1
Evolution of Indian temple architecture according to the
different historic periods by reflecting all the
architectural, social and religious aspects.
P. M. S. SEGERA
D/BAC/23/0001
INTAKE 40
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CONTENT
1. Abstract
2. Methodology of design approach
3. Relation of the mandala and the human body for temple design
4. Architectural patterns & symbolism of the Hindu temple
5. Composition of the temple design

The Garbhagriha, or Holy of Holies

The Mandapa, or Gathering Hall

The Ardha-mandapa, or Entrance Portico
6. Evolution of the language and style of the Hindu temple

The Nagara Style

The Sekhari Form of Sikhara
7. Hindu temple layout and light
8. The distinctive Dravidian architectural elements of each era

Vesara Architecture of Badami Chalukyas

Pallava Architecture

Architecture of Rashtrakuta

Western Chalukyas Architecture

Pandya Architecture

Chola Architecture

Hoysala Architecture

Vijayanagara Architecture
9. Conclusion
10. References
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ABSTRACT
With more than a hundred plates featuring temples and carvings, such as pillar depictions and cave
facades, India is rich in temples built by various ancient and medieval dynasties, especially the Pallava
Pandya, Cola Hoyasala, and Nayaka. These dynasties are known for their early and later western
Calukyan temples, which include maps, plans of caves, and even viharas and caityas. The study
examines the temples located across various Indian states.
Perhaps because of its ethereal, sensory experience, Indian traditional temple architecture has
captivated researchers since its discovery. Scholars like as historians, archaeologists, anthropologists,
astrologists, numerologists, and architects have been delving into the mystique of connecting tales or
textural principles. The architectural language of temples has undergone significant modification from
the time of their founding to the present.
This language has been understood, mostly in Sanskrit, since the late Middle Ages and has seemed
authentically enough. During the colonial era, numerous experts began attempting to translate and
visually alter architectural language in order to decipher its mystique. The report has identified the many
frameworks and methods that academics have used to analyze and interpret the architecture of Indian
traditional temples through a thorough analysis of previous studies. It has concentrated on the results of
using modern visual frameworks that academics have used to analyze traditional Indian temples.
Scholarship-based comparisons between the architecture and literature were frequently discovered to
be based on dubious assumptions, whilst visual interpretations had demonstrated either faulty
dimensional transformations or improbable geometrical propensities.
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METHODOLOGY OF DESIGN APPROACH
Around the world, numerous societies relate the locations of their holiest monuments to the positions of
planets in the sky with respect to those locations. Thus, the planets and other celestial bodies function
as a cosmic map that was projected onto Earth and utilized to chart the area where the building would
be located. This legacy was observed among the Mayans, the Greeks, the Romans, the Egyptians, and
the modern-day Hindu civilization. A temple is a place or building that is used for a deity's worship and
can be found in many different kinds of religions. Originating from the ancient Latin word aedes, which
means "house of the god" but is now more commonly translated as "holy ground on which a temple is
built" or "templum," a temple is a universal form that is depicted in many cultures, each with its own
distinctive features based on the architectural customs of the religion in which it appears.
In India, the earliest known stone temples date to the fifth century CE.7 These
usually consisted of a single aperture to provide the deity with light and air, and
a stone cella, or inner sanctuary. Since its debut, this straightforward typology
has advanced significantly. Known as the sacred womb or garbagriha, the
main cella is still used in temple designs today. But there are numerous
secondary halls, or mandapas, in addition to the main cella. Usually hypostyle
in shape, these halls are connected in series to the main cella.
Four major factors typically impact the design of a traditional built temple: (1) religious recitations found
in the Vedic text; (2) astronomical and astrological science found in Jyotisha; (3) site analysis and
proportional studies found in the Sthapatya Veda; and (4) architectural and sculpture studies found in
Silpa-sastra. All of these factors work together to facilitate the construction of temples.
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RELATION OF THE MANDALA AND THE HUMAN BODY FOR TEMPLE
DESIGN
Traditionally linked with Buddhist customs, mandalas combine gorgeous patterns with a mysterious
quality. Also, nonetheless, they truly represent an architectural design technique that has been around
for a while and is utilized to construct the most conventional Hindu temple designs in India.
Hinduism, in particular, connects each planet to a particular deity and set of traits. These celestial beings
have an impact on the planet Earth, and via it, on all living things. In a practise known as Jyotisha,
astrologers examine a person's planetary charts based on their birthdate and time. This helps the
individual understand how these planets affect their behaviour, the effects of their movements on dayto-day living, and their role in major life predictions for the future. These planetary charts are also made
for the birth of a temple, with the temple's location, orientation, and creation time all having a significant
influence on how well the temple will affect its surroundings and the people who visit it.
The positive energy connected to the layout and design of the building itself is reinforced when
meditating in such a setting, which enhances one's sense of wellness even more. To provide a visual
compass for greater knowledge sharing, these planetary charts were transformed into mandala patterns
with deities framed within. A cosmic map is created by the positioning of religious deities within the
mandala and their correlation with heavenly planets.
Similarly, it is crucial to stress that the Hindu temple is, at its core, the physical embodiment of Mount
Meru, a conduit to the universal spiritual force of Brahman that exists outside of space and time. Every
element of the Hindu temple is in harmony with its whole form in order to establish this link. This cosmic
significance and purpose inform the temple's orientation and placement, as well as its formal and spatial
relationships and symbolic and iconographic program. Thus, it is possible to think of the Hindu temple
as a miniature version of the cosmos. Furthermore, every temple is unavoidably an interpretation of
Hinduism since it is an incarnate cosmos. This mapping establishes the ground plan and location of the
temple's principal core cella when reflected back to Earth.
Ultimately, the craftsman (shilpi) selects the materials, methods, and expressive design language that
go into crafting the temple's sculptures and decorative patterns, contributing uniquely to the temple's
final form. The priest (sthapaka) determines the temple's relationship to the cosmos primarily through
siting, orientation, and careful observance of rituals. The architect (sthapati) then composes the overall
form of the temple and the precise proportioning of its elements.
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Building a temple is frequently regarded
as a ritual. The building is oriented northwestward; the temple's location was
determined by analysing the movements
of the sun and other planets. In the past,
palm leaf drawings were the sole
sources of drawings that clarified the process of designing temples. Only a handful of palm manuscripts
demonstrate the compositional usage of the mandala and the relationship between the human body and
this figure, and consequently the temple. The temple stands in for the head, or mastaka, on which the
sikharas are positioned. The complex's entrance is situated where a person's feet would be on their
body.
Similar to Hindu religious thought, the stamapaka views the
temple as a three-dimensional map of the universe and
uses a variety of time-space-connected mathematical
formulas to try and recreate its ideal form on Earth. The
intricate interpretations of planetary movements, which are
essential to the sthapaka's education, allow for the precise
recording of this spatiotemporal oneness in the temple
form.
At every stage of the decision-making process, sacred scriptures, astronomical calendars, and charts of
planetary positions are reviewed in addition to religious custom to guarantee the correct design and
location of the temple. The Hindu builders' pursuit of extremely accurate astronomical measurements—
which are strongly associated with the temporal composition—evidences the relevance of this
relationship.
The seven chakras, or "psychic centers," of the Hindu temple symbolize the seven parts of the human
body. According to Hindu philosophy, the body's chakras are connected to one another and, eventually,
to Brahman, the universal energy. The first three of these centers—mulëdhëra, svëdhisthëna, and
manipura—represent the chakras found in the human body at the anus, sex organ, and navel and are
located in front of the innermost sanctuary, or garbhagriha. The fourth chakra, the anahata, which is
associated with the energy of the heart, is located within the garbhagriha itself. The throat and the space
between the eyebrows are associated with the fifth and sixth chakras, visuddha and ajna, which are
located in the sikhara. Nestled atop the sikhara is a finial called the kalasha, which translates to mean
"pot" or "vase" and contains the seventh chakra, symbolizing the top of the human head.
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When it comes to connecting the temple form to the human body, the proportions of the temple are
significant, if not decisive. Hindu philosophy holds that God is all-pervasive and that the human body, in
all its proportionality and aesthetic beauty, is a representation of God's presence on earth. Therefore,
the temple is conceptualized as a proportionate mirror of the universe, just like the human body.
Furthermore, according to Hindu tradition, the human body also represents the universe; as such, it is
represented in the mandala and in the design of the temple's basic structure. Furthermore, the general
measurements employed by the Indian building sector for a long time were predicated on units taken
from the human body.
Astronomical calculations are highly valued since they
pinpoint a position for the temple that is in line with a
certain group of stars. The time and date of the
ceremony that starts the construction of the temple are
indicated by this star alignment. During the site
selection procedure, a number of soil tests are also
carried out. The colour, flavour, and strength of the soil
as well as the native plants it supports are all tested in
these procedures. Some of the most important temple
complexes in terms of culture are oriented toward the north or northeast, which is seen to be the optimal
orientation for a site.
A recognized Hindu temple is set out in a grid or circular layout in accordance with the cosmic diagram
that is mentioned in the mandala. Specifically, the Vastu purusha mandala is employed as a planning
tool for a variety of structures, including cities, forts, palaces, complexes of temples, and even individual
homes. The building is oriented and placed in relation to Purusha (man) and Mandala (the cosmic
diagram). The square design of ancient altars and Vedic sacrifice ceremonies are the sources of the
mandala pattern. An incredibly stable and strong form, the square was significant to Hindu history. It
functioned as a foundation for the mandala to grow from, naturally, symbolizing the stability of life's
attachment to the earth.
Generally speaking, a temple plan is created three times: the first plan shows different dimensions and
design elements based on different planetary positions; the second plan shows the mandala forms that
are used to create the final design; and the third plan shows the generating grid. The central point of the
basic planning scheme is either a square or the intersection of four squares. There are two kinds of grids
that can be made using this method to divide a square. Every grid is built around a mandala.
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The mandala's center can be depicted as a square or
as the cross-section of four squares, depending on
whether the division is even or odd. The sthapati was
able to depict the temple on the ground and tie it to
the different dimensions of the separate façade
elements of the entire temple thanks to this technique
of division and arrangement.
The number of projections, sometimes referred to as angas or "elements," and the proportionate
relationships between each offset as determined by the square grid's subdivision determine the
horizontal façade profile. The principal deity is
positioned in the center of the mandala, symbolizing
the many positions given to different gods and
goddesses. In all these instances, Brahma holds the
central place, or brahmasthana. As a result, on the
ground layout, the brahmasilë, or "Brahma's stone,"
is situated above the brahmasthana and takes the
shape of the amalaka, a segmented stone disk that
sits atop the sikhara.
Conversely, the constructed outcomes of this compositional process can be extremely varied, despite
the fact that the mandala functions as the main design basis for all Hindu temples. Distinctive features
such as height, volume, sculptural motif, and spatial division enable a temple to stand out from the
others.
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ARCHITECTURAL PATTERNS & SYMBOLISM OF THE HINDU TEMPLE
A common interpretation of the Traditional
Hindu Temple is that it is the "monument of
manifestation." "God resides in and wears
his temple, which is the concrete form
(murti) of the essence. The body and sheath
are the masonry (). From around the
seventh century, the architecture of Indian
temples, broadly categorized as ‘Nagara’
and ‘Dravida’ evolved based on complex
patterns related to regional Kosa traditions
and cultural ethos defined in treatises.
The
architecture
of
Hindu
temples is characterized by
their open spaces and linear
symmetry
square
arranged
matrix
of
on
a
"padas."
There are several variations
and the use of geometric
shapes
like
squares
and
circles. Hindu temples consist
of a sanctuary known as the
"garbhagriha," which is where
the primary deity or holy image
is located. The "garbhagriha" is
topped
with
"Vimana,"
pyramid-shaped "shikhara."
A circumambulatory
"parikrama" for walking is
spaced around the
"gabhagriha." Additionally, the antechamber, Ardhmandapa, and portico, Mukhmandapa, are laid, as
well as the congregation hall, mandapa. The Hindu temple's architecture basically appropriates
10
a
Hinduism's cultural values and dharma-related concepts. This hallowed area illustrates the connection
between the divine, the mortal, and the Universal "Purusa."
These temples are intricate compositions of artistic themes, featuring solitary statues, pillars with
carvings, intricately adorned elevations with sculptures, and molded entablatures. All of this is defined
as a celebration of human existence according to four major Hindu principles: the pursuit of "artha,"
"kama," "dharma," and "moksha."
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COMPOSITION OF THE TEMPLE DESIGN
The most important areas are th e entrance portic os, kno wn as ardhamandap a, on
either side of the temple, the holiest of holie s, or garbhagriha, and the several
gather ing halls, or m anda pas.
The Garbhagriha, or Holy of Holies
The garbhagriha, also known as the holy of holies, is the central cella from which the temple is always
constructed. Nearly every component that is constructed on the site is based on this holy center. Hindu
architects have traditionally imagined the temple as an interior and outward shape that is fundamentally
related to the worshipers.
The tangible universe is represented in the ground layout of the temple complex by the mandala. Every
time, a circumambulatory road delineates the exterior of the temple precinct. This path is related to inner
circulation, which ultimately leads to the garbhagriha. All of the exterior tiers of gates, courtyards, and
circulation paths serve to remind the devotees that a greater reality is obscured by worldly constraints
as they approach this centre. The devotee discovers new depths with each stratum of the temple. The
symbol for the centre of the temple is bindu, which translates to "point of focus" and symbolizes the
creative energy of the cosmos from which all has developed.
The top of the garbhagriha is decorated with the sikhara,
the ubiquitous sign of a Hindu temple. The word sikhara
literally translates as "the topmost peak of a mountain that
aspires toward the skies" when expressed as a spire. The
walls of the chamber beneath this spire, which is sometimes
composed of solid stone, must be sufficiently thick to
support the sikhara's enormous weight. As a result, the
supporting walls are constructed to be half as thick as the
chamber. The sikhara's height in most temples is twice as
wide as the garbhagriha's plan length. This ratio preserves the temple's structural integrity while also
drawing attention to the sacred centre of the structure visually.
The exterior of the garbhagriha is strongly articulated by laterally radiating projections that ascend
gradually to the ultimate form of the sikhara, while the inside is maintained plain. The clever transition
from the square base of the garbhagriha to the round or polygonal form of the sikhara is similarly
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accomplished by these two forms. In line with Hindu philosophy, the design reunites the square, which
represents the earth, and the circle, which represents the skies. The existential relationship to space
and time is represented by the sikhara's gradual ascent. Sculptures of different incarnations and the
pantheon of Hindu gods with ascending spiritual orders and hierarchies are added to emphasize the
vertical ascent.
The amalaka shape adorns the peak of the sikhara. The temple is therefore considered to be in perfect
harmony and balance on its axial plane, and it is associated with the cosmic energy of the cosmos. The
cosmological embodiment of the three tiers of residence for all life forms—heaven, earth, or the
netherworld—is the garbhagriha, the central node of the sikhara. As a result, the sikhara stands for
desire and elevation from the material plane of existence to the spiritual plane of the divine and pure.
The Mandapa, or Gathering Hall
The significant diversity in temple designs is attained not
only by altering the sikhara's height but also by adding
auxiliary forms that serve as transitional areas between
the main garbhagriha and other areas. One of the benefits
of these areas is their capacity to generate and highlight
axiality, with the garbhagriha serving as the plan's center
or endpoint.
A particularly significant transitional space is the
mandapa. It serves as a meeting place for devotees, who
congregate there to honor the deity with bhagans, or
devotional songs, and slokas, or Vedic recitations.
The prayer space in front of and attached to the
garbhagriha is known as the mahamandapa, or major hall.
Unlike the garbhagriha, the mandapa has open sides that let in light. It
serves as a waiting area where devotees can stand, sit, or pray for
various religious ceremonies. The mandapa and garbhagriha's plans
are based on the fundamental geometry of a square enclosed in a
circle.
Lastly, the parallels between the sanctuary of the garbhagriha and the
mandapa's basic layout can be seen; both use the square and the
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overlaid circle. The mandala, which appears to have been the fundamental underlying inspiration at
different stages of the temple's design, gives the garbhagriha its form.
The Ardha-mandapa, or Entrance Portico
Together with the main mandapa, an auxiliary front portico known as the ardha-mandapa has been
created with the intention of facilitating a gradual, multi-layered transition for the devotee from the bustle
of the outside world to the peace and tranquility of the temple's interior.
The layout, which is oriented primarily east–west with the garbhagriha as the objective and the entrance
portico on the other side, is an example of the linear alignment of spaces common to many Hindu
temples.
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EVOLUTION OF THE LANGUAGE AND STYLE OF THE HINDU TEMPLE
The Dravida and Nagara architectural languages are portrayed in numerous scriptures (shastras) as the
primary contributors to stylistic diversity, implying that certain stylistic elements from each language may
have been borrowed to create distinct styles. These two distinct languages originate from the
Vishwakarma and Maya basic schools of study, which modern researchers identify with the Nagara and
Dravida schools, respectively.
The Nagara Style
The majority of temples in India's north, west, and east use the Nagara language of temple architecture.
The shape of this temple is meant to suggest climbing a mountain or giving the impression that one is
getting higher and higher. The shape of the sikara, which gracefully bends up from the base to the
pinnacle, is curvilinear and adds to the feeling of elevation. The sikhara is covered in layers upon layers
of architectural detail, with the big, spherical, segmented, cushion-like amalaka feature sitting atop them
all. The garbhagriha's square base, in a straightforward and original style, goes upward in a curved
fashion to form the sikhara before changing into the polygonal or circular form of the amalaka. There is
uniform replication of the elements on all sides.
The term "prasada" or "mula-prasada" often refers to the main temple construction, which includes the
sikhara and the garbhagriha's exterior walls. In every Nagara subcategory, the amalaka, capstone
(candrika), and jug or vase (kalasha) that adorn the temple's head, or mastaka, serve as the temple's
crowning elements. Every sikhara typically has a kalasha at the top of the structure as its culmination.
The sikhara, which often has a relatively small doorway, is nevertheless the most noticeable component
of the temple complex in the northern region of India. The sikhara itself can have one spire, which is
called the Latina style, or many spires, which is called the Sekhari style.
The Sekhari Form of Sikhara
According to the Aparajitaprccha, the most common style of temple architecture is the multi-spired style,
or anekandaka. The Latina sikhara is the source of the form of the Sekhari temple. The Nagara tradition
changed between the ninth and tenth centuries from the traditional Latina shape with a single bent spire
to a composite structure with several spires connected to the main spire.
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The fundamental sikhara form is composed of the smaller repeating aedicules, or srngas, of the main
Latina sikhara. Half and quarter spires that are proportioned to the central spire ornament the main
Latina sikhara. The staggered fountain appearance is produced by connecting these spires at
predetermined intervals. The most remarkable instances of this Nagara variation in India can be found
in the Candella temples in Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh, which date back to the 10 and eleventh century.
Mount Shatrunjaya, close to Palitana, Gujarat, is home to one of the biggest collection of Sekhari temples
in the Jain tradition. This style of temple construction is still highly well-liked both in India and elsewhere.
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HINDU TEMPLE LAYOUT AND LIGHT
In ancient India, faith was more than just a set of rules to follow or a way to keep people from wandering.
Brahmanism, which became known as Hinduism, was a gradual synthesis of Dravidian and Aryan practices
and traditions rather than a religion. God was present everywhere, in everyone and everything. He was an
all-pervasive force that controlled people's beliefs, behaviors, actions, and cognitive processes in both overt
and covert ways. Fundamentally, Hinduism is a route toward coexistence and a means of honoring life in all
of its forms. It is thought that the temple was merely a physical place that God granted to people who were
unable to see him during the more advanced manastirtha (pilgrimage of the mind) pilgrimage. But as religious
architecture developed, the shrine, with all of its intrinsic value, turned into a representation of riches and
power, with dynasties competing to build more impressive, iconic structures that ultimately catered only to
the affluent.
The Hindu temple was the universe itself, not just a structure that housed the image and its devotees. The
temple began as a cave, then developed into a hut or small wooden home, and finally became a huge building
with ornamental moldings, sculptures, and other embellishments. The temples' architectural design was
governed by doctrines of religion and antiquated texts. The square was mostly used for religious purposes
when it came to Indian temple design. The square was the ultimate, magical form that allowed for no deviation
during building. The Indian architect was unable to alter these fundamental geometric shapes; instead, his
only concern was the religious importance of the grid he utilized. He stuck to the traditional shapes and
replicated them across the ages, but with entirely different materials. The temple's floor plan resembled a
square grid. Every square was believed to be the residence of a deity, and the significance of each deity was
indicated by its placement on the ground plan. The seat of Brahman was located in the plaza in the middle
of each building.
Throughout ancient times, Hindu India has revered the sun, the source of light. The sun, also referred to as
the god Surya, is said to be the active principle in the sky, according to ancient Hindu texts. "His name, Surya,
is derived from the word svar, which means light. He is the sun of heaven." Surya is described in the Rigveda
as the golden ornament of the sky, a falcon in flight, and the very face and eye of the gods. Surya surveys
the entire planet from above, having traveled through both heaven and earth in a single day. His job is to
spread the light of health and life and to drive out the dark night of ignorance.
Despite the sun's reverence as a light source, natural light was employed extremely infrequently in Hindu
temples. The construction of the temples was mostly determined by religious doctrine and old texts. Hinduism
holds that nothing should divert a person's attention when they are in the presence of the divine, and that
God will gradually reveal himself to his followers. In the past, gods usually lived in caves or on mountains.
The temple's structure is like a cave, which the worshipper must enter to get to the most sacred area. Its
17
vertical dimension resembles a mountain, signifying the ascent to release and enlightenment. Traditionally,
the sanctuary is a dimly lit space surrounded by high walls. Dimly lit by flickering oil lamp flames, the interior
is suggestively and artificially illuminated, symbolizing the universe's surrounding mystery as well as the holy
energy that permeates and illuminates it. The hallowed shrine symbolizes a cave because of its enormous
walls and its dim interior, while a mountain is represented by the superstructure, which has a summit that
resembles a spire.
As one enters the temple from the glare of the sun, they undergo an inside journey through progressively
darker areas until arriving at the innermost sanctuary, which is completely dark. By the time the pilgrim
reached the deepest chamber (garbhagriha), his eyes would have gradually adjusted to the darkness, he
would be in a state of mind appropriate for devotion, and his mind would be free of worldly worries. This was
made possible by the way light was treated. As a result, while the innermost sanctuary is completely black,
the hall or halls before it, are kept in semi-darkness. One travels via numerous doorways, passageways, and
corridors to the hallowed areas beyond during this voyage.
The devotee's mind is profoundly affected by the sacred carvings on the walls, pillars, architrave, and ceilings
of the internal compartments. The devotee, poised and ready, approaches the sanctuary and pauses at the
door, the final piece to display the carvings. The devotee is cleansed of all earthly impurities by the river
goddesses on the doorframe; his mind and soul are now focused on the revered deity, whose tutelary sign is
etched on the lintel. Since Hindu shrines are primarily meant for individual self-realization and are not meant
for communal worship or collective prayer, each devotee offers their own worship to the deity in the sanctum
sanctorum.
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THE DISTINCTIVE DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENTS OF EACH
ERA
When looking at the composition and structure of Dravidian architecture, temples built in the Chola style
nearly always have three main components, which vary depending on how they are arranged but only in
terms of the era in which they were constructed: The door leading to the cell is always covered by the porches,
also called Mantapas. The main elements of the quadrangular enclosures that encircle the more famous
temples are gate pyramids, or Gopuras. In Dravidian temples, gopuras are a common sight. Pillared halls,
also known as Chaultris or Chawadis, are the ubiquitous accompaniments to these temples, serving a variety
of functions. In addition to these, a South Indian temple typically has additional buildings for state or
convenience as well as a tank known as the Kalyani or Pushkarni, which is used for ceremonial purposes or
the priests' comfort. To it are attached dwellings for all tiers of the priesthood. Seven kingdoms and empires
left their mark on Southern India's architecture at various points in history.
Vesara Architecture of Badami Chalukyas
The Vesara style, also known as Badami Chalukya Architecture, was created by the Badami Chalukyas (543–
753 CE), also known as the Early Chalukyas, who ruled from Badami in Karnataka. The best places to
perceive their artwork are in northern Karnataka, specifically in Pattadakal, Aihole, and Badami. The art and
architecture that the Chalukya dynasty left behind are their most enduring legacies. In the Malaprabha basin,
there are still more than 150 monuments that are said to have been constructed between 450 and 700 AD
by the Badami Chalukya. Their most well-known landmarks are the rock-cut temples of Pattadakal, which is
a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Badami, Aihole, and Mahakuta.
They are credited with creating "The Temptation of the Buddha" and "The Persian Embassy," two of the most
well-known paintings at Ajanta Cave No. 1. This marks the emergence of the Chalukya architectural style,
which is a combination of South Indian and Indian elements. Karnataka is where almost all temples are
situated.
Pallava Architecture
The Pallavas ruled over Tamil Nadu from 600 to 900 AD, and their most notable architectural achievements
are the solitary rock temples at Mahabalipuram and their capital city of Kanchipuram. Pallava temples can
be broadly classified into two types: the rock-cut temples, which date from 610 to 690 CE, and the structural
temples, which date from 690 to 900 CE. The Shore Temple and the other monuments in the rock-cut Group
of Monuments at Mahabalipuram are the pinnacles of Pallava architecture. Both pillared halls with an external
19
roof made entirely of the natural rock and monolithic shrines with an external roof entirely carved out of the
natural rock were excavated. Shiva was the subject of early temple construction. A superb example of a
temple in the Pallava style is the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram, also known as Rajasimha
Pallaveswaram, which was constructed by Narasimhavarman II, popularly known as Rajasimha.
The Pallavas, who began building rock-cut temples without the use of mortar, bricks, etc., were the ones who
truly invented the construction of large temples. These temples are Thiruppadagam and Thiruooragam, which
house 28 and 35 foot (11 m) high images of Lord Vishnu respectively in his forms as Trivikraman and
Pandavadhoothar. By contrast, the Siva Lingams in the Gangaikonda Cholapuram and Thanjavur Royal
Temples of the Cholas stand 17 and 18 feet (5.5 meters) tall. It is safe to assume that the Pallavas were to
build both large temple complexes and very large deities and idols, since the Kanchi Kailasanatha Temple,
built by Rajasimha Pallava, served as the model for Raja Raja Chola's Brihadeeswara at Thanjavur. The
temples of the Chola, Pallava, and Pandiyan belts, the Adigaimans near Karur and Namakkal, and the
Sethupathy temple group between Pudukottai and Rameswaram collectively constitute the ultimate
expression of South Indian architecture, surpassing all other architectural styles that are common between
the Deccan Plateau and Kaniyakumari.
Architecture of Rashtrakuta
The best Dravidian monuments, in the style of rock-cut architecture and influenced by both north and south
India, were constructed at Ellora, Kailasanatha Temple, by Rashtrakutas, who ruled from Manyakheta,
Karnataka, between 753 and 973 CE. The Jaina Narayana temple in Pattadakal and the Navalinga temples
in Kuknur, Karnataka, are two more magnificent monuments. Maharashtra's magnificent rock-cut shrines at
Ellora and Elephanta showcase the artistic and architectural contributions of Rashtrakuta. They are reported
to have built 34 rock-cut shrines in total.
The Ellora temple known as Kailasanatha is a magnificent example of Dravidian art. Fantastic sculptures of
Hindu mythology figures, such as Ravana, Shiva, and Parvathi, adorn the temple's walls, and paintings hang
from the ceiling. King Krishna I completed these projects following the Deccan expansion of Rashtrakuta rule
into South India, and part of the Dravidian architectural style was incorporated. They were constructed along
the same lines as the Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal in Karnataka, and they lack any of the shikharas
typical of the Nagara style.
Western Chalukyas Architecture
From their capital city of Kalyani in Karnataka, the Western Chalukyas, also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas
or Later Chalukyas, ruled the Deccan from 973 until 1180 CE, perfecting the Chalukyan style. The Krishna
River-Tungabhadra doab in central Karnataka is home to more than fifty temples.
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The Later Chalukya architects created the Kasi Vishveshvara at Lakkundi, Mallikarjuna at Kuruvatii, the
Kalleshwara temple at Bagali, and Mahadeva at Itagi. The Western Chalukya dynasty's reign was a significant
turning point in the Deccan region's architectural development. Their architectural advancements served as
a conceptual bridge between the 13th-century Hoysala architecture and the Badami Chalukya architecture
of the 8th century.
Because of the numerous elaborate temples that this dynasty constructed in the Tungabhadra-Krishna River
doab region of Karnataka, their art is known as the "Gadag style." With over a hundred temples constructed
throughout the Deccan, with the exception of half in Karnataka, their temple building reached its pinnacle in
the 12th century. In addition to temples, Pushkarni, or elaborate stepped wells, are renowned for being wellpreserved ritual bathing locations in Lakkundi.
Pandya Architecture
The current Srivilliputtur Andal Temple, an official emblem of the Tamil Nadu government, was constructed
by the Lord's father-in-law, Periyaazhvar, using gold he won from debates held in the Pandya King
Vallabhadeva's palace. The main landmark in Srivilliputtur is a twelve-story tower erected in honor of
Vatapatrasayee, the Lord of Srivilliputtur. The 192-foot (59-meter) tower of this temple serves as the official
emblem of the Tamil Nadu government. The renowned Meenakshi temple in Madurai is one of the other
important Pandya temples.
Chola Architecture
Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola, who ruled from AD 848 to 1280, are credited with constructing
several temples, including the Brihadeshvara Temple in Thanjavur, the Brihadeshvara Temple in
Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and the Airavatesvara Temple in Darasuram. Listed as UNESCO World Heritage
Sites, these temples are known as Great Living Chola Temples. Additionally, there is the Sarabeswara
(Shiva) Temple in Thirubhuvanam, which is also known as the Kampahareswarar Temple. Both temples are
close to Kumbakonam. From the time of the first king Vijayalaya Chola, who left behind the unique chain of
Vijayalaya Chozhisvaram temple near Narttamalai, the Cholas were known for their prolific temple building.
These are the oldest examples of Dravidian temple construction during the Chola era. Several temples were
constructed in the Kanchi and Kumbakonam areas by his son Aditya I.
The majority of the Chola empire was home to the numerous temples that the emperors supported and
encouraged to be built. Among them are forty of the 108 Vaishnava Divya Desams, of which 77 are distributed
throughout the majority of South India and the remaining ones in Andhra and North India. The truth is that
the Cholas patronized and expanded two of the most significant temples, the Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple
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in Srirangam, the largest temple in India, and the Chidambaram Natarajar Temple. These two temples have
been hailed in inscriptions as the tutelary deities of the Chola Kings since the times of the second Chola King,
Aditya I. A prime example of Dravidian architecture, the 216-foot-tall vimana tower of Tanjore's
Brihadeeswarar Temple dates back to the 11th century.
Hoysala Architecture
The Hoysala kings ruled over Karnataka from Belur, their capital, and later Halebidu. They created a distinct
architectural style known as Hoysala architecture during their reign, which lasted from 1100 to 1343 CE. The
best examples of their contributions are the Kesava Temple in Somanathapura, the Hoysaleswara Temple
in Halebidu, and the Chennakesava Temple in Belur9. More so than their military victories, the Hoysalas are
of interest because of their patronage of the arts and architecture. Despite persistent threats from the
Pandyas to the south and the Seunas Yadavas to the north, the temple construction was completed at a
rapid pace throughout the kingdom.
Their architecture, which is a variation of the Western Chalukya style, is clearly influenced by Dravidian
architecture. As opposed to the traditional Dravida, their style is referred to as Karnata Dravida, and it is
regarded as a distinct architectural tradition with numerous distinctive elements.
Vijayanagara Architecture
From 1343 until 1565 CE, the Vijayanagara Empire ruled over South India. At Vijayanagara in Karnataka,
they constructed a number of temples and monuments in a hybrid style10. The Yali columns (pillar with
charging horse), balustrades (parapets), and elaborate pillared manatapa are their unique contributions,
along with the numerous developed combinations of earlier styles in South India. The Vijayanagara
architectural style, a vibrant synthesis of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola styles—idioms that
flourished in earlier centuries—was developed by Krishna Deva Raya and others to build numerous wellknown temples throughout South India.
Long after the empire fell, the sculpture, architecture, and painting it left behind had an impact on the growth
of the arts. The elaborately pillared Rayagopura (tower), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls), and
Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall) are its stylistic hallmarks. Because the kingdom was constantly in danger of
invasion, artisans employed the hard granite that was readily available in the area due to its durability.
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CONCLUSION
The arch itectura l, social, and th eo log ic al element s that hav e s haped india n temple building
over the ages are f ascinat ing to see. Every epoc h has h ad a unique inf luen ce on the
developme nt of ind ian temple architect ure, from the preh is toric rock -c ut cav es to the
elaborate sto ne temples.
The ancient rock-cut caves, such those at ajanta and ellora, d emonstrated the ble nding of
spiritualit y and artist ry. I n add ition to being plac es of worship, these deeply incise d roc k
formations a lso function ed as c anvase s for elaborate pa inting s and scu lptures that
port rayed many facets of relig iou s storie s and e veryd ay life. structural temples, with their
tall t owers and elaborate sculptures, first appeared durin g t he mediev al era. Like the
brih ades hwara temple, the chola temples are prime examples of dravidi an archite c ture' s
grandeur.
In add it io n to be ing places of wors hip, these temples funct ioned as soc ia l and co mmercial
hubs, reflect ing the prosperous and well-organized soc iet y of the per iod. Tradit ion al
architecture is becoming more and more popular i n the mode rn era. Arch it ects ar e taking
new components and ins pir ation from antiquat ed forms. This is a ref lect ion of a d esire to
reconnect wit h ind ia' s rich arc hitectural legacy a nd of a cu ltural reawak en ing.
In summary, the development of in dian temple architecture is a histor ical voya ge that
reflects th e dyn amic int eract io n of soc ia l s hifts, archit ectural innovat ion, and re ligiou s
beliefs. Ev ery his torical era ha s added to the intricate web of ind ia's arch itectura l history,
preserv ing a rich an d varie d legacy for u pcoming generat ions t o value and res pec t.
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