Father Vera; these united’ with the forces (both
Spanish and Indian) that the alcalde of Leyte had. They offered peace to the rebels, but the latter spurned
it with Contempt. Our men, divided into three bodies, attacked them; and, when that which Don Juan de
Alcarazo commanded came in sight of the rebels, they fled to the hills. Our soldiers followed them, and on
the way put to the sword or shot those whom they encountered; and, although the compassion Of the
Spaniards spared the children and women,” these could not escape the fury Of the Indians. Many Of the
rebels died, the enchantment not availing them by which they had thought to turn the Spaniards into stone
or clay; the rest saved themselves by flight. The Spaniards came to a large building which the rebels had
erected for their divata; they encamped in it ten days, and then burned it. Some one pierced with a lance
Bancao, the chief instigator Of the rebellion, not knowing who he was, whom two of his slaves were
carrying on their shoulders and immediately his head was placed on a stake as a public warning. He and
his children came to a wretched end, as a punishment for their infidelity and apostasy; for his second son
was beheaded as a traitor, and a daughter of his was taken captive. To inspire greater terror, the captain
gave Orders to shoot three or four rebels, and to burn one of their priests —in order that, by the light of
that fire, the blindness in which the divata had kept them deluded might be removed. The Spaniard’ also
cut off the head of an Indian who had robbed Father Vinancio [i.e., Vilancio] and broken to pieces an
image of the Virgin and kicked a crucifix; and his head was set up in the same place where he had
committed those horrible sacrileges. There were many who, in the midst of so furious a tempest, remained
constant in their religious belief. [Several instances Of this are related by the author.)
In Pampanga and Pangasinan, 1660-61
The first who decided to try fortune by experience were the Pampangos, the most warlike and
prominent people of these islands, and near to Manila. [Their rebellion was] all the worse because these
people had been trained in the military art in our own schools, in the fortified posts of Ternate,
Zamboanga, Jolö, Caraga, and other places, where their valor was well known; but it needed the shelter
of ours, and therefore it was said that one Spaniard and three Pampangos were equal to four Spaniards.
This people were harassed by repeated requisitions for cutting timber, for the continual building of
galleons, and they received go satisfaction for many purchases of rice for which the money was due them.
The province of Pampanga is in our charge in spiritual matters, and there we have sixteen convents and
doctrinas, among the best which there are in this field of Christianity. The convents are : Bacolor (which
is the head of them all), Baua, Lubao, Sexmoan, Betis, Porac, Mexico, Minalin, Macabebe, Apalit,
Candava, Arayat, Magalang, Gapan, and Santor. Then in the hill-country beyond these places we have
large missions of warlike peoples who are being converted to our holy faith, called Italones, Abacaes,
and Calonasas, and Ituries, and various others, who have been induced to settle in several villages. These
are continually increasing, and we expect in God that they will attain much growth if it is not interfered
with by subjecting them to tribute and personal services, of which they have a great horror… The
Pampangos, determined to break the bonds of subjection and throw off the yoke of the Spanish dominion,
carried out that resolve with valor. In their opinion, they had just cause for this action, in the timbercutting that was being done in their forests, in the place called Malasinglo and Bocoboco; they alleged as
their first pretexts some acts of oppression committed on them by Juan de Corteberria – chief overseer of
the said timber-cutting — which lasted eight months, a thousand Pampango men assisting in the work,
levied in the usual repartimientos. In the early days of October, 1660, the loyal population of Pampanga
made their first rebellious movements — the people being exasperated against the overseers of the woodcutting, who had been illtreating them. Setting fire to the huts in which they had lodged, they declared, by
the light of the fierce flames, their rash intention; and as leader of their revolt they appointed an Indian
chief named Don Francisco Maniago, a native Of the village Of Mexico, who was master-of-camp for his
Majesty. The post of chaplain for the said wood-cutting was filled by a religious of the Order of St.
Dominic, named father Fray Pedro Camacho; he made all possible efforts to pacify them, but all in vain.
On this account he decided to come to Manila and report everything to Don Sabiniano Manrique de Lara,
to whom he represented that he did not regard prudent the idea that he must proceed with rigor against
the ringleaders of the sedition. At the same time when the information of that fire reached Don Sabiniano
there came also advices from the alcalde-mayor of the province of Pampanga, Don Juan Gomez de Payva,
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that he had exhausted all measures for restoring security. In consequence of this, Don Sabiniano again
despatched father Fray Pedro Camacho with a message for those people, that he on his part would
assure them of pardon and relief if they would return and resume their work. Don Sabiniano rightly
guessed the burden imposed by the circumstances of the occasion; for the revolt was in one of the most
warlike nations of these islands, and the garrison at Manila was drained of soldiers by the continual reenforcements sent to Maluco, and by the aid [furnished from it] to the relief that had from Nueva España.
Dagohoy’s Revolt
A full account of this revolt and its cause and progress may be found in Concepcion's Hist. de
Philipias, xiv, pp. 79-107 ; and of its punishment by Lechuga, in xi, pp. 40-43. In writing the latter volume,
he had not any adequate information regarding time causes Of the rebellion; but later he obtained a
detailed account of this from the Recollect fathers in Bohol who took charge of the natives after the
expulsion of the Jesuits in 1768. According to them, the immediate occasion of the revolt was the
arbitrary conduct of the Jesuit, Father Morales, who was, in 1744, in charge of the district of Inabangan.
He sent out a native constable to arrest a renegade Indian, but the latter slew the constable, whose
brother, Francisco Dagohoy, obtained the corpse, and carried it into his village. Morales refused to bury
it in consecrated ground, and it lay for three days unburied and rotting. Angered at this arbitrary and
harsh treatment, especially as Morales had been the cause of the constable's death, Dagoh0y swore
vengeance on the Jesuit, and persuaded the natives of his district to join him therein; 3,000) of them
followed him, abandoning their homes and fortifying an inaccessible retreat in the mountains. On their
way they plundered a large and valuable estate in that vicinity, named San Xavier, belonging to the
Jesuits, which was well stocked with cows, carabaos, horses, and Other animals. Soon afterward,
Dagohoy bribed an Indian to kill the Jesuit minister of Hagna, Father Lamberti; and afterward Morales
was also assassinated by natives. The insurgents were numerously recruited through various acts of
injustice and tyranny by the Spaniards, and the rebellion was assuming dangerous proportions. Bishop
Espeleta of Cebü endeavored to persuade the insurgents to return to their allegiance and offered them
secular priests instead of the Jesuits; but they took this for timidity on the part of the government and
became only more emboldened. Twenty years later, Recollect missionaries were sent to Bohol in place of
the expelled Jesuits, and in the district of Baclayon was stationed Fray Pedro de Santa Barbara; he laid
plans for reclaiming and reconciling the insurgents, and was partially successful; [)agohoy and several
other datos " returned to God and to the church their followers, several hundred being baptized and
taking their confessions.
Failure of the Rebellions
Agoncillo (2007) related that all the earlier resistance which occurred almost in cyclical patterns
were failures. During that time, there was no sense of national unity. The Philippines' archipelagic
makeup reflects a wide communication gap between the natives in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. There
was no lingua franca to bind the natives. Moreover, despite the promulgated colonial decrees to teach the
Spanish language, the Spanish friars refused to do so to the Filipinos. They reasoned out that there was
a lack of language materials, an absence of fighting strategies, and a lack of qualified teachers. In reality,
the Spanish friars were afraid that the Filipino natives (or indios) knew the Castilian language and
became better (114-115).
There was also much tribal enmity, section jealousy, and clan hostility, which Spain encouraged
by her divide et impera (divide and rule). Instead of helping each other in the common cause, they sided
with their oppressors to suppress their blood brothers' revolt. For instance, the Kapampangans aided the
Spaniards in putting down the Tagalog uprising. When the Kapampangans rose in rebellion, the Tagalog
retaliated by helping the Spaniards (Zaide 1999, 202).
Moreover, also to be mentioned was the superior military technology and strategy utilized by the
Spaniards, such as the use of Mexican horses, better firing projectile weapons compared to the primitive
and simpler native weaponry of bamboo caltrops, pit and spear traps, spears, lantakas and non-firing
sidearms of bolos, kampilans, and kris. The co-optation of the Filipino chiefly classes with the Spanish
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church and state officials who granted them special benefits caused the early revolts' failure (Agoncillo
2007, 116).
The map below shows the recorded rebellions that occurred prior to the 1896 Philippine
Revolution:
Figure 12. “Rebellions prior to the Philippine Revolution, Source: PCDSPO. (2016). Historical Atlas of the Republic. Phil, Manila, pp. 78-79.
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The Beginnings of Filipino Nationalism and the Campaign for Reforms (1882 -1892)
Events in the 19th century played a crucial role in the development of Filipino nationalism.
Nationalism sprouted from the feeling that the Indios were separate from their colonizers. The use of the
word Indio itself and its racial and social connotations were signs of such distinction. As colonized people,
the Indios bore the burden of Spanish impositions and the loss of their freedom. The Indios responded by
resisting the colonization through the various revolts during the Spanish period and through adaptation
within the colonial system and working for reforms from Spain.
One effect of colonial rule was that it unified the country under a single government. Natives,
especially those who absorbed colonial education and liberal values, became prominent enough to deal
with the colonizers in their own way. They would seek recognition and equality. The educated natives,
now known as ilustrados, would seek reforms from Spain, which they considered the “mother country.”
More importantly, these educated natives began calling themselves “Filipino” in 1889, which now
connotes a national identity instead of a regional one (De Viana 2011, 138).
The following have been regarded in history as factors that gave rise to Filipino nationalism (Agoncillo
1990):
1. The Philippines in World Commerce (1834-1898) and Opening of the Suez Canal (1869)
In 1834, the King of Spain opened Manila to foreign traders, realizing the futility of opposing
modern commerce trends and trade. The Europeans' laissez-faire (let alone policy) in commercial and
trading ventures soon caught the Spanish king's interest. The
laissez-faire policy gave private individuals and firms full freedom to
engage in economic activities without government interference. This
also allowed for the entry of foreign firms into the country. In 1842,
there were two American firms, one French, one Danish, and eight
British commercial firms. By 1859, the number of foreign firms
increased to 15.
The ports of Iloilo, Zamboanga, and Sual (in Pangasinan)
were opened to foreign trade in 1855. Cebu was also opened in
1860, and Tacloban and Legazpi in 1873. The opening of these
exports increased the value of exports. Consequently,
manufacturing and agriculture developed to answer different
products from different provinces. Batangas produced coffee;
Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Sorsogon, and Albay produced
hemp; indigo and tobacco came from the Ilocos and Cagayan
Valley. Sugar cane was produced in Negros and Iloilo in Visayas
and Pampanga, Laguna and Batangas in Luzon.
The changes in the second half of the 19th century were
due to the Suez Canal opening in 1869. This resulted in a shorter
route and travel time between Spain and the Philippines. Many
Figure 13. Map of Suez Canal.
Spaniards with progressive ideas migrated to the Philippines.
Among them were exiled creoles from Mexico whose subversive
ideas and activities advocated freedom and liberties. Later on, they influenced some educated Filipinos.
Soon, both were asking the government to introduce changes (reforms) in the colony's administration.
Another effect of the shorter distance between Spain and the Philippines was the influx of progressive
books and periodicals. Moreover, the opening of the Suez Canal led to the introduction of modern
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technology such as the mail (1854), the telegraph (1873), the telephone, and the Manila-Dagupan railway
(1890) in the Philippines.
2. Rise of the Clase Media
It was inevitable that with material progress, social change would follow. Somehow, the fruits of
these trade and commerce developments benefitted the mestizos, particularly the Spanish and Chinese
mestizos. As exports in agriculture increased, inquilinos or the tenants in the haciendas and their
families accumulated wealth. Together, they constituted the middle class – a group below the aristocratic
Spanish officials, families, and religious orders, but higher or above the masses (poor, uneducated Indios).
As middle-class members, they could send their children to colleges and universities in Manila and even
Europe. Hence, the wealthy and highly educated Filipinos called ilustrados composed the middle class
in Philippine colonial society under Spain. These educated Filipinos later asked for reforms in the Spanish
administration. They asked about Spanish misdeeds, incompetence, inefficiency, greed, and corruption.
Furthermore, they pushed the Indios' idea as “Filipinos” with equal rights as the country's Spaniards.
3. European Liberalism
When Spain gradually exposed the Philippines to international commerce in the late 18th and
early 19th centuries, liberal ideas from Europe filtered in. The thoughts of Montesquieu, Rosseau, Voltaire,
Locke, Jefferson, and other political philosophers were made known through books and periodicals
brought into the country and were even facilitated with the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. In like
manner, the ideas of Masonry (i.e., freethinking, anti-clerical, and humanitarian) also made the new
middle class aware of the Spanish authorities' repressive policy in the colony thus, making themselves
more outspoken on the excesses of the friars and government officials.
4. Administration of Governor-General Carlos Maria de la Torre
From 1868 to 1870, the Spanish revolutionists' triumph, who fought for popular suffrage and
freedom of speech, the press, and religion, brought some liberal and progressive Spaniards to the
country. One of them was Governor-General Carlos Maria de la Torre. When he arrived in Manila in 1869,
he put the liberal principles of Spain's revolutionists into practice. He showed his democratic ways by
living simply and avoiding luxury, by dismissing his palace's halberdiers and walking the streets if Manila
was in civilian clothes. His administration was significant because he abolished the press's censorship
and flogging as a punishment. He also solved the agrarian unrest in Cavite.
The educated Indios, mestizos, and Spaniards born in the Philippines who sympathized with
liberalism and Governor de la Torre serenaded him to show their appreciation of the governor’s kind
attention and democratic ways.
5. Racial Discrimination
The Spaniards commonly regarded the Filipino natives as the “inferior race” and haughtily called
them indios. The Spanish colonizers' preconceived notion that natives could not rise beyond their “limited
intelligence” instigated the enlightened Filipinos' struggle for equality.
The term “Filipino,” however, needs to be clarified during this period. In the late 19th century, the
term applied to Spaniards born in the Philippines or the insulares. Spaniards born in Spain, working or
residing in the country, were called peninsulares or Española. The rest were either mestizos or Indios.
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6. Secularization Controversy
Priesthood during the Spanish period was composed of two classes: the regular and the secular.
The regular priests belonged to religious orders like the Dominicans, the Recollects, the Augustinians,
and the Franciscans. The secular priests were not members of any religious order. During that time, the
regular priests not only made converts to Christianity, but they also occupied parishes. As such, they
were called friar curates. They had to administer the parishes as friar curates because they were very
few seculars during the first century of Spanish rule. When some natives studied for the priesthood and
became secular, they were given subordinate positions. The friar-curates refused to vacate the parishes.
This refusal led to a controversy between the seculars and the regulars. This controversy started when
the seculars asked for their right to administer the parishes.
At first, the Spanish archbishop and some governors supported their demand, and a few Filipino
seculars became parish heads. Later, however, they remained neutral. The controversy became more
heated in the early 19th century when a decree was passed, denying the native clergy the right to
administer the regulars' parishes. The government even gave the parishes, run by Filipino clergy seculars,
to Spanish regulars. This led to a campaign called secularization. The secular priests felt that the
position of parish head was being denied because they were not Spaniards, which was inferior to the
regulars. Initially, the Filipino campaign leader in secularizing the parishes was Fr. Pedro Pablo Pelaez, a
Spanish mestizo. After his death, he was succeeded by Fr. Jose Burgos.
7. Cavite Mutiny and Execution of Gomburza
At the height of the secularization controversy, the Cavite Mutiny occurred on January 20, 1872,
involving a number of workers and some marine detachments. This mutiny was caused by the revocation
of shipyard workers' privilege to be exempted from forced labor and from paying tribute by GovernorGeneral Rafael de Izquierdo.
The mutineers included Indios, mestizos, and criollos (Spaniards born in Mexico and exiled to
Cavite). They were led by a military sergeant named La Madrid. They killed some Spanish soldiers and
officers in the fort. The governor of Cavite province informed the governor-general in Manila about the
rebellion by telegraph. Alarmed, the governor-general sent an
expedition to Cavite to put down the rebellion. The leaders and the
participants were arrested and later shot to death. The government,
believing it to be a rebellion, ordered the arrest of Filipinos and
mestizos who were allegedly behind it. Among those arrested were
Frs. Jose Burgos, Mariano Gomez, Jacinto Zamora, Pedro Dandan,
Toribio del Pilar, Mariano Sevilla, Agustin Mendoza, Jose Guevarra,
and others. Among the civilians arrested were Pedro Carillo,
Antonio Regidor, Joaquin Pardo de Tavera, and others. They were
sentenced to be banished to Guam, while the GOMBURZA were
sentenced to death.
The government failed to prove convincingly that the three
priests were really connected with the mutiny. They were
sentenced to death by garrote on February 17, 1872, in
Bagumbayan (now Luneta).
CAMPAIGN FOR REFORMS (1888 – 1892)
The Spaniards succeeded in uniting the Filipinos in a
common spirit to oppose colonial authority. Between 1872 and
Figure 19. GOMBURZA.
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1892, the national consciousness was growing among Filipinos who had settled in Europe. The execution
of GOMBURZA eventually hastened the growth of Filipino nationalism. The concept of nationhood
coincided with the development of the concept of Filipinos. The propagandists tried to infuse the term
Filipino with national meaning, which later included the entire people in the archipelago.
Many Filipinos took refuge in Europe and initiated in Spain a crusade for reforms in the
Philippines. The emergence of more Filipino ilustrados gave birth to a unified nationalist movement. This
campaign was known in our history as the Propaganda Movement, which began in 1882. The
Propaganda Movement's aim was peaceful assimilation referring to the transition of the Philippines from
being a colony to a province of Spain. The propagandists believed that it
would be better if the Filipinos would become Spanish citizens since they
would be enjoying the same rights and privileges as the latter. Its adherents
did not seek independence from Spain but reforms. These reforms were as
follows: equality of Filipinos and Spaniards before the laws; restoration of
the Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes; secularization of
Philippine parishes and the expulsion of the friars and human rights for
Filipinos, such as freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom to
meet and petition for redress and grievances. The reform movement lasted
up to the early months of 1892, when the important Filipino reformists
returned to the Philippines, like Rizal.
The important Filipino reformists
were Graciano Lopez Jaena, Jose Rizal,
and Marcelo H. del Pilar. They were the
great triumvirate: Lopez Jaena was the great orator; Rizal was a great
thinker and writer. Del Pilar was a great political analyst and journalist.
The other reformists were Jose Ma. Panganiban, Antonio Luna, Mariano
Ponce, Eduardo de Lete, and a few others. They were all young men who
went to Europe to study. In the course of their studies, they involved
themselves in the cause of their country.
Graciano Lopez-Jaena (1856-1896) wrote a long story about a
certain friar named Fray Botod, greedy, immoral, and cruel. The story was
circulated in Iloilo, and soon, the friars hated him for it. He went to Manila
to escape persecution and to continue his studies. However, the Spanish
authorities harassed him, which compelled him to sail for Europe in 1880
secretly. In Spain, he studied medicine but later on gave it up and devoted
his time and energy to writing articles. In 1889, he founded the fortnightly
newspaper La Solidaridad (Solidarity) and became its first editor. The
newspaper became the propaganda arm of the Filipino reformists in Spain.
Figure 14. La Solidaridad
newspaper, 1889
 “La Solidaridad”. February 18, 1889, Vol. 1 No. 1
EXCERPT:
Democratic Fortnightly
Barcelona, February 18, 1889
Year 1, No 1
Modest, very modest indeed are our inspirations. Our program from being harmless is
very simple to fight all reaction, to hinder all steps backward, to applaud and to accept all liberal ideas,
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and to defend progress; in brief to be a propagandist above all of ideals of democracy so that these might
reign over all nations here and beyond the seas.
The aims therefore of La Solidaridad are defined: to gather, to collect liberal ideas
which are daily exposed in the camp of politics, In the fields of science, arts, letters, commerce,
agriculture, and industry.
We shall also discuss all problems which deal with the general interest of the nation,
seeking solutions that are purely national and democratic.
The Spanish overseas provinces will find in La Solidaridad a zealous supporter of their
just and lawful aspirations, an organ which will expose the evils which afflict those faraway places so
that these conditions may be remedied. . .
It will expose fearlessly and dispassionately the disease that corrupts those societies, all
phases of corruption which undermine justice and retard the economic development of our precious
Antilles whose present state and whose future are concern of all parties and administrators.
Its political program therefore with respect to the colonies is not limited to any
particular field not to any school of though.
We shall pay special attention to the Philippines because those islands need the most
help having been deprived of representation in the Cortes. We shall thus fulfill our patriotic duty in the
defense of democracy in those islands.
That nation of eight million souls should not and must not be exclusive patrimony of
theocracy and conservatism.
In the beginning od our constitutional period, the Philippine Archipelago was
represented in our Cortes. Her voice was heard. She was consulted in the formation of the fundamental
law of the state in 1812. But in 1837 she was dispossessed of this national right which was taken from her
with the pretext that it was being done for the good of the people and the country’s welfare.
From then on, all political parties seem tacitly agreed to ignore, to forget, to be
indifferent to our overseas possessions. And if the need to study and effect remedies to evils which affect
our home-country to its very core should come up, everyone enjoins caution because the belief is that the
evil is so deep-rooted that it is past cure.
Other nations employ different procedures. The British press and that beyond the
Pyrenees lavish praise on the development of the natural resources of their possessions. Spain on the
other hand sleeps and lets foreigners develop all her agricultural, industrial, and commercial interests –
all, except monastic interest.
Indifference to our Archipelago will not be good for Spain’s integrity in the Philippines.
The country is attuned to progress. The heart of the nation longs for legitimate hopes of a better life and
we do not believe in any political theory which would discuss such pleas with the classic “We shall see.”
We believe therefore that by offering to study the problems mentioned above and those
relating to them, we shall be, in our humble way, of service to the nation and her institutions.
THE STAFF
Later, La Solidaridad was under the editorship of Marcelo H. del Pilar (1850-1896). He wrote many
articles and editorials in the newspaper. Unlike Rizal and del Pilar, he wrote in the language of the
masses. He wrote the Caiingat Cayo, Dasalan at Tocsohan, Kadakilaan ng Dios, Sagot ng Espanya sa
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Hibik ng Pilipinas, and many others. The masses truly enjoyed these writings in Tagalog. He also wanted
to return to the Philippines because he believed that the campaign for reforms was a failure and that it
was time to shift to revolutionary action.
The most brilliant among them was Jose Rizal (1861-1896). He was famous for his works Noli Me
Tangere and El Filibusterismo. Besides, he wrote poems, essays, and many articles in La Solidaridad,
showing his love of country, patriotism, parents, happiness, and sorrows. Because he attacked the civil
and ecclesiastical authorities in the Philippines, they hated him and worked for his arrest. They found a
concrete basis and opportunity when he returned to the Philippines and founded La Liga Filipina, a
patriotic society suspected of uniting and preparing the people for revolution, on July 3, 1892. He was first
banished to Dapitan and later tried by a military court that sentenced him to be shot to death. He was
executed at Bagumbayan on December 30, 1896 (Agoncillo and Mangahas 2010, 110-116).
The following are the excerpts of the propaganda works of the reformists, Jaena and del Pilar:
 “La Solidaridad”. February 18, 1889, Vol. 1 No. 1; Lloyd Tronco. “Fray Botod by Graciano Lopez Jaena Is
Amusing When Read in 2016”, Talonggo, Posted in January 21, 2016; Salcedo, Chrissa, “Dasalan at Tocsohan
ni
Marcelo
H.
del
Pilar”,
Handiog,
posted
on
October
11,
2014,
https://handiog.wordpress.com/2014/10/11/dasalan-at-tocsohan-ni-marcelo-h-del-pilar/
EXCERPT:
Fray Botod (1874)
- Who is Botod?
-Look at him, there he goes, walking on the plaza, that chubby friar talking with a woman at the foot of
the talisay tree. Can you see him distinctly?
- No.
- Look well toward the center of the plaza. Look over the plaza, fix your eyes on the little tower of bamboo
and nipa, it is the bell tower of the town; at the foot of the ladder, also of bamboo, are several leafy
talisay trees, by the trunk of the most corpulent talisay tree, under its shade is Fr. Botod talking angrily
with a woman. Do you see him now?
- Yes, yes, I see him; he is bold. How he knits his eyebrows! The lass is not bad; but it is obvious, by his
manner and grin, Fr. Botod, or devils, is vexed; but, what do I see? . . . now he is raising his walking cane
in a menacing gesture.
- He is intimidating the young woman, so that she will accede to his desire.
- Is this rogue of a friar going to hit the girl?
- He is capable. Come and look, a crowd of boys from the charity school, some nude from the waist down,
others from the waist up, are running toward the Reverend Father; they kiss his hand; and the ignorant
rustic of a friar send them to blazes and, frightened, the boys fled.
- But, look, look at the shameless friar; he's slapping the girl terribly ... Hum! She falls to her knees at his
feet; she seems to be asking for pardon . . . she kisses his hand ... Poor girl! He takes her along . . .
Cursed friar! What a brute, how wretched! . . . But do you allow and endure such abuses against the
honor of that weak creature, victim of the brute force of that cynical friar?
- We are already used to such scenes; they happen frequently.
- But what is that devil of a friar doing in this part of the world!
- Parish priest! A friar, parish priest! I didn't know that friars are parish priests in the Philippines; I have
been told so, but I never believed it.
- Well, see it and you'll be convinced.
- In my country, we have thrown them out a long time ago, and certainly by kicking them out.
- Well here they are still wagging, dominating and ruling not only spiritually, but also politically and
immorally.
- There's nothing else to do but give them poisoned sausage, like stray dogs.
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- The day of reckoning will come and every debt must be paid, as a saying goes; that day will come and
woe to them! In the meantime, let them do all they fancy.
- This is horrible, worse than in China, a thousand times more vexing than in Warsaw.
- Away with such sad thoughts; let's go and look at the knavish friar at closehand.
- Jesus! Jesus! Jesus! How horrible. How ugly! He looks like a fur seal.
-What a comparison, my friend!
-Yes, yes, a fur seal, a fur seal with mustache.
-The witticism is amusing. Let us describe the fur seal: I'm wrong, I mean the friar, For everybody's
information. So be it. Fray Botod is not his proper name or his family name. Botod means big-bellied, the
people chaffed him so on acccount of his phenomenal abdomen. His baptismal name (you'll be astounded)
is Ano, because he was born on the feast day of Santa Ana; but he gets furious and flies into a rage when
he's called Fr. Ano, preferring to be called Botod to Ano. Fray Botod or Fray Ano is from Aragon, son of
unknown parents, who was found one tempestuous night in the environs of the Ebro River, near the steps
of Our Lady of the Pillar Church by a muleteer who happened to pass by, returning from his work.
-The good man educated him the best way he could. He wished to teach the boy his own occupation, but
at the age of fourteen, he ran away from the house of his adopted father and walking, walking, he reached
Valladolid and went to the convent of the Augustinian fathers there. Scarcely twenty-one years old, his
superiors sent him to the Philippines where he arrived still a rustic. He seemed meek; but after he had
been ordained and sang his first Mass, after five years in the country, eating bananas and papayas and
after his appointment as parish priest of so important a town where he is now, he has become so smart
that he is now very rich. He is very shrewd and he has more horse sense than Santillana.
- That is the succinct sketch of the birth, novitiate of Fr. Botod and the first years of his stay in the
Philippines. Let us now consider his figure and exploits. He is a big fellow, a phenomenal guy. Short
stature; bloated face forming a disk like a full moon. Round cheekbones. Thick, prominent lips; small eyes,
roguish and feline; large, reddish nose, with flaring nostrils so that he can smell at a distance like a
retriever. Hair of the color of maize; the crown, like a coconut shell with tonsure. Depressed and
wrinkled forehead, giving him a supercilious and stern look. . Abdomen: above all his abdomen attracts
attention because of its huge size; it's more of a promontory than abdomen, because it ends in a point
near the navel; the pelvic region md the pectoral coincide on the same perpendicular plane limiting a
central curvature of the vertebral column. Add to all this a short neck on which rests on that unique
physiognomy and you have the finished picture of the whole figure of Fr. Botod. His whole figure is a
faithful copy of Don Quijote's squire, of the ridiculous physiognomy of Sancho Panza. With regards to his
habits:
- More gluttonous than Heliogabalus; a usurer, worse than a Jewish money-lender; fond of women with
sultan-like exploits. In conclusion: He has everything he likes and he indulges excessively. Summarizing,
if the renowned Zola would describe him, he would say about him more or less the following:
-Fr. Botod is a well-fed pig who eats, drinks, sleeps and thinks of nothing else but to satisfy his carnal
appetite in their various manifestations.
- See there, he's coming out again of the parish house accompanied by that young lady who's whining and
crying bitterly. Fr. Botod is caressing her, consoling her, but she is insensible and indifferent to
everything; her moaning is subdued by fear, she obeys and follows the friar automatically. This time they
are not alone but followed by several girls, vyingly beautiful, some of them very young, others bigger, but
all of them are very pretty and well-dressed.
- Now he gets into the omnibus with them; they're going for a drive and to the country for lunch.
-But who are those girls and why are they in Fr. Botod's parish house?
- They are his canding-canding.
- What are canding-canding?
- In the Castilian language the expression can mean or it is equivalent to kids, she-kids.
- If you're not going to explain it clearly, it is Greek to me. Why does the bedeviled friar have in his
possession those innocent creatures and why are such angelic girls called she kids?
- They're simply called she-kids because, as time goes on, when they reach marriageable age . . . do you
hear, do you understand now? He has them in his possession because they are the daughters of poor
families. Under the pretext of educating them, teaching them the Christian Doctrine, the catechism, how
to read, write and other things and deceiving their unfortunate parents, he takes them willingly or by
force.
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- But is there no woman teacher in this town?
- Yes, there is but the old woman and Fr. Botod are hand in glove.
- This is unheard of, horrible! But why don't they denounce to the authorities these barbarities of Bobooo
or of that lascivious friar?
- Who'll accuse the Father? In the town no one will dare touch him. Woe to him who would dare!
- Is this common, general, in Philippine towns?
- I don't dare say so because since I was born, I haven't gone out of this town; but by what I have heard
from others, I venture to say that it is, it is general. (1874)
DASALAN AT TOCSOHAN (1888)
Ang Tanda ng Cara-i-Cruz
(Parody ng “Sign of the Cross“)
Ang tanda nang cara-i-cruz ang ipangadya mo sa amin Panginoon naming Fraile sa manga
bangkay naming, sa ngalan nang Salapi at nang Maputing binte, at nang Espiritung Bugaw. Siya naua.
Panginoon Kong Fraile
(Parody ng “The Act of Contrition”)
Panginoon kong Fraile, Dios na hindi totoo at labis nang pagkatuo gumaga at sumalacay sa
akin: pinagsisihan kong masakit sa tanang loobang dilang pag-asa ko sa iyo, ikaw nga ang berdugo ko.
Panginoon ko at kaauay ko na inihihibic kong lalo sa lahat, nagtitica akong matibay na matibay na dina
muli-muling mabubuyo sa iyo: at lalayuan ko na at pangingilagan ang balanang makababacla nang loob
ko sa pag-asa sa iyo, macalilibat nang dating sakit nang manga bulsa ko, at nagtitica naman acong
maglalathala nang dilang pagcadaya ko umaasa akong babambuhin ka rin, alang-alang sa mahal na
panyion at pangangalakal mo nang Cruz, sa pagulol sa akin. Siya naua.
Amain Namin
(Parody ng “Our Father“)
Amain naming sumasaconvento ka, sumpain ang ngalan mo, malayo sa amin ang kasakiman
mo, quitlin ang liig mo ditto sa lupa para nang sa langit. Saulan mo cami ngayon nang aming kaning
iyonh inaraoarao at patauanin mo kami sa iyong pagungal para nang pag papataua mo kung kami
nacucualtahan; at huag mo kaming ipahintulot sa iyong manunukso at iadya mo kami sa masama mong
dila.
Aba Guinoong Barya
(Parody ng “Hail Mary“)
Aba guinoong Baria nakapupuno ka nang alcancia ang Fraile’I sumasainyo bukod ka niyang
pinagpala’t pina higuit sa lahat, pinagpala naman ang kaban mong mapasok. Santa Baria Ina nand
Deretsos, ipanalangin mo kaming huag anitan ngayon at cami ipapatay. Siya naua.
At narito naman ang isang halimbawa ng parody ng isang banal na kasulatan:
Ang Mga Utos ng Fraile
(Parody ng “The Ten Commandments“)
Ang manga utos nang Fraile ay sampo:
Ang nauna: Sambahin mo ang Fraile na lalo sa lahat.
Ang ikalaua: Huag kang mag papahamak manuba nang ngalang deretsos.
Ang ikatlo: Mangilin ka sa Fraile lingo man at fiesta.
Ang ikapat: Isangla mo ang catauan mo sa pagpapalibing sa ama’t ina
Ang ikalima: Huag kang mamamatay kung uala pang salaping pang libing
Ang ikanim: Huag kang makiapid sa kanyang asaua.
Ang ikapito: Huag kang makinakaw.
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Ang ikaualo: Huag mo silang pagbibintangan, kahit ka masinungalingan.
Ang ikasiyam: Huag mong ipagkait ang iyong asaua.
Ang ikapulo: Huag mong itangui ang iyong ari.
Itong sampong utos nang Fraile’I dalaua ang kinaoouian. Ang isa: Sambahin mo ang Fraile lalo sa lahat.
Ang ikalaua: Ihayin mo naman sa kaniya ang puri mo’t kayamanan.
Siya naua.
Why did the Reform Movement fail?
The campaign to introduce reforms waged by patriotic Filipinos in Spain in the Philippines failed.
Some laws that were indeed beneficial to the Philippines were passed, such as the Maura Law of 1893,
which provided for the reorganization of local government, the law for the compulsory teaching of Spanish
in all schools, and laws introducing reforms in the judiciary. However, these laws were not implemented.
Four reasons why the reform movement failed (Agoncillo and Mangahas 2010, 116-117):
1. The Spanish high officials in Spain were too busy with their own problems to the reformists'
collective voice.
2. The reformists in Spain and the Philippines did not have the necessary financial means to make
their campaign more effective.
3. The reformists themselves were not united. There were jealousies among them.
4. The friars in the Philippines had influential friends and supporters in Spain.
KATIPUNAN
Upon Rizal’s arrest and exile to Dapitan, an unknown member, Andres Bonifacio, saw the futility
of continuing the peaceful campaign for reforms. Whether moderate or radical, he knew Spain would not
listen to the demands of the propagandists. Bonifacio had a different idea. He wanted an organization
whose aims were opposed to the reformist societies' aims and ready for revolution. This organization was
then called the Katipunan.
It was believed that the movement was established on July 7, 1892, after hearing the news of the
arrests and order of Jose Rizal's banishment. However, in the document Casaysayan. Pinagcasunduan,
Mga Daquilang Cautusan contradicted its establishment date, claiming it was established as early as
January 1892. A small group of patriotic Filipinos composed of Andres Bonifacio, Teodoro Plata, Valentin
Diaz, Ladislao Diwa, Deodato Arellano, and others, met at Azcarraga Street, Manila (now Claro M. Recto
Ave.). They organized a society called Kataastasan Kagalanggalangang na Katipunan ng mga Anak
ng Bayan (KKK).

Jim Richardson, Katipunan: Documents and Studies. http://www.kasaysayan-kkk.info/;
“Casaysayan, Pinagcasunduan, Manga Daquilang Cautosan”, Posted on October 9, 2014
EXCERPT:
“Casaysayan; Pinagcasundoan; Manga daquilang cautosan,” January 1892.
Source: Archivo General Militar de Madrid: Caja 5677, leg.1.37.
Caming nag Alang-alang sa manga buctot at capusongang gaua na nanga tatala sa nangungunang
casaysayan, manga cadahilanang inahihiualay sa... nitong Sangcapuloan.
Yamang ang unang majalaga at pinuputungan ng masaganang carangalan at capurijan sa alin mang
maningning na Kajarian ay ang majal na catungculan na mag tangol sa caniyang bayan, mag paca jirap
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sa icaguiguinjaua nito, gugulin ang dugo sampo nang bujay sa icararangal ng caniyang bayan, manga
capatid at anac, upang juag sacupin, lupiguin at apijin ng ibang cajarian.
Yamang ang tauo ay pinag calooban ng P.D. nang ganap na caramdaman.
Yamang jindi ipinag iniuutos nang Maykap.l na ang isa niyang linalang ay lumupig at yumurac sa
capua, lalo na cung ito ay jindi nagbibigay dajilan.
Yamang jindi gauang calilojan ang mag tangol at umibig sa caniyang bayan lalo na cung iniinis at
inaalipin ng namumuno sa caniya, gaya nang manga casalucuyang nagyayare.
Yamang ang isang bayan, capag pinagpupunoan nang laban sa caniyang manga intereses, cailangan,
at mga tunay o tapat na jangad, ay mairo,-ong catoirang ijapay ang namumuno na may ganoong asal, at
cung dumating ang ganitong janga, ay jindi pag laban o calilojan, cung di pag balicuas sa ningas nang
jirap, na pinag susucbajan sa caniya sa isang salita ay pag tatangol sa matapat na catoiran.
Yamang tatlong daang taong majiguit ang linalacaran nitong calunoslunos na bayang tagalog sa
ilalim nang capangyarijan nang manga Kastila ay nag cacaloob ng malaquing cababaan at bulag na pag
sunod, baga man inaalagaan sa boong caalipinan, quinacaladcad at inalulubog sa ilalim nang malauac
na hirap, iniinis na di ibig pajingajin, at bagcos dinadangunan ng mabibigad na patao, upanding huag
ng lumitao mag pacailan pa man.
Yamang hualang inaasal at guinagaua ang Kzstnja cung di sugatan at salautain ang puso ng lalong
matajimic, mati,isin at may tapat na pag ibig sa canila.
Yamang pinag pipilitang malaglag sa tangcay at malanta ang lupang ito na di ibig sibulan caunti
mang dacta na icabubujay, ano pat (huluin nang matalinong isip ang mga talinjagang ito) ang
nacacatulad nitong culang palad na lupa ay isang catauan na bagamat uala nang tumatayo cun di ang
balancas na majinang manga buto ay quinucutcot pa ito, nang matapos sipsipin ang caniyang manga
laman upang juag nang mabujay na baca ipag giganti ang tiniti,is na kaapijan.
Yamang, nang unang silay lumiligao, upanding tumuntong sa manga Capuloang ito, ay pinangcoang
majicpit ang caniyang mga inanac, na tatauaging capatid at ipag tatangol sa ano mang manga
Capanganiban tuloy bibijisin sa cajubaran, at jindi aasalin ang manga nanga sabe na sa itaas, datapoa,i,
jindi tinutupad ang ganoong pinagcasundoan.
Yamang mag bujat nang una, ang E.... sa caniyang pag samsam at pag cacalat ng caniyang
capangyarijan sa boong Capuloang ito, jindi gumugol ng malaquing pujunan, maguing pagod, dugo o
bujay man, pagcat, ang manga Campon niyaon ay sinalubong ng malaquing capacumbabaan at tinangap
nang boong pag irog, ayon sa canilang magandang pangaco at pag asang aarinig Anac at Capatid ang
boong tagarito, na di lulupiguin at pag lililicjan sa manga pinag casundoan.
Yamang ang E.... ay nag tubo na at nag camal nang hindi cacaunting cayamanan sa caniyang pag
jauac at pag lupig sa mga Capuloang ito.
Yamang jindi natatala sa alin mang Catoiran na ang sino man ay macapag jauac at cumamcam ng
jindi niya lupa o pag aare, ay caming may areng tunay at tubo sa lupang ito na linupig at quinamcam
may tunay na catoiran, huag na ang maningil nang pautang dajil sa manga gauang yaon, cun di na
lamang jingin na isarile sa amin ang boong Capangyarijan sa manga Capuloang ito, bucod pa sa cami
ay jindi nag cacailangan na pangjimasucan at pamunoan nang taga ibang lupa, cun ang guinagaua,
gaya ngayon, ay pauang pag inis, pag lait, pag api, pag iring at pag patay.
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Alinsunod sa lajat nang manga gauang capusongan, na nasasaysay sa una, cung damdamin ang
matinding sugat na sa puso namin ay binucsan ng manga gauang yaon at cung noynoin ang manga
catoirang nanga talata, caming nag tibay sa ibaba nitong casulatan ay nagca isang loob at panucala na
bunutin sa gayong caalipinan, cadustaan, caapijan at iba pang maraming calabisan na tinitiis nitong
Sangcapuloan na quinamcam at linupig nang ualang aua, matacao at dayucdoc na nag papangap
Jalimao.
Upanding camtan namin ang mabuting janga nanga majicpit at mabigat na panucala, catungculang
baga mat malaqui sa taglay naming lacas ay aming gaganapin mag bujat ngayon ay cami ay nag
sasacdal sa mataas na Jocoman ng Maycapal at jumijinging tulungan nang caniyang daquilang lacas at
capangyarijan, tuloy cami ay sumusucob at na pasasaclolo sa matapat na catoiran.
Sa pag ganap nang aming manga ipinangusap at pinagcasundoan ay nanumpa cami sa jarap nitong
cagalang galang na Cataast... Catipunan, sa caniya, dajil sa aming bayan, sa caniyang manga sugat na
aming dinaramdan, sa caniyang icaguiguinjaua at sa cami ay nag aasal majal na ipag tatangol at
gagauing mapilit ano mang mangyare na siya ay mag sarili at majiualay at di namin papayagang
malupig pang muli nang nag jajauac ngayon at nang iba pang Cajarian na mangajas lumupig, at sa
ganitong banal na jangad, ay aming isinasagot, sa pag ganap, ang aming catauan, bujay at manga
cayamanang jinajauacan at jajauacan pa.
Sumusumpa din naman cami na aming gaganapin at ipagaganap ang mga cautusang sa juli ay inilagda
at pinag caisajan nang manga guinoo na naga jajarap sa Cataastaasang Catipunang ito, na aming
iguinagalang at ipinagdidiuang sa .......ica........ ng Enero isang libo ualong daan at siyam na puo at
dalaua
The organization laid down three primary objectives: civic, political, and moral. The civic
objective was based on self-help and the defense of the weak and the poor. The political objective was to
separate the Philippines from Spain, i.e., to secure the colony's independence. The moral objective
focused on the teaching of good manners, hygiene, and good moral character.
Also, the Katipunan borrowed the structure of the La Liga Filipina. It had three governing bodies:
the Kataastaasang Sanggunian or Supreme Council, the Sangguniang Bayan or the Provincial
Council, and the Sangguniang Balangay or the Popular Council. The Supreme Council was the
highest of these governing bodies. Respectively, they were the equivalent of the central government, the
provincial government, and the municipal government. There was also a Judicial Council called the
Sangguniang Hukuman, which passed judgment on the members who violated the Society's rules.
The organization's founders performed the compact blood ritual to show their patriotism and seal
their friendship or brotherhood (kapatiran) when they signed their oath.
At first, the members agreed that they would recruit
Filipinos to become members through a triangle system
method.
Figure 14. Triangle method – Structure
recruitment of new members in KKK.
of
The triangle method was used to minimize the
danger of discovery by the Spanish authorities. Later, a new
system of recruiting members similar to Masonry was
adopted to speed up enlisting members. It was also agreed
that each member would pay a membership fee and
monthly dues. The following were the three grades of the
Katipunan movement:
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Figure 15. Grades of KKK members with its
corresponding color coding, password and
amount of monthly dues paid to the
organization.
Marina Dizon, and Angelica Lopez Rizal.
Filipino women were also involved in the
Katipunan. He suggested minimizing the danger of
exposing society. Only the wife, sister, daughter of
a Katipunero, and a few selected women could be
eligible to be members of the organization. Besides
helping the male members propagate society's
ideals and ideas, they were tasked to make the
police authorities believe that no Katipunan
meeting was being held in the house. The women
engaged in dancing and singing in full view of the
people. Among the group's prominent women
members were Josefa Rizal, Gregoria de Jesus,
Since its foundation in 1892, there were only three Katipuneros who became the Supremo or
President. First was Deodato Arellano, followed by Roman Basa in early 1893. In 1895, when Bonifacio
was not contented with the performance of Basa, he replaced him. He remained the Supremo until the
establishment of a revolutionary government in Tejeros, Cavite.
The organization also invented a writing system, which would make it difficult for the Spaniards to
read the Katipunan letters or any written communication. Aside from the codes, the members also used
flags as a symbol of their unity. In August 1896, the Katipunan official flag consisted of a red rectangular
piece of cloth with a white sun and eight white rays in the middle. Inside the circle representing the sun
was the letter K in the ancient Tagalog script (Agoncillo and Mangahas 2010, 120-123).
To guide the Katipuneros in leading a highly moral life, Bonifacio prepared some sort of Ten
Commandments. He called these commandments “Katungkulang Gagawin ng mga Anak ng Bayan”
(Duties of the Sons of the People). These teachings may be described as a Decalogue. Meanwhile,
Emilio Jacinto also wrote the Kartilya, which consisted of thirteen teachings. Members of the Katipunan
were expected to take the teachings to heart.
 Jim Richardson, Katipunan: Documents and Studies. http://www.kasaysayan-kkk.info/; “Emilio Jacinto’s
Kartilya.” Posted on July 16, 2013.
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EXCERPT:
MGA ARAL NANG KATIPUNAN NG MGA A.N.B
Ang kabuhayang hindi ginugugol sa isang malaki at banal na kadahilanan ay kahoy na walang lilim, kundi
damong makamandag.
Ang gawang magaling na nagbubuhat sa pagpipita sa sarili, at hindi sa talagang nasang gumawa ng
kagalingan, ay di kabaitan.
Ang tunay na kabanalan ay ang pagkakawang gawa, ang pagibig sa kapua at ang isukat ang bawat kilos,
gawa’t pangungusap sa talagang Katuiran.
Maitim man at maputi ang kulay ng balat, lahat ng tao’y magkakapantay; mangyayaring ang isa’y higtan sa
dunong, sa yaman, sa ganda…; ngunit di mahihigtan sa pagkatao.
Ang may mataas na kalooban inuuna ang puri sa pagpipita sa sarili; ang may hamak na kalooban inuuna ang
pagpipita sa sarili sa puri.
Sa taong may hiya, salita’y panunumpa.
Huag mong sasayangin ang panahun; ang yamang nawala’y magyayaring magbalik; nguni’t panahong
nagdaan na’y di na muli pang magdadaan.
Ipagtanggol mo ang inaapi, at kabakahin ang umaapi.
Ang taong matalino’y ang may pagiingat sa bawat sasabihin, at matutong ipaglihim ang dapat ipaglihim.
Sa daang matinik ng kabuhayan, lalaki ay siyang patnugot ng asawa’t mga anak; kung ang umaakay ay tungo
sa sama, ang patutunguhan ng iaakay ay kasamaan din.
Ang babai ay huag mong tignang isang bagay na libangan lamang, kundi isang katuang at karamay sa mga
kahirapan nitong kabuhayan; gamitan mo ng buong pagpipitagan ang kaniyang kahinaan, at alalahanin
ang inang pinagbuhata’t nagiwi sa iyong kasangulan.
Ang di mo ibig na gawin sa asawa mo, anak at kapatid, ay huag mong gagawin sa asawa, anak, at kapatid ng
iba.
Ang kamahalan ng tao’y wala sa pagkahari, wala sa tangus ng ilong at puti ng mukha, wala sa pagkaparing
KAHILILI NG DIOS, wala sa mataas na kalagayan sa balat ng lupa; wagas at tunay na mahal na tao,
kahit laking gubat at walang nababatid kundi ang sariling wika, yaong may magandang asal, may isang
pangungusap, may dangal at puri; yaong di napaaapi’t di nakikiapi; yaong marunong magdamdam at
marunong lumingap sa bayang tinubuan.
Paglaganap ng mga aral na ito at maningning na sumikat ang araw ng mahal na Kalayaan dito sa
kaabaabang Sangkalupuan, at sabugan ng matamis niyang liwanag ang nangagkaisang magkalahi’t
magkakapatid ng ligaya ng walang katapusan, ang mga ginugol na buhay, pagud, at mga tiniis na
kahirapa’y labis nang natumbasan.
Moreover, Bonifacio and Jacinto believed that they could quickly propagate their revolutionary
ideas through the printing press. Despite a lack of funds, two Visayan patriots, Candido Iban, and
Francisco del Castillo gave the Katipunan the money to purchase a printing press. Their newspaper was
called Kalayaan. To mislead the Spanish authorities, they put Yokohama as the publication and Marcelo
H. del Pilar as the editor. Also, they did not sign their true names for fear that the Katipunan might be
discovered. They used pen names such as Pingkian and Dimas-Ilaw for Jacinto, Agapito Baumbayan for
Bonifacio, and Madlang-Away for Pio Valenzuela (Agoncillo and Mangahas 2010, 124-127).
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The Outbreak of the 1896 Phil. Revolution: First Phase
With the Spanish discovery of the existence of the Katipunan on August 19, 1896, the secret
society which aimed for Philippine independence from Spain through armed revolution, its members in
Manila and the nearby provinces of Cavite, Rizal, Batangas, Bulacan, Bataan, Laguna, Pampanga, and
Nueva Ecija immediately rose in arms against the Spanish authorities. In the presence of the Katipuneros,
Andres Bonifacio tore his cedula as a sign of defiance and independence from Spanish colonial
authorities. The place and the date of this event remain debatable, as some, like Pio Valenzuela, testified
that it happened on August 23, 1896. Recent studies, however, suggest that the Cry happened on August
24. This event, known in official history as the Cry of Pugadlawin, signaled the Revolution's beginning.
From August 29 to 30, 1896, simultaneous uprisings began in towns surrounding Manila and in
the province of Cavite. Although Bonifacio's assault against a Spanish powder magazine at San Juan del
Monte failed, other actions taken against the Spaniards were successful, especially in Cavite. When it
was launched, the Philippine Revolution became the first nationalist revolution in Asia. On August 30,
1896, the Spanish Governor-General provinces in a state of war and under martial law. By August 31,
1896, as Bonifacio was regrouping in Marikina following his setback, Emilio Aguinaldo, a Katipunan
leader in Cavite, managed to defeat the local Spanish garrison at Kawit wherein the enemy commander
of the Guardia Civil was killed.
Bonifacio used the following months to reorganize his forces at bases on the foothills east of
Manila. At the same time, Mariano Llanera attacked Spanish outposts in the province of Nueva Ecija. The
forces of Aguinaldo continued to expand their control over the province of Cavite. After a great victory
against a Spanish general in the Battle of Imus, he has then proclaimed a general of the revolution. In
contrast, Bonifacio suffered another defeat at the hands of the Spanish defenders of San Mateo. He was
almost killed by a bullet that grazed his collar while shielding Emilio Jacinto. Bonifacio and Aguinaldo's
combat record would set the stage for the eventual showdown between the two a few months later at the
Tejeros Convention.
The Spaniards saw Cavite as a major front of operations. It is adjacent to Manila. A great effort
was exerted to wrest it away from the revolutionaries. On November 8, 1896, Spanish warships
bombarded Cavite El Viejo's towns (Kawit), Bacoor, and Noveleta. The following day, the Spaniards
mounted an offensive led by General Diego de los Rios. One of its columns, led by Col. Jose Marina,
advanced to Binakayan. The Spanish offensive experienced fierce resistance from the Filipinos. A
Spanish column from Cavite El Viejo was pushed back almost to Caridad's town's starting point.
On December 30, 1896, Jose Rizal was executed by the firing squad on trumped charges of
rebellion as part of a reign of terror to quell the revolution. This injustice further fanned the flames of
unrest (PCDSPO 2016, 23).
Figure 16. Tejeros Convention, 1897.
Meanwhile, in Cavite, tensions arose
between the Katipunan factions Magdalo and
Magdiwang. To address the issue, Bonifacio
withdrew from Manila, which the Spaniards heavily
defended, and proceeded to Cavite, accepting the
invitation of the Magdiwang. On March 22, 1897, in
Bonifacio's presence, the Tejeros Convention was
assembled to establish a Revolutionary Government.
An election was held where Aguinaldo was elected
President and Bonifacio as Minister of the Interior.
However, Bonifacio was provoked by Daniel Tirona,
who challenged his credentials for the position,
leading Bonifacio to call off the convention. He
decried the assembly as disorderly and tarnished by
chicanery.
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This declaration and the intention of starting a government anew would later cost Bonifacio his life.
He would be tried for treason by a kangaroo court and sentenced to death at Maragondon, Cavite, on
May 10, 1897. With the defeat of the revolutionary forces on several fronts, they retreated to Biak-na-Bato,
where the Spanish authorities and revolutionary forces would settle, ending the Philippine Revolution's
first phase (PCDSPO 2016, 23). Gregoria de Jesus's letter to Emilio Jacinto described her experience
when Andres Bonifacio and his brother were captured and tried during that time.
The first phase of the Philippine Revolution ended with the Pact of Biyak-na-Bato on December
17, 1897. The truce between the Spanish authorities under Governor-General Primo de Rivera and the
Filipino revolutionaries represented by Pedro Paterno demanded the voluntary exile of General Emilio
Aguinaldo and his companions; in turn, Spanish authorities would pay 800,000 pesos to the
revolutionaries in three installments and another 900,000 pesos as indemnity to the families of civilian
casualties.
Following the pact, Aguinaldo and his companions began traveling to Calumpit, Bulacan, on
December 23, 1897. The group then passed through Dagupan before reaching the port of Sual in
Pangasinan on December 27, 1897. On the same day, they sailed to Hong Kong, arriving on December
31.
Second Phase of the Philippine Revolution
Two days after the United States declared war on Spain, on April 21, 1898, American ConsulGeneral E. Spencer Pratt met with Emilio Aguinaldo in Singapore. Pratt sought Aguinaldo's support
against Spain in this meeting, as Aguinaldo expressed his eagerness to return to the Philippines. Pratt
then cabled Commodore George Dewey in Hong Kong and arranged for Aguinaldo's return to the
Philippines.
On May 17, 1898, Aguinaldo sailed from Hong Kong to the Philippines on board the USS
McCulloch. He arrived in Cavite on May 19, 1898. The return of Aguinaldo signaled the resumption of the
Philippine Revolution against Spain.
While Aguinaldo and other Filipino leaders
were abroad and planning to return to the Philippines,
on April 27, 1898, the US Asiatic Squadron led by
Commodore Dewey sailed from Mirs Bay to launch
an attack against the Spanish fleet in the Philippines.
On May 1, 1898, at 5:15 a.m., Dewey and his fleet
entered Manila Bay as the Spanish fleet of Admiral
Patricio Montojo lay at anchor near Sangley Point,
Cavite. The Spanish navy in Cavite outnumbered the
American fleet; however, the Spaniards were heavily
outgunned by the more advanced American ships. At
5:41 am, the US squadron began the offensive,
sinking the eight Spanish ships. Furthermore, by
12:40 pm, the Spanish fleet's destruction was
completed, resulting in the Spanish navy's surrender.
Figure 17. Battle of Manila Bay, May 1, 1898.
The Mock Battle of Manila
On August 13, 1898, the so-called Mock Battle of Manila between American and Spanish forces
was staged. It was called a mock battle because the engagements had already been planned – from the
shot to the last to the Spanish's theatrical surrender to the Americans.
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The battle began at 9:45 am when the American cruiser Olympia and the gunboat Petrel
commenced the attack on Fort San Antonio Abad. Dewey ordered his captains to spare Manila any
serious damage.
Meanwhile, the Filipino forces under General Emilio Aguinaldo were barred from entering
Intramuros by request of Dewet. As American forces led by Brigadier General Francis Vinton Greene
entered Malate, the Spaniards displayed the white flag of surrender over Intramuros' walls. General
Wesley Merritt then met with Spanish Governor-General Fermin Jaudenes, concluding a preliminary
agreement regarding the Spaniards (PCDSPO 2016, 24).
This event was evident in how the United States misled Aguinaldo to believe that the Americans
came as an ally of the Filipinos fighting to end Spanish rule. However, in the end, the Filipinos’ fears and
suspicions proved to be true. The Americans came to stay and eventually took over as the new colonial
master.
References
“La Solidaridad.” February 18, 1889, Vol. 1 No. 1
Agoncillo, T. 2007. History of the Filipino People 8th ed. Quezon City, Phil.: Garotech Publishing.
Agoncillo, T. and Mangahas, Fe. 2010. Philippine History Expanded and Updated Expedition. Phil.: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Blair, Emma, and Robertson, James, Eds. 1903-1909. The Philippine Islands 55-Volumes, Cleveland,
Ohio: The A. H. Clark Company.
“Conspiracy against the Spaniards” in Vol. 7: 95-98
“Insurrections by Filipinos in the Seventeenth Century” in Vol. 38: 82-94; 99-104; 141-144)
“Events in Philippines, 1739-62” Vol. 48: 147-148
De Viana, A. 2011. Philippines: A Story of a Nation. Manila, Phil.: Rex Book Store.
Richardson, Jim. Katipunan: Documents and Studies. http://www.kasaysayan-kkk.info/
“Casaysayan, Pinagcasunduan, Manga Daquilang Cautosan,” Posted on October 9, 2014.
“Andres Bonifacio Katungkulang gagawin ng mga Z. Ll. Posted on April 1, 2013.
“Emilio Jacinto’s Kartilya.” Posted on July 16, 2013.
“Acta de Tejeros.” Posted on July 16, 2013.
“Gregoria Bonifacio Kasulatan”. Posted on April 1, 2013.
Salcedo, Chrissa, “Dasalan at Tocsohan ni Marcelo H. del Pilar,” Handiog, posted on October 11, 2014,
https://handiog.wordpress.com/2014/10/11/dasalan-at-tocsohan-ni-marcelo-h-del-pilar/
Tronco, Lloyd. “Fray Botod by Graciano Lopez Jaena Is Amusing When Read in 2016”, Talonggo, Posted
on January 21, 2016.
Supplementary Materials:
 NHCP’s Jose Rizal: Sa Landas ng Paglaya https://youtu.be/KX4_mB4mplY and Maypag-asa Ang
Bantayog ni Andres Bonifacio https://youtu.be/TwWbYirxHb4
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CHAPTER 5 & CHAPTER 6 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS
Name:__________________________________________________
Date: __________________
Name of Instructor: __________________________________ Class Section/Schedule: ___________________
Instruction: Answer the questions below guided with the given rubrics.
I.Identify and explain the factors that led to Spanish colonization in the Philippines in the 16th century. (10 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
II.Matching Type. Match the different colonial policies, programs, and identities implemented by the
Spaniards in Column A to Column B.
COLUMN A
______________1. Enacted colonial laws
______________ 2. Method used by Spaniards by using one group against another in quelling revolts
______________ 3. Process of resettling the Filipino natives to towns or pueblos
______________ 4. Executive branch of the central government in Felipinas
______________ 5. Royal visitor who came to Felipinas unannounced and incognito to check the Spanish official’s
performance
______________ 6. Head of the barrio levels
______________ 7. Payment of 8 to 15 reales
______________ 8. Trade of Asian goods between Manila and Acapulco, Mexico
______________ 9. Trade of Asian goods via Cape of Good Hope
_____________ _10. 16 to 60 years old male to render manual service for 40 days
_____________ _11. Those who were assigned in travelling and converting Indios to Christianity
_____________ _12. Those who were supposedly assigned to maintain the population to keep the Christian faith
and supervise the parochial domain.
______________ 13. The highest group of people in socio-economic level during Spanish Colonial Philippines.
______________ 14. The former nomenclature associated to native Filipinos.
______________ 15. The highest military-executive position in during Spanish Colonial Philippines.
COLUMN B
A. Visitador-Real
J. Tributo
B. Regular Priest
K. Gobernadorcillo
C. Indio
L. Reduccion
D. Governor-General
M. Governor-General
E. Secular Priest
N. Galleon trade
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F. Cabeza de barangay
O. Polo y Servicios
G. Situado
P. Real Compania de Filipinas
H. Peninsulares
Q. Divide et impera (Divide and rule)
I. Recopilacion de los Leyes de los Reynos de las
Indias
i.
III. Describe and evaluate the impact of Spanish colonialism on the Philippine Society and culture.
What were examples of the Hispanic-Mexican culture that the Filipino natives adopted during this period?
Give 4 examples. (10 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
IV. Determine the causes and results of the early Filipino revolts during the Spanish era. Cite two examples
of these revolts based on the assigned reading materials. (10 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
V. Explain the impact of European politico-economic and intellectual influences on the development of
Filipino nationalism. Mention only three contributory factors. (10 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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VI. Complete the table. Compare and contrast the Propaganda Movement and Katipunan in terms of the
following (14 pts +1):
Propaganda Movement
Katipunan
Objectives (3 pts each)
Method (1 pt each)
Relevance to the Development of
Phil. Nationalism (2 pts each)
Organ (Newspaper) of the
Movement (1 pt each)
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CHAPTER 7
COLONIAL PERIOD: AMERICAN OCCUPATION
(1898 – 1946)
Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1) Explain the reasons for American expansionism.
2) Expound how the Americans grant the Phil. Self-Government (Commonwealth) in 1935.
 Overview
At first, President Aguinaldo regarded the Americans as an ally on the Philippines’ road toward
independence. However, Filipino-American relations deteriorated as the American military authorities took
over Manila in August 1898 (Mock Battle in the previous chapter).
In this chapter, the students will know the reasons behind the American expansionism to the
Philippines, despite the Declaration of independence in June 1898 and the creation of a Republic by our
Filipino leaders.
 List of Reading Materials:
a.
A Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain, U.S. Congress, 55th Cong., 3d sess.,
Senate Doc. No. 62, Part 1 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1899), 5-11,
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp
b.
“Benevolent
Assimilation”,
Accessed
on
September
2018,
http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/benevolent.html
c. Jones Law of 1916
d. Philippine Independence Act of 1934
e. 1935 Constitution of the Commonwealth Government
American Expansionism
The Spanish-American War
Some factors that contributed to the United States' decision to open hostilities against Spain were
the Cuban struggle for independence, the Americans' efforts to extend influence overseas, and the
sinking of the U.S. warship Maine.
Like the Filipinos, the Cubans were fighting against Spain to obtain their independence. Under the
leadership of Jose Marti, the Cubans revolted in 1895. The Cuban rebels rejected Spain’s offer of
autonomy instead of complete independence. The brutalities committed by the Spanish government in
Cuba, such as the rounding of the peasant population and placing them in concentration camps, were
made to suppress the rebellion. Thousands died due to illnesses and limited food provisions. Such
cruelties infuriated the American public.
The New York Journal and the New York World were among the American newspapers, which
published stories about the Spaniards' alleged atrocities in Cuba. They called for the U.S. government to
intervene on the side of the Cubans. This idea won widespread support among American citizens and
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politicians. This gave rise to the belief of Manifest Destiny, where the United States has the divinely
ordained due to help troubled countries.
America’s open support for the Cuban Revolution and her vast investments in Cuba’s sugar
industry led her to this Spanish colony's involvement. Spain could not oppose the United States, a
powerful rising nation, in the face of the Cuban Revolution.
Meanwhile, a letter from Spain’s Ambassador to the United States (Dupuy de Lome) to a friend in
Havana, Cuba, was stolen and published in a New York periodical. It stated that U.S. President William
McKinley was a weakling and a low politician. This created a national feeling among the Americans to
support the war against Spain. The replacement of the Spanish ambassador could not, however, relieve
the aggrieved American populace. The provocation was heated up after the US Maine's mysterious
blowing up in Havana, Cuba, was sent by the U.S. Consul General to protect American citizens and
property. This incident happened on the night of February 18, 1898. It reportedly resulted in the death of
266 officers and men. In 1976, based on the U.S. Navy Study, the findings suggested that the explosion
could have been caused by spontaneous combustion in the ship’s coal bunkers.
The American authorities viewed the assault in Havana
as an act of treachery. U.S. newspapers blamed Spain for the
tragedy and evoked American sympathy with this cry,
“Remember the Maine.”
On April 19, the U.S. Congress passed several
resolutions demanding the pullout of Cuba's Spanish forces. To
save her honor, Spain declared war against the United States
on April 24. The next day, the U.S. Congress declared war on
Spain, and thus, the Spanish-American war began. Past noon
of April 25, Commodore George Dewey, commander of the
Asiatic Squadron, received a cable from the Secretary of Navy.
He was instructed to proceed against the Spanish fleet
anchored in Manila Bay.
Figure 18. “Remember the Maine.”
The conclusion of the Spanish-American war, which
resulted in the Americans' victory, paved the way to the end of Spanish colonial rule and the United
States' rise as a global power (Zaide 2010, 255-256; Halili 2010, 127-128).
1898 Treaty of Paris
Spain and the United States sent delegates to the Paris talks to draw up the peace treaty ending
the Spanish-American War. Five commissioners from each country were tasked to accomplish this. From
the United States were William R. Day, senators Cushman Davis, William P. Frye, George Gray, and a
diplomat, Whitelaw Reid. On the other hand, the Spanish delegation was composed of Eugenio Montero
Rios, Buenaventura Abarzuza, Jose de Garnica, Wenceslao Ramirez de Villa Urrutia, and Rafael Cerero.
After two months of discussion, the peace delegates signed the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898.
Emilio Aguinaldo had sent Felipe Agoncillo to the peace negotiation as his emissary. However,
Agoncillo pleaded for the cause of the Filipinos in vain. The Revolutionary government, which he
represented, was not given recognition by the other countries. Hence, he was not even permitted to
attend the conference.
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The main provisions of the Treaty were as follows:
 1898 Treaty of Paris
EXCERPT:
Article I. Spain relinquishes all
sovereignty over and title to Cuba.
Figure 19
claim
of
Article II. Spain cedes to the United States the
island of Porto Rico and other islands now under
Spanish sovereignty in the West Indies, and the
island of Guam in the Marianas or Ladrones.
Article III. Spain cedes to the United States the
archipelago known as the Philippine Islands, …
The United States will pay to Spain the sum of
twenty million dollars ($20,000,000) within three
months after the exchange of the ratifications of the
present treaty.
McKinley’s Benevolent Assimilation
On December 21, U.S. President McKinley issued his “Benevolent Assimilation” proclamation,
which states his administration’s intention for the Philippines.
EXCERPT:
… With the signature of the treaty of peace between the United States and Spain by their respective
plenipotentiaries at Paris on the 10th instant, and as a result of the victories of American arms, the
future control, disposition, and government of the Philippine Islands are ceded to the United States. In
the fulfillment of the rights of sovereignty thus acquired and the responsible obligations of government
thus assumed, the actual occupation and administration of the entire group of the Philippine Islands
become immediately necessary, and the military government heretofore maintained by the united states
in the city, harbor, and bay of Manila is to be extended with all possible despatch to the whole of the
ceded territory.
In performing this duty the military commander of the United States is enjoined to make known to the
inhabitants of the Philippine Islands that in succeeding to the sovereignty of Spain, in severing the
former political relations, and in establishing a new political power, the authority of the United States
is to be exerted for the securing of the persons and property of the people of the islands and for the
confirmation of all their private rights and relations. It will be the duty of the commander of the forces
of occupation to announce and proclaim in the most public manner that we come, not as invaders or
conquerors, but as friends, to protect the natives in their homes, in their employments, and in their
personal and religious rights. All persons who, either by active aid or by honest submission, co-operate
with the Government of the United States to give effect to these beneficent purposes will receive the
reward of its support and protection. All others will be brought within the lawful rule we have assumed,
with firmness if need be, but without severity, so far as possible. …
Finally, it should be the earnest wish and paramount aim of the military administration to win the
confidence, respect, and affection of the inhabitants of the Philippines by assuring them in every
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possible way that full measure of individual rights and liberties which is the heritage of free peoples,
and by proving to them that the mission of the United States is one of
BENEVOLENT ASSIMILATION
substituting the mild sway of justice and right for arbitrary rule. In the fulfillment of this high mission,
supporting the temperate administration of affairs for the greatest good of the governed, there must be
sedulously maintained the strong arm of authority, to repress disturbance and to overcome all obstacles
to the bestowal of the blessings of good and stable government upon the people of the Philippine Islands
under the free flag of the United States.
However, these noble words barely hid America’s imperialistic objectives in the country in the guise
of civilizing backward people. The proclamation was a provocation to war with the Filipinos. It enunciated
McKinley’s decision to extend American sovereignty to the harbor and the city of Manila, which were
occupied by U.S. forces, and the territory held by the Filipinos.
After debates among the U.S. statesmen regarding the United States' prospects of becoming an
imperial power, the Senate ratified the Treaty on February 6, 1899, two days after the infamous San Juan
Bridge incident, with Spain following suit on March 19, 1899. Documents of ratification were exchanged at
Washington on April 11, 1899, thereby entering the Treaty into force on the same day.
Illustrations Depicting “The White Man’s Burden” and “Manifest Destiny”
In President McKinley's proclamation, statements were apparent that the decision of the United
States to colonize the Philippines had been motivated by different factors. One of these was the desire to
improve the lives of the Filipinos, and more importantly, to civilize them. For the Westerners, perspectives
like the Americans believed that they had a moral obligation to bring humanity, especially the nonWesterners, and non-whites, to the path of civilization. While this conviction may appear on the surface
as a product of Western philanthropism, generosity, and altruism, it should be remembered that one of
the fundamental principles on which this mentality stands is the idea that non-whites do not possess the
capacity to civilize themselves on their own, thus necessitating the help of others. Moreover, with the
Philippines' impending annexation by the U.S., this attitude toward non-Westerners, including the Filipinos,
finally assumed a name. It has since been known as the “white man’s burden.”
Figure 20.
The caricature (Fig. 20) appeared on April 1, 1899, issued by
the Judge magazine, a weekly satirical magazine in the United States.
In this particular piece referencing Rudyard
Kipling’s poem “The White Man’s Burden,”
John Bull and Uncle Sam, the
personifications of U.S. and Great Britain,
are seen as the central figures. They are
shown to be carrying non-whites, who are
depicted in grotesque racist images, to
civilization.
The second caricature (Fig. 21) appeared on the front cover of the
Judge's June 10, 1899 issue. Here, U.S. President William McKinley is being
shown trying to bathe an almost naked child who carries a spear. The water
signifies civilization. The child being held by McKinley is the symbol of a
supposedly childlike, unruly, and dangerous Filipino. In the background to the
Figure 21.
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right is the U.S. Capitol Building. On the left are other children who have finished bathing and are dressed
in clothes patterned after the U.S. flag, making them civilized.
Between the 19th and 20th centuries, there was a strong belief among
the Americans that they were destined to expand across North America,
beginning at the Atlantic seaboard toward the Pacific seaboard. They
also thought they would propagate American values and institutions to
benefit mankind alongside their territorial expansion. This belief is
known as manifest destiny. The third picture (Figure 22) was the
painting by John Gast’s American Progress (1872), which shows a
woman, probably Columbia, a personification of the U.S., leading the
Americans towards the west. Bringing light to wherever she goes, she
is seen with a book – a testament to enlightenment and a telegraph wire meant to bind the whole nation
together. The native Americans who appear frightened seeing Columbia's advancing are flying from the
scene and into the darkness.
Figure 22.
The Philippine-American War (1899 – 1902)
At first, President Aguinaldo regarded the United States as an ally on the Philippines’ road toward
independence. Filipino-American relations deteriorated as the American military authorities took over
Manila in August 1898. The Filipino troops' mandatory evacuation in the city's captured districts dismayed
Aguinaldo and his men who joined the battle, thinking that the Americans were on their side. The signing
of the Treaty of Paris without consulting the Filipinos heightened the tension. Neither Spain nor the U.S.
gave Felipe Agoncillo a chance to join the Paris peace talks.
On January 5, 1899, President Emilio Aguinaldo
issued a manifesto declaring his opposition to U.S.
President McKinley's “benevolent assimilation declaration.”
He declared: “I protest 1001 times with all the energy of my
soul against such authority. I solemnly declare that neither in
Singapore, Hongkong, nor here in the Philippines did I ever
agree, by word or in writing, to recognize the sovereignty of
America in this our lovely country”. Aguinaldo issued this
manifesto after General Elwell Otis issued his edited version
of the “Benevolent Assimilation” Proclamation, in which the
American general mentioned that Aguinaldo called him the
“Military Governor of the Philippine Islands.”
In another manifesto issued by Aguinaldo, also on
this date, he said that he had relied on the good faith of the
American people. He narrated how he came back to the
Philippines and told of his early relationship with Admiral
Dewey, encouraging him to start the revolt. He added that
“all the Filipinos without distinction of classes took arms, and
every province hastened to expel from its frontiers the
Spanish forces. This is the explanation of the fact that after
the lapse of so short period of time, my government rules
the whole of Luzon, the Visayan Islands, and a part of Mindanao”.
The Philippine-American War broke out when, on February 4, 1899, at 8:00 PM, U.S. Private
William Grayson and Private Orville Miller of Company D, 1st Nebraska, fired the first shot of three Filipino
sentries passing through toward Blockhouse 7. According to American accounts, Private Grayson
Figure 32.
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shouted for them to stop. The Filipinos, not understanding English, continued. Grayson then fired at them,
killing a Filipino soldier (Corporal Anastacio Felix of the 4th Company of the Morong Battalion). This event,
which was the beginning of the Filipino-American war, and called “Philippine Insurrections” by the
Americans, is located in Silencio corner Sociego Street in Sta. Mesa, Manila. News reached the United
States that the Filipinos were the ones who started hostilities (Halili 2010, 142).

Watch
Xiao
Time’s
Unang
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xadeOJge73I
Putok
ng
Philippine
American
War
Despite Aguinaldo's attempts to contain the incident, General MacArthur ordered his men to
advance against the Filipinos the following day. Several battles that took place from Luzon to Mindanao
were consequently recorded (Map 17). However, the Americans diplomatically dealt with the Muslims to
neutralize their offensive. Gen. John C. Bates tried to win the Muslims' friendship by negotiating with them
and treating them as equals. The Sultan of Jolo, Sultan Jamal-ul Kiram, also insisted that the Americans
must not occupy any other part of Sulu except Jolo's town proper. Thus, on August 20, 1899, an
agreement was signed by General Bates representing the U.S. and the Sultan of Sulu, and his datus
representing the Sulu Sultanate. Known as the Bates Treaty, it provided that the United States'
sovereignty over the whole archipelago of Sulu and its dependencies is declared acknowledged and that
the rights and dignities of His Highness, the Sultan, and his datus shall be fully respected. Warfare would
continue for a decade in 1916 in Mindanao. One of their brutal military campaigns was in the Bud Dajo in
1906 and 1913 in Sulu. Thousands of Tausug men, women, and children have killed over 20 casualties
and 70 men wounded in the U.S. forces.
Meanwhile, some Assembly members, like Pedro Paterno, Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, and
Felipe Buencamino, wanted to negotiate peace with the Americans and accept their offer of autonomy
rather than independence. Mabini opposed their views, which led him to resign from his post as the
Cabinet and minister of foreign affairs. Hence, President Aguinaldo named Pedro Paterno as the new
head of the new Cabinet. Moreover, when Gen. Antonio Luna heard the “Peace Cabinet” plan, he also
opposed any attempt to make peace with the colonizers and strongly advocated a fight for independence.
Due to his opposition and dreadful temper, Gen. Luna met his tragic end in his fellow patriots' hands-on
on June 5, 1899. After Luna’s death, some demoralization set in. Many officers began to surrender to the
Americans, and Aguinaldo’s army gradually broke up with one defeat after another on the battlefields. By
November 12, 1899, the regular army was dissolved, and Aguinaldo formed guerilla units instead to carry
on the war.
The capture of President Aguinaldo was one of the priorities of Americans. To elude the
American forces, Aguinaldo and his forces proceeded to the Cordillera mountain range. On December 2,
1899, Gen. Gregorio del Pilar took charge of defending Tirad Pass against American troops pursuing
Aguinaldo. Through Januario Galut, an Igorot guided the Americans on the secret trail to the top. In the
encounter, known as the Battle of Tirad Pass, Del Pilar lost his life. His sacrifice in Tirad Pass allowed
Aguinaldo to get to safety. On February 8, 1901, a group of six guerillas led by Cecilio Segismundo, a
messenger of President Aguinaldo, surrendered to Lt. James Taylor Jr Nueva Ecija. The coded
messages carried by Segismundo led the Americans under Brig. Gen. Frederick Funston to locate the
headquarters of Aguinaldo at Palanan, Isabela. Funston then employed 80 Macabebe scouts, two former
officers of Aguinaldo (Lazaro Segovia and Hilario Tal Placido), three Tagalog natives, and four other
American officers to capture Aguinaldo. Pretending to reinforce the five American prisoners, the
Macabebe scouts could enter Aguinaldo’s camp. Aguinaldo and his men met them and even gave them
food. At a given signal, the Macabebes suddenly opened fire. Then, Aguinaldo was captured from behind,
and then Gen. Funston and four other American officers entered the room and arrested him in the name
of the United States. On March 23, 1901, Funston and his men, who were pretending to be the captives
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of the Macabebes, arrested President Aguinaldo, leading to the First Philippine Republic capitulation.
Nine days after his capture, Aguinaldo swore allegiance to the United States on April 19, 1901.
The Filipino civilians, caught between the Americans and the Filipino revolutionaries, suffered
badly. More than 200,000 Filipinos died during the war, most often by famine and disease. Some Filipinos
accepted the offer of amnesty. Notable exceptions were Apolinario Mabini and Macario Sakay. On July 4,
1902, President Theodore Roosevelt declared that the Philippine-American War was over. However, local
resistance continued, commonly led by politico-religious groups called ladrones. Composed of poor and
uneducated peasants, these groups continued to harass the newly-organized Philippine scouts or
Filipinos now serving in the U.S. army. Among them were the samahans and confradias of Ruperto Rios
in Tayabas; Apo Ipe Salvador in Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, and Pangasinan and Papa
Isio of Negros. There were also the pulajanes in Cebu led by Tabal brothers, Dios-Dios in Leyte led by
Faustino Ablan, and Papa Pablo in Samar (Agoncillo and Mangahas, 171-177).
Road to Self-Government
The American Occupation of the Philippines was the first experience of the United States
colonization. America adopted a relatively altruistic colonial policy, giving the Filipinos as much selfgovernment as they could exercise and train them in democracy. The outcome was progressive. The
Filipinos became an enlightened and democratic nation in the Orient. The following described the
Americans' policies during their colonial rule until the grant of self-government in 1935.
In the 1899 proclamation, Pres. McKinley declared an altruistic policy for the Philippines: “The
Philippines are ours, not to exploit, but to develop, to civilize, to educate, to train in the science of selfgovernment.” However, he did not state the other motives for annexing the country, which was not so
altruistic after all. These other colonial objectives were:
1. to pursue a “manifest destiny” for America as a world power;
2. to use the Philippines as a source of raw materials for U.S. industries and as a market
for U.S. manufactured products;
3. to use the Philippines as a military and naval base; and
4. to have a refueling port for American ships servicing their interests in China.
In early 1899, McKinley sent to the Philippines a mission tasked specifically to assess the
Philippine situation and establish a civil government in the islands. This delegation, called the First
Philippine Commission (Schurmann Commission), gave some key recommendations on proceeding
with colonial rule. First, it suggested that a civil government supplant the military administration after the
Mock Battle's American victory. Secondly, it recommended creating a bicameral legislature, with the lower
house composed of Filipino statesmen and the upper house of American colonial administrators. Lastly,
the commission endorsed the improvement of the Philippines' general sanitary conditions and the
founding of a public school system to educate Filipinos. A second delegation led by William Howard Taft
was sent in June 1900. The Taft Commission proceeded to execute the recommendation provided by
the previous commission. On July 4, 1901, a Civil Government was established, known as the Insular
Government, with Taft himself as the governor-general. While the Civil Government exercised jurisdiction
over the pacified provinces, the military rule remained in the unpacified regions until 1902 and in the
Moroland until 1914. Further, one of the Taft administration's achievements was selling a huge tract of
friar lands to Filipinos in easy installment terms.
The Philippines' government's first congressional Law was the Cooper Act, also known as the
Philippine Organic Act of 1902. It was passed on July 1, 1902. Among its provisions were:
1. extension of the Bill of Rights to the Filipino people, except the right of jury trial
2. Appointment of Filipino Resident Commissioners to Washington
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3. Establishment of an elective Philippine Assembly after the proclamation of complete peace
and two years after the publication of a census
4. Retention of the Philippine Commission as the legislature's upper house with the Philippine
Assembly as the lower house.
5. Conservation of the natural resources of the Philippines for the Filipinos
Shortly after Pres. Roosevelt proclaimed the end of the war and the existence of complete peace;
on March 2, 1903, Governor Taft declared it Census Day. The census was published in four volumes, and
it reported a total Philippine population of 7,635,426.
Filipino nationalists also organized political parties to counteract the pro-American activities of the
Partido Federal. Among these were Partido Nacionalista (founded by Pascual Poblete), Partido
Independista (founded by Pedro Paterno), and Partido Democrata (founded by Alberto Barreto, Leon Ma.
Guerrero, Justo Lukban, and Jose de la Viña). The latter parties advocated the independence of the
country through peaceful means.
As the 1907 elections for the First Philippine Assembly approached, the nationalists saw the need
for fusion to win against the well-organized Partido Nacional Progresista (formerly Partido Federal). The
Partido Nacional Progresista and Partido Nacional clashed for the first time in the elections of July 30,
1907, for 80 seats. The Partido Nationalista advocated immediate and absolute independence. It won a
landslide majority. The Philippine Assembly was inaugurated at the Grand Opera House, Manila, on
October 16, 1907. Sergio Osmeña was chosen Speaker of the Assembly, while Manuel Quezon became
the Majority Floor Leader. The first bill was passed by Phil. Assembly was the Gabaldon Law, which
appropriated one million pesos for barrio schools.
Suppressed Nationalism
Several other Filipinos refused to conform to American rule. However, the American authorities
were determined to assert sovereignty in the Philippines, as manifested by the local inhabitants' antinationalist laws. These included the Sedition Law, Brigandage Act, Reconcentration Act, and Flag
Law. These laws were scrapped following the policy of Filipinization in 1916 except for the repealed Flag
Law. This Law (1907) prohibited displaying the flag and other symbols used by the resistance against the
U.S.
Sedition Law was passed on November 4, 1901, which imposed the death penalty or a long prison
term on anyone who advocated separation from the U.S., even by peaceful means. The flag display, the
national anthem's singing, and plays advocating independence were prohibited within this precept. On
November 12, 1903, the Brigandage Act, or Ley de Bandolerismo was passed. Anyone caught with arms
was punished with death or with a prison term of less than 20 years. Lastly, the Reconcentration Act was
passed on June 1, 1903, which gave the governor-general the power to authorize any provincial governor
to re-concentrate all residents of outlying barrios in the towns. Another early legislative measure of the
Assembly was the establishment of the University of the Philippines in 1908.
Filipinization
Governor Francis Burton-Harrison adopted a wider policy of Filipinization of the government
service, replacing the American employees with Filipinos. Americans who retired were given gratuity.
On August 19, 1916, the Cooper Act was supplanted with a new organic law when the U.S.
Congress passed the Jones Law or the Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916. Woodrow Wilson. The Jones
Law significantly furthered Filipino participation in the government. The Law provided a bicameral
Philippine legislature with an Upper House (Senate) with 24 members and a Lower House
(Representatives) with 93 members. The Law contains a preamble declaring that independence would be
granted to the Filipino people as soon as a stable government could be established in the Philippines.
Moreover, there was a Bill of Rights that safeguarded the rights and liberties of the people, such as
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freedom of religion, freedom of speech and the press, the right to meet peacefully for a redress of
grievances, and the right to life, liberty,
Under the Jones Law, the new legislature was inaugurated on October 29, 1916, with Quezon as
the President of the Senate and Osmeña as Speaker of the House (became Senate Pro-Tempore in
1922). The Nacionalistas dominated both houses. The Progresistas had only one seat in the Senate and
seven in the House of Representatives.
Independence Missions to Self-Government
From 1919 to 1933, 12 Independence Missions were sent to the U.S. to campaign to recognize
Philippine Independence. In December 1931, the Os-Rox Mission (9th Mission), named after its leaders
Senate President Quezon and House Speaker Osmeña, brought home the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act. The
Act divided the Philippine Congress into two opposing camps – the Antis and the Pros. The Antis led by
Senator Quezon opposed the Act because of its objectionable feature, while the Pros headed by Senator
Osmeña and Speaker Roxas upheld it on the ground that it was the best independence measure. The
Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act provided the granting of Philippine Independence after 12 years but reserved
military and naval bases for the United States. Also included was the control of the currency system and
foreign affairs conducted by the U.S. President. American goods were allowed free entry into the
Philippines.
In December 1932, Quezon sent a one-person mission (Benigno Aquino) to Washington to
discuss his objections. Aquino, however, was won over by Os-Rox. In November 1933, Quezon led the
12th mission to secure a better independence act. President Franklin Roosevelt signed a new
independence measure called the Tydings-McDuffie Law on March 24, 1934. It closely resembled the
HHC Act. The Philippine Legislature accepted this Law. The Tydings-McDuffie Law provided a 10-year
transition period under the Commonwealth of the Philippines, preparatory to granting absolute and
complete independence on July 4, 1946. Also included in the provisions were an annual quota of 50
Filipino immigrants to America, control of currency, coinage, foreign trade, and foreign relations by
America, and representation of one Filipino resident commissioner in America and an American High
Commissioner in the Philippines. The Law also authorized the Philippine Legislature to call a
constitutional convention to draft the Philippines' Constitution. It also required that the American President
approve the Constitution and ratified by the people in a plebiscite.
On July 30, 1934, the Convention met in the inaugural session at the House of Representatives'
hall, Legislative Building in Manila. The elected officers were Claro M. Recto, President; Ruberto
Montionla and Teodoro Sandiko, First and Second Vice-President, respectively; Narciso Pimentel,
Secretary; and Narciso Diokno, Sergeant-at-Arms. The drafting of the Constitution lasted six months
(from July 30, 1934, to February 8, 1935). The Constitution was approved in August 1934. President
Roosevelt then approved the Constitution on March 23, 1935. Then on May 14, 1935, the plebiscite for
the ratification or rejection was held. For the first time, Filipino women exercised the right to suffrage.
People overwhelmingly ratified the Constitution.
The first national election under the 1935
Constitution was held on September 17, 1935. The
candidates for the President and Vice-President
were Manuel Quezon, Sergio Osmeña (Coalition
Party); Aguinaldo and Raymundo Melliza (National
Socialist Party); and Bishop Gregorio Aglipay and
Norberto NAbong (Republican Party). Quezon and
Osmena were overwhelmingly elected as President
and Vice-President, respectively, by majority vote.
Figure 24. Inauguration of the Commonwealth
Government in 1943.
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Commonwealth Government
On November 15, 1935, the Philippines' Commonwealth was inaugurated on the Legislative
Building's steps in Manila. Secretary of War George H. Dern was President Roosevelt's personal and
official representative, who proclaimed the government's termination under Jones Law and the
Commonwealth Government's birth. President Quezon also delivered his inaugural address. According to
him, “I would rather have a government run like a hell by Filipinos than a government runs like heaven by
Americans.”
Among the achievements of the Commonwealth Government were the following:









Reorganization of the government by creating new offices – Department of National Defense,
Institute of National Language, and National Council of Education – the FIlipinization of the
judiciary from the Supreme Court down to the municipal courts and the establishment of two new
courts, namely, the Court of Appeals and the Court of Industrial Relations
Granting of women suffrage
Creation of new chartered cities: Cebu, Iloilo, Bacolod, Davao, Zamboanga, San Pablo, Quezon
City, Cavite, and Tagaytay
Adoption of the national language based on Tagalog
Promotion of Social Justice (e.g., Eight Hour Labor Act and appointment of Government Lawyers)
Compulsory military training of Filipino youths under the supervision of Gen. Douglas MacArthur
Improvement of the Philippine economy as revealed by the growth of agriculture, commerce, and
industries
Creation of the JPCPA (Joint Preparatory Committee on Philippine Affairs), which recommended
the granting of Philippine Independence on July 4, 1946, and the extension of PhilippineAmerican preferential trade to December 31, 1960
Passage of three amendments to the 1935 Constitution and ratified by a national plebiscite on
June 18, 1940. These amendments were: the tenure of the office of the President and VicePresident was four years with reelection for another term; the establishment of the bicameral
Congress of the Philipines and the creation of an independent Commission on Elections to
supervise all elections (Zaide 2010, 312-320).
References
A Treaty of Peace Between the United States and Spain, U.S. Congress, 55th Cong., 3d sess., Senate
Doc.
No.
62,
Part
1
(Washington:
Government
Printing
Office,
1899),
5-11,
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/sp1898.asp
“Benevolent
Assimilation”,
Accessed
http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/benevolent.html
on
September
2018,
“Xiao Time: The Philippine-American War First Shot,” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xadeOJge73I
Agoncillo, T. and Mangahas, Fe. 2010. Philippine History Expanded and Updated Expedition. Phil.: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
De Viana, A. 2011. Philippines: A Story of a Nation. Manila, Phil.: Rex Book Store.
Zaide, S. The Philippines: A Unique Nation. 2nd Ed. Phil.: All Nations Publishing Co., Inc.
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CHAPTER 8
COLONIAL PERIOD: JAPANESE HEGEMONY
(1941-1945)
Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1) Elucidate Japan’s imperialism design in the context of the world condition at that time.
2) Explain the nature of “collaboration” and “guerilla movement.”
3) Relate how the Philippines was liberated.
 Overview
In the previous chapter, we learned that the Commonwealth Government established by the
Americans in the Philippines was democratic and republican in form, patterned after the United States of
America. In this democratic government, the Filipinos began to govern themselves. As President, Manuel
Quezon ably steered a country besieged by internal problems while trying to survive a government
transition to independence, and when the war broke out in the Pacific, that led to the Japanese
occupation in the 1940s.
This chapter focuses on the Japanese occupation highlighting its imperialistic design, the
responses of the Filipinos to its colonial rule, and how the Philippines was liberated in 1945.
 List of Assigned Readings:
a. Radio Broadcast Message as written by Capt. Salvador Lopez “Bataan Has Fallen”, April 9,
b.
c.
d.
1942
Address of Masaharu Homma, August 3, 1942
Inaugural Address of Jose P. Laurel, President of the Republic of the Philippines, October
14,1943
Proclamation of Gen. Douglas MacArthur Commander-in-Chief of USAFFE, October 23,
1944
Imperialism Design
How Japan Viewed the Philippines and Southeast Asia
Japan always thought of the Philippines and the rest of Southeast Asia as a place for expansion.
The Japanese leaders considered the place for its expanding population, a source of materials, and a
market for its products. From the beginning of its reopening to the world in 1854, the Japanese started
migrating to other parts of Asia. This migration became more pronounced during the 20th century as many
Japanese left their homeland searching for better economic opportunities.
Japanese immigrants in the Philippines were more or less transient visitors who returned to Japan
after earning some income. Some stayed in the Philippines and started up some businesses. It was
during the American period when Japanese immigrants came in droves. They helped build roads such as
the Benguet Road (now Kennon Road) and other various buildings. Japanese immigrants also branched
into other businesses. They established abaca, coconut, and banana plantations in Davao and other
places and shops and factories in Manila. By 1935, the Philippines had a Japanese population of around
40,000, of which around 25,000 were concentrated in Davao, 5,000 in Manila, and others in the provinces.
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At the end of the First World War in 1918, Japanese leaders contemplated a peaceful and largely
economic penetration of the Philippines. Since that time, Japanese businesses have increased and
rivaled those of the United States. With Filipino efforts to win independence from the United States,
American leaders felt Japan might take over the country. As early as 1922, Japanese leaders advocated
a takeover of the Philippines. At that time, Japan annexed Formosa (now Taiwan) as part of its war
indemnity with China in 1894-1895 and earlier colonized Korea in 1910. It controlled large areas of the
Pacific after taking over German possessions in the Northern Mariana Islands, the Carolines, Palau, and
the Marshall Islands as part of its mandate under the League of Nations. Elsewhere, Japanese
immigrants were already in Manchuria, China, Malaya, China, Indochina, the East Indies, and Singapore.
While Japan was expanding its territorial claims, the Philippines prepared for its eventual
independence under the Tydings-McDuffie Act. The Americans knew that it would be a matter of time
before the Japanese would invade the Philippines (De Viana 2011, 262 – 263).
The Commonwealth Government Prepares for War
The Philippines also prepared for the possible outbreak of war. First aid courses were given in all
schools and social clubs. On April 1, 1941, President Quezon created the Civilian Emergency
Administration (CEA), with branches in the provinces and towns. Blackout practices were held, the first of
which took place in Manila on the night of July 10, 1941. Evacuation centers were established, and air
raid drills were conducted in Manila and other cities.
On July 26, 1941, Lt. Gen. Douglas MacArthur, Military Adviser to the Philippine Commonwealth, was
called back to President Quezon's active service. The command was inducted 100,000 Filipino soldiers
into this Army, whom MacArthur had trained in modern warfare. Training of the citizen-soldiers was
undertaken to implement Preparatory Military Training (PMT) and the Reserve Officers Training Course
(ROTC). However, training programs were saddled by a lack of adequate equipment and ammunition. On
July 27, 1941, President Roosevelt ordered the Philippine Army's mobilization and integrated it with the
Philippine Division of the U.S. Army, forming the United States Armed Forces in the Far East (USAFFE),
of which MacArthur was named commander.
War planners in Washington sent MacArthur a war plan called Rainbow-5, which called for a defense
of Manila and Subic Bays' entrances. Under this plan, no reinforcements were to be sent, and it implied
the Philippines' loss. Gen. MacArthur protested and presented his plan that contemplates the entire
Philippines' protection saying it had adequate forces numbering 101,550 men.
With the pitiful state of Philippine defense, President Quezon contemplated the Philippines'
neutralization once the country became independent. He secretly went to Japan in June 1938 and
discussed with the Japanese the prospect of neutrality. Quezon also considered placing the country
under the British Commonwealth to believe Britain could better protect the Philipines. Both measures
were opposed by Gen. MacArthur and other American officials who promised to strengthen its defenses.
With the growing differences between Quezon and MacArthur, Quezon asked the National Assembly to
establish National Defense in 1939. This Act provided infantry establishment consisting of a reserve
force and an active force, an army air corps, and a navy (De Viana 2011, 264-266; Zaide 2010, 323).
The Outbreak of World War II in the Pacific and Japanese Air Attacks in the
Philippines
In the 1930s, after experiencing a period of economic crisis, militarists took over the Japanese
government. Professing a belief in Japan’s destiny to expand to the rest of Asia, Japan’s leaders annexed
Manchuria in 1931 and defied global censure by withdrawing from the League of Nations. In 1937, Japan
proved an undeclared war with China and occupied several parts of the country. That year, Japan
massacred the inhabitants of Nanjing. In 1940, Japan allied itself with the Axis powers, and during the
same year, it occupied French Indochina following the collapse of France to Nazi Germany. In reaction to
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the Japanese aggression, the United States imposed an embargo on oil and scrap metal exports to
Japan. It also froze Japanese assets in American banks. To negotiate with the Americans and lift the
economic sanctions, the Japanese sent Admiral K. Nomura to negotiate.
While negotiations between Americans and Japanese were ongoing in Washington, D.C., Japanese
naval bombers attacked American naval at Pearl Harbor and other military installations in Hawaii on
December 7, 1941, 7:55 AM (December 8, 1941, 2:30 AM, Monday, Philippine time). The attack left 2,897
dead, and eight battleships and a host of other naval vessels sank or were heavily damaged. The
Japanese also attacked Hong Kong, Guam, Wake Island, Midway, and the Philippines. With an open
conflict, President Roosevelt asked the U.S. Congress to declare a state of war with Japan. On the
following day, Japan’s Axis allies declared war on the United States.
A few hours after the Pearl Harbor attack, Japanese air squadrons attacked the Philippines. The first
point to be bombed was Davao in Mindanao. Subsequently, Tuguegarao, Baguio, Iba, Tarlac, and Clark
Field were raided. The bombing of these military installations aimed to weaken American bases in the
Pacific. The Philippines, as an American colony, was inevitably dragged into the war (De Viana 2011,
263-264; Zaide 2010, 323).
The Japanese Invasion of the Philippines (See Figure 34 below.)
On December 10, the Japanese invaders made their first successful landing at Aparri and Vigan in
northern Luzon. Two days later, more assault forces made a beach-head in Legazpi in Southern Luzon.
Way down south in Davao, the Japanese landed on December 20. Two days later, the main Japanese
invasion forces, under Lt. Masaharu Homma's command, landed in Lingayen, Pangasinan. Other
landings took place at Atimonan and Mauban on December 24.
General
MacArthur
could not stop the enemy
landings because his Air
Force had been destroyed
on the first day of the war,
and he lacked naval
support
after
the
withdrawal of Admiral
Thomas C. Hart’s fleet to
the south. The enemy
dominated both air and
sea.
The
war
situation
began to loom ominously
hopeless for USAFFE.
General Homma’s forces
were closing in on Manila
in
a
three-pincer
movement from north and
south. Realizing the futility
of defending Manila, Gen.
MacArthur ordered the
transfer
of
valuable
Figure 25
military supplies of the
USAFFE to Corregidor and
Bataan.
On December 23, 1942, General MacArthur put into effect the secret military plan, WPO-3 (War Plan
Orange 3), which provided for the withdrawal of all USAFFE forces to the Bataan Peninsula, the last
stand against the enemy invaders would be made. In consonance with his orders, Gen. Jonathan
Wainwright in Northern Luzon and Gen. Albert Jones in Southern Luzon began to retreat towards Bataan.
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On the eve of December 24, President Quezon, accompanied by his family and War Cabinet, moved to
Corregidor, where the Second Commonwealth Government was transferred. He left Secretary Jorge B.
Vargas, Jose P. Laurel, and other top officials to look after the people’s welfare during the critical times.
On December 26, General MacArthur proclaimed Manila an ‘Open City,’ wherein the enemy forces
might enter the area provided they stopped shooting. By January 2, 1942, the Japanese forces had
already entered Manila. Almost everywhere, there was panic and fear. The people of nearby areas left
hurriedly and went to safer places like the mountainsides for refuge. For many days, the people stayed in
evacuation areas. People dug underground shelters for threatening air raids. The bolder ones ventured to
return to their respective homes to get provisions they failed to take along with them while fleeing hastily
from the invading forces. Others went to fields, hills, and fishponds, mindful of the radio broadcast by the
Voice of America in Corregidor that the Japanese soldiers were committing atrocities in areas they had
occupied. Many Filipinos thought that the stay of the Japanese would only take a month or three. The
American forces made the Filipino people hope that the invading forces would be repulsed immediately
(Zaide 2010, 324-326).
The Fall of Bataan and Corregidor
 Radio Broadcast Message as written by Capt. Salvador Lopez “Bataan Has Fallen”, April 9, 1942
On January 9, 1941, General Homma hurled his troops against the USAFFE lines in Bataan. The FilipinoAmerican troops resisted with magnificent courage. However, the defenders faced a hopeless. They had no air and
naval support. They were insufficiently equipped and outnumbered; they were starved of food, medicine, and
ammunition, and the aid they had expected from America never arrived.
Amid enemy attacks in the Philippines, President Roosevelt urged President Quezon to flee to the United States
since the Japanese could inevitably use him as the leader to rally Filipinos behind Japan. President Quezon and his
family left Corregidor for Australia on February 18 onboard submarine Swordfish. From there, onboard another
submarine S.S. Pres. Coolidge, Pres. Quezon sailed for San Francisco, California, on April 20, 1942. Likewise, Gen.
MacArthur left Corregidor for Australia on the night of March 11, 1942, to assume command of the newly designated
Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA). On this day, the USAFFE was deactivated. Constituted was the United States Army
Forces in the Philippines (USAFIP) under Major Gen. Jonathan Wainwright's command. After landing in Australia on
March 17, 1942, Gen. MacArthur made his promise to the Filipinos, “I came through, and I shall return.”
On April 3, 1941, General Homma unleashed the full-fury of an all-out Japanese offensive in Bataan. Thousands
of Japanese infantrymen, supported by artillery barrages and tank firepower, pounded the Fil-American lines. They
bombed foxholes, hospitals, and ammunitions of Bataan. From the sea, the enemy warships poured lethal shells on
the defenders’ positions. On April 9, 1942m Bataan fell. There was no other choice. General Edward P. King, the
Bataan forces' American commander, surrendered to stop the carnage and prevent further killing of the helpless
defenders. Sadly, but proudly, the Voice of Freedom told the world:
EXCERPT:
Bataan has fallen. The Philippine-American troops on this war-ravaged and bloodstained peninsula have
laid down their arms. With heads bloody but unbowed, they have yielded to the superior force and
numbers of the enemy.
The world will long remember the epic struggle that Filipino and American soldiers put up in the jungle
fastness and along the rugged coast of Bataan. They have stood up uncomplaining under the constant and
grueling fire of the enemy for more that three months. Besieged on land and blockaded by sea, cut off
from all sources of help in the Philippines and in America, the intrepid fighters have done all that human
endurance could bear.
For what sustained them through all these months of incessant battle was a force that was more than
merely physical. It was the force of an unconquerable faith—something in the heart and soul that physical
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hardship and adversity could not destroy! It was the thought of native land and all that it holds most dear,
the thought of freedom and dignity and pride in these most priceless of all our human prerogatives.
The adversary, in the pride of his power and triumph, will credit our troops with nothing less than the
courage and fortitude that his own troops have shown in battle. Our men have fought a brave and bitterly
contested struggle. All the world will testify to the most superhuman endurance with which they stood up
until the last in the face of overwhelming odds.
But the decision had to come. Men fighting under the banner of unshakable faith are made of something
more that flesh, but they are not made of impervious steel. The flesh must yield at last, endurance melts
away, and the end of the battle must come.
Bataan has fallen, but the spirit that made it stand—a beacon to all the liberty-loving peoples of the
world—cannot fall!
All of us know the story of Easter Sunday. It was the triumph of light over darkness, life over death. It was
the vindication of a seemingly unreasonable faith. It was the glorious resurrection of a leader, only three
days before defeated and executed like a common felon.
Today, on the commemoration of that Resurrection, we can humbly and without presumption declare our
faith and hope in our own resurrection, our own inevitable victory.
We, too, were betrayed by Judases. We were taken in the night by force of arms, and though we had done
wrong to no man, our people were bound and delivered into the hands of our enemies. We have been with
mock symbols of sovereignty, denied by weaklings, lashed with repeated oppression, tortured and starved.
We have been given gall to drink, and we have shed our blood. To those who look upon us from afar it
must seem the Filipino people have descended into hell, into the valley of death. But we know that the
patient and watching men who said their simple prayers in the hills of Bataan, have not lost faith, and we
know that the hushed congregations in the churches throughout the land, drew from the gospel as Mass
renewed hope in their resurrection. To all of them we give today the message of the angel of Easter
morning: “Be not afraid, for He is risen.”
We, too, shall rise. After we have paid the full price of our redemption, we shall return to show the scars
of sacrifices that all may touch and believe. When the trumpets sound the hour we shall roll aside the
stone before the tomb and the tyrant guards shall scatter in confusion. No wall of stone shall then be
strong enough to contain us, no human force shall suffice to hold us in subjection, we shall rise in the
name of freedom and the East shall be alight with the glory of our liberation.
The Death March
More than 76,000 USAFFE forces, including 66,000 Filipinos, laid down their arms in Bataan. Aside from these
prisoners of war (POW), 26,000 civilian refugees were trapped behind Bataan's USAFFE lines.
The infamous “Death March” began in Mariveles and
Cabcaben on April 10, 1942. The prisoners, weakened by
hunger, thirst, sickness, and fatigue, painfully trudged at the
points of Japanese bayonets along the road to San Fernando,
passing through Limay, Balanga, Orani, and Lubao (See Figure
26). Many perished on the way due to the Japanese who gave
no food, water, or medicine to the war prisoners, in violation of
the Geneva Prisoner of War Convention, and brutally killed
those who could no longer walk. Many more would have died
were it not for the fact that Filipino townfolks who witnessed the
suffering of the vanquished defenders of Bataan surreptitiously
furnished food, water, and fruits to the starving marchers and,
Figure 27
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Figure 26.
at the risk of their lives, pulled hundreds of prisoners when the
enemy guards were not looking and aided them to escape. In San
Fernando, the marchers were herded like cattle into the boxcars
and were transported by railway to Capas. Before reaching their
destination, hungry marchers were herded like cattle into the
boxcars and were transported by railway to Capas. Before reaching
their destination, hundreds of prisoners marched on foot to their
prison camp at Camp O’Donnel. Only some 56,000 reached the
camp alive on April 15, 1942.
The fall of Bataan marked the doom of the Philippines.
Corregidor, guarding the entrance of Manila Bay, continued to defy
the Japanese forces, but with the capture of Bataan, it could not
long resist the enemy assault. On May 6, 1942, Corregidor fell.
Nearly 12,000 Filipino-American soldiers were taken as prisoners.
Fortunately, the surrenderees did not undergo the rigors of Death
March. After concluding the unconditional surrender of all forces
under the command of Gen. Wainwright, on May 7, he read over
the Radio KZRH 11:40 PM an order to all sector commanders
throughout the Philippines to cease further resistance to Japanese
arms and surrender their forces to the nearest Japanese authorities.
On May 10, Major Gen. William Sharp, Jr., commander of the
Visayan-Mindanao forces, in compliance with the order,
surrendered to the Japanese in Malaybalay, Bukidnon.
The war was over as far as the American forces in the
Philippines were concerned. However, to the Filipino people, the
war was still on. Many officers and men refused to heed Wainright’s order. They fled to the hills with their arms, and
with the help of the civilian, they waged relentless guerilla warfare against the Japanese invaders.
Guerilla Warfare
On May 31, 1942, the Japanese Imperial forces had successfully invaded the entire Philippine archipelago.
However, the Japanese's failure to heavily garrison every island and capture all the soldiers of the United States
Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) allowed the formation of resistance groups in several regions. During the
latter
half
of
1942,
guerrilla
organizations
were
established
in Mindanao under Colonel Wendell Fertig, in Negros under
Colonel Salvador Abcede, in Cebu under Lieutenant Colonel
James Cushing, in Bohol under Major Ismael Ingeniero, and in
Panay under Colonel Macario Peralta.
The Southwest Pacific Area (SWPA) command under
General Douglas MacArthur in Australia received initial reports
regarding these guerrilla activities. Preliminary intelligence
operations were sent to lay the groundwork for an extensive
intelligence network in the archipelago by establishing guerrilla
organizations. By the end of 1943, the Allied communications
network covered most of the southern Philippines as submarine
operations carrying supply and personnel increased and were
extended to Central Visayas and Palawan by the first half of the
succeeding year.
In Luzon, however, guerrilla units' coordination and unification
proved difficult due to Japanese forces' heavy presence. This led
to the formation of several independent guerrilla commands in
Luzon, such as the forces of Major Robert Lapham in Central
Luzon, the Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon (Hukbalahap) in
Pampanga, the East-Central Luzon Guerrilla Area (ECLGA) under
Colonel Edwin Ramsey, the Hunters ROTC of Colonel Eleuterio
Adevoso in Cavite, and President Quezon’s Guerrillas in Batangas.
Figure 28
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By early 1944, the guerrilla command in northern Luzon fell under Major Russell Volckmann and was designated
as the United States Army Forces in the Philippines, Northern Luzon (USAFIP-NL). By the middle of 1944, the
Philippines' liberation campaign's preparations were largely complete through intelligence reports provided by
guerrilla organizations across the archipelago. On October 20, 1944, MacArthur’s invasion of Leyte signaled all
guerrilla organizations to launch an open assault against the Japanese (PCSDO 2016, 38).
The Japanese Administration
On January 3, 1942, the day after the occupation of Manila, Gen. Masaharu Homma, Commander-in-Chief
of the Japanese Imperial Forces in the Philippines, proclaimed the establishment of the Japanese Military
Administration to supervise the political, economic, and cultural affairs. The Japanese Military Administration issued
severe restrictions that the Filipino people were forced to obey, acting upon Tokyo's directives. Curfew and blackouts
were implemented. Martial Law was declared. Firearms, ammunition, and other war materials were confiscated. Any
hostile acts against the Japanese Army were punishable by death. All Allied nationals were interned at the University
of Santo Tomas and in Baguio, Los Baños, and other places, where concentration camps were established.
Everything was placed under Japanese control. The military authorities supervised all industries, factories,
banks, schools, churches, printing presses, and theatres. The use of the Filipino flag and the singing of the national
anthem and American songs were prohibited. The circulation of American dollars was banned. Japanese war notes
were circulated to replace the Philippine currency.
The Japanese invaders brought with them a plan for a puppet government to be composed of prominent
Filipinos. In response, on January 23, 1942, Mayor Jorge B. Vargas and his associates addressed a letter stating that
they were ready to obey the Japanese Army's orders for “the maintenance of peace and order and the promotion of
the well-being of people.” On the same day, the Philippine Executive Commission was established by the Japanese
High Command. It was composed of Mayor Vargas, as Chairman, and the six Filipino department secretaries,
Benigno S. Aquino (Commissioner of the Interior), Antonio de las Alas (Commissioner of the Finance), Jose P. Laurel
(Commissioner of Commerce), Claro M. Recto (Commissioner of Education, Health and Public Welfare), and Quintin
Paredes (Commissioner of Public Works and Communication). Jose Yulo was the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.
Each Executive Commission department was assigned a Japanese adviser and several Japanese assistant advisers
(Zaide 2010, 336-339).
The Propaganda of the Japanese Administration
Since the first days of the Japanese occupation, the Japanese authorities activated all propaganda agencies
to wean the Filipino people from their loyalty to Americans and gain collaboration in the war's prosecution. The
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere was the imperial concept created and promulgated by the Japanese to
prevail in their occupied territories in Asia during the years 1930 to 1945. It aimed to create a self-sufficient bloc of
Asian nations free from Western powers and led by Japan.
As for the Philippines, the Japanese Army envisioned the country as a source of agricultural products. The
Japanese attempted cotton cultivation. However, these ventures failed due to a lack of skills, transportation shortages
from fuel, and food shortages. Filipinos were lukewarm to the idea because it meant servitude to Japanese needs
instead of betterment for the Filipinos.
On August 3, 1942, General Masaharu Homma explained to the Filipino people why their occupation of the
Philippines and the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere idea.
 Address of Masaharu Homma, August 3, 1942
EXCERPT:
The ideal of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere is to establish, under the spirit of universal
brotherhood, a firm and enduring structure by consolidating Asia for the Asians and to create a
permanent and lasting sphere of happiness and well-being for the peoples within the great area having
geographical affinity. The process to realize this ideal is none other than by the related peoples uniting
themselves under the leadership of Japan, and by solidifying the bond of union, marching forward along
the road of economic and political progress as a unit of peoples directly concerned with their own well-
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being and holding to a common ideal. The great aspiration of Japan since the founding of the Empire has
been “To make the Universe a Home.” The aim is to see every people and every nation acquire their
rightful positions under the sun. It is my firm conviction that the reconstruction of East Asia with closer
relations among its peoples, with Japan as their spiritual support, will bring about not only the
realization of the state of mutual well-being and prosperity, but also the establishment of an enduring
peace among mankind. …
In the construction of the New Philippines, the first step must necessarily be the laying of the spiritual
foundation which is the vital nucleus of culture, and around which politics, economy, industry, and
education are based. What is that spiritual foundation? It comes of your return to the original racial
characteristics, to the pure Filipino traditions, after ridding the masque of Occidental culture. First under
Spanish rule, and then for a period of 40 odd years under American domination, the life of the Filipinos,
as Orientals, was obliterated to suit the designs of the Americans. As a result, the Oriental traditions, of
humanity and morale were effaced. The Filipino people turned to follow an easy-going life, consuming
more than producing, and were led to hedonism and extravagance, conscious only of today, and oblivious
of the morrow. Their sound racial characteristics were lost and they became the bold imitators of the
American way of life which is devoid of introspection. It will be for persons with aspirations to retrieve
and revive in their daily lives, the manners and the customs and the innate qualities of honesty and
fortitude, diligence and of being hardworking, and frugality and thrift that pulse in the veins of Oriental
peoples.
The chief organ of Japanese propaganda was the well-organized Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa Bagong
Pilipinas, popularly known as KALIBAPI. Chairman Vargas created it on December 4, 1942. The KALIBAPI assisted
actively in food production by initiating a nationwide tree-planting campaign. It fostered the teaching of the National
language and propagated the teachings of Filipino heroes. It sponsored national art expositions, cultural contests,
provincial fairs, and patriotic holidays. Moreover, it encouraged athletics and calisthenics to improve people’s health
(Zaide 2010, 340).
The Second Republic of the Philippines
On January 21, 1942, Premier General Hideki Tojo declared that the Philippines would be granted the honor
of independence provided that the Filipinos could cooperate to establish the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere
program. He reiterated this promise on January 23, 1943, in an address before the Imperial Diet. Upon returning to
Japan on June 16, 1932, he told the Imperial Diet that the Philippines would be given independence.
Two days after, the Japanese High Command ordered the Filipino officials to prepare for the coming of
independence. Acting upon the Japanese military authorities' orders, the KALIBAPI held a convention in Manila and
elected 20 members of the Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence (PCPI). This constituent body was
charged with the task of framing the constitution for the forthcoming Republic. Jose P. Laurel headed it.
Under strong pressure from the Japanese military authorities, the PCPI was compelled to finish the needed
constitution, which the members of the public ceremony signed on September 4. Three days later, the constitution
was ratified by 117 KALIBAPI delegates to the general assembly, convened for the purpose.
After the ratification of the constitution, the KALIBAPI prepared the ground for the establishment of the
Republic. On September 20, 1943, various KALIBAP conventions were held throughout the country and elected half
of the 108 members of the unicameral legislature - National Assembly, the other half being the provincial governors
and city mayors.
On September 22, 1943, the National Assembly met in the inaugural session at Manila's Legislative Building.
The Speaker was Benigno S. Aquino, Director-General of the KALIBAPI. On October 24, 1943, the Second Republic
was inaugurated amid solemn ceremonies held in the Legislative Building. Jorge Vargas, whose office as Chairman
of the Philippine Executive Commission had terminated, read the Japanese Military Administration's withdrawal
announcement. The President of the PCPI read the “Declaration of the Philippine Independence.” Congratulatory
remarks were made by Lt. Gen. Shinegori Kuroda, Commander-in-Chief of the Japanese Imperial Army in the
Philippines. The Philippine flag was hoisted, and the Philippine National Anthem was sung. The climax of the
ceremonies was the inaugural address of President Laurel.
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Under the Second Republic, the ministries were established, replacing the defunct Philippine Executive
Commission's Department. Each ministry was under a Minister, assisted by a Vice-Minister. New bureaus, boards,
and other offices were created.
Collaborators
During the Japanese occupation, there was the existence of renegade Filipinos who collaborated with the
Japanese invaders and aided them in oppressing their compatriots and fighting for Japan against the guerillas and
the Allied forces. Some claimed that the high government officials pretended to collaborate with Japanese authorities
to save the Filipino people while being secret agents of the guerillas. Some considered collaborators were the
ignorant and fanatical pro-Japanese, namely, the Ganaps, the Palaaks, the United Nippon, and the Pampars
(Pambansang Pag-asa ng mga Anak ni Rizal). The one considered the worst collaborators was the MAKAPILIS
(Makabauan: Katipunan ng mga Filipino), headed by Artemio Ricarte, Benigno Ramos, and Pio Duran. These
collaborators served as informers and spies for the Japanese military authorities. They squealed on the guerillas and
their supporters, who were thus arrested, tortured, and later imprisoned or executed (Zaide 2010, 345-346).
The Republic in Crisis
By August 1944, the situation of the Japanese-sponsored Republic became critical. Its existence depended
on the might of Japanese arms. In as much as the tide of war, it was turning against Japan. The Allied Forces were
winning battles in the Southwest Pacific islands and were leapfrogging towards the Philippines.
Since August 9, American bombers began their devastating raids on Japanese military installations in
Mindanao, Visayas, and Greater Manila, paving the way for MacArthur is coming and his liberation forces to the
Philippines. Japanese military authorities strengthened their defense while the Filipino guerrillas intensified their
attacks on the enemy. Peace and order crumpled as the Japanese soldiers increased their oppression of the people,
looting their foodstuffs, forcing them to work in military installations, and arresting and torturing them to support the
guerillas. In retaliation, the guerillas ambushed the Japanese patrols, sabotaged the enemy military operations, and
assaulted the Japanese garrisons.
Shortly after the surprise air raid by American bombers on Japanese fortifications around Manila on
September 22, 1944, pressured by Japanese military authorities, Pres. Laurel was compelled to issue Proclamation
No. 30, declaring war against the United States (Zaide 2010, 346-347).
The Liberation Period
The Commonwealth in Exile to its Restoration in 1944
As the Filipino people agonized under the Japanese occupation, the government of Commonwealth-in-Exile
was functioning in Washington, D.C., with Quezon as President and Osmeña as Vice-President. The government
existed from May 13, 1942, to October 3, 1944. Despite his failing health, Quezon labored to focus the American
public's attention on the struggling people's fate. The U.S. Congress upon Pres. Roosevelt’s recommendations
enacted two joint resolutions: Joint Resolution No. 93 and 94, signed on June 29, 1944. The resolutions provided that
the “United States would drive the treacherous, invading Japanese from the Philippine Islands, and thereupon
establish the complete independence of the Philippine Islands,” and
“Created the US-Philippine Rehabilitation Commission composed of
nine Americans and nine Filipinos to study the post-war economy of
the Philippines and to formulate plans for the future PhilippineAmerican trade relations,” respectively.
Upon the death of Quezon on August 1, 1944, Osmeña
became the Philippines' President by succession. From August to
October 1944, the tide of war decidedly turned in favor of the United
States, as American planes began to bomb targets in the Philippines.
On October 20, 1944, the main attack force of 174,000 American
troops ferried by an armada of 700 warships landed at Leyte. After
the wave of Marine troops had made a beachhead, Gen. MacArthur
waded ashore at Red Beach, near Palo, Leyte, accompanied by
President. Osmeña, Gen. Carlos P. Romulo and Gen. Basilio
Valdez. Gen. MacArthur told the Filipinos, “I have returned.” On
Figure 29. The Return of MacArthur.
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October 23, the Commonwealth Government was declared restored, with Tacloban as the temporary capital (Zaide
2010, 347 – 350; PCSDO 2016, 39).
 Proclamation of Gen. Douglas MacArthur Commander-in-Chief of USAFFE, October 23, 1944.
EXCERPT:
GENERAL HEADQUARTERS
SOUTHWEST PACIFIC AREA
OFFICE OF THE COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF
To the People of the Philippines:
WHEREAS, the military forces under my command have landed in Philippine soil as a prelude to the
liberation of the entire territory of the Philippines; and
WHEREAS, the seat of the Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines has been re-established
in the Philippines under President Sergio Osmeña and the members of his cabinet; and
WHEREAS, under enemy duress, a so-called government styled as the “Republic of the Philippines, was
established on October 14, 1943, based upon neither the free expression of the peoples’ will nor the
sanction of the Government of the United States, and is purporting to exercise Executive, Judicial and
Legislative powers of government over the people;
NOW, THEREFORE, I, Douglas MacArthur, General, United States Army, as Commander-in-Chief of
the military forces committed to the liberation of the Philippines, do hereby proclaim and declare:
1. That the Government of the Commonwealth of the Philippines is, subject to the supreme authority of
the Government of the United States, the sole and only government having legal and valid jurisdiction
over the people in areas of the Philippines free of enemy occupation and control;
2. That the laws now existing on the statute books of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and the
regulations promulgated pursuant thereto are in full force and effect and legally binding upon the people
in areas of the Philippines free of enemy occupation and control; and
3. That all laws, regulations and processes of any other government in the Philippines than that of the
said Commonwealth are null and void and without legal effect in areas of the Philippines free of enemy
occupation and control; and
I do hereby announce my purpose progressively to restore and extend to the people of the Philippines the
sacred right of government by constitutional process under the regularly constituted Commonwealth
Government as rapidly as the several occupied areas are liberated and the military situation will
otherwise permit; and
I do enjoin upon all loyal citizens of the Philippines full respect for and obedience to the Constitution of
the Commonwealth of the Philippines and the laws, regulations and other acts of their duly constituted
government whose seat is now firmly re-established on Philippine soil.
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Douglas MacArthur
General, U.S. Army
Commander-in-Chief
October 23, 1944
Battle of Leyte
The liberation forces of Gen. MacArthur encountered resistance in Leyte. Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita rushed
reinforcements to Leyte by ships and planes. Using new carbines, flame throwers, amphibian tanks, and faster fighter
planes, the Americans smashed the enemy at all island sectors. Japanese suicide pilots (kamikaze) crashed their
planes on the American transports and warships at Leyte Gulf in fanatical desperation.
While the land battles raged furiously on the island, the Japanese fleet sallied out in three columns toward
Leyte Gulf, bent on destroying the American armada. The first column, Japan’s central fleet coming from Singapore,
steamed past Palawan and through San Bernardino Strait (Samar); the second column, the southern force, coming
from Borneo, approached Surigao Strait on its way to Leyte Gulf, and the third column, the northern force, coming
from Formosa, rushed southward and entered Surigao Strait. These three Japanese naval forces were intercepted by
American task forces and were annihilated in a series of naval engagements off Samar, Cape Engaño, and Surigao
Strait. These engagements fought on October 23 to 26, 1944, were collectively called the Battle of Leyte Gulf.
The Liberation of the Philippines
The decisive naval victory
paved the way for the liberation of the
Philippines. After the Japanese
navy's defeat, Gen. Tomoyuki
Yamashita, the successor to Gen.
Kuruda, and higher Filipino officials
moved to Baguio on December 21,
1944. The Japanese forces retreated
to the Yamashita Line, stretching
Sierra Madre's jungle from Antipolo to
Aparri. In their retreat, the Japanese
pillaged Filipino homes, confiscated
their
provisions,
tortured
or
massacred civilians, and burned
towns and villages.
On January 5, 1945, Gen.
MacArthur struck at Luzon, landing in
full force at Lingayen. The Filipino
guerillas and civilians welcomed him.
Since then, the liberation of Manila
was a month-long battle from
February to March 1945. Noted as
the only urban battle in the Pacific
War, the Battle of Manila claimed the
civilians and resulted in Manila's
destruction. Likewise, provinces were
being liberated in other parts of the
Philippines with combined sea and air
landings.
A month later, after the war
in Europe ended (Victory-in-Europe
Day), on July 4, 1945, Gen.
MacArthur proclaimed that the
Philippines had been liberated from
Figure 30.
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the enemy. What brought Japan finally to surrendered when atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima (August 6)
and Nagasaki (August 9). On August 15, 1945, Japan surrendered unconditionally to the Allied Powers. President
Laurel, a refugee in Nara, Japan, dissolved the Republic government two days after.
On September 2, the war with Japan ended. The formal ceremony of Japan’s surrender was held onboard
the USS Missouri at Tokyo Bay. In Japan, Gen. MacArthur, newly-appointed Supreme Commander of the Allied
Powers (SCAP), presided over the ceremonies. Gen. Yamashita surrendered all Japanese forces in the Philippines
(Zaide 2010, 350-352).
References
Agoncillo, T. and Mangahas, Fe. 2010. Philippine History Expanded and Updated Expedition. Phil.: C & E Publishing,
Inc.
“Bataan Has fallen,” Accessed on September 2018, http://malacanang.gov.ph/1226-bataan-has-fallen/
De Viana, A. 2011. Philippines: A Story of a Nation. Manila, Phil.: Rex Book Store
Office of the Solicitor General Library, “Address of Masaharu Homma,” Accessed on September 2018,
www.officialgazette.gov.ph
Proclamation of Gen. Douglas MacArthur Commander-in-Chief of USAFFE, October 23, 1944
Zaide, S. The Philippines: A Unique Nation. 2nd Ed. Phil.: All Nations Publishing Co., Inc.
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CHAPTER 7 and CHAPTER 8 SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS
Name:__________________________________________________
Date: __________________
Name of Instructor: _____________________________________
Class Section/Schedule: _________________________________
General Instruction: Answer the given questions below based on the provided rubrics.
RUBRICS FOR ESSAY
GRADING SCALE
CRITERIA
5 pts
(Excellent)
3
(Satisfactory)
1
(Good)
0
(Needs
Improvement)
TOTAL
SCORE
IDEAS: Tells a story with ideas that are clearly focused on the topic and are
thoroughly developed with specific relevant details.
ORGANIZATION: Organization and connections between ideas and/or
events are clear and logically sequenced.
CONVENTIONS & STYLE: Command of language, including effective and
compelling word and varied sentence structure, clearly supports the
writer's purpose and audience.
I.
Give three reasons why the “Act of Declaration of Independence” written by Ambrosio Rianzares
Bautista is important to the grand narrative of Philippine history. How is it related to the
establishment of the Malolos Republic in 1899? (10 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
II.
Explain the reasons (5 D’s) for American expansionism (10 pts).
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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III.
What were the factors favored to the granting of self-government (commonwealth) of the
Philippines in the 1930s? (10 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
IV. Elucidate Japan’s imperialistic design in Asia beginning early to mid-20th century. (10pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
V. How was the Filipino reaction to Japanese rule? What was the nature of “collaboration” and “guerilla
movement” during this period? (15 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
VI. Watch the following video “Freedom for the Philippines Invasion in WWII Thru Independence” available in
Youtube. Link: https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=C68eY1ovdEE&t=329s .
Based on the video, recount how MacArthur and the American forces returned to the Philippines in 1944. Was their
return vital to the liberation of the Philippines from the Japanese? Explain your answer.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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CHAPTER 9
PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC (1946-PRESENT)
Objectives: At the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1) Expound on the policies implemented and the challenges encountered by the Philippine nation postWorld War II period in terms of:
2) Grant of Independence and Establishment of New Republic
3) Agrarian Reform
4) Economic Nationalism
5) Differentiate the reasons behind the declaration of Martial Law 1972 and Martial Law 2017.
 Overview
Within a year after the end of WWII, the Philippines would be accorded recognition of its
independence by the United States. However, this feat came at a very unlikely, if not unfavorable time.
The war left the Philippines as one of the most devastated, with its economy in shambles and most ruined
infrastructures. It would take decades until the country fully recovered from the effects of war. Further, the
independence that the Philippines would experience would be saddled with continued dependence on the
United States. This would be felt in the economic, political, and military aspects. Since the United States
was the only country to render financial and economic assistance, the Philippines would bow to its
conditions.
This chapter presents a thematic approach to selected recurring issues confronting the Filipino
nation after World War II, including the grant of independence, agrarian reform, and taxation. Students
will also read the laws related to the declaration of Martial Laws in 1972 and 2017.
 The following will be the assigned readings that the student must be able to analyze:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
Treaty of General Relations and Protocol of 1946 or Treaty of Manila
Philippine Bell Trade Act of 1946 (Bell Trade Act)
Republic Act No 3844 of 1963 (Agricultural Land Reform Code)
Economic Nationalism through Pres. Garcia’s Filipino First Policy
Proclamation 889-A
Proclamation No. 1081
Radio Address of Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin
Proclamation No. 216
Grant of Independence and Establishment of the Third Republic
The election of April 23, 1946, resulted in the victory of the Liberal Party, with Roxas and Quirino
as the President and Vice-President, respectively. On May 6, 1946, Roxas was inaugurated as the last
President of the Philippine Commonwealth. In his inaugural address, he cited his administration's
groundwork – to rebuild the economy from the ruins of the war. He also advocated establishing political
and economic ties with America to help in the rehabilitation of the islands.
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On July 4, 1946, the Philippines' Third Republic was inaugurated, and Philippine Independence
was proclaimed (at present, this eventual Philippine independence was regarded as Republic Day or
Filipino-American Friendship Day). The inaugural ceremonies took place at Luneta, Manila. High
Commissioner McNutt read President Harry S. Truman’s proclamation announcing the withdrawal of
American sovereignty and the Philippines'
recognition of independence. After the proclamation,
he said, “A nation is born. Long live the Republic of
the Philippines! May God bless and prosper the
Filipino people, keep them safe and free.”
After the solemn flag ceremony, Manuel
Roxas and Elpidio Quirino were inducted into office
as President and Vice-President. Then, President
Roxas delivered his address. He paid high tribute to
the U.S., Filipino heroes, great men, and Gen.
MacArthur. Following his inaugural address was the
public signing of the U.S.-Philippine Treaty of
General Relations.
Figure 31. Inauguration of Pres. Roxas.
 Treaty of General Relations and Protocol of 1946 or Treaty of
Manila
The day of the establishment of the Third Republic also marked the ratification of the Treaty of
General Relations and Protocol or the Treaty of Manila of 1946. It was signed by President Manuel
Roxas and by the U.S. High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt, the U.S. President Harry Truman's
representative.
This Agreement officially:
1.) Recognized the Philippines as an independent nation
2.) Relinquished U.S. sovereignty over the entire Philippine islands
3.) Gave the U.S. to diplomatically represent the Philippines in other countries while a Foreign
Service Office was pending to be established and maintain its military bases.
Could a country so devastated rehabilitate itself and be ready for independence? As seen by the
administration, the Philippines could not rehabilitate its economy without American aid and investment.
Subsequently, it adopted two laws legislated by the United States Congress to grow and industrialize. On
April 30, 1946, the U.S. Congress passed two laws intended to help the country's economic recovery.
These were the Philippine Bell Trade Act and Military Bases Agreement.
Anticipating the eventual granting of independence to the Filipinos, a member of the U.S. House of
Representatives, Charles Jasper Bell, filed a bill in September 1945 which aimed to govern the future
trading relations between the U.S. and the Philippines. This bill was later passed as a law known as the
Philippine Bell Trade Act of 1946. Some of the provisions of the bill include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The fixed 2:1 exchange rate between the Philippine peso and the U.S. dollar
The unlimited free trade between the Philippines and the U.S. for the next eight years
The gradual placing of tariffs (5%) on trade products until full rates were achieved in 1974
The granting of parity rights to the Americans
The fourth provision meant that the Americans, like the Filipinos, would be given the right to
dispose of, exploit, develop, and utilize “all agricultural, timber, and mineral lands” in the Philippines.
This violated the Constitution of 1935, which provided that after independence, only corporations of
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which Filipinos owned 60% were allowed to exploit, dispose of, develop, and utilize the country's natural
resources (Agoncillo and Mangahas 2010 243).
Some critics received the bill negatively, for it was
thought to tie the Philippines to the U.S. economically even
after granting independence. However, the U.S. passed the
bill as a complement to the Philippine Rehabilitation Act,
which pledged a total of $620,000,000 ($120 million for the
construction of public works, $400 million for individual
damages, and $100 million in war surplus goods) as war
reparations. However, the Rehabilitation Act provided that
payments larger than $500 shall not be released unless the
Philippines ratifies the Bell Trade Act first. This meant that
the Philippines had to consent to both legislations to avail of
the
much-needed war
reparations. Through
the
Commonwealth Act 733 enacted on July 3, 1946, the
Philippine Congress ratified the Bell Trade Act.
Also, as explicitly stated in the Treaty of Manila of 1946,
the U.S. intended to continue to use the Philippines for its
military operations in the Pacific. The U.S. government
openly expressed this despite granting independence to the
Filipinos the previous year. Many believed that the
preservation of U.S. bases in the country and the granting of
parity rights to the Americans were inconsistent with the idea
of independence. Nevertheless, arguing along the lines of
peace, mutual defense, and military cooperation, the
Philippines, under Roxas administration, allowed the U.S. to
maintain military bases by signing the Agreement.
Figure 32. Ruins in Manila after the war.
Agrarian Reform
The Philippines has been an agricultural country, and Filipinos have depended on the fruits of the
land for their source of living. However, while rural life has been romantically depicted as peaceful and
prosperous, it has been characterized by economic
oppression and outbreaks of violent hostility between
landlords and peasants. Peasant uprisings began in the
Spanish colonial era and continued to the modern period.
One can identify that a common source of their unrest and
discontent is their poor and miserable conditions being
denied their rights over the land they till. These people
constitute a large part of the nation’s population. Their
impoverished situation stands in contrast to the lavish style
of the landed elite, who have since independence
monopolized power and wealth in the Philippines.
Figure 33. Huk Rebellion.
This issue has had complex economic, social, and
political consequences in our history and present-day society.
Unfortunately, the goal of emancipating the working masses through land redistribution continues to be
unattained. Nevertheless, the government made efforts toward agrarian reform during the postwar era.
 Republic Act No. 3844 or Agricultural Land Reform Code
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President Diosdado Macapagal (1961-1965) undertook the first comprehensive agrarian reform
program during the postwar period. The Law which made it possible was Republic Act No. 3844, also
known as the Agricultural Land Reform Code, and passed in 1963. Under the said Law, the tenancy
system was gradually abolished and replaced with an agricultural leasehold system. It ultimately sought
to turn tenant farmers into owner-cultivators by focusing on land redistribution, farmer independence, and
productivity improvement. Initial results in towns declared as land reform areas proved promising, but
there were also setbacks such as Congress’s failure to enact a bill to fund the program's implementation.
Agrarian reform was also a key policy of the Corazon C. Aquino administration (1996-1992) to
drive economic industrialization. Proclamation No. 131 articulated the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform
Program (CARP) of the government. It declared that all public and private agricultural lands are to be
distributed to tenants, thereby making the program the broadest in terms of scope. The government also
provided the Agrarian Reform Fund amounting to Php 50 billion to cover the program's estimated cost
from 1987 to 1992. CARP reorganized and expanded the Department of Agrarian Reform (D.A.R.)
powers and operations, the agency that would spearhead the program. D.A.R. facilitated the Land Tenure
Improvement Program to hasten land distribution to tenants. It also provided support services such as
infrastructure facilities, credit assistance, and technical support programs to the beneficiaries. D.A.R. also
offered legal assistance and adjudicated agrarian cases. Republic Act No. 6657, or the Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Law signed by President on June 10, 1988, became the legal basis for the agrarian
reform program of the Aquino government.
The implementation of the CARP faced various challenges. There were corruption scandals
related to land valuation, as well as the program suffered budgetary shortages. Lastly, there were
allegations of a lack of political will and commitment on the government's part. President Aquino herself
was a member of the Cojuangco family who owned the Hacienda Luisita in Tarlac, an estate that
remained undistributed to farmers. Like before, landlord influence in government continued to hold back
agrarian reform. Violence continued between landowners and tenants as peasant leaders and farmers
asserting their land rights were killed.
Economic Nationalism
 Pres. Garcia’s Filipino First Policy
The economic climate after the war was characterized by the predominance of foreigners,
especially Americans.
In 1957, Carlos P. Garcia succeeded as President because of President Magsaysay's untimely
death in a plane crash. President Garcia ushered in an era of so-called economic nationalism via the
“Filipino First Policy” that tried to assert the Filipinos' role in the economic sphere. This economic policy
would prioritize and protect Filipino products, interests, and engagement in business.
In his third State of the Nation Address on January 25, 1960, he called for Congress to implement
his policies.
Martial Law: Challenge to Democracy
The years 1965 to 1972 witnessed the holding of massive student rallies, transport strikes, farmers,
workers, poor urban demonstrations, and protest marches by teachers, doctors, lawyers, and other
professionals. All of them were compelling those in authority, particularly President Marcos (now in his
second term), to fulfill their legitimate demands. What were these demands? How did the government
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respond to these demands? These demands were the causes behind the violent, chaotic situation called
“The First Quarter Storm” and the grim and bloody events that followed.
In this section, we first look at the historical circumstances through photographs and timelines as
documentary evidence leading to Martial Law's declaration.
 Proclamation 889-A, August 30, 1971 and Proclamation No. 1081, September 21, 1972
On August 21, 1971, the Proclamation 889 titled Suspending the Privilege of the Writ of Habeas
Corpus in Certain Cases was issued on the same date when the Plaza Miranda bombing happened. It
was amended on August 30 to make clarifications about the scope of the proclamation. The document
states explicitly that an atmosphere of lawlessness exists because of the Communist Party of the
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Philippines' (C.P.P.) agenda to supplant the government. The proclamation also tells about the
Communists’ growing influence through the C.P.P.’s efforts to expand its membership to society's
different sectors. More importantly, the President officially holds the Communists responsible for the
incident at Plaza Miranda through its proclamation.
President Marcos managed to fully control the government through those latter events with the
military's complete backing. Moreover, the suspension of the privilege of the writ of habeas corpus and
the declaration of Martial Law became vital tools for the President to silence all forms of opposition
against his administration and to establish his authoritarian rule over the nation.
Proclamation No. 1081, proclaimed on September 21, 1972, reiterated the state of lawlessness in
the country, primarily caused by the looming Communist insurgency. In these passages from the
proclamation, the President focused and expounded on the important details that proved that
Communism's threat of Communism was imminent. It is interesting to note that President Marcos cited
specific data on subsequent Communist-led bombings in 1972 and the growing number of recruits gained
by the C.P.P. and its military arm, the New Peoples Army (N.P.A.).

Watch Batas Militar: Martial Law Under President Ferdinand E. Marcos Documentary
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=be3wLiPUN9A
1986 People Power Revolution
President Ferdinand E. Marcos terminated martial Law on January 17, 1981, through
Proclamation No. 2045. The President’s decision was based on several factors:
1. Peace and order was restored in the country after the rebellion had been contained by the
Philippine Constabulary and the Armed Forces of the Philippines
2. Political reforms were instituted after the ratification of the 1973 Philippine Constitution, which
gave way to the reorganization of the local government
3. Economic growth was achieved because of land reform, reliable infrastructures, increased
Gross National Product, and improved credit standing, among others, and
4. Educational reforms were accomplished through the reorientation of the curriculum to cater to
the needs of the economy.
In essence, the proclamation affirmed President Marcos's success, who steered the nation towards
the New Society.
However, amidst claims of progress, the Martial Law period became a tool to silence the
administration’s critics and political opponents. According to Amnesty International, around 70,000 people
were detained for being “enemies of the state,” 34,000 people were tortured in various military facilities,
and 3 240 people became victims of salvage (or extrajudicial killings). Although the President declared
economic success, the national debt grew to Php 395 billion at the end of the Martial Law because it
relied on foreign loans to fund its agricultural and industrial projects. Moreover, electoral fraud claims in
the 1978 parliamentary elections that favored Marcos’ party, the Kilusang Bagong Lipunan, convinced the
opposition to take drastic political reform measures.
Two important events are considered as turning points that marked the end of the Marcos
administration. One of these was the assassination of Senator Benigno “Ninoy” S. Aquino, Jr. on August
21, 1983. Due to his assassination, public outrage pushed the President to create a commission to
conduct a formal investigation about the incident. However, it was dissolved after receiving public
disapproval and criticism. After that, he created an independent and multi-sectoral fact-finding board
(Agrava Commission) on October 14, 1983, through Presidential Decree No. 1886.
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The other event was the EDSA People Power Revolution on February 22 to 25, 1986. On the 22nd,
the Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and the AFP Deputy Chief of Staff Fidel Ramos held a press
conference at Camp Aguinaldo to announce their Marcos administration's resignation. People then began
to assemble on the night of the same date in response to Cardinal’s plea on Radio Veritas. The following
were the radio address of Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin on February 23, 1986m 3:07 AM:
My dear brothers and sisters in Christ, this is Cardinal Sin speaking. I appeal to you all once
again for sobriety and calm. Let us not be provoked by selfish motives and interests.
I appeal in a special way to the men in uniform, to the Armed Forces of the Philippines. We Filipinos
are not the kind of people to kill brother Filipinos. Let us not be goaded to hatred and violence. Our
way must be the way of peace.
The presence of military tanks and war weapons to threaten the people in search of true peace is too
distressing. Do not allow yourselves to be used. I challenge you to prove to the world that we are men
of integrity, men of true valor, whose loyalty is to God and to the country.
Thank you and I am praying for you. I have asked all the Contemplative Sisters to expose the Blessed
Sacrament and to pray so that peace would reign in our country. Long live the Philippines. God bless
you.
Source: Radio Veritas, PDI Research
The following days would witness the swelling of demonstrators at EDSA, various prayer vigils
conducted before the marine tanks, and further defections by military men.
The events of the peaceful revolution culminated in Corazon Aquino’s installation as the 11th
President of the Philippines on February 25, 1986, at the Club Filipino in San Juan City. At around 10:00
in the morning, she and Salvador Laurel (as vice president) took their oaths before Senior Supreme Court
Justice Claudio Teehankee and Justice Vicente Abad Santos, respectively. An hour later, President
Marcos also had his inauguration ceremony at Malacanang. By the evening of the same day, news
spread that Marcos had fled the country after taking advice from Washington DC. People then
immediately rushed to Mendiola to take part in the historic dismantling of the Marcos regime. Large
crowds swarmed the Malacanang grounds while some protesters looted. President Marcos's departure
remains a symbolic reminder of a dictatorship's downfall that the nation had to endure for more than a
decade.
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PHOTOS DURING EDSA 1 REVOLUTION
Figure 41. Minister of Defense Juan Ponce Enrile (right) and General
Fidel Ramos announced their break from the Marcos administration in a
press conference at the Ministry office in the evening of Saturday, Feb.
22, 1986. The move caught everyone by surprise.
Figure 42. National Defense Secretary Juan Ponce Enrile and General
Fidel V. Ramos together with anti-government supporters celebrate at
EDSA after President Ferdinand Marcos and family leave the palace
then fled to Hawaii during the 1986 People Power Revolution.
Figure 43. People from all the walks of life gather at
EDSA to protect the mutineers.
Figure 44. February 25 at 9:55 am, Corazon Aquino was
sworn in as the new President of the Republic. The ceremony
was held at Club Filipino in Greenhills. The mother of her late
husband, Doña Aurora Aquino, held the Bible for her swearing
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References
Agoncillo, T. and Mangahas, Fe. 2010. Philippine History Expanded and Updated Expedition. Phil.: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Camagay, et al. 2018. Unraveling the Past: Readings in Philippine History. Phil.: Vibal Group, Inc.
Economic Nationalism through Pres. Garcia’s Filipino First Policy
Proclamation 889-A
Proclamation No. 1081
Radio Address of Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin
Republic Act No 3844 of 1963 (Agricultural Land Reform Code)
Treaty of General Relations and Protocol of 1946 or the Treaty of Manila
Supplementary Videos:
Batas Militar: Martial Law Under President Ferdinand E. Marcos Documentary
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=be3wLiPUN9A
EDSA 1986
https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=cAWNScHA9cQ
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FINAL SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Name:__________________________________________________
Date: __________________
Name of Instructor: _____________________________________
Class Section/Schedule: _________________________________
General Instruction: Answer the given questions below guided with the rubrics.
RUBRICS FOR ESSAY
GRADING SCALE
CRITERIA
5 pts
(Excellent)
3
(Satisfactory)
1
(Good)
0
(Needs
Improvement)
TOTAL
SCORE
IDEAS: Tells a story with ideas that are clearly focused on the topic and are
thoroughly developed with specific relevant details.
ORGANIZATION: Organization and connections between ideas and/or
events are clear and logically sequenced.
CONVENTIONS & STYLE: Command of language, including effective and
compelling word and varied sentence structure, clearly supports the
writer's purpose and audience.
I.
Why did the Americans make July 4 the date of the proclamation of the Third Republic of the
Philippines? In what way does it differ from the proclamation of June 12, 1898? (10 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
II.
With regards to the current status of the agrarian programs of the country, what are the new laws
or amendments passed? What are the challenges to its successful implementation today? (10 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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III.
Why is economic nationalism important to the Philippines? What benefits will the Filipinos gain from
economic nationalism? (10 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
IV. What were the strengths and weaknesses of the postwar foreign policy/ies of the Philippines? (10 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
V. Was the declaration of martial law of Ferdinand Marcos reasonable? Review the Proclamation No. 1081.
(10 pts)
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
VI. What makes People Power 1 at EDSA, a unique phenomenon in the history of toppling down dictatorships?
(10 pts).
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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SUMMARY OF SCORES SHEET
Name:__________________________________________________
Date: __________________
Name of Instructor: _____________________________________
Class Section/Schedule: _________________________________
SUMMARY OF SCORES
Date
Checked by
Summative Assessment 1
Summative Assessment 2
Summative Assessment 3
Summative Assessment 4
Summative Assessment 5
TOTAL RAW SCORES
165