Axel Gehrmann
Peggy Germer Editors
Teacher Shortage
in International
Perspectives:
Insights and
Responses
Non-Traditional Pathways
to the Teacher Profession
Teacher Shortage in International
Perspectives: Insights and Responses
Axel Gehrmann · Peggy Germer
Editors
Teacher Shortage
in International
Perspectives: Insights
and Responses
Non-Traditional Pathways to the
Teacher Profession
Editors
Axel Gehrmann
Zentrum für Lehrerbildung, Schul- und
Berufsbildungsforschung (ZLSB)
TU Dresden
Dresden, Germany
Peggy Germer
Zentrum für Lehrerbildung, Schul- und
Berufsbildungsforschung (ZLSB)
TU Dresden
Dresden, Germany
ISBN 978-3-658-45397-8
ISBN 978-3-658-45398-5 (eBook)
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Editorial
Professional teachers are the backbone of modern societies. While medical professionals provide healthcare and legal experts provide legal security, teachers are
entrusted by the state with the education of the next generation. Over the past
two centuries, teachers have become the largest professional group in the public
sector in many countries around the world. Teaching, educating, nurturing, learning, caring and also supervising are among the main tasks of educators in public
schools.
Recently, the COVID-19 pandemic has brought global attention to what it
means when teachers are unable to perform their duties in schools. Parents were
confronted with the responsibility of education in an entirely new way. Teaching and learning could not simply proceed without support and professional guidance. As a result, student performance declined almost worldwide as evidenced
by PISA 2022.
If there is a shortage of teachers, potential societal disruptions are not far
away. Teacher shortages concern not only pupils and parents, but are a topic discussed by all members of society. Everyone has attended school and can report
firsthand if there are too few qualified teachers in the classroom. This often leads
to dissatisfaction, and simple solutions may seem obvious to increase the number
of teachers in classrooms.
Teacher shortage has become a “global phenomenon” as reported at least
by UNESCO in 2023.1 Globally, there is a shortage of 44 million teachers. The
1 UNESCO
(2023). World Teachers’ Day 2023: Tackling the global teacher shortage.
Retrieved January 31, 2024, from: https://www.unesco.org/en/articles/world-teachers-day2023-tackling-global-teacher-shortage
vii
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Editorial
reasons for this shortage are diverse, and there is a lack of systematic observations providing more than descriptive findings in tabular form about the size of
the phenomenon. Additionally, there is a lack of information about solutions
under the heading “What works?”.
All over the world, teachers in schools are now the largest professional group
in the public sector, and it is no easy task to meet the demand for replacement
teachers in the future. Demographic shifts alone will reduce the labor pool in the
future and increase competition for qualified, academically trained staff. The significant influx of women into the profession also means that a second labor market can no longer be developed on a basic level, as was the case two or three
decades ago. The degree of feminization has already formed a ceiling effect that
reaches almost 100% in some types of schools. Last but not least, it is also apparent that, in this context, part-time employment relationships are spreading significantly, resulting in new gaps in planning.
This volume is intended to help answer the unresolved question “What
works?”. To date, researchers from different countries have rarely worked
together on this topic, so this work explores new territory by connecting the discourse on teacher shortage in eleven nations with alternative pathways into the
teaching profession.
We are therefore even more delighted that the book Teacher Shortage in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses is being published.
It has been a long road to this international publication. The starting point was
the so-called Lateral Entry Teacher Education programme (LETE) at the Center
for Teacher Education at TU Dresden (ZLSB)2, which has been successfully training teachers on the second educational path for almost a decade. In this international anthology, there are various terms for lateral entrants, e.g. second-career
teachers or career changers, which illustrate the complexity and diversity of the
different approaches.
The ZLSB takes pride in the international network that has gradually
approached the issue of teacher shortage and alternative pathways from various
perspectives over time. As editors, we would like to extend our heartfelt gratitude to each author for invaluable contributions to the international publication.
The expertise, dedication, and diverse perspectives from eleven countries have
enriched the discourse on this critical issue, and we are truly grateful for collaboration. Collective efforts have not only shed light on the complexities of the
2 Ger. Zentrum für Lehrerbildung, Schul- und Berufsbildungsforschung.
Editorial
ix
teacher shortage crisis but have also provided valuable insights into potential
solutions and best practices from around the world. The commitment to advancing the field of education is commendable, and we are honored to have had the
opportunity to work with such a distinguished group of scholars. We hope that
this publication will serve as a catalyst for meaningful change in addressing the
challenges of teacher shortage and lateral entry, and we look forward to continuing our collaboration with all of you in the future.
This international research volume brings together contributions from several
years of cooperation between the Center for Teacher Education and Educational
Research (ZLSB) at TU Dresden and many international partners on the topics of
teacher shortages and the consequences for school systems and teacher education
in their individual countries. The anthology combines diverse perspectives on the
topic and attempts to systematically approach the complexity of the problem with
current political developments, institutional concepts of universities, and theoretical considerations of the individual countries. While the focus of the contributions may vary, they nevertheless provide an in-depth insight into the respective
national situation and open the discourse on a common understanding of the issue
of teacher shortages. Educational policy management, the design of training and
career paths, working conditions, social recognition, as well as individual success
factors of professional activity are all factors influencing the number of available teachers. The research volume presents descriptions of the specific combination of these factors in each of the represented countries and aims to create an
overarching common understanding of teacher shortage as a global issue. In the
future, it should be possible to shed light on national circumstances that are usually inaccessible from outside perspectives and stimulate joint discourse across
countries to counter national crisis situations with international experiences.
The current volume is intended for policy makers, teacher educators at universities and other teacher training institutions, as well as interested academics
and teachers seeking to cultivate a global perspective on teacher training within
the context of teacher shortages and potential solutions. This objective is pursued
through the establishment of a collaborative framework for research and knowledge exchange among scholars from Germany, the USA, Switzerland, Poland,
Australia, Japan, Sweden, United Kingdom, Ireland, the Czech Republic, and
Denmark. To systematically address this topic, the volume is structured into three
main sections.
Part I “Country reports on teacher shortages: causes and impacts” presents
various contributions that primarily portray the general situation of a country or
focus on specific aspects of the macro-level analysis of a country-specific situation.
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Editorial
The first chapter, authored by Axel Gehrmann (Germany), provides an account
of the current and historical landscape of teacher shortages in Germany, with a particular focus on the Free State of Saxony. The chapter explores the various forms of
lateral entry and career transitions into the teaching profession, shedding light on
the impact of alternative pathways for university-based teacher training. This sets
the stage for subsequent international country profiles addressing teacher shortages
in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Sweden, Japan, the USA, and Australia.
In the second chapter, Hazel Bryan and Jane Price (UK) offer an overview of
teacher shortages in England, emphasizing policy initiatives, initial teacher training, and early career teachers. The authors identify longstanding challenges in
teacher recruitment and retention and critically evaluate the government’s latest
efforts to address these issues.
Chapter three, authored by Manuela Keller-Schneider and Salome Schneider Boye (Switzerland), delves into various aspects of the Swiss school system,
teacher education, and the teaching profession while providing insights into the
teacher shortage situation. The authors introduce a Swiss concept aimed at facilitating access to the teaching profession and traditional teacher education systems.
Lena Boström (Sweden) presents the fourth chapter, focusing on teacher shortages in Sweden and their perception by school authorities. This chapter draws
on empirical data from a web survey completed by over fifty schools and discusses potential solutions, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive strategy in
addressing this issue.
While preceding chapters predominantly adopt a European perspective, subsequent chapters pivot towards American, Japanese, and Australian viewpoints.
In the fifth chapter, Richard M. Ingersoll (USA) provides a comprehensive
overview of trends in elementary and secondary teacher shortages in the USA
from 1990 to 2021. The chapter analyzes and discusses the regional and socioeconomic contexts of teacher supply as primary factors contributing to shortages
in the USA.
Kenji Maehara (Japan) presents an examination of the current status of lateral entrants in Japan, drawing on data from policy documents, a survey of school
authorities, and interviews with lateral entrants. Additionally, an overview of the
long-standing but less successful special licensure system since 1970 is provided.
The final chapter of Part I addresses the issue of teacher shortage in Australia.
Merryn Dawborn-Gundlach (Australia) discusses contrasting trends within the
teacher education system, highlighting the presence of both more and less qualified workers in schools and the increasing prevalence of non-traditional routes to
the teaching profession. The chapter outlines the concept of higher quality lateral
Editorial
xi
entry programs as a response to an aging workforce and as a means to provide
successful and accessible formats for teacher education.
Part II of this volume focuses on the academic training of lateral entrants pursuing alternative routes to the teaching profession. The first chapter of Part II
introduces a Czech model of a combined study program for teaching German.
Petra Fuková (Czech Republic) provides a detailed description of this innovative format and outlines its effectiveness as a response to the shortage of qualified
teachers.
The second chapter, authored by Pamela O’ Brien, Natasha Kiely and Conor
Galvin (Ireland), offers an overview of the historical and current approach to
the education of Ireland’s first generation of Computer Science teachers for primary and secondary schools. The authors describe how several universities and
colleges, traditionally providers of initial teacher education, are now beginning
to offer formalized Computer Science courses, representing a hopeful trend in
addressing the ongoing shortfall of teachers in this field.
The third and final chapter of Part II, by Andrea Hoffkamp and Kerstin Koch
(Germany), presents the TU Dresden program for scientific education designed
for second career teachers specializing in mathematics. The authors outline specific concepts for designing a successful model of subject-related didactics tailored to address specific requirements.
Part III of this volume is dedicated to empirical research on teacher shortage
and specific measures. Eight projects from Europe and the USA present their
findings, representing a diverse range of research interests that contribute to the
scholarly examination and discussion of the topic.
In the first chapter of this part, Falk Radisch (Germany) analyzes and discusses the relationship between the demand and supply of qualified teachers in
Germany, outlining specific issues related to political and statistical forecasting
measures. The author presents data from the state of Mecklenburg-Pomerania to
illustrate challenges associated with underestimating realistic demands for graduates from university teacher education programs.
Chapter two, authored by Joanna Madalińska-Michalak (Poland), offers an indepth exploration of the teacher shortage issue in Poland. The study delves into
statistical data concerning teacher shortages at both national and provincial levels,
while also examining the underlying reasons for teachers leaving their positions
in schools. The paper places a strong emphasis on educational planning and concludes with insights crucial for policymaking, educational practice, and further
research on the teaching profession, particularly in response to the emerging trend
of teacher shortages in Poland.
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Editorial
In chapter three, Teresa Beck (Germany) presents an empirical portrait of second career teachers in Germany, focusing on their teaching experiences at the
beginning of their careers in schools. The chapter emphasizes different elements
of the professionalization process for out-of-field-teaching teachers, reconstructing various facets and highlighting their alternative biographical transition into
the teaching profession. The article presents both quantitative and qualitative data
results.
In chapter four, Thomas Bárány and Julian Hoischen (Germany) introduce
the concept of lateral entry into the teaching profession in the Federal State of
Saxony, using the example of TU Dresden (TUD). The paper focuses on findings
from accompanying research on the program within the academic qualification
for second career teachers. The main points of analysis include conditions for
teaching success and occupation-specific professionalization characteristics, particularly self-assessments and job-related beliefs, as well as motivations for career
choice.
Lena Boström (Sweden) addresses the teacher shortage in Sweden in chapter
five. The paper highlights a potential gap between national politics attempting to
address the problem of teacher shortages and the perspective of school authorities responsible for teacher recruitment. Empirical data from a survey answered
by 55 schools is presented and analyzed through content analysis. The results are
related to the political intentions in ongoing reformation attempts in Sweden.
The sixth chapter, authored by Lena Boström, Maria Anna Kreienbaum, Sabrina Wüllner, Frans Andersen, Göran Bostedt and Marcia Håkansson-Lundqvist
(Sweden, Germany, Denmark), provides an overview of a research-based network
aiming to compare the current situation of teacher shortages in Denmark, Germany, and Sweden. The authors emphasize that teacher shortage is a multi-faceted and complex phenomenon that needs to be analyzed across different levels
and phases to highlight interdependencies.
Chapter seven, authored by Maria Anna Kreienbaum and Sabrina Wüllner
(Germany), presents a study that discusses the causes and recommended measures regarding the phenomenon of teacher shortage in Germany. The study
utilizes data obtained through content analysis, which is systematized in a discursively designed instance model. To achieve this, interviews with eight educational
scientists of different denominations were conducted. The researchers provide an
in-depth discussion of the relations between the interacting factors of shortage
and possible solutions.
The eighth chapter addresses the digital transformation of learning contexts
during COVID-19 and is presented by Peggy Germer, Dagmar Oertel and Malte
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Krone (Germany). The digital turn had a particularly strong impact on the Lateral
Entry Teacher Education Program (LETE) at the TU Dresden. Through a digital qualitative-quantitative questionnaire, learning points were identified, including web-based learning resources, collaboration resources, and support structures
required by teacher-students.
In the final chapter, Mourat Tchoshanov (USA) discusses factors and strategies
to improve the effectiveness of online teacher learning courses in mathematics
and its didactics. The focus on engineering an effective and appropriate learning
environment in online teacher education creates opportunities for collaboration
in alternative teacher preparation programs. The author discusses crucial factors
such as content development, interactivity, and effective content-focused communication using teaching mathematics as an example.
At the end of the volume, Axel Gehrmann (Germany) attempts to provide a
brief summary of all the arguments presented by colleagues from eleven countries
who were heard on the subject of teacher shortages and alternative routes into the
teaching profession. In this context he points out three country profiles about the
teacher shortage and how to overcome this problem in the globalized world.
In conclusion, this international anthology represents a significant milestone
in the ongoing discourse surrounding teacher shortages and alternative pathways
to teacher training. The diverse perspectives from various countries and research
emphases provide valuable insights into this complex issue. The current findings not only contribute to our understanding of the challenges related to teacher
shortages but also serve as a catalyst for further in-depth research into nuanced
and specialized topics in this field. This collection of contributions sets the stage
for continued exploration and analysis, offering a foundation for future scholarship and policy development aimed at addressing the multifaceted aspects of
teacher recruitment and training.
Axel Gehrmann
Peggy Germer
Contents
Country Reports on Teacher Shortage: Causes and Impacts
Lateral Entry and Career Jumping into the Teaching Profession
in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Axel Gehrmann
3
The Teacher Shortage in England: Policy Initiatives, Initial Teacher
Training and the Early Career Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hazel Bryan and Jayne Price
27
Swiss Education System, Teacher Training and Teacher Shortage. . . . . .
Manuela Keller-Schneider and Salome Schneider Boye
Teacher Shortage in Sweden—School Authorities’ Perception
of the Shortage and Possible Solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lena Boström
Teacher Shortages in the United States: 1990–2021 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Richard M. Ingersoll
47
71
83
Lateral Entry Teachers in Contemporary Japan: Between Teacher
Shortage and “Wind of Change”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kenji Maehara
105
Addressing the Problem of Teacher Shortage in the Australian
Educational Context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Merryn Dawborn-Gundlach
127
xv
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Contents
Learning to Teach in Different Academic Settings: Lateral Entrants
on their Way to the Profession
Alternative Routes into Teaching: Combined Study Programme for
Teaching German as a Foreign Language in Ústí nad Labem. . . . . . . . . .
Petra Fuková
147
Educating Ireland’s First Generation of Computer Science Teachers
for Secondary and Primary Schools; an Unfinished Story. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pamela O’Brien, Natasha Kiely and Conor Galvin
165
Academic Qualification of Second Career Teachers in
Mathematics—challenges, Conditions of Success and Desiderata. . . . . . .
Andrea Hoffkamp and Kerstin Koch
181
Empirical Research of the Teacher Shortage and Specific Measures
The Complex Problem of Teacher Shortage in Germany—Some
Ideas About the Role of Success and Failure in Teacher Education,
Educational Planning and Second Career Teachers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Falk Radisch
Addressing Teacher Shortages in Poland: Analysis, Educational
Planning, and Policy Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Joanna Madalińska-Michalak
Professionalization and Teaching-Out-Of-Field: How Lateral
Entrants’ Resources Occur in Moments of Crisis—Mixed
Data Results. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Teresa Beck
The Academic Training of Second Career Teachers in Saxony:
Programs and Implications for the Professionalization
of Lateral Entrants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thomas Bárány and Julian Hoischen
WATS up? What About Teacher Shortage? International
Perspectives from Denmark, Germany, and Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lena Boström, Maria Anna Kreienbaum, Sabrina Wüllner,
Frans Andersen, Göran Bostedt and Marcia Håkansson Lindqvist
195
209
227
251
273
Contents
xvii
Teacher Shortages in Germany—Causes, Countermeasures,
and Assessments by Educational Scientists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maria Anna Kreienbaum and Sabrina Wüllner
291
Primary School Teachers and the Digital Turn—an Evaluation Study
with Lateral Entrants from the Teacher Training Programme
of TU Dresden. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Peggy Germer, Dagmar Oertel and Malte Krone
Engineering Teacher Discourse in Distance Learning Environment. . . . .
Mourat Tchoshanov
Final Remarks—Navigating a Global Challenge: Understanding
Teacher Shortages from a Multifaceted Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Axel Gehrmann
313
337
351
List of Authors
Bárány, Thomas; M.A., TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden,
Germany. Email: bql@tu-dresden.de
Beck, Teresa; Ph.D., Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany.
Email: teresa.beck@zlb.tu-chemnitz.de
Bostedt, Göran; Associate Prof. Ph.D., Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall,
Sweden. Email: goran.bostedt@miun.se
Boström, Lena; Prof. Ph.D., Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden.
Email: Lena.bostrom@miun.se
Bryan, Hazel; Prof. Ph.D., University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, UK.
Email: h.bryan@hud.ac.uk
Dawborn-Gundlach, Merryn; Ph.D., The University of Melbourne, Parkville,
Victoria, 3052, Australia. Email: merryn.dawborn-gundlach@unimelb.edu.au
Fuková, Petra; Ph.D., Czech Republic, Univerzita Jana Evangelisty Purkyně v
Ústí nad Labem, Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic. Email: petra.fukova@ujep.cz
Galvin, Conor; Ph.D., Technological University of the Shannon:Midlands Midwest (TUS), TUS Thurles Campus, Ireland. Email: conor.galvin@ucd.ie
Gehrmann, Axel; Prof. Ph.D., TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden,
Germany. Email: axel.gehrmann@tu-dresden.de
Germer, Peggy; Ph.D., TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany.
Email: peggy.germer@tu-dresden.de
Håkansson Lindqvist, Marcia; Associate Prof. Ph.D., Mid Sweden University,
Sundsvall, Sweden. Email: marcia.hakanssonlindqvist@miun.se
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List of Authors
Hoffkamp, Andrea; Prof. Ph.D., TUD Dresden University of Technology,
Dresden, Germany. Email: andrea.hoffkamp@tu-dresden.de
Hoischen, Julian; Dipl.-Soz., TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden,
Germany. Email: bql@tu-dresden.de
Ingersoll, Richard M.; Prof. Ph.D., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
USA. Email: rmi@upenn.edu
Keller-Schneider, Manuela; Prof. Ph.D., Zurich University of Teacher Education, Zürich, Switzerland. Email: m.keller-schneider@phzh.ch
Kiely, Natasha; M.Sc., Technological University of the Shannon:Midlands Midwest (TUS), TUS Thurles Campus, Ireland. Email: natasha.kielyfennelly@ucdconnect.ie
Koch, Kerstin; Ph.D., TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden,
Germany. Email: kerstin.koch@tu-dresden.de
Kreienbaum, Maria Anna; Prof. emerita Ph.D., University of Wuppertal,
Wuppertal, Germany. Email: kreienbaum@uni-wuppertal.de
Bergische Universität, Wuppertal, Germany.
Krone, Malte; M.Sc., TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden,
Germany. Email: bql@tu-dresden.de
Madalińska-Michalak, Joanna; Prof. Ph.D., University of Warsaw, Warsaw,
Poland. Email: j.madalinska@uw.edu.pl
Maehara, Kenji; Prof. Ph.D., Tokyo Gakugei University, Tokyo, Japan. Email:
maehara@u-gakugei.ac.jp
O’Brien, Pamela; M.Sc., Technological University of the Shannon:Midlands
Midwest (TUS), TUS Thurles Campus, Ireland. Email: pamela.obrien2@ucdconnect.ie
Oertel, Dagmar; Dipl.-Medieninf., TUD Dresden University of Technology,
Dresden, Germany. Email: dagmar.oertel2@tu-dresden.de
Ørsted Andersen, Frans; Associate Prof. Ph.D., Aarhus University, Aarhus,
Denmark. Email: frans@edu.au.dk
Price, Jayne; Ph.D., University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, UK. Email:
j.price@hud.ac.uk
List of Authors
xxi
Radisch, Falk; Prof. Ph.D., University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany. Email:
falk.radisch@uni-rostock.de
Schneider Boye, Salome; M.Sc., Zurich University of Teacher Education,
Zürich, Switzerland. Email: s.schneiderboye@phzh.ch
Tchoshanov, Mourat; Prof. Ph.D., University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso,
USA. Email: mouratt@utep.edu
Wüllner, Sabrina; Ph.D., University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany. Email:
swuellner@uni-wuppertal.de
Bergische Universität, Wuppertal, Germany
Country Reports on Teacher Shortage:
Causes and Impacts
Lateral Entry and Career Jumping
into the Teaching Profession
in Germany
Axel Gehrmann
1Cycles of Teacher Demand in West and East
Germany
In German teacher educational research, lateral and alternative entries into the
teaching profession received little attention for a long time, except during the
“baby boom“ decade between 1960 and 1970 in West Germany. This was due
to the rising birth rate and so additional students and not enough teachers in the
school system (Gehrmann, 2016). The term “Mikätzchen” was used to describe
individuals with short training under the guidance of the then Minister of Education, Paul Mikat, in North Rhine-Westphalia, who were hired during a radio
broadcast in 1964 as the “housewife squad or pedagogical people’s storm“
(Deutschlandfunk, 2003). In East Germany, the so-called “Neulehrer” (“New
Teachers”) were a systematic addition to the historically established path from the
beginning. Due to emigration and mistrust of teachers from the National Socialist era, new groups of people had to be recruited and initially trained in six-week
courses. The “Neulehrer” persisted in the school system of East Germany until
the political upheaval of reunification (Gruner, 1997, 2000).
Forty years after the “baby boom”, the issue of teacher shortages and demand
for teachers in Germany became relevant again. Suddenly, advertisements
appeared in public transportation and media, urging teachers from other Federal
States to apply for positions in their state. In 2009, for example, banners from
A. Gehrmann (*)
TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany
e-mail: axel.gehrmann@tu-dresden.de
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_1
3
4
A. Gehrmann
the Federal State of Baden-Württemberg were posted in Berlin subway stations
with the slogan: “Good morning, Mr. Teacher! Apply now in Baden-Württemberg”.1 Baden-Württemberg also campaigns with the slogan: “We can do everything except High German”.2 In 2016, Berlin responded to Baden-Württemberg:
“High German? Not everyone is able to speak it here either. Berlin is looking for
teachers. Berlin is looking for you”.3 By this time, the Standing Conference of
the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs (KMK) had long allowed “statespecific special measures” to be implemented if an insufficient number of conventionally trained teachers were available (KMK 2013a, p. 2). Publicly and in
research literature, the narrative of a cyclical model gained prominence. It was
noted that the “teacher job market is subject to significant cycles” (Reintjes et al.,
2012, p. 1), and the term “Schweinezyklus” (“porc cycle”, “cattle cycle”, “hog
cycle”) became a standing concept. This term describes in economics the phenomenon of cyclical fluctuations of supply and prices in livestock markets:
“They call it the porc cycle: in periods of acute teacher shortage, everything goes
into a frenzy and screams for teachers. This then tempts many young people to
study teaching. Result: seven years later, there are too many teachers. Panic reactions and complaints about high teacher unemployment. So, hardly anyone starts a
teaching degree anymore. Seven years later...” (Haß, 2009).
Almost 100 years ago, Arthur Hanau, in his dissertation titled “Die Prognose der
Schweinepreise” (The Forecast of Pig Prices), observed that pig prices in Berlin fluctuated by 20% up and down around a mean between 1896 and 1914. This
phenomenon has since been commonly referred to as the “Schweinezyklus” (porc
cycle) (Hanau, 1928). The explanation provided was that during times of overproduction, prices would fall until they started to rise again as the oversupply
reduced, and too few piglets were available in the market. This led to an increase
in prices, prompting pig producers to introduce more piglets to the market to earn
more until it resulted in another oversupply of pigs and falling prices. Thus, one
1 Original reference: „Sehr guten Morgen, Herr Lehrer! Jetzt bewerben in Baden-Württem-
berg.“
2 Original reference: „Wir können alles. Außer Hochdeutsch.“
3 Original reference: „Hochdeutsch? Können hier auch nicht alle. Berlin sucht Lehrer/innen. Berlin sucht dich.“
Lateral Entry and Career Jumping …
5
cycle followed another. While supply and demand in this mechanism were essentially uncontrollable, they could be potentially predicted (BMEL, 2022).
Today, the “Schweinezyklus” has made its way to Wikipedia and seemingly
serves as a metaphor for anything with predictive value. For instance, births lead
to a delayed demand for daycare places and educators, as well as primary schools
and teachers, and so on. Knowing this, one could then manage the supply, for
example, in terms of construction projects for schools or training capacities for
teachers. To continue the analogy, if birth rates decline, schools could be closed,
and teachers reduced to maintain overall system balance. If none of this were to
happen, fluctuations in room occupancy and teacher availability would naturally
occur. Sometimes there might be too many teachers available, and other times
too few. In essence, demand always fluctuated around a mean, and this mean is
precisely what needs to be determined to keep supply and demand in balance.
Or put differently, phases of high and low demand for new teacher hires supposedly follow each other in public awareness, aligning with these cyclical waves
and should, therefore, be predictable. It is suggested that the mismatch between
teacher demand and supply often occurs because proper planning has not been
carried out to determine the mean demand and make provisions for it.
As an example of oversupply and scarcity in the teaching job market, the temporary shortage of teachers in West Germany during the 1960s “baby boom” is
often cited. Suddenly, in the 1980s, there were too many teachers on the market. The “Pillenknick” (“Pill gap”, the drop in the birth rate due to the pill) led
to only 800,000 births instead of almost 1.4 million (1964), resulting in students
who were trained too late for current demand being temporarily unnecessary. The
market had produced an oversupply. Here, the analogy to the “Schweinezyklus”
(porc cycle) emerges, as excessive training capacity led to oversupply. Essentially, political planning is blamed for allegedly failing to anticipate what seemed
so straightforward in theory, following the cycle model, as it should have been
clear computationally what follows scarcity—surplus.
In fact, the teacher job market did not behave predictably cyclically at any
time after World War II in Germany. The overall number of teachers became
increasingly disconnected from demographic trends and the number of students,
so that over time, considering only the birth rate, more and more teachers were
needed. This was because a supposed equilibrium did not exist, and the average
essentially increased over time. For instance, Volume IX of the Data Handbook
on German Educational History reports for the period from 1950 to 2010 in West
Germany that student numbers did not decrease as expected from birth rates
but, due to increased educational participation, actually increased by approximately 2%. Meanwhile, the number of teachers during the same reporting period
6
A. Gehrmann
increased by a factor of 100 (Lundgreen, 2013, p. 16). The number of teachers in
West Germany grew from 206,000 to 660,000, a 220% increase. In other words,
one could exaggerate and say that teacher-to-student ratios are historically incalculable and almost exponentially growing. Looking back, there is no evidence of
continuously foreseeable, correlated developments, let alone cycles.
How can this be explained? The seemingly cyclical phenomenon of teacher
demand is caused by the fact that the need for teachers has grown more and more
over time. Historical events, population trends, ongoing educational expansion,
and changing pedagogical and gender-specific professional images and structures
have led, since World War II in West Germany, to a continuous increase in the
demand for teachers up until the 1980s (Gehrmann, 2016; Zymek & Heinemann,
2020). The “baby boomers” of the 1960s, especially with the already increased
educational expansion, resulted in a rise in the demand for teachers that seemed
to be temporarily met thereafter because the “Pillenknick” and its consequences
brought about the opposite. Many births were followed by few. Of course, teachers were not dismissed at that time because the legal framework did not allow
it; instead, class sizes were reduced, which was now also pedagogically desired.
Consequently, the generation of teachers who taught the “baby boomers” aged.
Initially, the classes of the formerly young teachers were very large, then the
teachers collectively aged, and the classes became smaller. As the “baby boomers” themselves had children, classes grew larger again, and gradually, with the
aging of teachers, new teachers were hired. However, this is often insufficient
in many areas today, as the next “echo effect” is underway—the children of
the “baby boomers” are having children, and there are also increasing demands
regarding inclusion and integration. Migration movements since the mid-2000s
further contribute to the complexities of the situation.
Hence, if one only thinks in terms of the “Schweinezyklus” (Hanau, 1928),
apparently, what constitutes the demand can be deduced solely from demographic
factors. Expansion follows scarcity, then no demand, and scarcity again, if counter-cyclical precautions are not taken. In the knowledge of the presumed cycle,
preparations could be made following public discourse. In anticipation of an
anticipated age-related decline in the teaching profession, undergraduate teacher
education enrollment could be increased to counter the next downturn. However,
we are, in fact, caught in a vicious circle of misconceptions. Despite knowledge of specific needs, they cannot be so precisely defined that everything “fits”.
There are always surplus and shortage of teachers because the future is inherently
uncertain. Educational policymakers can only approach it empirically, and only
in hindsight, reflecting on past futures, do they know what should have been done
(Dahrendorf, 1965, 16). Or, summarily:
Lateral Entry and Career Jumping …
7
• Demographic developments (e.g., “baby boom”) subsequently trigger processes in school development (more school spaces are needed) and echo
effects over time (there are temporarily more students to cater to);
• Worldwide, there has been an educational expansion; more students obtaining
higher qualifications. This leads to an extension of the duration of schooling
(more students are taught over more school years);
• Temporarily stagnant enrollment numbers have not reduced the demand for
teachers (extension of students’ presence in school through full-day programs,
smaller classes, new topics such as inclusion, short-term increases in student
numbers due to migration) (there is an expansion of the educational offering);
• Overall, the demand for teachers does not naturally decrease when fewer children are born (replacement demand is usually higher than assumed).
So, if overall political precautions are not taken in a timely manner, assuming a
higher demand than given, anticipating the age of teachers, or aligning replacement needs early enough with the increase in study places, a supposedly cyclically occurring problem erodes, leading to a shortage of teachers. If new political
situations arise, more content needs to be covered, or due to migration and movement of people, even more students stand at the school gate in a globalized world,
the established system of the presumed cycle of scarcity and overproduction collapses. This is the crux of today’s dilemma.
Beyond the cyclical narrative, it must also be acknowledged that it has always
been pointed out that “even in phases when many qualified teachers are available
in the job market, sectoral bottlenecks still occur, occurring at individual schools,
for school levels, and/or concentrated on specific subjects” (Reintjes et al.,
2012, p. 1). Beyond individual schools, types of schools, and subjects (especially STEM), attention has been directed towards the variability of the supply
in socially disadvantaged areas of major cities, shaped by socio-economic environments, and highlighted social inequality in general. The argument of regional
disparities is particularly prominent, as the amalgamation of age and replacement
needs reveals that metropolises tend to attract teachers, and aging is particularly
pronounced in peripheral rural areas. For example, data from Saxony clearly
show that aging and thus the gap between supply and demand occur particularly
in peripheral East Saxony, beyond the three universities with teacher training
inside located in Leipzig, Dresden, and Chemnitz.
In summary: Teacher demand and teacher supply do not inherently adhere to a
cyclic model; an ostensibly covered additional demand does not automatically result
in future reduced or no replacement demand. The triad of teacher education, teacher
supply, and meeting teacher demand is never stagnant, subject not to short-term
8
A. Gehrmann
Fig. 1 The term “teacher shortage” in the DWDS newspaper corpus (DWDS, 2022)4
fluctuations of years but at most of decades. It necessitates thinking beyond cycles
and even acting counter-cyclically. This means that, at least several years before the
widespread age-related departures, a significant number of teaching graduates must
be trained and subsequently hired to even approximately meet replacement demand.
Since such early recruitments incur additional costs, they are usually foregone. This
is due, in part, to the fact that education expenditures are administratively treated
as costs rather than investments. In times of declining student numbers, educational
administrations often rely on the demographic dividend instead of making investments (Brückner & Böhm-Kasper, 2010, p. 203).
2Current Situation in 2023
In recent years, the situation has become more and more acute; the majority of the public would not actually have been concerned about this, as only a
few stakeholders were addressing the issue of teacher shortages and the need for
teachers. Yet a glance at the DWDS (Digital Dictionary of the German Language)
shows how virulent it has been for at least a decade and has now reached a status
or notoriety that exceeds that of the baby boomer years when many children had
very few teachers (Fig. 1).
4 Ger. “Lehrermangel: Zeitung” (Eng. “teacher shortage: newspaper”).
Lateral Entry and Career Jumping …
9
Overall, asynchronous teacher demand cycles and, consequently, vastly different labour markets have emerged in the old and new Federal States to date. While
a surplus of trained teaching staff was initially expected in the western German
Federal States (Terhart, 2014), a considerable shortage of teaching graduates
become quickly apparent in the Eastern German Federal States because it was
politically anticipated that the need for replacements would continue to decline
and that the number of first year students entering the teaching profession could
also be reduced (KMK, 2011, 2013b, p. 14). A fatal mistake that has today led to
graduate teachers being in demand everywhere. The labour market is devoid of
new teachers and the projected need for teachers in the context of increasing numbers of students was already assumed to be very high a few years ago (Klemm &
Zorn, 2017). In Klaus Klemm’s report, “Development of supply and demand of
teachers in Germany up to 2030” for the VBE5, the situation escalates again in
January 2022, because the closer we get to 2030, the greater the shortage. Now,
the outcomes from the universities are increasingly coming into view. It says:
“The shortage of newly trained teachers will be much greater than assumed in the
KMK projection from December 2020. In 2025, this shortage will not be 20,000
teachers, as the KMK states, but 45,000. In 2030, the shortage of 81,000 will exceed
the 14,000 estimated by the KMK many times over, while the additional 74,400
people, as presented [...], needed as a result of proposed school policy reforms are
not included” (VBE, 2022, p. 25).6
So, with the shortened view of five years since 2017, the same author has effectively doubled (sic!) the replacement teachers required from 42,800 teachers (Klemm & Zorn, 2017) to 81,000. The focus will no longer only be on the
potential need for replacements, but also on the potential outcomes from universities. Only rough estimates can be used in this context, which some regions
can underestimate, meaning that the number of available graduates can turn out
to be significantly lower in some Federal States. The report by a working group
5 Ger. Verband Bildung und Erziehung, Eng. Education and training association.
6 Original reference: „Der Mangel an neu ausgebildeten Lehrerinnen und Lehrern wird weit
höher als in der KMK-Vorausberechnung vom Dezember 2020 unterstellt ausfallen. 2025
wird dieser Mangel nicht, wie die KMK angibt, bei 20.000, sondern bei 45.000 Lehrpersonen liegen. 2030 übersteigt der Mangel in Höhe von dann 81.000 den von der KMK mit
etwa 14.000 bezifferten Mangel um ein Vielfaches, wobei hier der (…) dargelegte, durch
schulpolitische Reformvorhaben entstehende zusätzliche Mehrbedarf in Höhe von 74.400
Personen noch nicht inkludiert ist.“
10
A. Gehrmann
from Rostock on the number of graduates in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
(Radisch et al., 2018) showed that of the first-year cohorts from 2012/13 and
2013/14, a maximum of just 40% of the first-year students in a teaching qualification programme for Gymnasien (academic secondary schools) will graduate, and
only around 25% of those in a programme for teaching at mainstream schools
(Güldner et al., 2020, p. 392). The outcome is very similar in Germany’s capital Berlin (Rackles, 2021a, b). Recent calculations from the Free State of Saxony
also indicate that, despite every effort to increase the number of students, around
20% of all newly appointed teachers for the 1st school semester of 2022 are lateral entrants and, of the potential 850 graduates per semester after university and
training, not even 60% actually enter into the profession, if the figures directly
correlated with each other (SMK, 2022)7.
As described, the issue of teacher shortages and the related need for replacement teachers from an alternative route have flourished in obscurity over the past
decade in Germany. Up until the Dresden-based QUER project of 2012–2014, in
which just under forty people were placed on a teaching track within 19 months
(Melzer et al., 2014), and in which the experience led to the assessment that, in
view of “the enormous need to replace teachers (…) in the coming decade (…)
there will be no way around implementing lateral entry of some kind” (Melzer
et al., 2014, p. 218), there were actually only systematic appeals for enabling lateral entry and career jumping; how the need for replacements could be covered
over the next decade, for the moment and immediately remained more than vague
across Germany. Admittedly, the group of “lateral entrants to the teaching profession” were pointedly named in order to intervene (Klemm & Zorn, 2018, p. 11).
The large numbers of people currently entering into the teaching profession in
Germany without a teaching degree have one thing in common: they lack essential
parts of the training that prospective teachers usually go through before they start
working. Lateral entry and career jumping, as well as the various forms of the two
that are and have been practised across Germany, essentially differ in the selection
and scope of the training content to be made up, in the time at which post-qualification takes place, and in the institution responsible for post-qualification. At
the moment, there is no systematic analysis, concrete evaluation or standard setting for those various forms, meaning it is difficult to provide information on the
size and scope of the programmes. A 2014 evaluation of the situation in Germany
across the various States in the last decade stated definitively:
7 Ger. Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Kultus (SMK), Eng. State Ministry of Education
for Saxony.
Lateral Entry and Career Jumping …
11
“Career jumpers are student teachers who do not have a first state examination or an
equivalent qualification from a teacher training programme, but who take the second
state examination after completing the teaching practice phase.
Lateral entrants are people who are hired as teachers without having a teaching
degree and who receive additional on-the-job pedagogical training, the completion
of which opens up the way to long-term employment as a teacher” (Weber et al.,
2016, p. 261).8
When it comes to alternative avenues into the teaching profession, the terms used
continue to be as heterogeneous as the specific designs of the various entry routes
and qualification programmes. However, there are four distinct, main forms of
alternative access to the teaching profession in Germany: direct entry, lateral entry,
“classic career jumping” and “qualified career jumping” (Puderbach et al., 2016)9.
Direct entry is used when people who have completed neither a teacher training
degree nor teaching practice are employed as teachers without this being linked to
systematic qualification programmes and subsequently passing a state examination
(Korneck & Lamprecht, 2010; Puderbach et al., 2016). Lateral entry is used when
people without a teaching degree earn their qualification on the job after being
hired. The entry requirement for this is usually a university degree relevant for at
least one teaching subject. The qualification measures vary considerably in scope,
content and formal qualification (e.g. Postl et al., 2005; Weber et al., 2016). Career
jumpers are understood to be people who complete the teaching practice phase
without previously completing a teaching degree and so enter the second phase
of teacher training without going through the first phase. The teaching degree is
usually replaced by a degree in a subject area related to at least one teaching subject. This means that career jumpers and lateral entrants generally have specialist
knowledge, but little to no knowledge of educational science and didactics.
8 Original reference: „Quereinsteigende sind Referendarinnen und Referendare, die kein
erstes Staatsexamen oder einen äquivalenten Abschluss eines Lehramtsstudiums mitbringen, aber nach Absolvieren des Vorbereitungsdienstes die Zweite Staatsprüfung ablegen.
Seiteneinsteigende sind Personen, die ohne Lehramtsabschluss in den Schuldienst
eingestellt werden und berufsbegleitend eine pädagogische Zusatzausbildung erhalten,
deren Abschluss ihnen den Weg in eine dauerhafte Beschäftigung im Schuldienst eröffnet.“
9 Original reference: „Wenn es um alternative Zugänge zum Lehrerberuf geht, ist die Beg-
riffsverwendung nach wie vor ebenso heterogen wie die konkrete Ausgestaltung der verschiedenen Einstiegswege und Qualifizierungsprogramme. Für Deutschland lassen sich
nichtsdestotrotz im Wesentlichen vier Formen des alternativen Zugangs zum Lehrerberuf
unterscheiden: Direkteinstieg, Seiteneinstieg, ‚klassischer Quereinstieg‘ und ‚qualifizierter
Quereinstieg‘.“
12
A. Gehrmann
3Empirical Findings: Training Concepts, Work
Experience and Career Orientations of Career
Jumpers and Lateral Entrants
3.1Lack of Comparability—Lack of Mutual Recognition
Although career jumpers and lateral entrants are now an integral part of covering the teacher shortage in Germany, access to the profession and training for it
are not uniform and are certainly not systematically comparable. Similar to the
standards of teacher training for a teaching degree, there are no standards and uniform accreditation for alternative routes into the profession, meaning that reciprocal recognition of training courses and comparability of qualifications cannot be
assumed. Basically, the training courses are not designed to be comparable; they
quite specifically target a shortage situation in a given Federal State that wants
to cover its replacement needs ad hoc. The qualifications are not designed for
mutual recognition either, as the intention is for second career teachers to remain
in the Federal State, and maybe even to be available immediately.
A new attempt at definition is hardly made easier in this respect. Although the
terms are somewhat standardised with regard to career jumping and lateral entry
(Driesner & Arndt, 2020, p. 420), it remains unclear who is heading for training courses with which prerequisites, whether the training courses are actually
passed, what goes on in them, where they are rolled out and with whom in terms
of content and how successful they ultimately are. Empirical comparisons with
traditional study are almost non-existent. There is a lack of evaluated projects,
apart from that of the Free State of Saxony, where a qualification project was
started early on at TU Dresden (Melzer et al., 2014) and this was consolidated
under the name BQL.10
Basically, there is a lack of systematic empirical data on the conditions for the
success of training and the self-assessments of competence development in each
Federal State. As there has been a lack of descriptive empirical data on the teaching profession in Germany across the Federal States for years, there are also no
samples that can be used to compare the professional practice of career jumpers
and lateral entrants with that of trained teachers.
10 Ger. Berufsbegleitende Qualifizierung von Lehrkräften (BQL), Eng. on-the-job teacher
qualification.
Lateral Entry and Career Jumping …
13
Nevertheless, descriptive findings on career jumpers and lateral entrants can
be drawn from a wide range of contexts: career jumpers and lateral entrants are
extremely heterogeneous. Typically, their work experience, education and family constellations differ significantly from those of regular student for a teaching
degree. They are older, have usually already worked in another profession and
often have their own children (e.g. Melzer et al., 2014). They often also have particularly extensive or particularly relevant previous pedagogical experience (e.g.
Lamprecht, 2011). Multiple studies (e.g. Engelage, 2013) suggest that previous
pedagogical experience positively impacts the ability of career jumpers or lateral
entrants to believe in their own abilities. In addition, Melzer et al. (2014) also
found evidence that, at the start of their qualification programme, career jumpers have more extensive pedagogical teaching knowledge than students in a university teacher training degree programme at the start of their studies. With their
existing professional and life experience, the assumption is that career jumpers
and lateral entrants will also bring skills with them that are helpful for teaching
and will enrich the schools concerned (Joller-Graf, 2000; Williams & Forgasz,
2009). Empirical evidence for the transfer of job-relevant skills from occupations
outside of schools to the teaching profession is still lacking, however (Engelage,
2013; Bressler & Rotter, 2018).
The available findings on skill levels and on the professional performance of
career jumpers and lateral entrants vary, which is no surprise given the large variety of qualification measures for these teachers (e.g. Keller-Schneider et al., 2016;
Bauer et al., 2017; Joller-Graf, 2000).
In contrast to the nationwide diffusion in terms of training courses and empirical data in the context of alternative routes into the profession, Saxony has
acquired a unique selling point in Germany with regard to alternative routes into
the profession because:
“[…] these people are [qualified] in such a way that any missing prerequisites are
offset and on-the-job teaching practice or equivalent is possible. The latter is particularly in line with the requirements of the KMK [...] and ensures the equivalence
of university teacher education and alternative training” (Driesner & Arndt, 2020,
p. 419).11
11 Original reference: „[…] diese Personen jedoch so (qualifiziert), dass fehlende Vorausset-
zungen ausgeglichen werden und ein berufsbegleitender Vorbereitungsdienst oder ein Äquivalent ermöglicht wird. Letzteres entspricht in besonderem Maße den Anforderungen der
KMK (…) und sichert die Gleichwertigkeit von grundständiger und alternativer Ausbildung.“
14
A. Gehrmann
In 2015, in view of the increasing demand for teachers in Saxony, the teaching
profession was opened up to interested parties who were not university educated,
and a qualification programme was launched. Although it was initially just a
very small group of roughly sixty people, this step marked the start of the largest
recruitment of non-university trained teachers at the time since German reunification in 1990. Now, more than 3,000 lateral entrants are working in schools in
Saxony; more than a third of them have completed the new forms of academic
post-qualification, and others are currently doing so or plan to do so in the future.
At TU Dresden, the ZLSB is responsible for the post-qualification of teachers and
operates under the name BQL, as mentioned above.
Programmes for academic training within the framework of lateral entry have
been organised at all the teacher training universities in Saxony (Dresden, Leipzig, Chemnitz) since 2017. The legal basis for this is the regulation from Saxony’s State Ministry of Education regarding the on-the-job qualification of teachers
at schools in the Free State of Saxony (teacher qualification regulation—LehrerQualiVO). The document regulates substitute qualifications for the university
training phase, taking into account the previous professional experience of the
teachers (Bárany et al., 2020).
TU Dresden offered more than 1,200 qualification places for lateral entrants in
the period from 2017–2026. By 2023, more than 200 teachers from every type of
school had passed the program, over 800 had started further training by the end
of the same year and were catching up on a first or second subject while working.
ZLSB organises and coordinates the training activities in the BQL project as part
of two work days in the teaching week of the teachers who continue to work at
schools. TU Dresden offers a subject structure specified by Saxony’s Ministry of
Education and provides corresponding modules for lateral entrants in the specified time structures and with a defined minimum number of credit points. At the
end of the training, the universities award a Transcript of Records, on the basis of
which the State Office of Schools and Education issues a certificate of qualification, thus granting university programme graduates the qualification to teach their
chosen subject.
3.2Work Experience
In 2019, the ZLSB conducted a representative survey (37% response rate)
on Professional Experiences and Beliefs of Teachers in Saxony (Schmechtig
et al., 2020) among 10% of the active teachers as part of the Teacher Training
Quality Campaign in Germany (Qualitätsoffensive Lehrerbildung des Bundes
Lateral Entry and Career Jumping …
15
und der Länder—QLB), while simultaneously collecting data on further training
participants as part of the BQL, meaning that in some contexts it is possible to
record both lateral entrants into teaching and those who go through the qualifications at university. Thus, it is possible to carefully relate data to each other and
evaluate.
All in all, the 2019 teacher survey indicates that lateral entrants have arrived
in Saxony’s schools and are filling in generational gaps. Overall, 65.3% of the
total sample of those surveyed were aged 50 and above, while that number was
14.9% in the lateral entrants group. 61.7% of the surveyed lateral entrants were
aged 30–39. This is also confirmed by the entrance surveys accumulated up until
October 2020 from the BQL project. On average, respondents were 38 years old
when they started their qualifications (SD 6.82 years).
Beyond the dissimilarity of the groups in terms of age, it is apparent that, even
with all the extra effort put in by teachers already working to supervise them—
regardless of whether they now work with them or not—there is no substantial
aversion to or rejection of the lateral entrants by established teachers, in terms of
their didactic tools for example. Only slightly more than 30% of the respondents
had any doubts here, and the lateral entrants themselves did not see any deficiencies in this regard (Fig. 2).
In the context of the teaching profession, it is always instructive to see how
satisfied teachers are with their choice of career over time and whether they
would choose it again if they had to make the choice again. In the BQL entrance
survey, the choice of career is quite clear and firm. On a scale of 1 (low) to 7
(high), 75% of the respondents indicated that they were very satisfied with their
decision (6 and 7 on the scale). Only 3% were below the median score of 3.5 (!).
The satisfaction scores do not sink over the course of time; they stayed the same
in the survey of teachers. Whereas 60.3% of the university-trained teachers would
make the same career choice again, this number is at 72.3% for lateral entrants in
Saxony (Fig. 3).
3.3Career Orientation
The participants of the BQL programme are in an extremely challenging situation. They generally started teaching in Saxon schools after only a short threemonth introductory training period and initially had to prove themselves as
temporary autodidacts when they went straight into day-to-day school life. In
addition to this load, the respondents then decided to participate in the BQL programme alongside their work, which brought with it further significant demands.
16
A. Gehrmann
What is your general opinion on the use of lateral entrants in Saxon schools?
Data in percent for "I fully agree" and "I agree"
2.1
...no suitability, as the didacc background is
missing
31.6
33.9
12.8
...too many routes into the teacher profession
lead to compeon between teachers
42.2
35.9
42.9
40.8
...good pay for lateral entrants is unfair
4.2
…a high percentage harms the social image of
the teacher profession
47
54.5
45.2
…help to keep the school running
95.7
58.3
49
…supervision causes extra work for trained
teachers
0
73.2
75.1
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
lateral entrants (n=47)
not working with lateral entrants (128<n>133)
working together with lateral entrants (417<n>430)
Fig. 2 Survey on the use of lateral entrants in Saxon schools. (Own graphic)
The fact that the vast majority of the respondents do not regret this decision is
shown by the findings of the job satisfaction survey.
Finally, it should be noted that another dataset was used in order to be able to
compare BQL lateral entrants and regular university students with each other in
surveys. It became apparent that there are clearly congruent ideas about becoming part of the profession. With regard to assessments of being a “born teacher”,
of needing to be child-focused or subject-focused for the job, and of the emphasis
on practical work as a special learning opportunity, there was only one significant difference between the groups: whereas the university students still attached
above-median importance to university studies, this value was below the median
among BQL participants. There is some logic to this, as the BQL participants
were all academically socialised in terms of subjects at university many years ago
without having aspired to become teachers. Now practising the profession everyday while participating in the BQL programme two days a week, or even so doing
Lateral Entry and Career Jumping …
17
If you had to choose a profession again, would you become a teacher again?
(Data in percent)
72.3
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
60.3
31
25.5
8.7
Yes, I would decide to become
a teacher again.
I am not sure.
university-trained teachers (n=748)
2.1
No, I would not decide to
become a teacher again.
lateral entrants (n=47)
Fig. 3 Aspects of career satisfaction. (Own graphic)12
without the programme, they think they could get by without specialised study if
the lack of subject-specific didactic components is abstracted (cf. Table 1.).
4Teacher Shortage as a Global Issue
A look towards Europe shows that the teacher shortage is not just a domestic
issue, but extends beyond Germany, and that the lack of forecasting and analytical
penetration of the issue seems to be systemic everywhere in terms of education
policy (Fig. 4). Here is an example of a statement in this regard in the context of
the European Union:
“Shortages can be particularly acute in specific subjects, such as science, technology, engineering and mathematics and foreign languages. It can also affect specific
geographical areas due to their remoteness, the socio-economic disadvantage of
some rural areas, the high costs of living in some urban areas or their conflictive
social environment. Many countries report both types of shortages as these can be
interlinked, i.e. shortages in some subjects affecting only specific areas of the country” (European Commission, 2021, p. 31).
12 This
difference in distribution remains even when the lower average age of lateral
entrants is taken into account.
18
A. Gehrmann
Table 1 Beliefs on the importance of university studies for the acquisition of skills
(1 = strongly disagree—7 = strongly agree) (own table)
BQL
University teacher
students
Winter semester
2019/20 (TU Dresden)
n
M
SD
n
M
SD
A good teacher were born to teach
699
4.15
1.705
705
4.37
1.552
You become a good teacher by
studying at university.*
692
4.93
1.446
699
3.91
1.387
You become a good teacher because 700
you enjoy working with children
2.1
1.214
701
1.79
0.914
You become a good teacher through 698
practical experience
1.95
1.183
707
1.65
0.755
You become a good teacher by learn- 697
ing from successes/failures in the
classroom
1.82
1.159
706
1.7
0.769
You become a good teacher by getting to know yourself better
694
2.22
1.230
705
2.25
1.050
You become a good teacher as an
expert in your subject
696
2.88
1.355
706
2.75
1.319
* Mann-Whitney U-Test p < .05
Fig. 4 Main challenges in teacher demand and supply in lower secondary education,
2019/20 (European Commission, 2021)
Lateral Entry and Career Jumping …
19
Internationally, the issue of teacher shortages and the associated alternative routes
into the teaching profession has been discussed for some time already and on a
broader scale (Ingersoll, 2001; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). The topic of Teacher
Shortage / Lateral Entry is accentuated in different ways and is discussed against
the backdrop of demographic changes (Japan), below-average recognition and
pay (Israel, Russia), a regional lack of training facilities or subjects offered (USA,
Scandinavia) or an overall lack of planning horizons with regard to subjects,
school types, regions (Jordan, South Africa) as revealed by the international contacts of TU Dresden’s ZLSB, among others (ZLSB, 2019; Gehrmann, 2023).
On the whole, alternative routes into the teaching profession are much more
common internationally because the profession is not designed for a lifetime.
What has been reduced to the concepts of “lateral entry” and “career jumping”
in Germany has a completely different connotation in other countries and is not
devalued from the start when it comes to training. In Argentina, this kind of qualification is called a “2nd degree programme”, in the USA it is “alternative certification”, in Japan it is known as “re-qualification”, in Jordan “evening studies”,
a “Post-Graduate Certification in Education—PGCE” in Israel and South Africa,
“Two Years Graduate School of Qualification” in South Korea, and simply “retraining” in other countries (Gehrmann, 2023).
Whereas in Germany lateral entry and career jumping are defined chiefly by
deviation from the regular two-phase teacher training system, the focus in other
countries is on the fact that the people in question are taking up teaching as a
second profession. Swiss literature usually speaks of career changers (e.g. Bauer
et al., 2017) or teachers taking a second educational route (e.g. Joller-Graf, 2000;
Kappler, 2016). Anglo-American and Australian literature usually refers to such
persons as second career teachers (e.g. Tigchelaar et al., 2010) and career changers (e.g. Richardson & Watt, 2005).
5Conclusion and Outlook
According to reliable forecasts, there will be a shortage of between 80,000 and
150,000 teachers in Germany in 2030. This means a predicted deficit of between
10 and 20% of the number of required teachers based on the current population. This does not take into account that students drop out, transfer or even fail
completely at universities and on their teacher training programmes; even in the
second phase of teacher training, not everyone reaches the goal for various reasons. As a rule, the costs and benefits in terms of revenue are not calculated at all,
which would be inconceivable in the private sector.
20
A. Gehrmann
The potential career jumper programmes and lateral entry programmes in Germany are still declared as “special measures”, even though they have long since
supplemented university training, their graduates have arrived in schools and do
not operate in the ways that are falsely attributed to them; namely that they do not
fulfil their tasks, cause de-professionalisation and are tolerated as an add-on to
that which is already established.
As there is no systematic, empirical observation of the benefits and returns
of the career jumper and lateral entry programmes, only individual case studies
provide information about what the programmes can achieve. There are no significant descriptive findings on career jumping, i.e. the training route with direct
entry into the teaching practice phase. Lateral entry programmes, which lead to a
shortened teaching practice phase and professional recognition via professional
activity and include continued education in a university context, are already
somewhat better studied.
Both programmes aim to recruit capable and suitable individuals for the teaching profession in shortage areas of school types and subjects immediately or with
a short delay in the immediate filling of positions, and to not leave career changers to sink unaccompanied in additional study programmes trying to navigate
established university training, as is the case with many of the university-trained
potential teachers.
In the context of collective ageing among colleagues, lateral entrants and
career jumpers are contributing to a closing of a generational gap when many
older colleagues gradually retire and many young colleagues suddenly join the
school. Lastly, we are dealing with a population here that will be just under
40 years old on average after entering the workforce and finishing their training,
and is therefore in no danger of going off course in the fast lane of life while
looking for a partner, starting a family and simply being a parent, and nor do they
have to think about immediately dropping out again because the decision, once
taken, is rarely revised because it is made much more consciously than it perhaps
is in regular students.
The example of the Federal State of Saxony showed that, in the context of a
legally secured further education programme, it is possible to produce “second
career teachers” who hardly differ from university-trained students and colleagues. The programme is demanding, but it opens up a second route into
teacher training at university, in which the participants are transferred to a university setting for two days a week for two years, thus exposing all participants
to permanent communication between theory and practice. The associated tension cannot be resolved by alternating between periods of theory and practice,
as in the regular university teacher training structure, because theory and practice
Lateral Entry and Career Jumping …
21
cannot be cumulatively built up and reflected upon in a temporalised manner in
the potential knowledge of the second phase of teacher training.
In summary, it can be said that demand for teachers will always be cyclical.
However, it remains unclear what will be needed over the course of time to meet
the demand for replacements. But in view of this lack of knowledge and these
experiences with career jumping and lateral entry, it is important to not just roll
out career jumper and lateral entrant university programmes as temporary special measures at universities, but to think of them as a continuous task within the
established organisational structure and to integrate them as in other countries. It
must be taken into account that the established structures are already having difficulties to comply with their training nature when shrinkage and drop-outs can
account for more than 50%.
Overall, it can be said that it is not just in Germany that the teacher shortage
has opened up a “second route” into schools. Regular university teacher training
is no longer the only or best route into teaching. Training for and in the teaching profession are well established beyond universities. In the long run, however,
they could account for a not inconsiderable amount of university capacity if they
became aware of this function. If this does not happen, more questions will certainly be asked about the conditions of success in university teacher training, and
training situations outside of the first phase will spread, be that in an expanding
second phase, a potential further training market, which might be penetrated by
private providers who can calculate costs and benefits and adapt their content
to the needs of the market, as in other training contexts. This would open a new
chapter in the history of teacher training in Germany.
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The Teacher Shortage in England:
Policy Initiatives, Initial Teacher
Training and the Early Career Teacher
Hazel Bryan and Jayne Price
1Introduction
There are 21,733 state funded schools in England, of which 388 are Nursery
Schools, 16,670 are Primary Schools, 3,316 are Secondary Schools, 1,024 are
Special Schools and 335 offer Alternative Provision including academy alternative provision, free school alternative provision and Pupil Referral Units (PRUs)
(DfE, 2021a). The Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and
Skills (OfSTED) inspects all state funded provision on a four yearly cycle, grading provision as ‘Outstanding’, ‘Good’, ‘Requires Improvement’ or ‘Inadequate’.
The latest inspection findings from March 2021 across all state funded schools
show that OfSTED graded 86% of all provision as ‘Outstanding’ or ‘Good’ with a
breakdown of provision by age phase as follows: Nursery (98%); Primary (88%);
Secondary (76%); Special Schools (90%); Alternative Provision (85%) (DfE,
2021a). This profile suggests that state funded schools, according to OfSTED criteria, are providing highly satisfactory educational experiences for pupils. And
yet, these statistics conceal a long-standing problem in the state funded sector,
where a crisis in teacher supply arguably diminishes the quotidian experiences
of pupils and teachers in schools. This lacuna in teacher supply has been an issue
for decades; successive governments have sought to both identify and address the
problem through a litany of policy initiatives, but still the issues persist.
H. Bryan · J. Price (*)
University of Huddersfield, Huddersfield, UK
e-mail: h.bryan@hud.ac.uk
J. Price
e-mail: j.price@hud.ac.uk
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_2
27
28
H. Bryan and J. Price
In this chapter we interrogate the multi-faceted and inter-related nature of the
teacher supply shortage in England. The chapter firstly sets out the issues that
have long hindered teacher recruitment and retention, including Government
initiatives designed to counter these phenomena. In this we analyse the problem
of shortage in some regions across England, in some subjects and in some age
phases (Ovenden-Hope & Passy, 2019), as well as considering issues in relation
to Black and minority ethnic teacher shortage, male teacher shortage, working
conditions and pay. Secondly, we present and critique the most current Government initiatives designed to address these issues, namely the Teacher Recruitment
and Retention Strategy (2019a) including the Early Career Framework (ECF)
(DfE, 2019b).
2The Teacher Supply Model
In England, the Department for Education (DfE) uses the Teacher Supply Model
(TSM) to determine the overall number of postgraduate trainees required in both
subject areas and age phases one year in advance. This methodology is based
on projected pupil numbers, changes introduced by Government to the curriculum and other relevant variables. Factored in to this statistical modelling are the
number of new teachers entering the profession, teacher attrition, the numbers of
teachers returning to the state sector following a break in service, qualified teachers who have previously taught in the private sector but who are new to the state
sector and numbers of Newly Qualified Teachers (NQTs). Allocations to Initial
Teacher Training (ITT) providers are based on the TSM, and allocations are calculated to exceed the numbers required on an annual basis in order to accommodate the fact that some trainees do not begin their training, some withdraw
during their course and, on completion, some enter the private sector or chose
not to teach. Periodically there are changes to the TSM where fixed allocations
are given for some courses (such as, in 2019–20, undergraduate, Early Years and
some physical education courses) and unlimited recruitment to other ITT courses
(Foster, 2018, p. 9).
Despite this statistical annual modelling, teacher shortages persist. Some
42,830 full time equivalent qualified teachers left the state-funded sector in the
12 months to November 2017, and in this same year a greater number of teachers left the profession than joined. In 2015, 22% of newly qualified teachers were
not teaching in the state-funded sector two years later. By 2017, 33% of those
The Teacher Shortage in England: Policy Initiatives …
29
who had trained 5 years earlier had left the profession and just 1 year later, in
2018, 40% of those who had trained 10 years earlier had left the profession (DfE,
2018a).
The retention of early career teachers is of particular concern. Increasing numbers of pupils have outpaced teacher recruitment and there is a projected 15% rise
in the number of secondary pupils between 2018–2025. Whereas recruitment to
ITT was within target between 2006–2007 and 2011–2012, it has subsequently
been below target (Foster, 2018). The latest figures published in 2020 show that
80.5% remained in service after 2 years of qualifying and 68.6% after 5 years of
teaching.
From an economic perspective, the labour market in England is performing
relatively strongly with employment rates recorded at 75.5% (1.1 percentage
point lower than pre-coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic rates, but recovering
(Office for National Statistics, 2021). This labour market data is relevant in a discussion of teacher supply and shortage as teacher supply trends demonstrate that
a strong labour market attracts potential trainee teachers away from education
(DfE, 2019a).
The very latest data indicate that these long-standing teacher supply challenges are re-emerging due to the resurgent labour market after the Covid pandemic (Worth & Faulkner-Ellis, 2021). In addition to the usual recruitment
shortfall in recruitment of trainees for STEM subjects and languages, there are
early indications that secondary subjects that traditionally recruit well, such as
art, biology, English, geography, and religious education, will also miss recruitment targets in the current recruitment cycle. They suggest that other contributing factors might be that average teacher pay has dropped between 7–9% in real
terms since 2010/2011 and that despite significant effort to reduce working hours
for teachers, they remain significantly higher than similar professionals during term time. In 2020/21 55% of teachers would have preferred to work shorter
hours compared with 40% of other professionals. While the proposals to increase
the starting salaries for teachers may have a positive impact on retention of teachers in the early years of teaching, the proposed flattening of the pay structure
may result in more experienced teachers deciding to leave. Furthermore, Worth
and Faulkner-Ellis (2021) warn that schools’ capacity to mentor trainees is under
strain due to the mentoring requirements of the new Early Career Framework (see
Chap. 9 below) as well as concerns that headteachers have about the burden of
the role on school staff who are coping with the consequences of the pandemic.
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3Subject Shortages
A shortage of teachers in some subject areas has long been an issue in England.
In 1986 the Department for Education and Science (DES) described three categories of teacher shortage, namely:
1. Overt: measured by the physical vacancies in subject
2. Hidden: relating to the quality of provision in any given subject. If a teacher is
unsuitably qualified to teach a subject or ‘lacks the necessary personal qualities
to enable them to function effectively’
3. Suppressed: where a subject is under-represented in the school curriculum
(although this will have subsequently been addressed by the introduction of the
National Curriculum as part of the Education Reform Act 1988) (DES, 1986)
Indeed, as far back as 1982 the Cockcroft Report noted a particular shortage of
teachers of mathematics (Cockcroft, 1982, para. 619). Straker’s research in 1988
analysed numbers of mathematics graduates, how many mathematics graduates
industry would need and the pool of possible graduates of mathematics who
may consider a career in teaching. He found the projected shortage a matter of
national priority predicting a “continual problem into the foreseeable future”
(Straker, 1988, p. 38). Research by Sims for the Gatsby Foundation in 2017 found
that there is still a significant shortage of mathematics, science (especially physics), modern foreign languages and computer science teachers and more recently,
Worth and van den Brade (2019) have indicated a shortage in mathematics, chemistry, modern foreign languages and physics teachers.
In order to address the shortage of teachers in some subjects, the DfE has
introduced bursaries and scholarships. The bursary is variable, depending on the
degree classification of the trainee and the level of shortage of the subject. For
example, in 2018–19, a trainee with a first-class degree in physics attracted a bursary of £26,000 whereas a trainee with a first- class degree in history attracted a
bursary of £9,000 (Foster, 2018, p. 17). Some routes into teaching, such as School
Direct (salaried) and Teach First, offer a salary during the training period. However, the Higher Education Policy Institute (HEPI) questioned this policy, suggesting that trainees may train simply to receive the bursary and then not enter
teaching (HEPI, 2017). Instead, HEPI suggested the introduction of ‘forgivable
fees’ for those who “remain in teaching for a number of years and perform to a
high standard” (HEPI, 2017, p. 107). Nevertheless, subject shortages remain.
The Teacher Shortage in England: Policy Initiatives …
31
4Pay and Conditions
At the turn of the new Millennium, the then Prime Minister, Tony Blair, stated
that he would make teaching “the most prestigious profession in the country attracting the brightest and best trainees” (speech to London Headteachers,
23 November 2000). However, Webb et al. subsequently undertook a comparative study of teacher shortage in primary schools in England and Finland. Their
research highlighted “work intensification, low pay, deteriorating pupil behaviour
and a decline in public respect” (2011, p. 169). Clearly, by 2011 teaching had not
become ‘the most prestigious profession in the country’ although Webb et found
positive factors included “commitment to children, professional freedom and supportive colleagues” (2011, p. 169). Pay and working conditions have blighted the
profession; as Cockburn & Haydn noted, “there has been insufficient understanding of teachers as people with lives, aspirations and an abundance of fine qualities—and the situations in which they work” (Cockburn & Haydn, 2004, p. ix).
Teacher workload is most often cited as the main reason cited for teachers leaving the profession (DfE, 2019a). In the TALIS (2018) survey, teachers in England
were found to work longer hours than almost all other countries included in the
research. The stresses of the job for those teachers who work in schools with less
positive cultures, such as with poor behaviour management, a micro-management
culture or with excessive data collection, is also seen as being significant to the
rate of teacher attrition (DfE, 2019a).
In 2018 the DfE report into the school workforce in England found that many
teachers were leaving full time teaching posts to take up flexible or part time
work; the Report notes that 28% of female teachers work part time compared
to 40% of women in the wider workforce and 8% of men work part time compared to 12% in the wider workforce (DfE, 2018a). The way in which a lack of
part time flexible teaching opportunities and how this affects teacher attrition has
also been highlighted by the DfE in the 2019 Recruitment and Retention Strategy
report (DfE, 2019a).
A negative school culture has also been found to influence teachers leaving the
profession; research has shown that teachers are leaving the profession for less
well-paid jobs and for a better work-life balance (Worth et al., 2015).
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5Schools in Disadvantaged and Isolated Areas
The recruitment and retention of teachers in areas of rural, coastal or geographic
isolation are particularly challenging, where there are issues of access to public
transport, high cost of housing, long journeys to and from school, cultural isolation and a lack of employment opportunities for teachers’ partners (OvendenHope and Passy, 2020). This also impacts subject expertise; in schools in areas
outside London with high levels of disadvantage, only 37% of the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) mathematics teachers hold a mathematics
degree (Sibieta, 2018). And of particular concern is the high turnover of teachers in disadvantaged areas where schools are unable to attract subject specialists
(DfE, 2016).
6Male Recruitment
Recruitment of male teachers to education has been identified as a problem for
decades. As far back as 2002 the then Teacher Training Agency (TTA) was seeking to increase male recruitment to teacher training, in particular, in the primary
sector. The TTA undertook an advertising campaign to attract male teachers,
offered targeted mentoring and attractive training bursaries. Interestingly, the TTA
also set new targets on male recruitment for ITT institutions (Carrington & Skelton, 2003). The then Secretary of State for Education and Employment, Sir David
Blunkett, also became involved in the issue of male recruitment to teaching suggesting that “this underachievement is linked to a laddish culture which in many
areas has grown out of deprivation, and a lack of both self-confidence and opportunity” (Blunkett, 2000).
Carrington and Skelton (2003) suggest that a culture of laddism is unlikely
to be addressed if policy makers determine that the recruitment of young men
would in and of itself address this; ‘matching’ or ‘role theory’ is too simplistic a
response, they argue, and discussion at institutional levels in schools is needed
to bring about an inclusive profession. Cushman (2007) also found that positive
gender discrimination in terms of recruitment might be helpful but that this trend
would not be reversed if serious attention were not given at institutional level.
The Teacher Shortage in England: Policy Initiatives …
33
7The Recruitment of Black and Minority Ethnic
Teachers
The lack of Black and minority ethnic teachers in England has long been of concern; in 1985 Swann argued that there was need for greater numbers of minority
ethnic teachers to reflect numbers of minority ethnic pupils in schools in England
(Swann, 1985). This issue particularly came to the fore following the race riots
in 2001 in Oldham, Bradford and Burnley, three towns in the north of England.
The subsequent Cantle Report (2001) found a lack of community cohesion and a
loss of faith in the project of multiculturalism. By 2003, and in light of the riots in
the north of England, the TTA was seeking to encourage minority ethnic teacher
recruitment, once again setting ITT providers targets for recruitment (Maylor,
2009).
It has been argued that a shortage of minority ethnic teachers results in a misrepresentation of society (DfEE, 1998; Home Office, 2005). However, Carrington
and Skelton (2003) argue that the depressed education performance of British
African Caribbean and Bangladeshi children will not necessarily be addressed by
‘matching’ or ‘role theory’ in terms of gender or ethnicity. Maylor, too, is careful
to note that being a Black or minority ethnic teacher does not automatically qualify one to be a role model for others, suggesting that ‘ethnic and gender matching’ in teaching is too simplistic an approach‘ (2009, p. 21).
8Career Change Initiatives
In recent years there have been a small number of initiatives, spearheaded by
Government, to attract experienced professionals into education. The ‘Troops to
Teachers’ initiative was designed to fast-track military veterans into education.
Supported by the then Coalition Government, the initiative was conceived as a
means by which discipline could be improved in schools, and a means by which
standards of achievement and the status of teaching could be raised (DfE, 2010).
The Troops to Teachers programme was replaced in 2018 by a new initiative
which offers £40,000 to ex-service personnel to train to teach. The then Secretary
of State for Education, the Right Honorable Damian Hinds MP, commented:
“Our ex-servicemen and women—who have already contributed so much to our
country—have a wealth of experience and expertise that can be shared in the classroom, teaching pupils the knowledge they need to succeed alongside vital skills,
such as leadership and self-discipline” (DfE, 2018b).
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H. Bryan and J. Price
In a joint statement with Hinds, the then Defence Secretary (later, Secretary of
State for Education) the Right Honorable Sir Gavin Williamson commented:
“Our incredible troops have unrivalled life experiences and world-class skills that
will motivate and inspire a generation of children in classrooms across the country”
(DfE, 2018c).
Other initiatives designed to attract career changers into teaching include ‘Now
Teach’ (nowteach.org.uk), an organisation that seeks to attract an ‘older generation’ of professionals who have enjoyed successful careers and who now wish to
bring their ‘wisdom and real-world experience’ to the classroom.
Similarly, the ‘Teach First’ programme (teachfirst.org.uk), orginally designed
to appeal to new graduates has been charged by Government with attracting experienced professionals who may be considering a career change by offering a salary throughout the training period.
A third initiative to attract career changers and supported by Government is
the ‘Transition to Teach’ programme (T2T) that again, provides particular support
to enable mature, experienced professionals to train as teachers mid-career (transitiontoteach.co.uk).
In Part One above, we have discussed the long standing and unresolved issues
relating to teacher shortage in England; they are multifaceted, interrelated and in
some areas, intersectional. In Part Two below we take a ‘deep dive’ into the new
and rather different Government policy initiative designed to address, in particular, teacher retention. In launching this initiative, the Government is seeking to
make teaching a far more attractive profession and career choice for both new
graduates and those considering a change of career.
9A New Approach to Teacher Recruitment
and Retention
The ‘Teacher Recruitment and Retention Strategy’ (DfE, 2019a), launched by
Secretary of State for Education, the Rt Hon. Damian Hinds MP, is designed to
address the deep-seated issues relating to teacher recruitment and retention set out
in Part One above. This is a highly authoritative strategy, jointly supported by:
• Association of School and College Leaders (ASCL)
• National Education Union (NEU)
• Education Endowment Fund (EEF)
The Teacher Shortage in England: Policy Initiatives …
•
•
•
•
•
35
Confederation of School Trusts
National Governance Association (NGA)
Chartered College of Teachers
Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills (OfSTED)
National Association of Head Teachers (NAHT)
The Teacher Recruitment and Retention Strategy (DfE, 2019a) identifies four key
barriers to the recruitment and retention of teachers in England, namely: excessive workloads for teachers; a lack of high-quality support for newly qualified
teachers during the early stages of their career; a lack of employment flexibility and opportunities for professional development for experienced teachers who
wish to remain in the classroom; and the fact that the process of becoming a
teacher is recognised as too complicated and cumbersome. The following sections
consider and critique the steps the Government has made, and intends to make, to
resolve these issues.
10Developing Supportive School Cultures
The DfE states that they recognise that school cultures make the biggest different to teacher retention (DfE, 2019a). However, the performative culture developed in England through the successive implementation of a range of high stakes
accountability measures as well as the punitive OfSTED inspection regime has
led to a high-pressure environment and the implementation of practices which
lead to excessive workloads for teachers in some schools. Perryman and Calvert
(2020) suggest that schools have been increasingly preoccupied with policies of
achievement and have introduced of a plethora of strategies aimed at improving
results, leading to the reality of teaching being worse than expected for recently
qualified teachers. Their data indicated the following reasons: to ‘improve work
life balance’, ‘workload’, ‘target driven culture’, ‘teaching making me ill’, ‘government initiatives’ and ‘lack of support from management’, as the most cited
for early career teachers withdrawing from the profession, suggesting that whilst
reducing workload is key, changing the culture of teaching should also be considered.
The DfE (2019a) state that processes such as burdensome data collection
practices, time consuming lesson planning and marking policies, and excessive
monitoring and reporting of pupil performance against targets and predictions are
‘unintended consequences’ of their accountability system. As a consequence, the
DfE has pledged to reduce teacher workload by simplifying the ­accountability
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H. Bryan and J. Price
system and by ensuring that OfSTED consider how headteachers have taken steps
to reduce workload as part of their judgement about leadership and management.
The DfE also propose a period of stability for the sector by committing to not
make any further changes to the National Curriculum, to statutory tests for primary schools or to GCSE and A levels for the remainder of the parliamentary
term. The DfE accepted the recommendations of the Making Data Work Report
(Allen, 2018) in full, which made a number of recommendations for the DfE, for
OfSTED and for schools based on the following principles:
• The purpose and use of data should be clear, relevant to the intended audience
and in line with school values and aims.
• The precision and limitations of data, and what can be inferred from it, must
be well understood.
• The amount of data collected and the frequency with which it is collected
should be proportionate.
• School and Trust leaders should review processes for both collecting data and
for making use of the data once gathered (Allen, 2018, p. 25).
Within the strategy, the DfE has pledged to support headteachers to build more
positive cultures in schools by removing some performance measures that
would have previously triggered intervention. Instead, an OfSTED judgement of
‘requires improvement’ is now the only measure that triggers an offer of support,
and only an Ofsted judgement of ‘inadequate’ can trigger formal intervention.
In addition, the DfE completed a whole scale review of the Teaching Schools
initiative and existing system leadership designations in order to strengthen
school improvement support. As a consequence, eighty-seven Teaching School
Hubs have been designated as centres of excellence for teacher training and
development. In addition, and building on the ‘Creating a School Culture’ report
(Bennett, 2017), the DfE has also designated schools and Multi Academy Trusts
across the sector with exemplary behaviour practices as Behaviour Hubs, that
can offer funded, tailored and flexible support to schools that want and need to
improve pupil behaviour.
Reducing workload has also been highlighted as an area of focus for Initial
Teacher Training providers. The DfE (2018c) recognised that ITT providers
should play an integral part in the effort to reduce workload in three ways: reducing workload for trainees by embedding principles of efficient marking, planning
and data management into training; establishing good habits in trainees by teaching effective time management and resilience strategies; and by fostering culture
The Teacher Shortage in England: Policy Initiatives …
37
change to help tackle workload. This has led to changes in providers’ training
curricula, the monitoring and assessment trainee progress, the tasks trainees are
asked to complete in school, and to academic assignments. Consideration of
workload is now part of the judgement of leadership in Ofsted inspections of Initial Teacher Training providers.
Support for Teachers through the Early Stages of their Career
The second barrier identified in the Recruitment and Retention Strategy (DfE
2019a) is the lack of support for newly qualified teachers during the very early
stages of their career. The strategy document outlined plans to introduce the Early
Career Framework which is a fully funded two-year programme of structured
support for newly qualified teachers (NQTs). The programme was piloted in four
geographical regions in England in 2020 before the national roll out in September
2021. ECTs have support from a dedicated school-based mentor for which the
school receives funding on the basis of 36 h of support over two years; they are
entitled to 10% off timetable in their first year and 5% in their second year for
induction activities including training and mentoring, as well as having progress
reviews with formal assessments against the Teachers’ Standards (DfE, 2011) at
the end of the first and second year of induction.
The Early Career Framework (DfE, 2019b) outlines the knowledge, skills and
understanding that early career teachers should develop during their induction
period, focusing on five key areas of behaviour management, pedagogy, curriculum, assessment, and professional behaviours. The Framework is organised into
two types of content; the ‘Learn that’ statements outline the core knowledge that
should be developed in each of the five areas and the ‘Learn how’ statements outline the skills the early career teacher should be supported to develop. In addition,
the Framework outlines the range of research evidence that supports the content
in each area. The Framework underpins the training programmes for early career
teachers which have been developed by six National Providers accredited by the
DfE who then engage a range of Delivery Partners, the vast majority of which are
Teaching School Hubs or Multi Academy Trusts to deliver the programmes at a
local level.
The development of the Early Career Framework (DfE, 2019b) was the catalyst for a revision and development of the Core Content Framework (DfE,
2019c) for Initial Teacher Training which outlines the minimum content entitlement for all trainees and places a duty on all providers to implement it from
September 2020. The CCF follows the same format of the Early Career Framework with ‘Learn that’ and ‘Learn how’ statements and content identified in the
same five areas of behaviour management, pedagogy, curriculum, assessment,
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H. Bryan and J. Price
and ­professional behaviours. The DfE make clear that the ‘Learn that’ statements
are deliberately the same in both documents ‘because the full entitlement across
initial teacher training and early career development is underpinned by the evidence of what makes great teaching’ (DfE, 2019c, p. 4). However, this has been
significantly and professionally critiqued (Hallahan, 2022). The content of the
frameworks and the underpinning evidence have been independently assessed
and endorsed by the Education Endowment Foundation, which is an independent charity, initially set up in 2010 by the then Secretary of State for Education
Michael Gove, with an initial DfE grant of £125 million, to raise attainment and
close the disadvantage gap. The Foundation does this by summarising and making recommendations based on the best available evidence of practices which
improve teaching and learning, funding projects to generate new evidence and
working in partnership with a network of Research Schools to support teachers to
understand and apply the evidence in the classroom.
11Opportunities for Professional Development
The third barrier, particularly to the retention of teachers is the lack of opportunities for experienced teachers. This is manifest in a lack of progression opportunities for teachers who want to stay in the classroom, a lack of incentives for
experienced teachers to stay in schools where their expertise is needed most, and
in the lack of flexible working opportunities in schools to support those returning to work. In addition to the reform of existing National Professional Qualifications (NPQs) supporting leadership pathways, the DfE (2019a) outlined their
intent to develop NPQs to support specialisms and professional knowledge in the
core areas of practice outlined in the CCF and the ECF. They also pledged to fund
the NPQs disproportionately in favour of schools in challenging circumstances to
encourage teachers to stay in schools where there is most need.
The following qualifications have been developed:
• Leading Teacher Development—for teachers who have, or are aspiring to
have, responsibilities for leading the development of other teachers in their
school
• Leading Teaching—for teachers who have, or are aspiring to have, responsibilities for leading teaching in a subject, year group, key stage or phase
• Leading Behaviour and Culture—for teachers who have, or are aspiring to
have, responsibilities for leading behaviour or supporting pupil wellbeing in
their school
The Teacher Shortage in England: Policy Initiatives …
39
• Leading Literacy—for teachers who have, or are aspiring to have, responsibilities for leading literacy across a school, year group, key stage or phase
Reformed leadership NPQs:
• Senior Leadership—for school leaders who are, or are aspiring to be, a senior
leader with cross-school responsibilities
• Headship—for school leaders who are, or are aspiring to be, a headteacher or
head of school with responsibility for leading a school
• Executive Leadership—for school leaders who are, or are aspiring to be, an
executive headteacher or have a school trust CEO role with responsibility for
leading several schools
With an additional leadership qualification for those working in Early Years:
• Early Years Leadership—for leaders qualified to at least level 3 with a full and
relevant qualification who are, or are aspiring to be
– managers of private, voluntary and independent nurseries
– headteachers of school-based or maintained nurseries
– childminders with leadership responsibilities
The reforms are intended to create a ‘golden thread’ of professional development
to support teachers throughout their career, further supporting cultural change in
schools (DfE, 2021b). See Fig. 1 below:
England’s teacher development system
Who?
Trainee teacher
Early Career
Teacher
Experienced
teachers and middle
leaders
Senior leaders, head
teachers and
executive leaders
What?
Initial Teacher
Training (ITT)
Early Career
Support
Specialist
development
Leadership
development
Via
ITT Core
Content
Framework
Early Career
Framework
Specialist National
Professional
Qualifications
(NPQs)
Leadership National
Professional
Qualifications
(NPQs)
(ECF)
Fig. 1 England’s teacher development system (DfE, 2021b, p. 11)
40
H. Bryan and J. Price
12Initial Teacher Training
The DfE (DfE, 2019a) also suggested that the process to become a trainee teacher
creates a fourth barrier to the recruitment and retention of teachers. Different
routes into teaching have increased over recent years, increasing complexity for
potential applicants. In 2017/2018, 150,000 people registered their interest in
becoming a teacher, but only 45,000 applied. With over 1000 organisations delivering ITT there was clearly a need for a more efficient and effective application
process. The DfE have introduced a new one stop application system for all postgraduate initial teacher training.
The Recruitment and Retention Strategy also set out plans to review the ITT
market to identify improvements that reduce costs for providers and explore how
the DfE could encourage high quality providers to extend their reach and deliver
at scale. The subsequent ITT Market Review was completed in 2021 and has led
to a new set of Quality Requirements for Initial Teacher Training providers and
the removal of existing accreditation for all current providers. All organisations
who aim to provide initial teacher education from September 2024 have to apply
for new accreditation. At the time of writing providers are still awaiting notification of the accreditation outcomes. However, the new programmes will be highly
regulated and monitored, and providers’ autonomy is expected to be curtailed.
The new quality criteria are underpinned by a defined approach to initial teacher
education underpinned by DfE approved research evidence (DfE, 2020; EEF,
2021; Deans for Impact, 2017; OfSTED, 2020).
To meet the criteria, training programmes must be well sequenced. In
recognition that trainees are novice teachers, programmes should include
effective prioritisation of content throughout, and build knowledge and understanding cumulatively). Programmes should develop trainees’ teaching through
direct instruction, modelling, rehearsal and actionable feedback. Examples of this
might be:
• In a centre-based training session in mathematics, the tutor explains how
to teach children to use a ruler. The tutor models how to do this, carefully
unpicking the steps taken to secure learners’ understanding. Trainees then
script their own explanation, before rehearsing these in groups of 3, with
peer feedback. The trainees repeat their explanation, based on the feedback
received. The tutor monitors the process, intervening if necessary and gathering information for the debrief, which includes highlighting any misconceptions and providing feedback, drawing on successful examples and
highlighting any areas for further development.
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41
• In a school based coaching session to support a trainee in establishing routines in the classroom, the mentor demonstrates and deconstructs 3 or 4 classroom routines mandated by the school’s behaviour and/or teaching policy. The
trainee develops a script for one routine that they will implement in a lesson.
The trainee rehearses this with the mentor and the mentor provides feedback.
They agree action steps to support the trainee in implementing the routine in
their teaching. The mentor and trainee reflect on progress in the next review of
progress meeting.
Programmes should be designed to motivate trainees through target setting, providing affirmation and reinforcement after progress and by presenting information from credible sources (EEF, 2021). These approaches are already well
embedded in university programmes, and a localised example from the University
of Huddersfield School of Education and Professional Development Department
for Initial Teacher Education is exemplified below:
• A weekly review of progress meeting between the mentor and trainee provides
an opportunity to reflect on and celebrate success and identify action steps for
the following week.
• A link tutor visit and observation during each placement provides a further
opportunity to reflect on progress and celebrate success.
• During the year, trainees develop an electronic portfolio which demonstrates
the progress that they are making; this is reviewed and commented upon regularly by the link tutor.
• At the end of each placement, the mentor completes their review, focusing on
strengths and the progress made during the placement.
• The link tutor and trainee then meet for a viva, where the trainees reflect on
their learning and achievements during the placement, drawing on their portfolio evidence. The trainee and link tutor then agree targets for the next placement.
• Afterwards, the link tutor provides a summary of the viva1 which celebrates all
the trainee’s achievements so far.
In order to meet the accreditation requirements, there must be a strong alignment
between centre based and school-based training in order to provide a coherent
1 This means an oral exam.
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H. Bryan and J. Price
experience for trainees. Communication between all stakeholders will be key to
avoid contradictory guidance from tutors and mentors. It is important that coaching is linked to well defined goals that are cognisant of managing cognitive load;
the aim is to motivate trainees through goal setting and reinforcement after progress.
The documentation suggests that novice teachers cannot learn effectively by
observing or copying more experienced others; high quality coaching needs to
support trainees’ learning through direct instruction, deconstruction of practice,
modelling, explanations, and scaffolds and well as opportunities for rehearsal and
practice). For example, coaching sequences may include:
• A deconstruction of practice, where the mentor selects the most appropriate
strategy from below depending on the focus of the coaching:
– Share and explain—the mentor explains the rationale behind an artefact
such as a policy or a curriculum plan.
– Demonstrate and deconstruct—the trainee completes a guided observation
of the mentor
– Discuss and analyse—the mentor and trainee observe another teacher
together; this is an opportunity for ‘live coaching’ where the mentor narrates the effective delivery of a focused target area
– Observe and feedback- the mentor observes the trainee teaching and provides feedback and specific targets
• Scripting—drawing on the discussion, the mentor supports the trainee to plan
or script the way that they will implement the strategy.
• Rehearsal—this is an opportunity for the trainee to practise the strategy in a
low-risk environment, either with the mentor, with peers, with a small group
of children, through team teaching, or by teaching a part of a lesson.
• Agree Action steps—the mentor and trainee agree how they will put their
learning into practice in their teaching.
Mentors will need to build a relationship of trust and mutual respect with the
trainee and to tailor their conversations to the individual (DfE, 2020). Over the
course of the year, they will be encouraged to adapt to be less directive, to start to
reduce scaffolding and support the trainees to become more self-reflective as they
become more confident and autonomous in the classroom.
This then is the detail of the proposed approach to ITT and the new Early
Career Framework that is being enacted in schools in England. Coupled with
these initiatives is the career-long approach to professional learning and development set out through the National Professional Qualifications.
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43
13Conclusion
Teacher recruitment and retention in England has long been the subject of
research, of policy initiatives and of localised attempts to attract teachers to the
profession. Wide ranging and deep-seated changes are afoot in relation to both
Initial Teacher Education and support for early career teachers in order to attend
to significant issues of attrition. It remains to be seen whether these initiatives
will compound intensification of workload for both the early career teacher and
mentors in schools. It also remains to be seen how the evolution of a school-based
model of ITT will play out following the accreditation process, and where and
how issues of academic freedom and the place of the university within new models of partnership, are negotiated.
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Swiss Education System, Teacher
Training and Teacher Shortage
Manuela Keller-Schneider and Salome Schneider Boye
1Introduction
The shortage of qualified teachers is also of concern for education policy in Switzerland. Various open vacancies for the next school year are still to fill in several
cantons (for example in the canton of Zurich [VSA, 2023a]) two months before
the end of the school year. Teachers are sought in a variety of ways in a matter
of great urgency. Retired teachers are brought back to schools, part-time employees are asked to increase their working hours, teacher students are recruited and
teachers without a teaching qualification are brought into teaching. Speculation
regarding the reasons for teacher shortage are based on unclear evidence and
fed by myths. According to these myths, the profession is labelled unattractive,
overwork is said to be the reason for teacher quitting the profession, beginning
teachers are said to be trained insufficiently and that teachers who “only” work
part-time will exacerbate the problem, but facts are missing.
Numerous factors might contribute to teacher shortage, but the increase of
numbers in school-age children simultaneously to retirements of the baby-boomer
generation is the essential issue, as evidenced by publications of the Federal Statistical Office (BFS, 2022a, b, c), statistics from individual cantons (VSA, 2022),
the education reports by the Swiss Coordination Centre for Research in Education
M. Keller-Schneider (*) · S. Schneider Boye
Zurich University of Teacher Education, Zürich, Switzerland
e-mail: m.keller-schneider@phzh.ch
S. Schneider Boye
e-mail: s.schneiderboye@phzh.ch
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_3
47
48
M. Keller-Schneider and S. Schneider Boye
(SKBF, 2018, 2023) and a survey with graduating students from the Zurich University of Teacher Education (Stühlinger, 2022). Demographic factors have long
been obvious as a reason for teacher shortage, but there is little evidence which
other factors could contribute, as our extensive research has shown (Schneider
Boye & Keller-Schneider, 2023).
After an overview of the Swiss education system (Chap. 2) and the structure
of teacher education (Chap. 3), we go into detail about facts of teacher shortage
(Chap. 4) as well as the efforts taken to solve this problem (Chap. 5). In the last
chapter (Chap. 6) we give an insight into studies with possible factors affecting
teacher shortage and finish the article with a conclusion (Chap. 7).
2Overview of the Swiss Education System
There are currently around 9 million people residing in Switzerland. The country covers an area of 21,300 km2 and is divided into 26 cantons. The country
is ­sectioned into four linguistic regions (German, French, Italian and RhaetoRomanic). Due to the numerous spoken Swiss-German dialects, all children in
the German-speaking part of Switzerland are required to learn Standard High
German (SHG) in speaking and writing starting in kindergarten. The political system with direct democracy requires referendums not only for elections, but for
laws and legislative changes as well. In addition, there is also the option to launch
initiatives and referendums as part of participation in the political system. Referendums are held at federal, cantonal, and municipal levels. National results are
valid if they are accepted not only by popular votes but also by the majority of
cantons.
Cantons are autonomous in matters of education; the committee of the Swiss
Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education (EDK), an assembly of the cantonal education ministers, formulate recommendations, but cannot set standards. However, the Federal Constitution obliges the cantons to collaborate with
the Confederation to ensure a high level of quality and permeability in the Swiss
education system, and to standardise important goals and structures throughout
the country. One of the instruments for achieving this constitutional goal are the
common educational policy objectives, which the Confederation and cantons set
in a coordinated manner (SKBF, 2023). Until the education reform HarmoS to
harmonise the cantonal systems in 2007, disparities existed not only in structure,
but also in aspects such as the duration of compulsory schooling, school entry
age, commencement of the school year, and even in content areas like the weighting of subjects, content, and teaching materials. For instance, there was a lack of
Swiss Education System, Teacher Training and Teacher Shortage
49
consensus on whether a second national language or English should be taught as
the first or second foreign language, and the grade at which this should start.
In the 2006 federal referendum, which was preceded by cantonal referendums,
the constitutional mandate given to the cantons (Article 62 of the Federal Constitution) to standardise their cantonal education systems regarding the duration
and objectives of the levels of education (Keller-Schneider, 2019a, overview) was
agreed upon. In the 2007 HarmoS Agreement (intercantonal agreement on the
standardisation of compulsory education), basic parameters and prime goals for
compulsory education were set by the participating cantons. However, the cantons remain responsible for design and implementation. The objectives are set in
cantonal curricula in accordance with a jointly agreed structure of levels (called
cycles). The teaching of foreign languages has been regulated and the school
entry age was set. The current structure of the Swiss education system is as follows (SKBF, 2023):
After two years of pre-primary level (part of compulsory education; pre-primary teachers are trained at a University of Teacher Education, curriculum on
the pre-primary educational objectives), children enter primary level at age six
for six years. These eight school years are divided into two cycles of four years
each, which guide the curricula. After another three years of lower secondary
level (cycle 3), the compulsory education of 11 years in total is completed. After
compulsory education, most students start a three-year or four-year vocational
apprenticeship. It’s also possible to pursue a vocational baccalaureate alongside
the four-year apprenticeship. Some students start Fachmittelschule, an upper secondary level specialised school (based on the grade average and/or passing an
entrance examination) and acquire a Federal Specialist Baccalaureate after four
years. Approximately 20% of the students attend Gymnasium (high school) (with
half entering in lower secondary) after passing their entrance exams. They graduate after three (or six years) with the Federal Baccalaureate (Matura) that serves
as the university entrance qualification.
At tertiary level, students with a Federal Baccalaureate qualify for courses
at University, including Federal Institutes of Technology (ETH, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule) and Universities of Teacher Education (PH, Pädagogische Hochschule). Graduates of the Fachmittelschule (FMS) can study at
a University of Applied Sciences or at a University of Teacher Education. After
completing a vocational apprenticeship with a Federal Vocational Baccalaureate
(optional, additional achievement), there are the options to enter a University of
Applied Sciences or, after a bridging course and a successful admission procedure, a University of Teacher Education. Professionals holding a Federal Diploma
50
M. Keller-Schneider and S. Schneider Boye
of Vocational Education (EFZ, Eidgenössisches Fähigkeitszeugnis) may prepare
for an entrance exam to one of the higher education institutions at tertiary level.
Due to the high permeability of education pathways, the Swiss education system offers a wide range of education tracks. In times of teacher shortage, discussions repeatedly revolve around expanding admission to the University of Teacher
Education (admission without examination after FMS, admission to the entrance
examination with EFZ, admission by portfolio) in order to attract new groups of
students. The impact of broadening admission criteria and lowering standards and
potentially diminishing educational quality, needs to be observed in the upcoming years. Research questions such as whether this would lead to a higher rate of
failed bachelor’s and master’s exams, and whether those admitted through alternative admission are up to the demands can be addressed.
3Teacher Education in Switzerland
Swiss teacher education has always been structured single-phased with integrated
practical training in cooperating school. Teachers enter their careers fully qualified after graduation. Since the founding of the Universities of Teacher Education
in 2000–2003 and the structuring of teacher education according to the Bologna
process (Bachelor and Master), teacher education is set at tertiary level in all cantons. Before the Bologna process, some cantons offered teacher training in upper
secondary level. In these cases, the teaching diploma served as a cantonal highschool certificate and enabled admission to University. This historical context
explains why a high school diploma wasn’t a prerequisite for studying at a University of Teacher Education in all cantons, and why certain cantons advocate for
broad admission to the University of Teacher Education.
There are a total of 15 Universities of Teacher Education in Switzerland, 10
of them located in the German-speaking part of Switzerland, two in the Frenchspeaking part and one in the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino (SKBF, 2023). In
the cantons of Fribourg and Valais, the University of Teacher Education operates
in two languages, BEJUNE (the University of Teacher Education of the cantons
Bern [a part of it], Jura and Neuchâtel) offers a bilingual program of teacher
education. Various cantons formed jointed Universities of Teacher Education
(BEJUNE and FHNW). Other cantons don’t have a University of Teacher Education and send their teacher students to Universities of Teacher Education in other
cantons (the respective cantons are required to fund a university place for their
students).
Swiss Education System, Teacher Training and Teacher Shortage
51
The Swiss Universities of Teacher Education offer programs for the following
levels:
• Entry level program to teach the first four years: kindergarten (grades minus
2 and minus 1) to grade 2: leads to a bachelor’s degree and teaching qualification for pre-primary and the first two primary school levels. All subjects are
studied so that they are able to teach across all subjects.
• In the primary level program (six school years: grades 1 to 6), a slightly
reduced number of subjects are studied (seven in the Canton of Zurich): mandatory subjects for everyone are German, mathematics, sciences and one foreign language; three additional subjects are chosen from the range of sports,
art, music, a second foreign language, textiles or design and technology. At
primary level, the teaching qualification is obtained at Bachelor level (as it is
for entry level) and enables teaching in the first six grade levels.
• The lower secondary level program (for the last three compulsory school
years, grades 7 to 9) is completed with a Master’s degree. At Zurich UTE four
subjects are studied: mathematics or German, a foreign language or a branch
of science, two additional subjects from the range of sports, art, textiles or
design and technology, music, a second foreign language, home economics.
• Teachers for vocational education are mainly trained at Universities of
Teacher Education.
• Teachers for the upper secondary level (Gymnasium) start a 60 ECTS teacher
training program after or parallel to their subject-related Master’s degree at
University. A teaching certificate can be pursued at the same time while working as a teacher (for the first six years).
Swiss teacher education for teachers for compulsory school is structured as a
single-phase program. The curriculum for the primary school level includes
about one-third dedicated equally to educational sciences, subject-specific didactics, and practical training in specific schools. For lower secondary level teachers, there are additional courses for subject specific sciences. Practicums are
integrated into the curriculum, fostering collaboration between the University
of Teacher Education and school environments. Theory-involving content and
impulses and school-based practice experiences, inputs and reflections can hence
be interweaved to gain insights for future professional activities (Keller-Schneider, 2020a).
52
M. Keller-Schneider and S. Schneider Boye
After successfully qualifying as a teacher, teachers apply for open positions.
They enter the teaching profession as fully qualified teachers. The majority works
as class teachers. Teachers teach the subjects they are trained for, but due to the
current teacher shortage, some teachers teach subjects they have not studied.
Post-qualification programs to acquire an additional teaching qualification for
other subjects or to teach other school levels are offered at the Universities of
Teacher Education.
All Universities of Teacher Education offer induction programs for fully qualitied teachers (on pre-primary, primary and lower secondary level) in their career
entry stage. Teacher induction programs cover the first part of further education
for all professionals. The induction programs vary at the different Universities
of Teacher Education in mandatory and voluntary elements and in their duration
(a year or two) (Keller-Schneider, 2019d; Vögeli-Mantovani, 2011). They aim to
integrate beginning teachers at their local school, enhance education in this specific career phase, tackle career-specific challenges and promote an understanding
that professional development continues throughout the whole career (Schneuwly,
1996). Courses with topics specific to the career entry stage (such as developing a class culture, assessment, reports, dealing with challenging students, parent evenings, students’ transitions to the next levels, handling one’s own resources
as a teacher, and self-management). Some of the programs start with a planning
week before the school year starts, some of them offer counselling and coaching
in groups or individually throughout the year.
Since the 1970s, teacher education has been extended beyond the period of
basic teacher training focuses on all career phases (Müller, 1975). This means
that further education for qualified teachers follows the basic training for teacher
students. In addition to mandatory courses for all teachers, such as introducing
new teaching materials, content, or subjects, individual or in-school courses are
offered (see Fig. 1). Since the founding of Universities of Teacher Education, further education is a part of the university’s four-fold mandate (education, further
education, research, services). The further education options offered at the Universities of Teacher Education can be categorized into core-area deepening, proficiency enhancement through additional skills, specialization for additional roles,
and qualification for leadership positions, as the analysis of the courses at four
Universities of Teacher Education (Lucerne, Bern, Zurich, and Fachhochschule
Nordschweiz) shows (Keller-Schneider et al., 2020).
Swiss Education System, Teacher Training and Teacher Shortage
Inial educaon
Inducon
Further educaon
Focus on
teaching and
learning
Career start as
Inial teacher
a beginning
educaon
53
Specific
profiles
Specialicaon
teacher
Alternave programs
for second career
Restart
Further educaon
teachers
Educaon
in other fields
of educaon
Fig. 1 Teacher education and further education in Switzerland (Keller-Schneider et al.,
2020)
4Facts About the Predicted Teacher Shortage
The shortage of qualified teachers in Switzerland is not a recent phenomenon.
Instead, this has been evident since the middle of the 19th century, characterized
by a cyclical oscillation between shortages and surpluses (Criblez, 2017; Hodel,
2005). Structural changes in the 1970s, such as extending compulsory education,
reducing the number of students per class, increased educational participation and
an economic-related migration of teachers from education to the business sector, amplified the demand for teachers during that time (Criblez, 2014). Later, the
shift in school entry age due to the HarmoS Agreement (a standardisation of education systems agreed on by the cantons, Chap. 2) led to larger cohorts and thus
to an increased for teachers. Currently, demographic factors, such as the growth
in population and the retirement wave of the baby-boomer generation (SKBF,
2023), are particularly significant for teacher shortage.
A variety of efforts have been taken to address the shortage. New teacher collages were opened in the 1960s and 1970s (Criblez, 2017). However, despite a
30% increase in student numbers since 2010 (SKBF, 2023), the increased demand
cannot be met (SKBF, 2023). Alternative education programs were developed for
professionals to enter the teaching profession as a second career. In addition, certain subjects are taught by teachers without formal training in those subjects. To
fill vacant positions and ensure the functioning of schools, individuals without
teaching diplomas have recently been hired on a temporary basis, often with special permissions granted by the cantons.
54
M. Keller-Schneider and S. Schneider Boye
The Swiss Education Report 2018 (SKBF, 2018, p. 251) predicted the current
shortage of qualified teachers. Nationally, only half of the increased demands in
Switzerland were to meet by newly qualified teachers. All regions in Switzerland
were to be affected by this, but to different extents. The key causes identified
were the rising population and the retirement of teachers from the baby-boomer
generation (SKBF, 2018, p. 251). Currently (SKBF, 2023, p. 289) it is evident
that teacher shortage is affecting all school levels.
By 2031, the number of students is expected to rise by 8% at primary level
and by 9% at secondary level, with large differences between the cantons (BFS,
2022a). In the canton of Zurich, an increase of 12% is expected (VSA, 2022).
The additional demand for around 6% more teachers corresponds to a demand
for 3,800 primary and 2,300 secondary teachers. Taking numerous factors into
account, the Federal Statistical Office (BFS, 2022a) predicts that 43,000–47,000
new primary school teachers and 26,000–29,000 new secondary school teachers
will be needed from 2022 to 2031. A slight decline is expected in 2031. Compared to 2022, this decline would amount to 1% at primary level and 14% at secondary level (BFS, 2022a).
The Universities of Teacher Education are expected to issue a total of around
34,000 teaching qualifications for primary level (no details for secondary level),
so 3,800 teaching qualifications per year for primary level teachers and 1,300 for
lower secondary level teachers. This requires an annual increase of 24% for primary and 32% for secondary level (BFS, 2022a, p. 7). Despite the 30% increase
in admissions to Universities of Teacher Education since 2010 (SKBF, 2023,
p. 291), the demand for teachers cannot be met.
Various variables (increased teacher student numbers, increased workload,
teacher mobility between cantons) contribute to the projected demand caused by
the growing number of students. Efforts like acquiring teacher students as teachers, hiring retired teachers, and recruiting people without a teaching qualification help to fill the gap (SKBF, 2018, p. 251). The extent to which these solutions
are viable solutions to the increased demand for teachers, or whether new problems will be created by increasing the number of students per class, the teachers’
workloads or including unqualified people in the teaching profession, will only
become apparent in the long term. Possible negative scenarios feared by teacher
associations are a decrease in quality of education and an increase in social problems among students, health consequences and diminished commitment among
stakeholders or a deprofessionalization of the teaching profession.
Swiss Education System, Teacher Training and Teacher Shortage
55
5Potential Factors Contributing to the Teacher
Shortage
5.1The Social Image of Teachers
Status
The reputation of Swiss teachers has improved since 2013 (Status Index: 2013
at 23.78, 2018 at 43/100) and ranks mid-field compared to other countries (22nd
place out of 35) (Dolton & Marcenaro-Gutierrez, 2013; Dolton & She, 2018).
Teachers are trusted averagely by public (13th place out of 25 countries) (moneyland. CH, 2022). A majority of respondents have fond memories of their teachers
(LCH, 2005).
Salary
In international comparison, teacher salaries in Switzerland are considered high
(Dolton & She, 2018), however it’s debatable whether they can be deemed high
compared to other higher education professions in Switzerland (Cattaneo &
Wolter, 2016). When compared to other professions the entry-level salary is set
above average of Universities and Universities of Applied Sciences graduates.
Entry-level salaries for University degrees in medicine and business are at similar
level, salaries from Universities of Applied Sciences graduates are lower (SKBF,
2023, p. 217). After five years, teachers’ salaries align with the average, while
those in the field of economy, law, and medicine remain higher.
Career opportunities
The level of attractiveness of the teaching profession compared to other careers
is a much-debated topic. There are opportunities for further development in the
teaching profession, but career opportunities are described as flat (European
Union 2021, p. 18) since the role is mostly the same throughout the entire career
and minimal changes in hierarchical position are possible. In most of the cantons, there is a mandatory requirement to undertake further education that covers
approximately 5% of the annual workload (EDK, 2023). The further education
programs offered by the Universities of Teacher Education and financed by the
schools can be divided into various fields with specific goals and can be used for
individual and school-based development (Keller-Schneider et al., 2020; Chap. 3).
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M. Keller-Schneider and S. Schneider Boye
5.2Professional Factors
Turnover in the teaching profession
The turnover rate of Swiss primary school teachers was 9% in 2009 according to
the Federal Statistical Office, and 8.4% in 2014 (BFS, 2014). Compared to a turnover rate of 18.2% for all professions in 2011 (BFS, 2012), the teaching profession
rate is lower. Due to the lack of education policy options up to 2013, the turnover
could only be recorded as a total. No conclusions could be drawn on the reasons
and the goals of contract terminations. It wasn’t possible to distinguish between a
school location change, a change of workload or a temporary break. The Federal
Statistical Office stated that terminating a contract with a specific school cannot be
equated with leaving the profession (BFS, 2022b; Keller-Schneider, 2019b, c).
An analysis of motives of contract terminations in the canton of Zurich (Keller-Schneider, 2019b, 2019c) shows that the decision is mostly associated with a
school location change, change workload or job function, or the contract termination is used as a break for travel or for family care. Some of them terminate
their contract because of moving to another region of Switzerland. Only 3% of
the statements indicate an intention to leave the profession when terminating the
contract with a specific school. Other findings obtained by a questionnaire show
that quitting teachers’ perceived stress and perceived demands due to professional
requirements do not significantly differ from those who don’t terminate the contract, and no differences based on career phases were identified.
It is possible to monitor the mobility of teacher by social security number for
the last ten years (since 2013). Long-term statistics on teacher turnover (BFS,
2022c) following these social security number, show that teachers who terminate their contract change schools and take up an employment at another school.
Sometimes, there is a break between employments.
The Swiss Education Report (SKBF, 2023, p. 291) shows that after five years
90% of those under 55 years are still in the teaching profession, 6% are engaged
in another employment and 4% are not employed. 61% of those who do not
immediately take up a new job and 70% of women who resign due to maternity return to school within four years (BFS, 2022b); to what extent other people return to teaching later on remains uncertain. The proportion of terminations
due to age is expected to decrease over the next 10 years for demographic reasons
(SKBF, 2023, p. 292), as the baby-boomer generation will have retired by then.
These results demonstrate (SKBF, 2023) that the duration of stay in the teaching profession in Switzerland is high. There are no differences between teachers in different career stages. There is also no evidence that they are leaving the
Swiss Education System, Teacher Training and Teacher Shortage
57
p­ rofession when they terminate a contract and quit their job in a specific school.
No if-then patterns were identified between the reasons for terminating a contract
and post-notice goals. Numerous combinations of reasons and objectives were
identified (Keller-Schneider, 2011).
Turnover of staff leads to additional costs and possible loss of specific qualities for schools (Hanushek et al., 2016). Therefore, an increase in job satisfaction, organisational commitment and the length of time spent in a specific school
is sought (Sandmeier & Mühlhaus, 2020). However, numerous studies show that
satisfaction can exist independently of perceived stress (Bieri, 2006; Gehrmann,
2013; Keller-Schneider, 2023) and that high perceived subjective stress due to
subjectively important requirements can also increase satisfaction as a teacher
(Keller-Schneider, 2020b). The subjectively attributed justification and legitimation is particularly crucial for the individual experience of stress (Semmer et al.,
2015).
Part-time employment
The current average employment rate of teachers is around 65%, with a majority
females, numbers still increasing (SKBF, 2023, p. 292). One third of the maximum possible potential of qualified teachers is therefore not used (SKBF, 2023).
Less than 30% of the teachers work full-time, around 25% work less than 50%.
There are cultural, structural, and institutional differences between the cantons.
Despite the shortage of teachers, the extent of employment (average percentage)
has not changed (SKBF, 2023, p. 293).
5.3Institutional Factors of Teacher Education
Admission to the University of Teacher Education
Universities of Teacher Education register a 30% increase in enrolment for
teacher education since 2010 (SKBF, 2023, p. 291). A high school certificate
(Matura), a passed supplementary examination (bridging course), a specialist baccalaureate in education (FMS) or vocational baccalaureate (BMS) with
an additional assessment, as well as the verification of any proof of equivalence
are required for enrolment (Criblez & Quiring, 2020). Furthermore, admissions
by portfolio are possible, supplemented by a highly selective assessment (Bieri
Buschor & Schuler Braunschweig, 2018). As a result, students at Universities of
Teacher Education have greater heterogeneity in their upper secondary level education background than students at Universities (SKBF, 2023, p. 301).
58
M. Keller-Schneider and S. Schneider Boye
Currently, the proportion of primary level teacher students with a high
school certificate (Matura) comprises around 40% compared to 60% ten years
ago (SKBF, 2023). In the meantime, the ratio between high school certificate
(Matura) and other admissions has reversed, whereby there are clear differences
between the cantons due to different cantonal admission practices. According to
PISA achievements, teacher students with a high school certificate (Matura) perform better than those with a vocational baccalaureate (BMS). Teacher Students
with a specialist baccalaureate in education (FMS) achieve the lowest scores
(SKBF, 2023, p. 303). Whether the opening-up of admissions contributes to solve
the teacher shortage or rather exacerbates it by shifting candidates from higher to
lower admission criteria needs be examined.
Study success
87% of students admitted to a University of Teacher Education successfully
complete their studies and acquire a teaching qualification for a specific level of
compulsory education (SKBF, 2023, p. 291). 91% of the newly qualified teachers enter the teaching profession and continue to work as teachers. More newly
qualified teachers enter the profession since the prolonged teacher training programs with 3 years for pre-primary and primary teachers (qualification at Bachelor level) and 4.5 years for secondary level teachers (Master’s degree) (Herzog
et al., 2007).
Employment of student teachers as teachers
At primary level, around 14% of the student teachers across Switzerland are
employed as teachers on a regular basis, at secondary level the percentage is
around 40%. On both levels, around 50% work as teacher occasionally. Employment is done on top of their studies at University. Student teachers in alternative
programs of teacher education with a designated second training part on-the-job
are not included in this percentages (SKBF, 2023).
In a survey with graduate students at Zurich University of Teacher Education, 84% of students say they are employed, 88% of them as a teacher (36% of
them with a workload of at least 50%), the remaining 12% are engaged in other
employments. Employment of secondary level student teachers are significantly
higher than for pre-primary and primary level student teachers (Stühlinger, 2022).
These statistics demonstrate that many student teachers already work as teachers
while studying teacher education. Therefore, some of the upcoming newly qualified teachers’ potential is already used up in the field.
Swiss Education System, Teacher Training and Teacher Shortage
59
5.4Biographical Career Paths as Possible Critical
Points
Choice of education programs and career decision motives
The teaching profession is among the 10 preferred professions for 15-year-old
females; among 21-year-olds, it is found among the top 10 desirable careers
choices for both male and female (Kriesi & Basler, 2020). There is less interest
in the teaching profession among upper secondary level male than female (Berweger et al., 2015). Career ambition to be a teacher is much stronger among
women (Kappler et al., 2014). There are significantly more female teachers than
male ones at pre-primary and primary level females represent over 95%, with an
upward trend (BFS, 2022b).
Studies on career choice motives show that aspiring Swiss teachers demonstrate profound intrinsic motives. The motives to work with children and to contribute to society are the most important ones (Keller-Schneider et al., 2018;
König et al., 2013). These intrinsic motives are followed by extrinsic motives,
such as job security and the possibility to combine work and family duties.
Extrinsic motives are presumably shaped by contextual differences in employment policy factors. The job security motive is more pronounced among German student teachers than among Swiss ones (Keller-Schneider et al., 2018).
Good opportunities on the job market as a motive (Kappler, 2013) is represented
stronger among Swiss male student teachers, than among females. Findings
from a longitudinal study on career choice motives by student teachers show
that intrinsic, work-related motives increase during teacher education, based on
a single-phase program with integrated elements of preservice teaching, while
altruistic and biographical motives weaken (Keller-Schneider, 2019d ). Choosing
teacher education as stopgap due to a lack of motivation for other professions is
very low. It can be assumed that by prolonging teacher education to 3 or 4.5 years
in the years 2000–2003, the choice to study teaching as a stopgap is no longer of
interest, contrary to the past.
The overview of career choice motives shows that teacher students choose
a teacher education program for job-related reasons and that the motives are
focused on the future tasks as a teacher.
Transition from education to work
The percentage of newly qualified student teachers entering the profession from a
University of Teacher Education is higher than with another university degree or
a degree from a University of Applied Sciences. Overall, 97% of newly qualified
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M. Keller-Schneider and S. Schneider Boye
teachers in Switzerland enter the teaching profession; this is a significant increase
compared to 2005 (83%). In Switzerland, 50% of beginning teachers work with a
workload of 90–100%, 39.7% work 50–89%, 9.7% below 50% (BFS, 2019). 17%
of primary and secondary beginning teachers report that they have not found a
full-time employment despite their wishes (BFS, 2019).
According to a survey of student teachers shortly before graduation Zurich
University of Teacher Education (over 600, response rate 51%) (Stühlinger,
2022), 81% of the respondents found an employment as a teacher (64% in permanent employment, 17% in a temporary position), 13% were still looking for a
job, 3% were not looking for a job at that time and 3% were in an individual situation. 77% were to work at least 70% and 44% at least 90%. 65% of graduating
teachers will teach their aspired workload, but 35% wished for a higher workload.
Beginning teachers work with high workloads, but the potential is not fully used.
65% choose to work part-time for reasons as less stress when starting their career,
40% want to have time for other activities, 21% need time off for family duties
and 16% to complete their studies. Some beginning teachers choose temporary
employments to still be eligible to travel (63%), to get to know different schools
(42%) or to remain flexible (44%). 83% of beginning teachers will work as class
teachers, 17% in other roles. The potential of newly qualified teachers appears to
have been largely exploited (Stühlinger, 2022).
Employment in the first two years as fully qualified teachers (career entry)
A wide-ranging study on the perceived requirements and contributing factors
of beginning teachers (Keller-Schneider, 2010, 2021) shows that the majority
of beginning teachers manage to cope well with the professional requirements.
Compared to student teachers and experienced teachers, beginning teachers perceive themselves slightly but significantly less competent. The increasing complexity of professional requirements leads to irritations. Teacher induction
programs (Keller-Schneider, 2009, 2019e; Vögeli-Mantovani, 2011), as offered
by the University of Teacher Education (Chap. 3 and Fig. 1), and by colleagues at
schools, create opportunities to use social resources and allow to progress in further professionalisation to cope with the professional requirements.
The career entry phase is often described as a stressful and challenging time,
often illustrated by reports of individuals in the media. Findings of a study on
perceived professional requirements by Swiss, German and Austrian beginning
teachers identify no differences in perceived stress between beginning and experienced teachers (Keller-Schneider, 2010; Keller-Schneider et al., 2019, 2023).
Individual (Keller-Schneider, 2010, 2021, 2023) and contextual factors (BakerDoyle, 2012; Thomas et al., 2019) affect the perceived requirements and one’s
coping.
Swiss Education System, Teacher Training and Teacher Shortage
61
Resigning beginning teachers, who terminate the contract, do not differ in
aspects of perceived stress or in their job satisfaction from staying beginning
teachers. They don’t differ from experienced teacher either (Keller-Schneider,
2019b, c). These findings refute the often claimed and media-propagated statement that beginning teachers being overwhelmed terminate their contract and
leave the profession. Contract termination and switching schools and/or positions
allow teachers to shape their professional career and to pursue different positions
in schools due to changing goals.
Subjective stress and job satisfaction
Stress and job satisfaction, identified as independent emotional experiences
(Bieri, 2006; Gehrmann, 2013; Keller-Schneider, 2023), are determined by
numerous individual (Keller-Schneider, 2010), institutional (Sandmeier & Mühlhaus, 2020) and social factors (Thomas et al., 2019). A high level of commitment is accompanied by a high level of satisfaction if the commitment is effective
(Toropova et al., 2021) and focused on subjectively relevant requirements (KellerSchneider, 2020b). High commitment becomes problematic and pose a health risk
when the workload cannot be self-regulated (Sandmeier et al., 2022) and when
recognition is lacking (Semmer et al., 2015).
6Efforts to Address the Teacher Shortage
Teacher shortage in Switzerland is a recurring problem since the middle of the
19th century (Criblez, 2017; Hodel, 2005). New educational institutions were
founded in the 1970s to cope with the problem of teacher shortage. To compensate for the arising surplus in the 1980s, places to study teaching were reduced,
and the duration of teacher education was extended. However, the current demand
is significantly greater and cannot be met by increasing the number of places at
the University of Teacher Education. The development of alternative programs in
teacher education is not only necessary, but also a political mandate to address the
teacher shortage issue by attracting new segments of prospective teachers.
Due to the political mandate given to the Universities of Teacher Education
in 2010 to provide more teachers for schools, alternative teacher education programs were developed for people of at least 30 years holding a master’s degree
with professional experience. After two to four semesters of full-time study at the
Universities of Teacher Education a second on-the-job part with employment as a
teacher at the school for about 50% is required.
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M. Keller-Schneider and S. Schneider Boye
Alternative programs of teacher education were therefore designed and implemented in 2010. In early July 2010, the supporting cantons of the three largest
Universities of Teacher Education announced that they were developing alternative programs for professionals with a master’s degree. The education departments in the corresponding cantons were willing to implement teacher education
programs which did not comply with the recognition regulations of the EDK
(Swiss Conference of Cantonal Ministers of Education, Board of Cantonal Ministers of Education). This effort subsequently brought a corresponding change in
regulations. During this decision, Zurich University of Teacher Education, among
others, was asked to implement an alternative program as soon as possible, so that
around 100 student teachers were ready to be employed as teachers by summer
2011. Concepts for alternative programs of teacher education were devised during the summer holidays of 2010 and discussed with the minister of education.
Shortly after they were put in place by the communal administration, despite the
lack of alignment with the EDK recognition regulations, implementation was initiated.
These alternative programs of teacher education consist of two semesters
of full-time study followed by a four-semester on-the-job part. Student teachers enrolled in alternative programs of teacher education participate part-time
in courses at University for Teacher Education. At the same time, they work as
part-time teachers with a workload of around 50%. This arrangement limits the
complete loss of income to one year. Admission is granted to people aged 30 and
over with a degree and professional experience of at least three years. Professionals without a master’s degree need to undergo an additional assessment procedure
(Bieri Buschor & Schuler Braunschweig, 2018).
In addition to the regular alternative program of teacher education, a fast-track
program was developed after an intensive and short planning and negotiation
phase in 2010 for specific teacher students who had a degree and several years of
experience in a profession related to teaching. After six months of intensive training for primary teachers or one year of intensive training for teachers at lower
secondary level (full-time), the on-the-job part of the training followed in 2011.
Student teachers were employed in tandems, each teacher working 50% and in
addition to the courses at university. Because a 50% tandem-based employment was needed to complete the course, the Universities of Teacher Education
were faced with the task of finding suitable guaranteed open positions a year in
advance. This proved to be very difficult, as teacher work contracts only have a
three-month notice (and are mostly bound to the end of a school year). Therefore,
it was not possible to guarantee any open positions in advance. The fast-track program had to be abandoned due to the lack of EDK recognition and the difficulties
Swiss Education System, Teacher Training and Teacher Shortage
63
in securing employment for the on-the-job part of the training. But meanwhile,
the regular alternative programs of teacher education are well established and recognized as an equivalent education to the regular program of teacher education.
Bern University of Teacher Education offers a part-time teacher education
program combined with a part-time teacher induction program for primary level,
open to all student teachers. After two years of full-time study, it is possible to
extend the third year by a year and to work as a teacher (not more than 50%). A
very small group of around 20 student teachers is currently taking part in this program (Guidon et al., 2021).
To meet the current growing demand for teachers, 2022/2023 people without
a teaching qualification were hired to teach, in the canton of Zurich with limited one-year contracts (VSA, 2023b). School management was permitted to
decide how they intend to instate these people. Introduction weeks were offered
by Universities of Teacher Education during the summer holidays to help them
transition into their roles as teachers. At the start of the school year, these people
then joined the profession, with a reduced salary of 80% compared to a qualified teacher’s salary. Some of them teach specific subjects, some work as class
teachers, others as specialists or as special needs teachers. These teachers are
supported by their schools. At the same time, they are given the opportunity of
coaching at the University of Teacher Education. A special admission procedure
(by portfolio) was developed for these people to enter University of Teacher Education after an accounted successful year as a teacher. If they are assessed positively, they are able to start the regular program of teacher education to become a
qualified teacher.
Studies in Switzerland show that beginning teachers entering the profession
after an alternative program of teacher education do not differ in their perception
of professional requirements from beginning teachers after a regular teacher education program (Keller-Schneider et al., 2016; Loretz et al., 2017). Second career
beginning teachers profit from their previous professional experience to master the
challenges of the teaching profession (Bauer et al., 2017). But research is needed
on how individuals without a teaching qualification will fulfil the requirements of
the teaching profession and how they perceive the professional requirements.
7Conclusion
The lack of qualified teachers is an anticipated reality. The situation is not
expected to ease until 2031 at the earliest, taking numerous factors into account
(BFS, 2022a). The facts and findings collected in this article show that the scope
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M. Keller-Schneider and S. Schneider Boye
to alleviate the teacher shortage with the existing efforts is limited (Sandmeier, &
Herzog, 2022; Schneider Boye & Keller-Schneider, 2023).
Analyses conducted by the Federal Statistical Office (BFS, 2023) show that
a very large number of student teachers are entering the teaching profession.
Beginning teachers are working at high capacities. Overall, there is a low turnover among teachers in Switzerland. While an increase in duration spent at a specific school is important for that school, it does not affect the overall demand for
teachers, as it is only a shift but not an increase.
Efforts such as increasing the number of students per class would reduce the
demand for teachers. Increasing teachers’ workloads, especially those who want a
higher workload, could help to fill additional positions. The extent to which stress
related impacts on their health arise due to unwanted increases in their workload
(Sandmeier, Baeriswyl, Krause, & Mühlhausen, 2022) was not examined so far.
Unconventional solutions, such as reducing students’ class hours while
increasing teaching efficiency and introducing courses by specialists not qualified
in education, could also provide innovative ways to address the teacher shortage.
An intensified effort to attract more teacher students with a high-school certificate (Matura) could increase the proportion of these student teachers. The existing potential of possible candidates for teacher education could be recruited more
intensive.
The inclusion of student teachers in schools may help to reduce the teacher
shortage, at least in the short run. Nonetheless, being already in the teaching profession these people only represent limited additional potential after completing their education. Schools, however, have the opportunity to secure effective
and successful student teachers for future openings and therefore exploiting the
advantages on the job market. It must be examined to what extent the early entry
of student teachers promotes professionalisation by dealing with the complex professional requirements or whether there is a risk for deprofessionalisation, if student teachers ignore specific training elements due to already established beliefs,
stemming from their own teaching (Blömeke et al., 2008).
The work experience of student teachers entering the profession early could
offer Universities of Teacher Education the chance to modify specific teaching
approaches, incorporate their experience as student teachers and to take inductive
paths to ensure a better fit of the teaching to their beliefs and experiences. This
would enable meaningful changes in perspectives and attitudes of teacher educators.
Addressing the teacher shortage requires more study places at Universities of
Teacher Education, accompanied by an increase in funding. More lecturers and
seminar facilities are needed, as well as more partner schools, practical lecturers,
Swiss Education System, Teacher Training and Teacher Shortage
65
teacher trainers and internships. This means that schools are challenged as well,
they must increase their capacity for the practical education of student teachers as
well.
Further solutions need thorough evaluation, considering the potential effects
and unintended consequences. The quality of education for students, student
teachers, overall school quality, as well as the professionalism of the profession
and the well-being and commitment of teachers must all be kept in focus.
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Teacher Shortage in Sweden—School
Authorities’ Perception of the
Shortage and Possible Solutions
Lena Boström
1Introduction
Currently, a serious societal problem in Sweden is the shortage of educated
teachers, which is seen as a challenge by historical standards (Bertilsson, 2018).
This shortage coincides with a long period of declining status for the teaching
profession. The shortage of teachers is not new. Marklund (1966) stated that no
fourth teacher had the proper formal competence, specifically a general academic
degree. This has been a social problem since the 1970s (Sveriges officiella statistic, 1975) and has been accelerating for the past 45 years according to official
statistics. The imbalance between supply and demand for teachers is estimated
to have reached between 18% and 38% (Statistiska centralbyrån, 2017). Large
regional differences as well as large differences between occupational groups
have emerged. The major shortage of teachers is among grade 7–9 subject teachers and vocational teachers. The greatest recruitment needs in relation to the size
of today’s teaching staff are in Gotland, Västmanland, and Uppsala counties. The
proportion of qualified teachers is estimated at 72%, which means that many students are taught by staff who are not trained as teachers (Skolverket, 2021b).
However, the teacher shortage is not only a Swedish problem but also exists in
virtually all European countries (Federičová, 2020; O’Doherty & Harford, 2018)
and in the USA (García & Weiss, 2020). Even the United Nations has addressed
this problem and noted that the world needs at least 69 million new teachers to
achieve the educational goals of Agenda 2030 (UNESCO, 2016). Internationally,
L. Boström (*)
Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden
e-mail: Lena.bostrom@miun.se
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_4
71
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L. Boström
the teacher shortage has been commented on since the Second World War, yet the
shortage still exists more than 70 years later (Swanson & Mason, 2017).
The main questions to raise are as follows: Why is the teacher shortage problematic, and who is affected by it? The simple and obvious answer is that it
affects students because it affects the quality of teaching. This is how Åstrand
(2021) expressed himself: “The shortage of teachers and the debate about its
nature and its solutions are directly related to the question of teachers’ competence and the quality of teaching” (p. 116). Teachers’ competence is often considered the most decisive factor in students’ learning (Hattie, 2009; Nordenbo et al.,
2008); therefore, educated teachers are needed. The teacher shortage can also
indicate the beginning of a knowledge crisis or an ongoing knowledge crisis in
schools (Skogstad, 2019).
The shortage of educated and certified teachers in Sweden needs to be placed
in a wider context—it is linked to issues such as the labour market, dropouts
from the profession, the quality of teacher education, and the age structure of the
teaching staff. Another important distinction is whether teachers are academically
trained and/or are certified (Boström et al., 2021). Educated teachers are teachers who have completed teacher training. In addition, educated teachers in Sweden require a teacher’s certificate issued by the National Agency for Education
(Skolverket, 2021a).
Another context is to understand how the “power chain” in Swedish education policy works. The government set goals and frameworks for education in
various laws and regulations. Some high-ranking official is the representative for
the school authority for municipal schools. For independent schools, the chair of
the school board is the school authority. The school authority decides how the
school should work, ensures that schools have the necessary resources and works
for continuous improvement. The principal in each school is responsible for the
quality and results of the school. There are three different agencies that help the
government and the to produce documents and to implement reforms and regulations: the Swedish National Agency for Education, the School Inspectorate, and
the National Agency for Special Needs Education (Skolverket, 2022).
Strong measures are required from the school authorities to increase the teaching profession’s attractiveness and counteract the teacher shortage (Berling,
2020). The question is whether those responsible for schools can solve these
problems, according to one of the two largest teachers’ unions in Sweden (Fahlén,
2021).
Because school authorities have the closest and most tangible responsibility
for teacher recruitment, the overall aim of this study was to explore and explain
possible solutions from their points of view.
Teacher Shortage in Sweden—School Authorities’ …
73
The research questions are as follows:
1. How would school authorities address the teacher shortage at the municipal
and regional levels?
2. What solutions do school authorities propose for the short term (less than
5 years) and the long term (10 years and more)?
Before going into the study, a brief description of the teacher shortage is important for understanding the context.
2Explanations Behind the Shortage in Sweden
2.1In General
As previously mentioned, teacher shortages have existed for many years in Sweden but have been accentuated in the last 10 years. The teacher shortage has
no simple explanations, but a number of integrative and complex factors have
affected the situation (Kungl. Ingenjörsvetenskapsakademien, 2020). Boström
et al. (2021) summarized some thematic explanations behind the current teacher
shortage in Sweden and pinpoint them as covariate factors, for example the following:
• Many reforms on a structural level (e.g., different governance philosophies,
school communalization, decentralization, free school choice, and teacher certification) on a curricular level as well as teacher-education reforms (Fischer
et al., 2018).
• Deteriorated and changed conditions. Teachers have been given more administrative tasks, classroom work is becoming increasingly difficult, teaching
time has increased, and teachers are experiencing more work environment
problems (Bergling, 2020).
• Low status. The teaching profession is perceived as a low-status profession
because of such influences as media images and public discussions (Bertilsson, 2018).
• Students and the University Chancellor’s Office have criticized the quality of
teacher training education (Universitetskanslersämbetet, 2019).
• Dropouts from both the profession and teacher education (Universitetskanslersämbetet, 2016).
74
L. Boström
An overview of knowledge focusing on the teacher shortage also points to a complex picture that has caused the teacher shortage (Kungl. Ingenjörsakademin,
2020). One specific highlight of the shortage is the many reforms that schools
have implemented since the 1990s. Reforms and governance have reduced the
profession’s status. Goal-oriented schools, a strong focus on results, and external
accountability have created a variety of administrative tasks for teachers.
2.2Changes of Governance
Over the past thirty years, the education system has undergone several changes
and reforms based on different management theories/philosophies. Until the end
of the 1980s, there was a bureaucratic governance built on hierarchy with clear
rules, standardized procedures, which meant that it was considered sluggish and
ineffective. In 1991 the Swedish school was municipalised. The management
philosophy thus shifted to an idea of decentralized target management where the
responsibility for the school system was transferred to the municipalities. The
next step was a deregulation of the school during the 1990s when it became permissible for private actors to run independent schools. Management philosophy
during this time also came to be characterized by an idea of centralized results
management in accordance with New Public Management (NPM) as a management philosophy. In the last 20 years, at the same time, a new form of societal
governance has emerged, the so-called governance. The state is no longer the
only authoritative social actor that sets the framework for how society’s activities
are to be organized and managed. In attempts to solve collective problems, different actors often interact in network-based structures and in these, contacts and
meetings take place between different interests and initiatives for policy formation and implementation of ideas regarding activities (Boström et al., 2021).
3Possible Solutions
Many measures have been debated to address the teacher shortage. Since teacher
education receives sharp criticism, a brief description of its structure is given
here. Teacher education differs for primary and upper secondary school teachers.
Primary school teacher education takes four years to complete, and upper secondary school teacher education takes 4½ to 5½ years to complete. Teaching programmes in Sweden is divided into the following:
Teacher Shortage in Sweden—School Authorities’ …
75
• Pre-school programmes
• Elementary school programmes; specialisation years preschool −3, 4–6 and
after school age educare
• Secondary and upper secondary programmes: specialisation 7–9 and upper
secondary school
In addition, there are four programmes aimed at those who have previous professional experience, a university degree or a foreign teaching/preschool teaching
degree and are of shorter duration:
• KPU (bridging education programme) for individuals with a university degree
in a subject taught at school
• Yrkeslärarutbildningen (vocational education programme) for individuals with
solid professional experience in an upper secondary vocational subject area
• ULV (foreign teacher’s bridging programme) for individuals with a foreign
teacher or preschool teacher degree in a school subject
• VAL (supplementary training for teachers) for individuals working as an
unqualified teacher (Skolverket, 2022)
The government has taken several initiatives, such as a sharp increase in teacher
education placements and alternative and shorter paths into teacher education.
A current proposal is a Swedish professional programme (SOU, 2018:17). The
aim is to develop the quality of teaching, strengthen the professions, increase the
attractiveness of the professions, and thereby increase the equivalence of the education for the students with purpose to raise the status of the teaching and preschool teaching professions. The national professional programme should consist
partly of a national structure for competence development for principals, teachers,
and preschool teachers, and partly of a national qualifications system for certified teachers and preschool teachers. The background to the proposal for a professional programme can be found in an OECD report from 2015 calling on Sweden
to create an institute for teacher development that would establish standards and
career steps for teachers. Similar structures exist in other OECD countries.
Many actors (Heller-Sahlgren, 2018) are also discussing increased teacher
salaries. A collective approach to attract new teachers to the profession has been
proposed by the National Union of Teachers (Fahlén, 2021). This is called a supplementary teacher programme, which is intended to recruit people who have
some academic education and are willing to complete their competencies for
teacher education. This is currently only a proposal, but the intention is to capture
people with academic studies who could be docked into teacher training.
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L. Boström
To facilitate teachers’ everyday lives, a suggested solution is to hire even more
teaching assistants. Teaching assistants work within schools and are a support to
teachers by doing certain tasks that teachers previously did. The work involves,
among other things, administrative and practical tasks, being a support in and outside the classroom for the students, participating in various activities and activity
planning. However, the experiences of projects with full-time mentors (teaching
assistants) are not entirely uncontroversial (Gardsten & Fonseca, 2017; Lindqvist,
2020). Among criticisms of such a programme, it would decrease social-teaching
work and make the teaching profession more mechanical.
Åstrand (2020) sums up the teacher shortage in the following words:
“The teacher shortage does not have one solution but several. Secondly, it is about
organizing the work in the school from the outside the current situation, and on the
one hand it is about developing the alternative forms of education and changing the
school to a true learning environment (pp. 116–117)”.
4Research Methods
Because school principals in Sweden are responsible for teacher recruitment, the
present study has been addressed to them. Namely, they are the ones most responsible in the municipalities and their voices have not been heard in the debate or
in the research. The empirical data for this study came from a Web survey with
open questions answered by 55 school authorities at the beginning of 2021. The
sample selection can be described as a convenience sampling, which is a nonprobability sampling method where units are selected for inclusion in the sample because they are the easiest for the researcher to access. The informants who
answered the survey came from 55 municipalities in Sweden (out of 270) and
lived in both large and small municipalities as well as in rural areas. The texts
could consist of anything from a sentence to a half-page text from the informants.
The data were analysed by inductive content analysis, which is a method of systematic and gradual data classification to identify patterns and themes more easily (Braun & Clarke, 2012). In this study, content on teacher shortages was first
identified in open answers through an open reading to obtain an overall impression of the content. Then, content representing various themes was highlighted. In
the third step, sentence units were coded in the documents using the constructed
themes. In the fourth and final step, the produced content was analysed and sorted
into themes and then into subcategories. The codes and categories from the material that finally formed themes were analysed. Inductive coding is, by definition,
Teacher Shortage in Sweden—School Authorities’ …
77
not tied to a theoretical framework (Braun & Clarke, 2006); therefore, the coding was driven by informants’ responses.1 The authors followed the Swedish
Research Council’s rules and ethical recommendations for studies in social science research (Vetenskapsrådet, 2017).
5Main Results
The responses to the first research question, how the school authorities would
address the teacher shortage at the municipal and regional levels, fell into three
themes: higher salaries, better working environment, and targeted skills development.
Many participants responded that higher salaries could entice more teachers to
stay in the profession, bring back those who have left the profession, and attract
more people to train for the profession. The average monthly salary for a primary
school teacher in Sweden was SEK 36,600 in 2021. Compared to e.g., an equally
well-educated civil engineer or a systems scientist, teachers earn more than SEK
10,000 less each month (SCB, 2021). Teachers in Sweden have among the highest starting salaries in the OECD. However, the wage trend is worse (OECD,
2021). Nonetheless, they emphasized the need for a political stance, such as an
investment in more financial resources from the state, if the solution is to be realized “higher wages, in short (I42)”.
The emphasis on better working environments shows the school authorities
responsibility as employers. They pointed out the importance of teachers being
happy and able to cope with the profession’s tasks. Concrete examples that were
mentioned included fewer teaching hours, support functions such as teaching
assistants to relieve teachers, and an attractive workplace. A telling quote was
the following: “The employer needs to dare to invest funds in strengthening the
basic organization to improve the overall working environment for everyone in
the school” (I19).
Concerning targeted skills development, the participants described measures
for both those who are already educated and those who have some requirements
left before completing their teacher education. Those who are already educated
need career opportunities. Those who are not fully educated need different ways
to complete their education. This is how a participant expressed himself: “It is
1 In the quotes below, the participants are referred to as I1– I55.
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L. Boström
important to capture the talented people without teacher training who we have in
the organization and be able to support them in teacher training” (I6).
Regarding the second research question—what solutions the school authorities
proposed for the short (less than 5 years) and long term (10 years and more)—
both similar and distinctive responses emerged for the two periods. The theme
that emerged for both the short and long term was a better status for the profession. A participant stated, “The whole community needs to stand behind the
school so that the teachers feel uplifted and respected” (I14). The gap of respect
and the bad image of teachers in Sweden comes from the media as well as parents
and students (Boström et. al., 2021). The previously mentioned societal governance has also opened for the public to have views on teachers’ work in schools.
The profession’s reputation must change. There is a need for a belief in the
school, and the teachers’ work must be valued. Another participant wrote, “The
school needs to be mentioned in positive terms so that more and more people
realize that it is fantastic to work in preschool and school” (I45). Other ideas that
emerged were marketing the teaching profession and showing the profession’s
positive sides on TV. To simply stop criticizing and lashing out at schools was a
clear message.
Concerning short-term solutions, a clear theme emerged, namely, to find a
way to fast-track teacher education. A concrete example was the so-called workintegrated education, in which one works 50% and studies 75% of the normal
hours. Other existing fast tracks should be better adapted based on each student’s
prior knowledge and experience. A normal or long way to professional status is
3–5,5 years studies in teacher training. Validation of previous knowledge should
be streamlined in this context. It was important, however, that the quality of the
education does not deteriorate, according to the informants.
Long-term solutions were also about higher salaries, raising the teaching profession’s status, and improving the working environment. As a participant put it,
“If you make changes and improves to the work environment, more people probably would like the profession and can think of this as a profession” (I33). The
answers also show how important school is, both for individuals and for society
as a whole. The following quote may shed light on this point:
“It is really a matter of destiny for Sweden that our children and young people get
a good quality education, above all from preschool to high school, but also in adult
education. If we do not have a school that teaches and nurtures their growing up, we
will be in a bad way. One may ask whether there is anything more important for a
country than having a good quality school system (I7)”.
Teacher Shortage in Sweden—School Authorities’ …
79
6Conclusions
The results of this study will provide an overview of the school authorities’ views
on the teacher shortage in Sweden as well as a picture of possible solutions from
the actors closest to the business in the short and long terms, namely the school
authorities. A clear solution mentioned is to raise teachers’ salaries (HellerSahlgren, 2018). This solution is a bit unpredictable because Swedish teachers’
salaries have increased quite sharply in the last 10 years (Landsorganisationen
i Sverige, 2019) and in relation to international standards, they are in the middle among OECD countries (OECD, 2021). This solution requires governmentdirected resources. The working environment for teachers clearly needs to be
improved in the short and long terms. Teachers need more time for teaching, so
mentors or teaching assistants may relieve them of administrative tasks. However, this is not a completely uncontroversial solution because teachers risk losing proximity to students’ everyday lives and the profession’s social dimensions
(Gardsten & Fonseca, 2019; Lindqvist, 2020).
School authorities should create career paths for teachers so that they gain
political competence (SOU, 2018, p. 17) and be more motivated to stay. This
seems school authorities also be aware of and therefore, then teachers can be
more motivated to stay. Finding fast tracks to teacher qualifications is also a
common answer among school authorities to find constructive ways to validate
competence. Offering quick paths into the teaching profession and validating substitutes’ competencies are other viable ways to solve the problem.
Offering a pleasant working environment and better working conditions and
creating positive images of the teaching profession are important steps in enhancing teachers’ status. This idea has been expressed by many actors in the debate
(cf. Åstrand, 2020; Heller-Sahlgren, 2018; Kungl. Ingenjörakademin, 2020). The
only question is how this can be done concretely and systematically.
As the teacher shortage is a complex problem, no easy solutions are available to deal with it (Kungl. Ingenjörsakademin, 2020). However, this study presents the perspective of actors whose voices are not often heard in the debate.
Because a heavy responsibility rests with the employer to deal with the teacher
shortage (Bergling, 2020), school authorities should take greater joint responsibility for solving the problem. Together, they need to find long-term solutions for
the whole of Sweden in terms of, for example, wage setting and working conditions. School authorities cannot continue recruiting teachers from each other and
passing the problems between each other. Teachers tend to change employment
to enter schools with the best conditions. A stable teaching staff at each school is
80
L. Boström
an important prerequisite for stability and continuity. In summary, based on the
results, a broader empirical study is necessary.
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br_am85br1701.pdf. Accessed 28 Dec 2022.
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hösten 1975 [Labour market tendency survey for some training categories in the autumn
1975]. Informationsprognosfrågor. Nr, 1975, 5.
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direction. Foreign Language Annals, 51, 251–262. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12321.
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Universitetskanslersämbetet (UKÄ). (2019). Första resultaten klara i omfattande kvalitetsgranskning av lärarutbildningarna. [First results ready in comprehensive quality
review of teacher training courses]. https://www.uka.se/om-oss/aktuellt/nyheter/201904-16-forsta-resultaten-klara-i-omfattande-kvalitetsgranskning-av-lararutbildningarna.
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Universitetskanslersämbetet (UKÄ). (2016). Avhopp från lärarutbildningen. Statistisk
analys. [Dropout from teacher training. Statistical analysis]. Dnr 2016–04–19 / 6.
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Teacher Shortages in the United States:
1990–2021
Richard M. Ingersoll
1Introduction
Few educational problems have received more attention in recent decades in the
U.S. than the failure to ensure that elementary and secondary classrooms are all
staffed with qualified teachers due to teacher shortages. Theory on teacher shortages has long held that these teacher staffing problems1 are primarily due to an
insufficient supply of new teachers in the face of two large-scale demographic
trends—increasing student enrollments and increasing teacher retirements due
1 In educational research, the term shortage has typically been defined as an inadequate
quantity of the production of new teachers this is a narrower definition than typically used
in economic supply and demand theory—which defines a labor shortage as any imbalance where the quantity of labor demanded is greater than the quantity supplied, given the
prevailing wages and job conditions. In supply and demand theory, such imbalances can
result from a variety of factors, including employee turnover. To avoid confusion between
these differing definitions of teacher shortages, here I will often use the term, teacher staffing problems, to generically refer to the difficulties schools experience adequately staffing
classrooms with qualified teachers.
This paper draws from, and updates, our earlier work on teacher shortages and teacher
turnover (see Ingersoll, 2001; Ingersoll & Perda, 2010; Ingersoll & May, 2012; Ingersoll
et al., 2019, 2022; Ingersoll & Tran, 2023).
R. M. Ingersoll (*)
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA
e-mail: rmi@upenn.edu
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_5
83
84
R. M. Ingersoll
to an aging of the teaching force—and that these staffing problems have resulted
in lower school performance (see, e.g., National Commission on Excellence in
Education, 1983; National Commission on Teaching & America’s Future, 1996,
1997; National Research Council, 2002; U.S. Department of Education, 2009;
García & Weiss, 2019; Government Accountability Office, 2022; American Federation of Teachers, 2022).
The prevailing policy response to these school staffing problems has primarily
focused on increasing the supply of new teachers (e.g., Theobald, 1990; Hirsch
et al., 2001; Rice et al., 2009; Liu et al., 2004, 2008; Fowler, 2003, 2008; Randazzo, 2022; Allen et al., 2023; Diliberti & Schwartz, 2023; Greene, 2019). Over
the decades, a wide range of initiatives have been implemented to recruit new
candidates into teaching. Among these are midcareer-change programs, such as
Troops-to-Teachers; overseas teacher recruiting initiatives that bring candidates
to the U.S., from other nations, such as the Philippines; and financial incentives,
such as scholarships, signing bonuses and student loan forgiveness. A prominent
teacher recruitment initiative was President Barack Obama’s “100k in 10” program implemented in 2010 to recruit 100,000 new math and science teachers by
2020 (President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, 2010). One
of the major recruitment methods to increase the supply of new teachers have
been alternative teacher education and licensure programs. These programs are
designed to offer non-traditional preparation and licensure routes in order to
expedite entry into teaching. Some of these initiatives entail a “lowering of the
bar and widening of the gate” to fill openings, resulting in higher levels of underqualified teachers, and some don’t. But, regardless of their differences, underlying
this wide variety of recruitment initiatives is a common assumption at the root of
theory and policy on teacher shortages—that these school staffing problems are
due to an insufficient quantity of supply of new teachers in the face of increases
in student enrollments and teacher retirements, and hence the best solution is to
increase the supply of new teachers (Greene, 2019).
More recently, research on teacher shortages has begun to recognize the role
of pre-retirement teacher turnover in teacher staffing problems. Beginning over
two decades ago we empirically documented that teacher shortages are not solely
a consequence of producing too few new teachers, but also a result of too many
existing teachers departing long before retirement, which in turn is largely driven
by school organizational and working conditions. And hence the solution to shortages, suggested by the data, does not solely lie in recruiting more new teachers,
but also in improving the retention of existing teachers through improvements in
schools as workplaces (Ingersoll, 1997, 2001; Ingersoll & Perda, 2010; Ingersoll
& May, 2012; Ingersoll et al., 2019, 2022; Ingersoll & Tran, 2023) (see Fig. 1).
Teacher Shortages in the United States: 1990–2021
85
The Tradional Theory of Teacher Shortages:
Student
enrollment
increases
Teacher
rerement
increases
Teacher
shortages
Teacher
staffing
problems
Decreases
in school
performance
Teacher staffing
problems
Decreases in
school
performance
An Alternave Perspecve:
School
characteriscs
and condions
Teacher
turnover
Fig. 1 Two perspectives on the causes and consequences of teacher staffing problems.
(Own graphic)
A number of studies have since provided support for this alternative perspective
that teacher turnover is a leading factor behind teacher shortages (e.g., Behrstock,
2009; Simon & Johnson, 2015; Sutcher et al., 2016; Carver-Thomas & DarlingHammond, 2017, 2019). However, the prevailing policy response to shortages
remains primarily focused on increasing the supply of new teachers through
recruitment initiatives (e.g., Allen et al., 2023; Diliberti & Schwartz, 2023;
Greene, 2019; Randazzo, 2022).
It is also important to recognize that teacher shortages are not new to the elementary and secondary education system in the U.S. Indeed, education historians
have documented that teacher shortages have been a cyclic threat in the US education system for most of the past century (Tyack, 1974; Lortie, 1975). However,
since the beginning of the COVID pandemic in early 2020, concern over teacher
shortages has dramatically escalated. It has been widely predicted and reported
that the stress incurred by the pandemic spurred a drop in the recruitment and
supply of new teachers and a surge in the departures of existing teachers, resulting in a teacher shortage crisis (e.g., Smith, 2022). However, it remains unclear
how these current staffing problems compare to those of earlier decades in
causes, magnitude and breadth. The available evidence since the pandemic began
has largely been data from particular settings and locales. Until recently, there
86
R. M. Ingersoll
have limited large-scale national data available to determine how widespread and
how deep shortages have become in recent years.
2The Study
Over the past three decades several colleagues and I have utilized large-scale
nationally representative data collected by the U.S. Department of Education
to examine teacher demand, supply, turnover and shortages in the U.S. (Ingersoll, 1997, 2001; Ingersoll & Perda, 2010; Ingersoll & May, 2012; Ingersoll
et al., 2019, 2022; Ingersoll & Tran, 2023). For this chapter, I updated our earlier research by analyzing the most recent national data, collected in 2020–21, to
answer several questions:
1. Have the Number of Students and Teachers Changed in Recent Decades in the
U.S.?
• Have student enrollments changed in recent decades?
• Has the number of teachers retiring changed in recent decades?
• Have the demand for teachers, and the size of the teaching force, changed
in recent decades?
2. To what Extent do Schools in the U.S. have Teacher Staffing Problems and
Shortages?
• How many schools have trouble finding qualified candidates to fill their
teaching job openings?
• In which teaching fields do schools have the most trouble finding qualified
candidates to fill their teaching job openings?
• Has the level of teacher hiring difficulties changed in recent decades?
3. Is the New Supply of Teachers in the U.S. Sufficient?
• What are the main sources of the supply of new teacher hires?
• Has the new teacher supply been sufficient to cover increases in student
enrollments and increases in teacher retirements?
• What is the role of pre-retirement teacher turnover in teacher staffing problems and shortages?
4. What are the Magnitude of and Reasons for Teacher Turnover?
• What is the overall magnitude of total teacher departures from schools?
• How does the level of attrition from teaching compare to that from other
occupations and professions?
• Do the turnover rates differ across different kinds of teachers and schools?
• What are the reasons for teacher turnover?
Teacher Shortages in the United States: 1990–2021
87
3Data and Methods
This study entailed secondary analysis of large-scale nationally representative data on teachers in the United States. The primary source of data is the
National Teacher Principal Survey (NTPS)/Schools and Staffing Survey (SASS),
which is the largest and most comprehensive source of data on teachers available in the U.S. These data are collected by the National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES), the statistical arm of the U.S. Department of Education.
NCES has administered ten cycles of this survey over a more than three-decade
period—1987–88, 1990–91, 1993–94, 1999–2000, 2003–04, 2007–08, 2011–12,
2015–16, 2017–18 and 2020–21. The most recent three cycles, administered in
2015–16, 2017–18 and 2020–21 were renamed the National Teacher Principal
Survey.
In each cycle, NCES administers questionnaires to a nationally representative
sample of 40,000 to 50,000 teachers, and 9,000 to 11,000 school-level administrators, collecting an unusually rich array of information on teachers, their
students, and their schools. The data represent all teachers for grades prekindergarten through 12, part-time and full-time, and from all types of schools, including public, charter, and private (for information on SASS/NTPS, see Cox et al.,
2022).
This analysis uses data from all cycles of SASS/NTPS available, over the
three-decade period from 1987 to 2021, but in particular, focuses on the most
recent data cycle—the 2020–21 NTPS. It is important to note that the 2020–21
NTPS data were collected in spring 2021, one year after the pandemic began, and
of course, may or may not reflect all of the changes since wrought by the public health crisis. From the SASS/NTPS, I analyzed data on trends in the numbers
of students and teachers; the numbers of schools with teaching job openings by
field, and the degree of difficulty school administrators report filling these teaching job openings.
We also analyzed data on teacher attrition (defined as those leaving teaching
altogether) from the 2008–2018 Baccalaureate and Beyond Survey (B&B). This
survey collected data from a nationally representative sample of about 10,000
new recipients of undergraduate Bachelor’s degrees who graduated during or at
the end of the 2007–2008 academic year (for information on B&B, see Cominole
et al., 2020). This cohort sample was interviewed at the end of their senior year
in college and subsequently in 2009, 2012 and 2018. From the B&B, I analyzed
data on the types of occupations and professions in which these college graduates were employed, including teaching and I calculated the percentages who left
these jobs for other occupations, professions or activities by 2018.
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R. M. Ingersoll
In these analyses of both the NTPS/SASS and the B&B I primarily used basic
statistical analytic techniques to generate descriptive data estimates. This analysis
uses data weighted to compensate for the over- and under-sampling of the complex stratified survey design. Each observation is weighted by the inverse of its
probability of selection in order to obtain unbiased estimates of the national population of schools and teachers in the U.S. in the year of the survey.
4Results
1. Have the Number of Students and Teachers Changed in Recent Decades in the
U.S.?
Over the past three decades total elementary and secondary student enrollments
in the US have steadily risen (see Fig. 2). Expansion of the student population in
the U.S. is not new. The numbers of students grew throughout the 20th century,
and the rate of growth began to soar in the late 1940s with the post–World War
II baby boom. Student enrollment peaked by 1970 and then declined until the
mid-1980s. In the mid-1980s, elementary and secondary student enrollment again
began to grow and has continued since (for details, see Ingersoll et al., 2021).
Number of
Teachers
(Millions)
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
Number of
Students
(Millions)
Teachers
Students
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Fig. 2 Trends in the number of elementary and secondary school teachers and students,
from 1987–88 to 2020–21. Source Ingersoll, R., original analyses of Schools and Staffing
Survey/National Teacher Principal Survey, 1987–88 to 2020–21
Teacher Shortages in the United States: 1990–2021
89
Along with increases in the number of students, there has also been an overall
aging of the teaching force and an increase in teacher retirements. Our data analyses show that since the late 1980s there has been an increase in the average age of
teachers, in the number of teachers approaching retirement, and in teacher retirements. But, the data also show this trend has levelled off in the past decade. Data
on the teacher age distribution show that the number of teachers age 50 or more
increased from about 529,000 (20% of the teaching force) in 1988 to 1,271,000
(33% of teachers) in 2008. Since then the number and percent of older teachers
has fluctuated around 30% of the teaching force.
Given these overall increases in student enrollments and high levels of teacher
retirements, not surprisingly, demand for teachers has also gone up. The data
show, that for any given year, most schools have had job openings for which
teachers were recruited and interviewed, the number of teachers hired annually
has increased, and over the past three decades the size of the teaching force has
increased (Fig. 2).
But, as also illustrated in Fig. 2, interestingly, the number of teachers
employed has not simply kept pace with student enrollment increases, but has
increased at a faster pace than that of students. Between 1987 and 2021 the
number of students increased by 22%, while teachers increased by 61%. Elsewhere we explore in more depth the reasons for, and consequences of, this gap
and dramatic growth in the teaching force (Ingersoll et al., 2021, 2022). My
central focus here is simply to document the large increase in the number of
teachers in the U.S.
In sum, the data show that since the 1980s the U.S school system has experienced a rapid growth in students, an aging of the teaching force, subsequently
an increase in retirements, and in turn, a large increase in the demand for teachers. Traditional teacher shortage theory has long held that these large-scale demographic trends lead to teacher shortages (Fig. 1). An examination of data on the
latter is the objective of the next section.
2. To what Extent do Schools have Teacher Staffing Problems and Shortages?
The most grounded and accurate empirical measures available of the extent of
teacher staffing problems and teacher shortages in schools are data from school
administrators on the degree of difficulty they encounter filling their teaching
position openings (e.g., Behrstock, 2009; Ingersoll, 2001; Ingersoll & Perda,
2010). The NTPS/SASS collected data on the numbers of school principals/heads
reporting teaching job openings for a school year and those that experienced diffi-
90
R. M. Ingersoll
culties filling those openings. The most recent data for this indicator are from the
2020–21 NTPS data cycle.2
These data show that while there are far more elementary schools than secondary schools, in any given year, the latter are more likely to have teaching job
vacancies and more difficulties filling them. Most teachers in elementary schools
are classified as general elementary teachers, who teach the same group of students all or most of the day in multiple subjects. In spring 2021, 59% of elementary school heads/principals reported their school had vacancies for general
elementary teachers at the beginning of the 2020–21 school year, but only 15% of
those reported experiencing serious difficulty filling any of those openings—representing only 9% of all elementary schools.
In contrast, that year, most secondary schools had teaching vacancies at the
beginning of the school year and the majority of those reported serious difficulties filling those positions. As shown in the top row of Fig. 3, for 2020–21, 80%
of secondary schools had teaching vacancies in one or more of nine key teaching
fields, and over half of those reported they had serious difficulty filling one or
more of those open positions—representing 43% of all secondary schools.
The data also show large field-to-field differences in vacancies and staffing
difficulties in schools. Mathematics, science and special education experienced
the most serious problems. Forty-five percent of secondary schools had job openings for teachers in science, and just under half of these indicated serious difficulties filling these openings, representing 17% of secondary schools. Similarly,
48% of secondary schools had job openings for mathematics teachers, and just
under half of these indicated serious difficulties filling these openings, representing about 16% of all secondary schools.
On the other hand, for some teaching fields, few schools had serious difficulty filling positions. For instance, as also shown in Fig. 3, in the field of social
studies, 38% of secondary schools had job openings, but only a small portion of
these—representing only 3% of all secondary schools—indicated that they had
serious difficulty filling those openings.
2 The SASS/NTPS questionnaire asked school administrators: ‘‘For this school year, how
difficult or easy was it to fill teaching vacancies in each of the following (13) fields?”
Answers were on a 6-point scale: “This position not offered in this school; No vacancy
in this field this school year; Easy; Somewhat difficult; Very difficult; Could not fill the
vacancy”. In Figs. 3 and 4, I counted as having ‘‘serious’’ difficulty those schools reporting
either “very difficult” or “could not fill the vacancy”.
The survey questionnaire was administered in the spring semester, but refers to teaching
positions posted before, or at the beginning of, the fall semester of that school year.
Teacher Shortages in the United States: 1990–2021
All 9 Fields
Science
Mathemacs
Special Educaon
Foreign Language
Career/Tech Educaon
English
Computer Science
Music/Art
Social Studies
Vacancies
31
29
11
10
49
Hiring Difficules
17
25
4
38
3
0
80
43
45
48
48
17
16
18
8
7
91
20
40
Percent
60
80
100
Fig. 3 Percent secondary schools with teaching vacancies and with serious difficulties filling Those vacancies, by field, 2020–21. Source Ingersoll, R., original analyses of National
Teacher Principal Survey, 2020–21
I also examined variations in teacher staffing difficulties between different
types of schools. I found the poverty level of schools is one of the strongest correlates of their degree of staffing difficulties; high-poverty schools are far more
likely to have serious staffing difficulties than low-poverty schools.
Finally, I examined changes in shortages over time. Our analyses of these
same measures from earlier cycles of NTPS/SASS, since the early 1990s, reveal
that while levels of staffing problems have risen and fallen, these cross-field patterns in teacher staffing problems and shortages have remained consistent—mathematics or science have long had the most serious hiring difficulties, with special
education close behind. The data also show that the 1999–2000 school year was
the high point in the percent of secondary schools that reported shortages (see
Fig. 4). Notably, the pandemic year 2020–21 was not the worst year for shortages, but the data show a steady increase between 2012 and 2021, and shortages
could well have worsened later during, and after, the pandemic. It will be possible
to examine this when the next data cycle is released.
In sum, significant numbers of schools have trouble finding qualified candidates to fill their teaching job openings. The year with the most severe shortages
was 1999–2000. It is also important to recognize that teacher shortages have not
been universal. Only a minority of the population of schools have had serious
staffing problems in any given year, including the 2020–21 school year, one year
into the pandemic. Moreover, serious teacher shortages are limited to particular
fields and particular types of schools. Math, science and special education are the
92
R. M. Ingersoll
30
Math
Science
English
22
Percent
20
18
10
0
6
5
8
5
2
1
1990-91
1993-94
15
17
16
12
5
1999-00
17
9
3
4
2003-04
2007-08
8
8
2
2011-12
2020-21
Fig. 4 Trends in the percent secondary schools with serious difficulties filling teaching
vacancies, by field, from 1990–91 to 2020–21. Source Ingersoll, R., original analyses of
Schools and Staffing Survey/National Teacher Principal Survey, 1990–91 to 2020–21
fields with the most trouble and high-poverty schools have the most serious staffing difficulties.
3. Is the Supply of Teachers Sufficient?
The above data from school administrators on the degree of difficulty encountered filling teaching job openings is a useful empirical measure of teacher
staffing problems and shortages. But, data on the extent of staffing difficulties
themselves do not indicate the sources of these difficulties. In particular, these
data do not themselves establish that schools’ staffing problems are primarily a
result of an inadequate quantity of new teacher supply or for other reasons, such
as pre-retirement teacher departures. While student enrollments, teacher retirements, and the demand for new hires have all increased and, moreover, many
schools have experienced hiring difficulties, what do the data indicate about
whether there is, or is not, a sufficient supply of new teachers?
To answer this question, it is important to first understand the varied sources
of the supply of new teachers. Compared to other nations, the U.S. produces new
teachers through relatively large numbers of accessible, widely dispersed teacher
preparation/education programs—an average of 25 per each of the 50 states—
usually in departments or colleges of education in state colleges and universities
(Ingersoll, 2007). Research and commentary on teacher shortages in the U.S. typically focus on the “pipeline” of newly qualified teachers graduating with degrees
from these teacher education programs. Over the past two decades the U.S.
Teacher Shortages in the United States: 1990–2021
300,000
250,000
255,106
243,578
200,000
150,000
100,000
93
193,524
203,997
180,654
192,334
171,999
159,506
160,020
152,803
152,939
150,200
161,903
50,000
0
Fig. 5 Trends in the number of students completing teacher preparation programs, from
1999–2000 to 2020–21 (includes both traditional and alternative programs, and both higher
education institution programs and non-higher education institution programs). Source U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Postsecondary Education. Higher Education Act Title
II reporting system, 1999 to 2021
Department of Education has tracked the number of students completing teacher
preparation programs, broadly defined, and including both traditional and alternative programs, and programs both within and without higher education institutions. These data show that completions reached their highest point in 2003–04,
began to decline after the 2008–09 economic recession, levelled off in 2015, and
by 2018 began to slightly increase (see Fig. 5). Focusing on the long-term drop in
completions, researchers and commentators on teacher shortages typically conclude that the quantity of new teacher supply is insufficient (e.g., Garcia & Weiss,
2019; Government Accountability Office, 2022; Allen, et al., 2023).
However, despite the large number of teacher preparation programs, the pipeline of college students with newly completed degrees from teacher education
programs, surprisingly, is a relatively minor source of new teacher hires. Those
with degrees in Education are not the sole source of the new supply of teachers in the pipeline and the pipeline is not the main source of new teacher hires—
more new hires come from the “reserve pool”, primarily former teachers who left
teaching to return later and some delayed entrants, who had obtained a degree and
license, but did not enter teaching until a number of years after graduating from
college.
As shown in Fig. 6 the pipeline of those with new degrees in education constituted about a quarter of all of those newly hired teachers for the 2020–21
school year. Another source was those entering teaching with only noneducation
degrees, such as history, biology or English. The largest source of new hires was
94
R. M. Ingersoll
Reserve Pool, 65%
Newly Qualified with only
Noneduca on Degrees, 10%
Newly Qualified with both Educa on
and Noneduca on Degrees, 4%
Newly Qualified with only Educa on
School degrees, 21%
Fig. 6 Percent of newly hired teachers in schools, by supply. Source 2020–21 Source:
Ingersoll, R., original analyses of National Teacher Principal Survey, 2020–21
the reserve pool—65%. These multiple sources, and their relative proportions,
has not greatly changed over the past three decades. Evaluating whether the new
supply of teachers is sufficient requires counting all of these sources of new hires,
which is something analysts have usually failed to do.
Beginning over a decade ago, analyzing multiple national data sources, especially the SASS and its supplement, the Teacher Follow-Up Survey, we attempted
to empirically evaluate whether the new supply of qualified teachers has or has
not been sufficient (Ingersoll & Perda, 2010; Ingersoll & May, 2012). We focused
on the fields with the most serious shortages, math and science, and the school
year with the highest level of shortages, 1999–2000 (as shown in Fig. 4).
In order to evaluate whether the math and science teacher supply is sufficient,
we tested the two claims central to traditional theory on teacher shortages—
that the supply of new teachers has not kept pace with: 1) student enrollment
increases, and 2) teacher retirement increases (see Fig. 1).
Our data analyses showed the teacher supply, from all of the above sources
(in Fig. 6), combined, were more than sufficient to cover both student enrollment
and teacher retirement increases, even in years when teacher staffing problems
and shortages were most severe (1999–2000), and even for math and science, the
highest shortage teaching fields.
In the first comparison, we found that, despite increases in secondary school
math and science graduation requirements, and in turn in math and science course
taking by students, the employment of qualified math and science teachers more
than kept pace with the increase in students in math and science courses.
Teacher Shortages in the United States: 1990–2021
95
8.6
New Supply /
Rerement
5.7
3.6
All Teachers
Science
Math
2.1
New Supply / All
Leavers
1.03
1.02
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Rao
Fig. 7 Ratio of new supply of teachers to retirements and to all leavers, by field. Source
Ingersoll, R., & Perda, D., original analyses of: 1999–2000 Schools and Staffing Survey;
2000–01 Teacher Followup Survey; 2000–01 Baccalaureate and Beyond Survey; 999–2000
Integrated Postsecondary Educational Data System
In the second comparison, we also found the new supply of qualified math
and science teachers more than kept pace with the increase in math and science
teacher retirements. Drawn from our earlier research (Ingersoll & Perda, 2010),
Fig. 7 displays the ratios of the quantity of new supply to the quantity of teacher
retirements and also the ratios of the new supply to the quantity of all those leaving teaching at the end of the 1999–2000 school year. It does this for all teachers
and then both math and science teachers separately.
The ratios at the top of Fig. 7 show that the supply of new teachers was far
larger than the number of teachers who retired in the same year. However, the
ratios displayed at the bottom of Fig. 7 show that this was not the case when we
counted all attrition, including those teachers leaving before retirement—a figure
that is many times larger than retirement attrition. For instance, for math teachers
the new supply was over three times (ratio = 3.6) as large as the number of retirements, while the new supply was about the same (ratio = 1.02) as all attrition that
year. Math and science teachers have had about the same annual rates of leaving
as other teachers. But the U.S. education system does not enjoy a large “cushion”
of new mathematics and science teachers as it does for English or social studies
teachers. For math and science, there is a much tighter balance between the new
supply and the total attrition.
Our data showed that much of the hiring of new teachers prior to a school year
was simply to fill spots vacated by other teachers who departed their schools at
the end of the prior school year, and most of those departures were not a result of
96
R. M. Ingersoll
an aging workforce. Rather, preretirement turnover, both moving to other schools
and leaving teaching altogether, was a primary factor behind the demand for new
hires and the accompanying difficulties schools have adequately staffing classrooms with qualified teachers.
4. What are the Magnitude of and Reasons for Teacher Turnover?
Researchers have long held that elementary and secondary teachers have high rates
of annual departures from schools (Lortie, 1975; Tyack, 1974). To empirically
compare teacher attrition (those leaving the occupation entirely) with the attrition
of employees in other lines of work, I analyzed national data from the 2008–2018
Baccalaureate and Beyond Survey on cross-occupational attrition rates of college
graduates. First, I identified the types of occupations and professions in which
college graduates were employed, including teaching, four years after graduation
(2012) and then I calculated the percentages who left these jobs for other occupations, professions or activities by 2018—that is, within the first 10 years after
graduation. I found that teaching does have less attrition than some other occupations, such as the child-care, secretarial, and paralegal fields. Perhaps surprisingly, teacher attrition is higher than nurses and police officers, and teachers have
far higher attrition than lawyers, physical therapists and pharmacists (see Fig. 8).
Child-Care Workers
91
Secretaries
88
Paralegals
87
Teachers
56
Engineers
55
Nurses
48
Police Officers
48
Lawyers
34
Physical Therapists
30
Pharmacists
6
0
20
40
60
80
100
Percent
Fig. 8 Among 2007–2008 college grads who entered selected occupations by 2012, percent gone from occupation by 2018. Source Ingersoll, R., original analyses of Baccalaureate and Beyond Survey, 2008–2018
Teacher Shortages in the United States: 1990–2021
97
However, it is important to recognize that elementary and secondary teachers form one of the largest occupational groups in the nation (U.S. Bureau of the
Census, 2018) and hence, given their relatively high departure levels, numerically,
the flows of teachers both into and out of schools are large. To illustrate this phenomenon, in our prior research we analyzed data from SASS and its supplement
the Teacher Follow-Up Survey, on both total teacher hiring and total teacher turnover, including both migration (teachers who move between districts and schools)
and attrition from teaching altogether (e.g. Ingersoll & Perda, 2010; Ingersoll &
Tran, 2023). There are over 4 million elementary and secondary teachers in the
U.S. and we found that during the 10–12 month period, before, during and after
any given school year, over a quarter of the entire teaching force is in job transition into, between or out of schools—a scenario akin to a “revolving door”.
But these overall figures also mask large differences in departure rates among
different types of teachers and different types of schools. The flow of teachers
out of schools is not equally distributed across states, regions, and school districts. The largest variations in teacher departures by location, however, are those
between different schools, even within the same school district. This includes
both major components of total turnover—migration and attrition. The data
show that almost half of all public-school teacher turnover takes place in just
one quarter of the population of public schools. The data show that high-poverty
schools have among the highest rates of turnover. Moreover, the data show there
is an annual asymmetric migration of significant numbers of employed teachers
from high-poverty to low-poverty schools, and from urban to suburban schools
(Ingersoll, 2001; Ingersoll & May, 2012; Ingersoll & Tran, 2023).
Beginning teachers have among the highest rates of turnover of any group of
teachers. Again using national longitudinal data from the 2008–2018 Baccalaureate and Beyond Survey, I documented rates of cumulative beginning attrition for
those who entered teaching within the first 10 years after graduation. I found that
about 12% left after just one year of teaching and more than 45% of new teachers
leave teaching within 5 years of entry (see Fig. 9).
We also have conducted extensive analyses of the reasons for teacher turnover. Both our descriptive analyses of self-report data and our multivariate regression analyses of survey data show there are a variety of factors and reasons.
These include school staffing actions, such as transfers and terminations, and
family/personal issues, such as health, pregnancy, a residence move, and caring
for family members. But the most prominent set of reasons concerns teacher dissatisfaction. This includes high rates of dissatisfaction with school and working
conditions, such as salaries, classroom resources, student misbehavior, testing and
accountability, opportunities for professional development, input into d­ecision
98
R. M. Ingersoll
Less than 1 year
12.5
Less than 2 years
22
Less than 3 years
30.3
Less than 4 years
36.1
Less than 5 years
45.1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Percent
Fig. 9 Cumulative percent beginning teacher attrition, by years of experience: 2008–2018.
Source Ingersoll, R., original analyses of Baccalaureate and Beyond Survey, 2008–2018
making, and school leadership (see Ingersoll, 2001; Ingersoll & May, 2012;
Ingersoll et al., 2019, 2022; Ingersoll & Tran, 2023).
Of course, it is important to recognize that teacher turnover is not necessarily
detrimental. Across a range of occupations and industries, job and career changing are normal and common—perhaps increasingly so—management experts
argue that high levels of employee turnover are a sign of economic opportunity
and a dynamic, well-functioning economy. Moreover, management researchers have long held that effective organizations usually both promote and benefit
from some degree of employee turnover by the departure of low-caliber performers and bringing in “new blood” to facilitate innovation (e.g., Abelson & Baysinger, 1984; Hom & Griffeth, 1995; Mobley, 1982; Price, 1977, 1989; Siebert &
Zubanov, 2009).
On the other hand, while there can be benefits to employee turnover, management researchers have also long shown that employee turnover is not cost free.
High levels of employee departures can be a symptom of underlying problems in
how well organizations function, but also because departures can entail costs and
other negative consequences for organizations and for the larger system.
Our earlier research (e.g., Ingersoll, 2001; Ingersoll & Perda, 2010) has documented that one negative consequence of teacher turnover is its important role
Teacher Shortages in the United States: 1990–2021
99
in teacher shortages. Turnover is a major factor behind the problems that many
schools have staffing their classrooms with qualified teachers.
5Summary and Implications
It is widely held that one of the pivotal causes of inadequate student performance
in the U.S. is shortages of teachers, resulting in the inability of schools to staff
classrooms with adequately qualified instructors. Teacher shortages are not new
to the elementary and secondary education system in the U.S. and have been a
cyclic threat in the US education system for most of the past century (Tyack,
1974; Lortie, 1975). However, since the beginning of the COVID pandemic in
early 2020, concern over teacher shortages has dramatically escalated.
This study examined utilized large-scale national data collected by the U.S.
Department of Education to examine teacher demand, supply, turnover and shortages in the U.S. over the period from 1990 to spring 2021, a year into the pandemic.
The data show that since the 1980s the U.S. school system has experienced
a rapid growth in students, an aging of the teaching force, subsequently large
numbers of teacher retirements, and in turn, a large increase in the demand for
teachers. Traditional teacher shortage theory has long held that these large-scale
demographic trends lead to teacher shortages (Fig. 1) and not surprisingly, the
data show that for the past three decades significant numbers of schools have had
trouble finding qualified candidates to fill their teaching job openings. But the
data document that only a minority of the population of schools have had serious
staffing problems in any given year, including the 2020–21 school year, one year
into the pandemic. Moreover, serious teacher shortages are limited to particular
fields and particular types of schools. Math, science and special education are the
fields with the most trouble and high-poverty schools have the most serious staffing difficulties.
The data also show that the reasons for these school staffing problems are
more complex and varied than simply an insufficient production of new teachers, as long held by teacher shortage theorists. There are multiple sources of the
new supply of teachers. A relatively minor source is the pipeline of newly qualified teachers with degrees in education, from teacher education programs. Large
numbers of new hires are those with noneducation degrees and by far the largest
source is the reserve pool of former teachers.
Our analyses show that even for math and science, the fields with the most
severe shortages, and even for the year (1999–2000) with the worst staffing
100
R. M. Ingersoll
d­ ifficulties in the past three decades, the teacher supply from all of these sources
combined, was more than sufficient to cover both student enrollment and teacher
retirement increases.
However, this picture changes once I include all attrition, including those
teachers leaving before retirement—a figure that is many times larger than retirement attrition. Preretirement losses of teachers is a primary factor behind the
need for new hires and subsequent hiring difficulties. This is especially true for
mathematics and science because, unlike the case of English or history teachers,
the educational system does not enjoy a surplus of new mathematics and science
teachers relative to losses. For mathematics and science, there was a much tighter
balance between the new supply and total attrition.
The data also show that there are large differences in rates of turnover between
different schools, even within the same district. There are many factors behind
these school differences in teacher turnover. A major set of factors involves the
attractiveness of the teaching job and teachers’ dissatisfaction with the working
and organizational conditions in their schools.
It is also important to acknowledge a possible data limitation in our study—
the national data I analyze go up to spring 2021—a year into the pandemic. Currently, as of yet, no solid, national data on teacher shortages after spring 2021
have been released. This raises questions about whether these trends I have identified have continued beyond 2021. Numerous commentators have drawn attention to high levels of employee turnover across the economy since the advent of
the pandemic (e.g., Smith, 2022). Numerous reports have also drawn attention
to increased stress for teachers during the pandemic (e.g., Smith, 2022). Future
improvements in the economy could increase other employment options for
teachers, and in turn, lead to an increase in teacher turnover. This will most likely
be especially true for high-poverty schools. Hence, addressing high teacher turnover could become even more important over time.
5.1Implications
From the framework of supply-and-demand theory, any imbalance between
labor supply and demand can technically be referred to as a shortage, in the
sense that there is an inadequate quantity of individuals able and willing to offer
their services under given wages and conditions. From this framework, the situation we find in the U.S.—staffing problems in a significant portion of schools
significantly driven by reretirement attrition—can technically be referred to as a
shortage. However, in the context of teachers and schools, the term shortage is
typically given a narrower connotation: an insufficient production of new teachers
Teacher Shortages in the United States: 1990–2021
101
in the face of increasing student enrollments and increasing teacher retirements.
These terminological and diagnostic differences have crucial implications for prescription and policy.
Where the quantity of teachers demanded is greater than the quantity of teachers supplied, given the prevailing wages and working conditions, there are numerous possible policy responses. Given the emphasis on demographic trends in
longstanding theory on teacher shortages, efforts to increase the supply of new
teachers have long been a dominant reform strategy. Nothing in this study suggests these efforts are not worthwhile, but the data indicate that teacher recruitment strategies, alone, do not directly address a major root source of teacher
staffing problems—pre-retirement turnover. In short, recruiting more teachers,
while an important first step, will not fully solve school staffing inadequacies if
large numbers of such teachers then depart in a few years. Decreasing the loss of
those recruited by such initiatives could prevent the loss of such investments, and
also lessen the ongoing need for creating new recruitment initiatives.
Differences between schools are especially important. In particular, disadvantaged public schools have among the highest rates of turnover. The high rates of
teacher turnover in these schools appear to largely be a matter of working conditions, tied to how schools are managed. Of course, altering any of these working conditions may not be easy. But changing some of these working conditions
would be less expensive than many popular school reforms. The long-term solution to shortages is not only to increase the quantity of teacher supply, but also to
make teaching more attractive in hard-to-staff settings.
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Lateral Entry Teachers in Contemporary
Japan: Between Teacher Shortage
and “Wind of Change”
Kenji Maehara
1Introduction
1.1Teacher Shortage and Lateral Entry Teachers
in Japan
Since approximately 2020, the teacher shortage has become a major topic of discussion in Japan. For example, on May 10, 2023, the Asahi Shimbun, one of Japan’s
largest newspapers, reported that 20% of public elementary and junior high schools
did not have the required number of teachers (Asahi Shimbun, 2023b). According
to the results of a survey compiled by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology (MEXT) in 2022, the teacher deficits in elementary and
junior high schools amounted to about 2,000, or 0.3% of the total number of teachers. Moreover, the decline in the number of university students wishing to become
teachers has become a major topic of discussion. In fact, the ratio of applicants for
the 2023 teacher recruitment examination for elementary school teachers in Tokyo
is 1:1—the lowest ratio in history (Asahi Shimbun, 2023a).
The causes of the recent teacher shortage are more or less clear. First, under
the influence of the waves of the teacher age structure (see Fig. 1), large numbers
of teachers have been retiring. These numerous retirees have led to a greater number of new teachers who must be hired, thereby exacerbating the teacher shortage. Second, in general, when the economy is booming and companies become
more active in hiring, the number of prospective teachers tends to decrease. Third,
K. Maehara (*)
Tokyo Gakugei University, Koganei, Tokyo, Japan
e-mail: maehara@u-gakugei.ac.jp
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_6
105
106
K. Maehara
Numbers of teachers by age
( ) = expected rerement year
22 (2059)
24 (2057)
26 (2055)
28 (2053)
30 (2051)
32 (2049)
34 (2047)
36 (2045)
38 (2043)
40 (2041)
42 (2039)
44 (2037)
46 (2035)
48 (2033)
50 (2031)
52 (2029)
54 (2027)
56 (2025)
58 (2023)
60 (2021)
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
Primary
L.S.
U.S.
25000
30000
Fig. 1 Numbers of teachers by age1. Source Own graphic, edited by the author from the
data included in MEXT (2021)
as the most crucially important factor, the decline in the number of prospective
teachers has been influenced greatly by the fact that the poor working conditions
of Japanese teachers have become widely known through TALIS surveys and
other measures (OECD, 2019). On average, Japanese teachers work about eleven
1 Primary: primary school; L.S.: lower secondary school, U.S.: upper secondary school.
Lateral Entry Teachers in Contemporary Japan
107
hours a day at schools. This figure does not include work that they take home
with them. Therefore, the actual working hours are estimated to be much longer
(Nihon Kyoshokuin Kumiai, 2023).
To confront these difficult circumstances, MEXT has taken several measures.
One measure is to improve working conditions. Historically, Japanese teachers
have been responsible for many tasks outside the classroom, sometimes even outside of the school.2 In response, MEXT has proposed the classification of “work
that schools need not be in charge of”, “work that should be done by non-teaching staff within schools”, and “work that should be done by teachers” (MEXT,
2017). Furthermore, MEXT has called for a reduction in teacher workloads.
Unfortunately, no concrete improvement has been realized to date.
Another measure is the active recruiting of lateral entry teachers. Table 1
shows the status of lateral entry teachers hired in 2022. This table presents
the following. First, the lateral entry teachers (A) are very few. Second, a very
large number of teachers (B) worked part-time and then became regular teachers. It is noteworthy here, however, that if a person worked for a company and
then worked as a part-time teacher, then the person is counted as (B), not (A). In
other words, strictly speaking, (A) might be undercounted. Unfortunately, neither
MEXT nor the prefectural boards of education have presented corrected data to
clarify this point.
Table 1 Rate of lateral entry teachers in Japan
2022 fiscal year
Newly employed
teachers in Japan
Lateral entry teachers Employed after
(A)
temporary work as a
teacher (B)
Primary schools
16,152
426 (2.6%)
5,677 (35.1%)
Secondary, lower
9,140
301 (3.4%)
4,284 (46.9%)
Secondary, upper
4,479
283 (6.3%)
2,048 (45.7%)
Source Edited from (MEXT, 2022b, Table 8)
2 For example, they manage the safety of routes to school in the morning and evening, man-
age school lunch expenses and other accounts, and provide coaching on extracurricular
activities, which are often held on also Saturdays and Sundays. Regarding the Japanesestyle education, the following website by MEXT (2022a) provides useful information in
English (https://www.eduport.mext.go.jp/about/materials/).
108
K. Maehara
Based on these data, the number of lateral entry teachers in Japan is probably
very small and therefore not very important as a measure to address teacher shortages. It is noteworthy, however, that the issue of lateral entry teacher in Japan is
not only related to the teacher shortage. It also exists within another pedagogical
context: the need for lateral entry teachers as a “Wind of Change”.3 This point has
always made the issue of lateral entry teachers in Japan so complex and particular.
1.2Japanese School System: Brief Explanation
It should be useful to briefly introduce the Japanese school system and the characteristics of teacher training system in Japan here.
Japan’s modern school system was rapidly developed during the Meiji Era
beginning in 1868, following the class-based society (Tokugawa era) dominated
by the samurai class (the “First Educational Reform”). The constitution and
school system were modeled after the Prussian model, in accordance with the
Japanese system of the Emperor’s State. After a common primary education from
the age of 10 to 12, many children entered the workforce. For relatively small part
of pupils there were other branching paths, such as higher education for a limited
elite, and various practical secondary schools. Primary teachers were trained at
four-year secondary schools (Normal School), which were open to those 14 years
of age and older. However, not all teachers graduated from Normal School and
held formal teaching licenses. At most, half of all teachers had a formal teaching
license, and the rest worked as teachers without a formal teaching license.
After World War II, the Japanese educational system was largely reformed
from the Prussian-German model to the American model (the “Second Educational Reform”). Six years of elementary school and three years of junior high
school became compulsory, and an additional three years of high school was
established. After three years of study, as for now, more than 95% of children
graduate from upper secondary school and qualify for university entrance exams.
It is important to note, however, that in Japan, a university entrance ­qualification
3 What is expressed here is the expectation for school reform by lateral entry teachers. In
this chapter, we refer to this expectation as “Wind of Change” (after the Scorpions’ famous
song). However, this does not imply MEXT’s criticism of the Japanese Teachers’ Union,
which was under the strong influence of socialist and communist political parties at the
time.
Lateral Entry Teachers in Contemporary Japan
109
does not directly mean the right to enroll in a university. The qualification to take
a university entrance examination only means the right to take a competitive
entrance examination administered by the university. The existence of competitive entrance exams is often critically called “exam hell”.
When discussing the subject of lateral entry teachers in Japan, it must be
understood that the institutional premise is that the teacher training system is
“lightweight” (Maehara, 2021). To obtain a teaching license in Japan, it is generally necessary to study for four years at a university.4 To obtain an elementary
school license, students must study in a “course designed to train teachers”, but
the actual number of credits required for a teaching license is 59 credits (equivalent to about 120 ECTS) out of 124 credits. Of these, only 5 credits, i.e. 3 weeks,
are for teaching practice. All secondary education teaching licenses can be
obtained as an option of study in a specialized department. This means that 39
additional credits, including a 3-week teaching practicum, are required to obtain
a teaching license. For example, a student can study a bachelor’s course in economics and obtain a teaching license for secondary education social studies at the
same time.
Obtaining a teaching license through distance learning at a university is the
second source of lateral entry teachers. Those with a bachelor’s degree can easily
obtain a teaching license by earning the required credits in distance learning. Distance learning courses can be taken while still holding some kind of job, so they
do not have to worry about losing their salary.
There is also no so-called probationary work system in Japan. Thus, under
the lightweight teacher training system, it is obvious that students cannot fully
acquire the necessary skills to be as teachers at the time they start working at a
school. Japan has structurally supplemented this deficiency with collaborative
continuous learning at school sites after entering the workforce (so-called on-thejob training). In other words, because they start working at schools without having learned enough at university, they actively learn from other teachers at school
and grow as teachers. Lesson study, a method of collaborative professional development for Japanese teachers, can be said to be a historical property born out of
lightweight teacher training (Maehara, 2021).
4 In Japan, an elementary and junior high school teaching license can also be obtained
through two years of study at a junior college (Class 2 license). This Class 2 license has
the same legal effect as a license that can be obtained at a four-year university (Class 1
license). This system should be called “ultralight weight”. For better or worse, there are
currently very few Class 2 license holders entering the teaching profession.
110
K. Maehara
1.3Quantitative Reality of the Lightweight Teacher
Training System
It would be useful here to present some concrete data on lightweight teacher
training in Japan.
The number of 4-year colleges in Japan is 785, of which 250 offer courses
for elementary, 514 for junior high, and 542 for high school teacher certification
(MEXT, 2023b).
In 2018, 628,821 students were enrolled in 4-year colleges, but 583,518 graduated after 4 years. Of them, 22,083 (3.8%) were licensed to teach elementary
school, 36,565 (6.3%) were licensed to teach middle school, and 43,547 (7.5%)
were licensed to teach high school (ibid.). However, it is likely that the number of
college students who actually obtained licenses is smaller than this figure, as one
college student often obtains two or three different licenses at the same time.
In 2005, 106 universities offered courses to obtain an elementary school teaching license. Since then, many private universities have newly entered the teacher
training market. What made this possible was a change in policy by MEXT.
Although permission from MEXT is required to establish teacher training courses,
since 2006 MEXT has changed its policy to allow the establishment of such
courses more easily than in the past. This was neither a countermeasure to the
shortage of teachers nor due to the growing social need for teacher training education. At the same time, the government deregulated or eliminated regulations in
many business fields. The deregulation of teacher training was an extension of the
freedom of the private university as a business. In other words, it was the result
of neoliberal deregulation policies (Iwata et. al, 2019). From today’s perspective, there is no evidence that deregulation of teacher training has contributed to
improvements in teacher training, either in qualitative or quantitative terms.
In 2021, 16,167 people were employed as public elementary school teachers, 9,152 as middle school teachers, and 4,494 as high school teachers (MEXT,
2022b).5 In other words, 26.8% of elementary school teaching licenses, 75% of
junior high school teaching licenses, and indeed 89.7% of high school teaching
licenses were not used in that year.6 It could be said that Japan’s (ultra) lightweight teacher training system overproduces teaching licenses.
5 There is no official data on the number of new teachers hired at private schools.
6 As already mentioned, one college student often obtains several different licenses, so the
actual non-use rate is much lower than the figures here shown. If we consider employment
in private schools, for which no official statistics on new hires exist, the actual non-use rate
is still slightly lower.
Lateral Entry Teachers in Contemporary Japan
111
1.4What is the Value of a Teaching License to a College
Student?
The fact that teaching licenses are quantitatively over-issued in Japan is contradicted with the fact that a teacher shortage is currently a hot topic in Japan.
What this inconsistency means is that obtaining a teaching license and becoming a teacher are not directly linked in Japan. This raises the question of what
the choice of obtaining a teaching license has meant to university students. Why
do young Japanese students obtain teaching licenses even if they do not wish to
become teachers? And why do Japanese universities offer teacher training courses
to young people who have no hope of becoming teachers?
Generally, in Japan, teacher training courses are regarded as a promotional
element to attract students especially at private universities as part of the business field. A lightweight teacher training system means, from the perspective of
university management, that they can easily offer teacher training courses as an
option. Even if it won’t really help the future life of students, it would be better
than nothing. This holds true on the part of college students. If there is a license
that can be obtained, many Japanese students try to obtain it, even if they are not
interested in the job that the license enables them to do.
On the other hand, another point needs to be considered regarding courses for
elementary school teachers: the fact that not a few people choose not to become
teachers after four years of professional study makes the raison d’être of a university education questionable. To understand this phenomenon, which probably
seems unnatural in a European context, we need to recognize the particularities
of the Japanese labor market. The Japanese labor market, with the exception of
the medical field, does not expect universities to confer vocational qualifications
to students. There is no vocational training system for those who do not go on
to university. This means that most young people, including university graduates,
are employed by companies with “no qualifications” and acquire the necessary
vocational skills in their respective workplaces. What this means is that it is not
at all unnatural for college students who have obtained a teaching license to find
employment in all business fields, for example, in banks or machine manufacturers. In this case, the teaching license can be rather a positive proof material
of the breadth of his or her intellectual curiosity. Moreover, in Japan, specific
vocational education (i.e. education to facilitate the choice of a profession and
to form vocational skills) is rarely provided during the period up to high school
age. As a result, it is quite likely that the only profession that 18-year-olds know
specifically is “schoolteacher”. This leads to decision for not a few 18-year-olds
to choose a teacher training course when entering college. However, during the
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K. Maehara
course of their lives as university students, their eyes are opened to an unlimited
number of professions other than schoolteacher. As a result, a large number of
“people who are licensed in teacher training courses but do not become teachers”
are produced.
In short, the above various aspects can be summarized as follows. Lightweight
teacher training in Japan, which has been shaped by historical processes, is now
closely intertwined with the following social system factors: the management
strategies of private universities, the characteristics of the general labor market
unrelated to the foundation of professional qualifications, and the absence of
vocational preparatory education in secondary education. There is always a large
number of people in Japan who hold teaching licenses but are not teaching. These
people are the primary source of lateral entry teachers, at least potentially.
2Lateral Entry Teachers in Japan: History, Current
Status, and Countermeasures
In this section, we briefly summarize the history of policies related to lateral entry
teaching (Sect. 2.1), explain special measures for hiring teachers for those who
have work experience in private companies, etc. (2.2), and we also introduce the
latest countermeasures to the teacher shortage proposed by MEXT (Sect. 2.3).
2.1Special Licensure System: A Long and Unsuccessful
History Beginning in the 1970s
The first policy recommendation for the use of lateral entry teachers came in
1971 in the form of a report by the Central Council for Education (Aoki, 2020).
The report, known as the “Third Educational Reform”,7 proposed various measures for school education in general, and described the use of experienced private-sector workers in “teacher training reform“. The report also expresses strong
expectations for the use of mid-career teachers, stating that they will “remove the
negative effects of the closed characteristics of the teaching profession and bring
life and a broader perspective to school education“, and summarizes the policy
as “expanding the certification system to accept people from the general public
7 The first was the early Meiji era, the second was postwar reform (see Sect. 1.2).
Lateral Entry Teachers in Contemporary Japan
113
whose academic experience makes them suitable to be invited to school education“ (The Central Council for Education, 1971). The report also described industrial education and special support education as specific fields in which to use
people with private-sector experience.
Details of policy recommendations for the utilization of lateral entry teachers were also discussed in the “Second Report” (April 1986) of the Provisional
Council for Education, which was launched in 1984. The report stated that “there
are many problems that need to be solved in the utilization of working people”,
and recommended that “a quick teaching license course of six months to one
year be established” for working people without a teaching license, that “a special license to be authorized by prefectural boards of education” be created, and
that “a licensing system be established so that people without a teaching license
can teach in some subject areas without having to obtain a teaching license”. The
proposal also called for “special measures to be taken in the licensing system to
allow people to teach classes in some subject areas even if they have no teaching
license” (The Provisional Council for Education, 1986).
The special license proposed here was institutionalized two years later in
1988 (Aoki, 2020). The purpose of this system was “to respond to the diversification of school education and to revitalize it by accepting as teachers working
people who do not hold teaching licenses but who have excellent knowledge and
experience”. At the same time, a special part-time lecturer system was introduced,
under which “persons without a teaching license” were appointed as part-time
lecturers. Consequently, two systems, each an exception to the “teacher licensing
system”, were realized in the 1980s.
It was not until around 2000 that the government’s attitude toward the utilization of lateral entry teachers changed to any considerable degree. This change
was influenced strongly by regulatory reforms in the economy and industry in
general.
In 1999, the government’s Deregulation Committee proposed deregulation of
the education sector (Sakamoto, 2003), including the “promotion of working people to become teachers”, along with “more flexible school selection systems” and
“the use of multimedia for truant children and children under long-term medical
care”. The proposal included expansion of the scope of the special license system
and the special part-time teacher system beyond music, arts and crafts, home economics, and physical education, as well as relaxing the expiration date of special
licenses. Later, in 2001, the “Three-Year Plan of the Council for the Promotion of
Regulatory Reform” presented similar recommendations for the utilization of the
special license system. Promotion of the use of the special license system continued to be the centerpiece of regulatory reform in the education sector. In other
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K. Maehara
words, the teacher licensing system was regarded as a type of old regulation that
needed to be overthrown.
In December 2005, the Council for the Promotion of Regulatory Reform and
the Opening of the Private Sector, the successor organization to the Council for
the Promotion of Regulatory Reform, compiled its “Second Report”. The report
listed “education” as a “priority field of study” along with healthcare, agriculture,
and land and housing, and expressed a strong commitment:
“Qualifications as teachers are not only cultivated during the training process, but
are also confirmed and nurtured through practice. Therefore, it is important to open
the door of school to a wide variety of human resources, including those with abundant experience in society and those who excel in specific fields, and to recruit
human resources from all over society, without necessarily limiting the number of
teachers to those who hold a teaching license. […] In order to achieve this, it is necessary for each prefectural board of education to promote the use of special licenses
for those who have not yet obtained a teaching license, from the perspective of promoting the multi-track system of teacher appointments” (The Council for the Promotion of Regulatory Reform & the Opening of the Private Sector, 2005).
In March 2006, MEXT issued a “notification” to prefectural boards of education
throughout Japan in response to the “Second Report” of the Council for the Promotion of Regulatory Reform and the Opening to the Private Sector described
above (MEXT, 2006). In 2014, MEXT notified prefectural boards of education
of its “guidelines” for the awarding of special licenses, and again called for an
increase in the number of special licenses awarded (MEXT, 2014). These 2014
guidelines indicated a policy of “actively awarding special licenses” while simultaneously “ensuring the quality of education”. Meeting both of these canons
simultaneously is difficult, but no key to solving this conundrum has ever been
presented.
How would these proposals by the central government and MEXT have
affected actual teacher recruitment? Fig. 2 shows the number of special licenses
awarded. At first glance, it is apparent that the use of special licenses has not progressed: only 53 special licenses were awarded in the 14 years of 1989–2002.
However, the number jumped to 47 in 2003. It fluctuated between 35 and 92
per year over the next 12 years; then it increased to 215 in 2015. This increase
is attributable to the timing of MEXT’s notification and guidelines for the use of
this system, which were issued in April 2001 and June 2014. At any rate, it cannot
be said that special licenses have had any strong effect on the approximately one
million teachers in Japan.
Lateral Entry Teachers in Contemporary Japan
115
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
2010
2013
2016
2019
Fig. 2 Development of issued numbers of special licenses. Source Own graphic, edited by
the author, from annual data included in “Kyoiku iinkai geppo” (1989–2019) (The Monthly
Report of the Board of Education)
In brief, the special license system has not been used actively by the Board
of Education. The reasons for this lack of use might be, first, that few applicants
seek teaching positions without a teaching license. Secondly, many applicants
without a license seeking teaching positions consider teaching after obtaining a
license through distance learning. Fundamentally, however, it might be true that
the Board of Education did not think that hiring special license holders would be
beneficial for schools. A person who has excellent skills in a particular content
area but who is not expected to contribute to student teaching or school administration would be a burden to a school.
In 2019, the Fiscal System Council (a policy deliberative body of the Ministry
of Finance) reported that “the system of obtaining a teaching license through a
teacher training course is an obstacle to the expansion of ‘lateral entry recruitment’ of highly motivated and talented individuals”. It is important to note that
MEXT does not seem to share this position, but it is a position taken by some in
the Japanese government.
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K. Maehara
2.2Special Selection System for Employment
Aside from the special license system described above, most lateral entry teachers in Japan become teachers with a regular teaching license. In Japan, people
who wish to become public funded school teachers are required to take a teacher
recruitment examination administered by the prefectural board of education.
Fourth-year university students who plan to obtain a teaching license and those
who have already obtained a teaching license are eligible to take the examination. Examination subjects include “general culture”, “pedagogical and teaching specialty”, “interview”, “mock class”, and “essay”. Some prefectures have
a special selection process that exempts some subjects from the examination for
examinees who have worked in the private sector. For example, in some cases,
“general culture” and “pedagogical and teaching specialty” are excluded from
the examination subjects. At present, 30 of the 47 prefectures and 12 of the 20
ordinance-designated cities have special selection of some kind for lateral entry
teachers (see, Fig. 3). Strong criticism of this special selection has arisen, especially when the “pedagogical and teaching specialty” examination is exempted,
on the grounds that this engenders a marked disregard for the knowledge necessary to become a teacher (Maehara, 2018, 2019) (Fig. 3).
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
Fig. 3 Number of school boards with special selection system. Source Own graphic,
edited by the author, based on each prefecture’s “Teacher Employment Candidate Selection
Exam Implementation Guidelines”
Lateral Entry Teachers in Contemporary Japan
117
2.3Recent Policies
In 2023, MEXT announced a new policy plan to address the rapid decline in the
number of prospective teachers (MEXT, 2023a). According to the plan, MEXT is
expected to provide subsidies for the following projects starting in 2024:
• Projects by which prefectures promote the attractiveness of the teaching profession to businesses and other organizations
• Projects to create a pre-service training program for those who wish to change
careers to become teachers
• Projects to establish a system to hire teachers after accumulating a certain
level of skills, starting with short-time work as part-time lecturers
• Projects to create a system to send people from companies to schools to work
as teachers for a fixed term of several years
It is noteworthy that these projects are positioned not only as measures to address
the “teacher shortage” but also as measures to create a “diverse teaching force”.
3How Do Boards of Education View Lateral Entry
Employment?
It is useful to once again confirm the lateral entry teachers’ two types in Japan.
The first type consists of lateral entry teachers who use the special license system described in Sect. 2.1. As described above, although this type of lateral entry
teacher is often cited in policy documents, their actual number is extremely small.
The second type are lateral entry teachers who enter the teaching profession with
a formal teaching license and who have experience working at a private company
or somewhere for several years after graduating from university and before entering the teaching profession. Generally speaking, when one thinks about lateral
entry teachers, one thinks about the second type in Japan. The discussion presented in the following sections specifically addresses this second type of lateral
entry teacher, i.e., teachers who hold a teaching license and who have experience
working in a private company or other organization.
In Japan, public school teachers are not national public servants, but are public
servants of local governments. Therefore, the boards of education of prefectures
and ordinance-designated cities hire teachers. Actually, they are municipal public
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Table 2 Personnel consideration for lateral entry teachers by a board of education
Much Consideration
Some Consideration
Not much Con- Little Considsideration
eration
First assignment
1
10
12
11
Subsequent
assignments
1
1
9
23
Source Edited from the questionnaire survey conducted by the research group including the
author
servants in terms of status, but the prefectural boards of education nevertheless
have personnel authority. Because this status is complicated, an explanation of
this point is omitted here. In 2021, the authors’ joint research group conducted a
questionnaire survey of prefectural boards of education on the subject of lateral
entry teachers.8 Using the data obtained from that survey, we present an explanation of how lateral entry teachers are treated by the education administration.
In Japan, individual schools have no authority over teacher personnel matters.
All teachers must be transferred to other schools about every six years on average, subject to the discretion of the board of education. In the case of newly hired
teachers, the school board also designates their first place of employment. Table 2
shows responses obtained when surveyed persons were asked whether special
consideration is given to lateral entry teachers in determining their assignments.
Two-thirds of school boards indicated that their previous experience was not considered from the outset. Their experience is rarely considered in subsequent personnel actions.
When asked about the salary for lateral entry teachers, almost all boards of
education responded that salary is determined by scrutinizing the former experience, not the age of the individual. That result indicates that lateral entry teachers
do not earn an equivalent salary to those of “pure teachers” of the same age, i.e.,
those who joined the teaching profession directly after graduating from college.
Lateral entry teachers have less experience as teachers than pure teachers of the
same age. This fact not only makes it more difficult for them to get a chance to
8 This questionnaire survey was conducted from July to August 2021 targeting all 67 boards
of education in Japan that have the authority to hire teachers, by the research group including the author. The number of recovers was 34, recovery rate was 50.7%.
Lateral Entry Teachers in Contemporary Japan
119
be promoted to a management position within the Japanese system; it also makes
it more difficult for them to earn an adequate salary. These data indicate that, to
date, boards of education have not devoted special consideration to the treatment
of lateral entry teachers.
As described already in Sect. 2, repeated political discussions have been made
in Japan about introducing lateral entry teachers into schools based on the special license system. Those discussions, although not related directly to the teacher
shortage, were related to the context of seeking to introduce a “Wind of Change”
in schools. The discussions have had little practical effect. The fact that school
boards have no specific policies related to the treatment of lateral entry teachers
also reflects that no “Wind of Change” has been brought into schools to date.
4Self-Perceptions of Lateral Entry Teachers: From
Interviews
To elucidate the issue of lateral entry teachers in Japan further, the authors’ joint
research group has sought (relying on personal connections) and interviewed
teachers who actually have this background.9 Every interviewee’s experience differs. Their circumstances and background cannot be simply generalized. In addition, many participants in these interviews are likely to be fully satisfied with
their current work as teachers, which inherently biases this interview survey in
that regard. The statements in this section therefore, lack objectivity. Moreover,
we cannot meaningfully calculate the average age of all lateral entry hires at entry
into the teaching occupation.
Our interviewees, without exception, are fully successful as teachers: they are
appropriately responsible for teaching, classroom management, and student guidance. They were not, however, immediately successful at their jobs after joining
the profession, as they should have been. One account gives an example:
9 The interview survey referenced here was conducted by a research group including the
author during 2019–2022. The total 42 interviewees were contacted through personal relationships. The interview included topics such as “choice of a career during university”,
“growth at the first company”, “things about to the retirement”, “triggers or reasons to
choose the teaching profession”, “the feeling after getting start the teaching profession”,
and “looking back the careers by now”. The interviews were conducted in a semi-structured format and lasted around one hour per interviewee.
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K. Maehara
“The people around me were warm. Many of them knew that I remained here on my
first appointment, and that I had come here with no experience whatsoever. So in
that sense, I feel that I was warmly nurtured. In addition, when we send out our first
graduates, we look at them from one to three years and send out graduates. So you
can see, oh, this is a kind of cycle” (male, lateral entry into teaching at age 38).
Interviewer: “Finally after three years?”.
“Yes. The second cycle was much easier than the first because I could see the end of
the first cycle. I could see how it was going to end and how I was going to do it. It
was easier to understand. I was able to have such an experience” (male, lateral entry
into teaching at age 38).
Here, the interviewee states that it took him three years to understand how to
work at the school. After another three years, he finally felt confident. Lateral
entry teachers were also often shocked to face the realities of school.
“My previous workplace always came to a conclusion of who was going to do what
by when. Then, at the next meeting, we would also verify that it was being done
properly. If they were not, of course I would get angry because it was my job, but
I would also check to see if the results of the work had been achieved or not. Then,
based on the results, there were many meetings with the topic of “Well, what are we
going to do next?” (male, entered teaching at age 26).
“The unique culture or sense of time is completely different, and the same. Well,
adults and children are the same. So adults are told what to do by a certain time; and
especially the Self-Defense Forces works on time. So not following it is the worst
part. In elementary schools and other schools, priority is given to children or parents. The children do not show up at the time of the gathering, or they do something,
or they are required to submit some documents by a certain date, but they cannot. I
wondered if everyone was aware of this, or if they were helping each other. It might
seem strange to call it a unique culture, but the children come first” (male, entered
teaching at age 34).
This shock can be regarded as stemming from differences in experiences of professional socialization.10 The professional socialization of teachers is strongly
defined by the essential characteristics of the school workplace. For example, it is
often pointed out that teachers lack time management. However, the characteristic
of “loose time management” can also be characterized as a necessary skill for
10 Conflicts between job change and occupational socialization are discussed intensively by
Mark Granovetter (1995).
Lateral Entry Teachers in Contemporary Japan
121
teachers to control the situation in the school workplace, where many children
with independent will move around. In short, it is inappropriate to evaluate the
peculiarities of the professional differentiation of teachers simply in a negative
way.
Despite all differences in backgrounds and motivations for entering the profession, many of them spoke of a common theme: Teaching does not always pay
workers commensurate with one’s age. This was also suggested in the questionnaire survey of school boards described above. Whereas salaries for Japanese
teachers are considerably higher than the average level for the general workforce,
lateral entry teachers are often paid less when compared to pure teachers of the
same age.
5Discussion
Our questionnaire survey demonstrated that boards of education have no special
interest in lateral entry teachers. This finding is inconsistent with the fact that Japanese education policy documents have already anticipated lateral entry teachers
to bring a “Wind of Change” for half a century since the 1970s. However, the fact
that local boards of education have largely ignored the idea of “Wind of Change”
has been a rational choice. Under the lightweight teacher training system, lateral
entry teachers do not receive adequate training as teachers. In fact, given that
they have been out of college for years, they are likely to have a marked lack of
competence. They must be given the opportunity to update their skills as teachers
rapidly. It might be true that they have different knowledge and experience than
pure teachers. However, what schools need more than anything else is to develop
teachers who can teach and manage classrooms as independent teachers. This
reality reduces the need for school boards to undertake active and specific examination of the knowledge and experience which lateral entry teachers possess.
The interview results reflect the complexity of lateral entry teacher difficulties in Japan. Lateral entry teachers are more likely than pure teachers to have
a higher degree of difficulty becoming independent as teachers under the lightweight teacher training system. Nevertheless, only inadequate support is provided to them by the educational administration. Among the support measures
for lateral entry teachers currently being planned by MEXT is the establishment
of a pre-service training system for those who wish to change jobs. That would
be particularly beneficial because it is necessary to incorporate consideration of
the fact that people who seek to enter the teaching profession after a consider-
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K. Maehara
able amount of time after graduating from university have already lost necessary
knowledge and skills acquired through lightweight teacher training.
Based on data from our interviews, it can be said that MEXT’s vision of lateral
entry teachers as a path to building a “diverse teaching force” is not likely to be
feasible. Lateral entry teachers perceive a certain “cultural gap” in their schools.
However, in many cases, the teachers do not try to adhere to the professional culture they have acquired in their prior workplaces against the school’s professional
culture, but rather try to adapt to the school’s culture. This appears to be reasonable insofar as the school’s professional culture is based on the essential characteristics of schooling.
Procedurally speaking, the reality that lateral entry teachers in Japan have difficulty earning an equal salary to those of pure teachers of the same age is related
to assessment of the social value of the earlier job. For example, 10 years of work
experience in car sales might count as five years of teaching experience. In this
case, the salary of this lateral entry teacher would be lower than that of a pure
teacher by five years. Our interview data indicate that the only case in which
years of prior work counted 100% was when the teacher had served in the Japanese Self-defense Forces after graduating from college. We have no publicly
available data for details of previous jobs. However, this mechanism of salary
determination is certainly disadvantageous for lateral entry teachers.
6Conclusion
This chapter presented the current status of lateral entry teachers in Japan using
data from policy documents, a questionnaire survey of boards of education, and
interviews with lateral entry teachers. The subject of lateral entry teachers has
a long history in Japan. However, this topic did not emerge as a solution to the
teacher shortage, but rather as a policy idea proposed by the government on the
premise that schools need a “Wind of Change”.
In the 2020s, the quantitative shortage of teachers is presenting great difficulties in Japan. Objectively speaking, the shortage is not so severe. However, the
structural decline in the number of young people who want to become teachers
will engender a decline in the quality of teachers in the medium term. Based on
this sense of crisis, the route of lateral entrants is attracting attention, along with
improvements in teachers’ working conditions. From a comparative pedagogical
perspective, it is noteworthy that in Japan, even in this situation, MEXT, the central educational administrative agency, still expects lateral entry teachers to wind
Lateral Entry Teachers in Contemporary Japan
123
up as a “Wind of Change” and is trying to build “a diverse teaching force” in a
school by increasing the number of lateral entry teachers.
In fact, prefectural boards of education, which are in charge of teacher personnel, have not been proactive in recruiting lateral entry teachers. The results of our
questionnaire survey suggest that they do not expect lateral entry teachers to bring
on a “Wind of Change”. In this sense, it is fair to say that lateral entry teachers are simply regarded as one factor compensating for the quantitative shortage
of teachers. Lateral entry teachers currently working in schools often do not see
themselves as a “Wind of Change”. They might perceive a cultural gap in their
schools compared to their previous place of employment, but if anything they are
trying to adapt to the school culture. They have acquired sufficient independent
skills after several years of experience, but might not earn the same salary as pure
teachers of the same age and might not have the opportunity to be promoted to
administrative positions. These specific shortcomings must be remedied.
The Japanese teacher system consists of “lightweight” teacher training and
collaborative professional development in schools. This lightweight teacher training system creates a large talent pool of “people who have teaching licenses but
who are not teaching”. Nevertheless, obtaining candidates with appropriate skills
from this pool is not so easy because the system of “lightweight teacher training and collaborative professional development in schools” has operated with a
clientele of pure teachers who enter the teaching profession directly after university graduation. The fact that the central educational policy consistently inserts
the desire for a “Wind of Change” into the subject of lateral entry teachers makes
it difficult to resolve the teacher shortage problem. A strong possibility exists that
“he who chases after two hares will catch neither”.11
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Nihon Kyoshokuin Kumiai [Japan Teachers Union]. (2023). [Survey of working condition
reform at school in 2022.] 2022 nen gakko genba no hatarakikata kaikaku ni kansuru
ishiki chosa (in Japanese). https://www.jtu-net.or.jp/wp/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/
ff5d915b368a9430399331dbca4c644a-1.pdf. Accessed 25 Dec 2023.
OECD. (2019). TALIS 2018 Results (Volume I). Table I.2.27 ”Teachers’ working hours”.
https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/1d0bc92a-en/1/3/3/index.html?itemId=/content/
publication/1d0bc92a-en&_csp_=1418ec5a16ddb9919c5bc207486a271c&itemIGO=o
ecd&itemContentType=book. Accessed 25 Dec 2023.
Sakamoto, K. (2003). [Process and issues of regulatory reform in education] Kyoiku ni
okeru kiseikaikaku no keii to kadai (in Japanese). Reference (Kokuritsu Kokkai Toshokan)
2003(11).
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The Central Council for Education. (1971). [Basic measures for the comprehensive expansion and development of school education in the future] Kongo ni okeru gakko kyoiku
no sogoteki na kakuju seibi no tame no kihonteki sisaku ni tsuite (in Japanese). https://
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toshin (in Japanese). https://www8.cao.go.jp/kisei-kaikaku/old/publication/2005/1221/
item051221_02.pdf. Accessed 25 Dec 2023.
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The Fiscal System Council. (2019). [Proposals related to the fiscal system in the Reiwa
era] Reiwa jidai no zaisei no arikata ni kansuru kengi (in Japanese). https://www.
mof.go.jp/about_mof/councils/fiscal_system_council/sub-of_fiscal_system/report/
zaiseia20190619/01.pdf. Accessed 25 Dec 2023.
The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (MEXT). (1989–
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Publishing until the March 2021 Issue) https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shuppan/geppou/index.htm. Accessed 25 Dec 2023.
The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). (2006).
[Regarding operational improvements and points to keep in mind regarding teacher
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go.jp/a_menu/shotou/senkou/1243310.htm. Accessed 25 Dec 2023.
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[Regarding the formulation of ”Guideline for educational staff certification related to
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The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). (2017).
[Emergency measures for working style reform in schools]. Gakko ni okeru hatarakikatakaikaku ni kansuru kinkyu taisaku (in Japanese). https://www.mext.go.jp/
content/20200210-mxt_zaimu-000004400_1.pdf. Accessed 25 Dec 2023.
The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). (2019).
[Basic material collection for teacher training at university] Daigaku no kyoin yosei ni
kansuru kisoshiryoshu (in Japanese). https://www.mext.go.jp/kaigisiryo/2019/05/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2019/05/21/1416597_10.pdf. Accessed 25 Dec 2023.
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[Number of public school teachers by age group] Koritsu gakko nenreibetsu kyoin su (in
Japanese). https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20210201-mxt_kyoikujinzai01-000012429-4.
pdf. Accessed 25 Dec 2023.
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[Survey on “teacher shortage”] Kyoshi busoku ni kansuru jittai chosa (in Japanese).
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Reiwa 4 nendo koritsugakko kyoin saiyo senko shiken no jisshi jokyo (in Japanese).
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(2023a). [Key points of the Fiscal Year 2024 budget request] Reiwa 6 nendo gaisan yokyu no pointo (in Japanese). https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20230828-mxt_
kouhou02-000031628_1.pdf. Accessed 25 Dec 2023.
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The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT), the Educational Human Resources Policy Division of Educational Policy Bureau. (2023b). [Issuance status of teaching certificates in 2021 fiscal year] Kyoin menkyojo no juyo jokyo
(Reiwa 3 nendo) (in Japanese). [Monthly Report for the Board of Education] Kyoiku
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The Provisional Council for Education. (1986). [Second report on educational reform]
Kyoiku kaikaku ni kansuru dainiji toshin (in Japanese). Okurasho insatsukyoku.
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Addressing the Problem of
Teacher Shortage in the Australian
Educational Context
Merryn Dawborn-Gundlach
1Introduction
In post-pandemic Australia, teacher shortage is a chronic issue, both in terms
of the current staffing situation in primary and secondary schools and for succession planning for the future staffing of schools. Teacher shortage can negatively impact the quality of education, student learning and student outcomes.
The immediate consequences of teacher shortage for the teaching profession can
result in larger class sizes, fewer resources, and a less experienced teaching force.
These factors can lead to lower student achievement and lower levels of engagement for students.
Globally and in Australia specifically, addressing teacher shortage requires a
comprehensive and multi-faceted approach where student learning and wellbeing
is considered in alignment with teacher remuneration, working conditions, support, training, and development. In addition, teacher morale, health and wellbeing
must be considered part of the solution to enhancing the experience for teachers
already in the profession and those who are considering a teaching career in the
future. Succession planning for the next 10–15 years to respond to an aging workforce must also be considered, to ensure that the workforce of teachers grows,
rather than dwindles in number.
M. Dawborn-Gundlach (*)
The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
e-mail: merryn.dawborn-gundlach@unimelb.edu.au
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_7
127
128
M. Dawborn-Gundlach
2Teacher Shortage
The experience of being a member of the teaching profession in different countries is variable. While some governments support their teachers with generous
benefits, salary and status, other governments are not so supportive. In some
countries, teacher experiences relate to low remuneration when compared to
other professions, low status, high stress, a lack of resources and a high administrative workload. The lack of recognition and support, and long working hours,
can adversely affect the willingness of individuals to remain in teaching, due to
burnout and demoralisation. These factors can also deter potential new teachers to
consider teaching as an option, thus adding to the stress of an aging and timeworn
educational workforce.
Statistics relating to teacher shortages, retention, and attrition of teachers,
especially those in their early years of teaching, are both confronting and variable. Most studies confirm a shortfall of teachers in many areas, especially in
secondary school settings, high needs schools, and specific subject areas that are
considered difficult to staff. Student retention in Initial Teacher Education courses
is estimated between 50 and 65%, not significantly lower than in other courses,
but when considered against the alarming attrition rate in the first five years of
teaching, is of concern. While teacher attrition estimates range between eight and
50% attrition in the first five years of teaching, actual attrition is difficult to specify, due to teacher migration, retirement and teachers taking extended leave. The
statistics are unreliable since an intention to leave is not always translated into
teachers leaving a school or the teaching profession (AITSL, 2016).
In Australia, teacher shortages have been a concern for some years and are
regularly reported in the media. The appeal of a teaching career for graduate
students has decreased over the last few years and enrolment numbers in initial
teaching education courses have fallen. The high attrition rates and early retirement of many teachers, post-COVID-19 have also influenced the number of
available teachers in primary and secondary schools in Australia. At the commencement of the 2023 school year in January, there was a publicised shortage of
900 teachers in Government schools in the state of Victoria alone. These teacher
shortages not only affect student learning but also the morale of practicing teachers, many of whom will need to take on additional classes and work extra hours
to ensure students are not adversely affected.
To address teacher shortages, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD), challenged governments as early as 2011, to consider
career change teachers as part of the solution, calling on governments to provide
‘alternative routes into teaching for mid-career changers that combine formal
Addressing the Problem of Teacher Shortage in the Australian …
129
study and on-the-job support’ (OECD, 2011). In addition, alternative initial education programs, sometimes referred to as non-traditional pathways into teaching,
have been developed and offered to students by many educational training providers globally. Some alternative initial education programs include employmentbased pathways as a way of providing teaching qualifications, while learning ‘on
the job’. These programs often target mid-career or change of career professionals with skills and expertise in particular subject areas. Career change teachers are
increasingly viewed as part of the solution to complex teacher shortage problems
worldwide, while alternative pathways that are employment-based may provide
broader appeal for interested applicants with financial commitments or no wish to
return to full-time on campus study.
A shortage in ‘high demand’ subject areas, including Science, Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM subjects), has prompted appeals to graduates and professionals in these areas to consider teaching as a second career
option. In addition to the current crisis in providing enough teachers qualified to
teach STEM subjects, English, second language subjects such as French, Chinese, Spanish, Japanese, Italian, German, etc. and specialised education are particularly under-resourced in Australian schools, and result in some classes being
taught by teachers without the requisite undergraduate qualifications. For example, Lampert, et al. (2021) suggest that the percentage of ‘out of field’ teachers
teaching mathematics is 40%, science 29% and design and technology 46%.
Schools in socio-economically marginalised communities, with higher levels of
disadvantage, or in outer metropolitan, rural or remote parts of the country also
struggle to attract and retain teachers, especially in these subjects with acute
teacher shortages. These schools are particularly reliant on teachers who are prepared to teach outside their area of qualification and expertise.
The Australian Quality Initial Teacher Education Review has invited ‘highquality’ mid-career changers into teaching in high-demand fields and the most
recent Victorian State government initiatives, have focused on recruiting career
changers through employment-based programs (Victorian Government, 2022).
Alternative pathways that combine intensive study with professional practice provide flexibility for teaching candidates wishing to make an immediate start into
teaching but also for change of career teachers who often have dependents, financial commitments and who, once they have made the decision to change their
career, desire that their new career commence immediately, rather than waiting
18 months to two years before they can begin their professional practice as teachers. The financial remuneration, even if paid at a para-professional level provides
a positive incentive for some applicants considering teaching to take this option,
even when considering the intense workload of a beginner teacher and studying
130
M. Dawborn-Gundlach
and the difficulties of maintaining a sustainable work/life/study balance (Dadvand
et al., 2023).
While employment-based pathways are one solution for attracting new teachers into schools, novice teachers, whether they enrol directly from an undergraduate course or as a career-change teacher, require support to enable them to make a
smooth adjustment to teaching. When teacher recruitment is prioritised over supporting teachers’ health, well-being and transition into their professional practice,
teacher attrition becomes a significant concern. High teacher turnover and loss
of investment in time and money are the result of teachers, including new teachers and career-change teachers, leaving the profession, or leaving a school prematurely. This loss is significantly more difficult for disadvantaged schools, already
likely to have a disproportionately high number of inexperienced teachers, and/or
be under-resourced and under-staffed (Sutcher et al., 2016).
A retention-focused planning strategy is required at the education-system
level and at the school level, to address the support that is required to reduce high
teacher turnover and attrition. Governments and educational policy makers must
be made aware of the specific needs of new teachers to ensure a smooth transition and positive adjustment to teaching. The need for detailed consideration and
support for teachers, and a workforce planning strategy for schools is important
to ensure new teachers, especially those working in ‘high needs’ school settings
with more complex working conditions, are not persistently faced with teacher
shortage problems in the future. Socio-economically marginalised schools and
those situated in outer metropolitan, rural and remote areas, where teacher turnover is higher and experienced teaching support may be limited, pose problems for
teacher supply and require a long-term workforce planning strategy to ensure that
the supply of teachers keeps up with the demand (Dadvand & Dawborn-Gundlach, 2020).
3The Australian Education System in Context
Australia has six states and two territories. The six states; New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, Western Australia, and Queensland are self-governed with their own state governments, while the two territories; the Northern
Territory and the Australian Capital Territory are under the control of the federal
government. Primary and secondary education is a shared responsibility between
the Australian federal government and the state and territory governments, while
tertiary education is more complex with public universities receiving funding
Addressing the Problem of Teacher Shortage in the Australian …
131
from the federal government through grants and scholarships. Tertiary education
includes both higher education (including universities) and vocational education
and training institutions (Department of Foreign Affairs & Trade, 2016).
Although independently governed, the structure and curriculum of primary
and secondary education is similar across the Australian states and territories.
Children must commence school by the time they have turned six. In most states,
children will attend pre-school or kindergarten, then primary school for six or
seven years, beginning with a preparatory year (Prep) and finishing at Year 6.
Secondary schools provide curriculum for students in Years 7–12. Senior secondary schools are also a part of the educational landscape and offer curriculum for
students in Years 11 and 12. Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for
students until they reach the end of Year 10. In the primary and secondary educational sectors, students can be enrolled in government schools (64.5% of enrolled
students in 2022), Catholic schools (19.7% of enrolled students) and independent
schools (15.9% of enrolled students).
The estimated resident population in Australia in September, 2022 was
26,124,814 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022a). Figure 1 shows the Australian state and territory boundaries.
The distribution of student enrolment counts in each of the six Australian
states and two territories, according to the type of school: Government or nongovernment, the total number of enrolments across each type of school in each
state and total student enrolment across Australia in 2022 is presented in Table 1
(Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022b).
Northern
Territory
Western
Australia
Queensland
South
Australia
New South
Wales
Australian Capital
Victoria
Territory
Tasmania
Fig. 1 Australian state and territory boundaries. Source FreePowerPointMaps.com
132
M. Dawborn-Gundlach
Table 1 Student enrolment counts by state and territory and school affiliation (own table)
Student enrolment in Student enrolment
government schools in non-government
schools
Total student enrolment in 2022 by
state
Australian Capital
Territory
46,275
29,657
75,932
New South Wales
791,435
450,790
1,242,225
Northern Territory
29,434
10,652
40,086
Queensland
571,550
299,269
870,819
South Australia
172,654
103,111
275,765
Tasmania
55,372
26,138
81,510
Victoria
646,206
369,864
1,016,070
Western Australia
292,200
147,205
439,405
Total
2,605,126
1,436,686
4,041,812
Most Australian students complete their secondary education through until the
end of Year 12, with a retention rate to the end of Year 12 of 80.5% (Australian
Bureau of Statistics, 2022b). The retention rate for students identifying as female
(84.9%) is considerably higher than the 77.3% retention rate for students identifying as males. Table 2 identifies the enrolment, retention rate and annual growth
rate for schools in Australia in 2022.
Australia has a smaller overall population and population of students and
teachers than many other countries, however it is useful to consider the number
of teachers, students, and schools in relation to the overall population, which
in 2022 was estimated at a little more than 26 million people. In that year there
were 307,040 full-time equivalent (FTE) teaching staff in Australian schools,
an increase of 1.2% from 2021. Between 2021 and 2022, there was an increase
in school enrolments of 11,795 students, representing an annual growth rate of
0.3%. Further analysis of Australian educational data shows an increase of 33
schools from 2021, with 12 new schools in Victoria, nine in Queensland and eight
in New South Wales, the three most populous states (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022b).
Teachers in Australia can teach a part-time or full-time load, in agreement
with their school principals. The 2022 Australian Bureau of Statistics data indicated that there were 307,040 full-time equivalent teaching staff in Australia,
comprising both full and part-time staff. This represented an increase of 1.2% on
Addressing the Problem of Teacher Shortage in the Australian …
133
Table 2 Enrolment, retention rate and annual growth rate for schools in Australia in 2022
(own table)
Student enrol- Number of Number of
ment numbers Schools
Teachers
Annual
growth rate
for school
enrolments
Retention
rate to Year
12
Student to
staff teaching ratio
4,042,512
0.3%
80.5%
13.1
64.5%
(Government
schools)
19.7%
(Catholic
schools)
15.9%
(Independent
schools)
9,614
307,040
156,019
11,795
(Primary
students
school teachers) 151,021
(Secondary
school teachers)
the number of teachers in primary and secondary schools in 2021. In the 2022
census, 220,745 teachers identified as female, and 86,295 teachers identified as
male with higher proportions of teachers identifying as female in both primary
and secondary school positions. In the primary sector, 82% of the teachers identified as female, while in the secondary sector, 61.4% identified as female (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2022b).
The percentage increase of teacher employment in Australia from 2021 to
2022 appears to be greater than the percentage increase in student enrolment for
the same period; however, since the COVID-19 pandemic, teacher shortages in
Australian schools have been a significant concern. One cause for this imbalance
may be the aging population of teachers not prepared to return to teaching after
the extended lockdowns and online teaching structure that Australian teachers
were obliged to use. Another implication of the pandemic and students learning
from home was that the process highlighted for many people, especially parents,
the workload that teachers carry in terms of preparation, planning, implementation and marking of student work. These aspects were also emphasised regularly
in the media along with the work of people in other essential services, such as
nursing, childcare and aged residential care workers.
Modelling by the Australian Government Department of Education indicates
that there will be a shortfall of 4100 graduate teachers by 2025. The annual
commencement enrolment in Initial Teacher Education programs declined by
8% between 2017 and 2020 while the course completion rate declined by 17%
134
M. Dawborn-Gundlach
over the same period (Australian Government, 2022). The projected increase
in student numbers over the next decade is concerning when considered in the
context of decreasing numbers of active teachers and decreasing enrolments in
initial teacher education courses in Australia. Statistical modelling shows possible increases of 11% for primary student numbers and 10% for secondary student
numbers (Department of Education, Skills, and Employment, 2022).
4Alternative Initial Teacher Education Pathways
Since 2019, the Australian Federal Government and the Victorian State Government have invested in funding alternative initial teacher education pathways
to increase the number of qualified teachers in schools. These innovative pathways have been developed to address the problem of teacher shortage, by providing fast-track routes into teaching for participants with suitable qualifications
and professional experience. Alternative initial teacher education programs may
vary in their structure and requirements, but generally involve a combination of
coursework, practical experience in the classroom, and mentoring from experienced teachers. Some programs also offer financial incentives, such as scholarships, grants, bursaries, and relocation bonuses, especially to rural and remote
areas, to encourage participants to complete the program and enter the teaching
profession.
Employment-based pathways, combining tertiary study and professional practice in schools with a basic salary, are attractive alternatives for some potential
teachers, to the well-established on-campus initial teacher education courses. In
Victoria, recent government initiatives have focussed on recruiting career-change
(second career/lateral entry) students into initial teacher education programs
through a range of employment-based pathways (Victorian Government, 2022).
The option to combine teaching and studying is considered particularly attractive by some career-change applicants, as an alternative to returning to full-time,
on-campus tertiary study. A perception of the stability of a teaching career, especially in times of economic downturn, the financial remuneration to support mortgages, dependents, and lifestyle, combined with the practicality of ‘learning on
the job’ is viewed by some as a viable alternative to traditional teaching education
courses.
In the Australian context, mainstream or traditional initial teaching education
courses are offered at both the undergraduate level (undergraduate/bachelors’
degree) and post-graduate level (masters’ degree). Forty-nine providers offer 279
accredited programs across secondary, primary, early-childhood and Vocational
Addressing the Problem of Teacher Shortage in the Australian …
135
Education Training (VET) teacher education courses. Most undergraduate teaching courses are four years in duration, while post-graduate courses are two years
in duration. Courses are offered as on-campus, online or as a blended (hybrid)
option (AITSL, 2022). Students in these courses can study full-time on-campus,
but providers also offer opportunities to allow for acceleration, part-time, online,
or blended learning.
In Victoria, the second most populous state in Australia, 12 educational providers offer traditional initial teacher education courses, seven of which also offer
alternative initial teacher education programs. These alternative programs seek
to address teacher shortage, particularly in disadvantaged schools, high needs
schools or schools in rural and remote areas, while also preparing for a stronger
future workforce. They also seek to attract high quality candidates to teach in
subject areas that are currently under-staffed. The Victorian Government’s incentive program titled ‘Teach the Future’ (Victorian Government, 2022) has invested
33.5 million Australian dollars specifically for employment-based teaching
degrees, for applicants with suitable undergraduate qualifications. Applicants for
positions in alternative teacher secondary education courses are required to have a
Bachelors’ degree (undergraduate qualification) with two appropriate subjects for
teaching in schools. The university course work is then studied at a postgraduate
level resulting in a Masters’ Degree.
The Teach the Future incentive is anticipated to ‘fast-track’ up to 1200 teachers into the profession. The ‘earn while you learn’ incentive promises applicants
a scholarship, paid employment as a teacher in a school and a qualification within
18 months to two years of commencement. The Teach Today strand of the Teach
the Future initiative allows participants to immediately begin teaching their own
classes, while completing their post-graduate teaching qualification. In Victoria, La Trobe University, the Australian Catholic University, and the University
of Melbourne support participants teaching and studying simultaneously in this
alternative initial teacher education model.
Other programs place greater emphasis on participants completing coursework
and school observations in the first year of the course while progressing to more
independent teaching in their second year. Participants in the Teach Tomorrow
strand study for the first 6–12 months and undertake school placements, as in the
traditional model of initial teaching educational models. After this initial period
of study and supervised placement, Teach Tomorrow participants undertake
employment in schools, either in a teaching role or as educational support staff.
The providers for the Teach Tomorrow strand are the Australian Catholic University, Federation University, RMIT University and Victoria University. Additional
financial remuneration is available for applicants who identify as Aboriginal and/
136
M. Dawborn-Gundlach
or Torres Strait Islander and for those who agree to relocate to a rural or regional
school.
The difference between the programs is predominantly their structure. The
Teach for Australia program (TFA), a spin-off from the Teach for America program, recruits, and trains graduates from diverse backgrounds. This two-year
leadership development program positions high-achieving graduates and professionals in disadvantaged schools in rural and remote Australia. The Teach for
Australia pathway has intensive classes prior to the school year and associates
(TFA students) can teach in schools throughout Australia. Teach For Australia
associates receive extensive support and professional development to allow them
to commence effective teaching in schools after a short intensive academic study
program. The Teach for Australia program currently partners with the Australian
Catholic University in Melbourne for the academic component of the course.
The University of Melbourne has provided alternative initial teaching education courses since 2009, first aligning with the Teach for Australia program and
later offering a restructured design of the Teach for Australia course. The alternative initial teacher education program offered by the University of Melbourne
through the Melbourne Graduate School of Education is known as the Master of
Teaching (Secondary) Internship program (MTSI). The highly structured twoyear course is an employment-based pathway into the teaching profession and
allows recent graduates and career-change professionals the flexibility to align
academic studies and professional practice. This approach provides the flexibility
to learn on the job, while earning a salary.
In the current structure of the Master of Teaching (Secondary) Internship
course, provided by the University of Melbourne, students (interns) complete a
two-year master’s degree while teaching up to 0.8 of a full-time teaching allotment in a school, teaching their own classes and performing all the activities
required of fully registered teachers. In their professional practice, interns are
supported by a school mentor and a university employed clinical teaching specialist, both of whom regularly observe the intern’s teaching and provide feedback.
The Victorian Institute of Teaching (VIT) allows non-qualified interns to teach
independently in schools by providing them with a Permission to Teach (PTT)
registration. Interns complete 200 credit points of academic study to attain their
Master of Teaching in the first two years of their teaching. For the duration of
their academic course, until they have graduated, interns’ progress in their professional practice is evaluated against the Australian Institute for Teaching and
School Leadership Professional Standards at the Graduate Level (AITSL, 2022).
Once interns have graduated, they are granted Provisional Registration by the
Addressing the Problem of Teacher Shortage in the Australian …
137
VIT, which also allows them greater financial remuneration. Full registration
from the VIT can be attained by application and proving to a panel at the intern’s
school, that they have met the AITSL Professional Standards at the Proficient
Level (AITSL, 2022).
An intensive six-week study period prior to commencing their professional
practice introduces interns to pedagogy, linking current educational theory and
research with teaching practice, to enable insight into student learning with a particular focus on diverse learning environments. Throughout their two-year internship, while studying for their Master of Teaching qualifications, students have
both on-campus and online classes and submit assignments in each of their academic subjects. Subject Coordinators for the academic subjects in the Master of
Teaching (Secondary) Internship course ensure that assignments are aligned with
teaching practice and allow interns to reflect on their progress in their professional practice.
One solution to addressing teacher shortages is to offer alternatives to the traditional two year, on-campus teaching qualifications. These programs are also
valuable in broadening the diversity of the teaching profession, due to the flexibility in their structure. Online or blended learning opportunities, and the alignment
of theory with practice (studying while teaching) allow participants to immediately put into practice what they learn in their academic subjects. The remuneration received for working as a teacher in a school allows some participants to
consider teaching who may not have been able to previously.
Alternative initial education programs often have a strong equity focus, placing teachers in high needs schools, either with complex and challenging teaching conditions or in rural and remote locations; however, these programs need to
resist compromising their initial good intentions addressing teacher shortages in
disadvantaged schools by maintaining a high standard of quality and support to
ensure that participants in the programs are prepared to enter the classroom as
effective teachers (Dadvand & Dawborn-Gundlach, 2020).
Retaining high quality teachers, especially in high needs schools, is important in ensuring that all students can learn from skilled and proficient teachers.
Alternative initial teacher education programs are not a panacea to the teaching
shortages that currently confront education policy makers in Australia and other
countries across the globe but should be considered as complementary to traditional bachelor’s degree and master’s degree teaching courses. Alternative entry
courses raise important questions about the structure of contemporary teaching
courses, including the subjects offered, the length of the course and the number of
teaching placements required to achieve teacher registration.
138
M. Dawborn-Gundlach
5Career Change Teachers
Teachers entering the teaching profession from a previous career or profession are
often referred to as career-change, lateral entry or second career teachers. Attracting and recruiting professionals with previous career experience, who are open
to changing their professional focus, can provide one solution to the problem of
teacher shortage. The qualities that career-change teachers bring to the teaching profession are comprehensive as many have highly developed contemporary
knowledge, skills and experiences from their previous careers, a strong sense of
commitment and purpose, and practical and organisational skills that can provide
a strong foundation for a teaching career (Dadvand & Dawborn-Gundlach, 2020).
Approximately one in three Australian teachers can be classified as career
changers, either changing their career to teaching or graduating from fields other
than education prior to entering the teaching profession. Career-change teachers
often make the change later in life, having established themselves in their previous career. Some choose teaching as a sense of mission or purpose, wanting to
give back or make a difference (Hansen, 2021) while others consider teaching as
a practical alternative to other careers due to its relative stability, especially in
times of economic uncertainty. Other reasons cited for changing careers to teaching are related to a perceived work/life balance.
The reasons that career change teachers choose employment-based pathways,
rather than traditional pathways into teaching, are usually related to the financial
remuneration that these programs offer or a reticence to return to full time oncampus study. Once they have made the decision to change to a teaching career,
many wish to commence their new career immediately, rather than spending up to
two years studying to become a teacher. Combining their new career with studying, especially as an inexperienced teacher can put extra demands on their limited
time and seriously unbalance the work/life/family ratio.
Most new teachers face challenges in the early weeks and months of their
teaching careers; however, those who attempt a transition to teaching from a previous career can find their previous career experiences do not always aid their
adjustment to teaching. Career change teachers bring contemporary skills and
prior work experiences with them, which are valued by schools, but they can also
be challenged by the demands of professional practice, especially the culture outside the realms of curriculum specific teaching practice.
Some of the factors that negatively impact the transition of career change
teachers to teaching, whether enrolled in traditional, on-campus courses or alternative initial teacher education courses, such as employment-based pathways,
include their age relative to other novice teachers, a lack of familiarity with con-
Addressing the Problem of Teacher Shortage in the Australian …
139
temporary teaching approaches, a lack of recognition and acknowledgement of
their previous career experiences and a crisis in their professional identity as they
transition to teaching (Dadvand & Dawborn-Gundlach, 2020).
The professional identity of career change teachers, as they transition to teaching, is often shaped by their prior professional experiences, particularly if these
experiences are perceived as being relevant to their new role as a teacher (Parker,
2016). The development of a professional identity can be undermined if previous
skills and professional practice of career-change teachers are challenged, ignored
or under-valued by their teaching colleagues (Bar-Tal et al., 2019; Beutel et al.,
2019), or their prior work experiences differ significantly from the processes and
skills used in teaching practice (Hodkinson & Sparkes, 2017; Williams, 2010).
Adjusting to the demands of teaching, contemporary pedagogy and practice and
navigating the complex social and cultural dynamics of the school setting can
also challenge career-change teachers in developing their professional identity
and adjusting to their new career (Dadvand & Dawborn-Gundlach, 2020). The
recalibration of career-change teachers’ professional identity from their previous
career to teaching should be attained in the first years of teaching; however, conditions and constraints may negatively impact the process. Empirical evidence is
limited in determining the factors that help and hinder the attainment of a professional teaching identity, especially for career-change teachers.
When teachers move from a previous career to teaching, their formative ideas
of teaching may be questioned in more contemporary classroom spaces. Learnercentred classrooms and the necessity to include digital technology, may be confronting to career-change teachers whose experience in schools is not recent and
who may be unfamiliar or lack confidence with computer technology and educational software widely used in Australian schools (Rowston et al., 2020). Contemporary pedagogical discourse and practice and the use of digital technology
platforms for administration, student well-being, curriculum, and continuous
assessment can add an extra dimension to the workload and stress related to planning and preparing lessons.
Estimates of the percentage of career-change teachers who leave the teaching profession vary. Carver-Thomas and Darling Hammond suggest that careerchange teachers who enter through alternative initial teacher education pathways
are 25% more likely of leaving the profession earlier. The factors that lead to
early attrition include their shorter formal preparation for classroom teaching, the
extra demands, and stresses of teaching in high needs schools and the reliance
on school-based supports, especially in the formative years of teaching (CarverThomas & Darling-Hammond, 2017).
140
M. Dawborn-Gundlach
The role of initial teacher education programs, school mentoring and professional development opportunities are important in ensuring that new teachers,
whether they enter the teaching profession directly from their under-graduate
course, or as career-change teachers, are supported in developing the necessary
skills to become effective teachers with a professional identity that aligns with
their new teaching career. Partnerships and collaboration between the student or
intern in the University of Melbourne Master of Teaching (Secondary) Internship
program, placement school and university need to be integrated and framed in
the best interests of the intern to promote their professional identity, professional
practice and ensure that quality professional experiences and academic coursework are aligned.
Le Cornu (2015) proposes seven components to ensuring the support of new
teachers, while simultaneously ensuring that teacher quality is not compromised.
The components put forward are, “well-structured integrated initial teacher education (ITE) programs, well managed integrated ITE programs, well supported
integrated ITE programs, high quality supervising teachers, high level commitment from School Leadership, high quality school-university partnerships and
high-quality systems-based partnerships” (Le Cornu, 2015, p. 6). These seven
components can be grouped into three broader categories, initial teacher education, placements (in schools) and partnerships (between schools and the initial
teacher education provider) (Le Cornu, 2015).
Research relating to the professional practice and teaching performance of
students enrolled in alternative initial teaching education programs and careerchange teachers is limited. The impact of alternative initial teaching education
courses and ways to improve current practices are yet to be reported in the educational literature in depth. Questions relating to the impact on pedagogical understanding and professional practice, the length and structure of the initial teaching
education course, whether traditional or alternative, the impact on the students
taught and their learning and the impact on interns’ motivation to remain in the
teaching profession and on their ultimate career progression still require further
research to understand the full implications of these solutions and to ensure that
high quality teachers are retained in the schools that need them.
Attracting and enrolling career-change teachers into initial teacher education courses whether they are traditional pathways to teaching or alternative initial education courses can offer ways to address the problem of teacher shortage
and offer solutions for Australian schools and schools across the globe. These
solutions address some of the problems in disadvantaged schools in Australia
as alternative initial teacher education courses are encouraged to place their students (interns and associates) in difficult to staff schools in high needs, rural and
Addressing the Problem of Teacher Shortage in the Australian …
141
remote educational settings. To ensure that the teachers placed in these schools
do not become part of the high numbers of teachers who leave the profession in
their first five years of professional practice, more must be done to understand
and focus on the unique challenges that confront career-change teachers and the
types of support they require to navigate the often-difficult early years of teaching
(Dadvand et al., 2023).
6Recommendations for Attempting to Solve
Teacher Shortage Supply Problems in Australia
The first and most critical recommendation for addressing teacher shortage in
Australia is to raise the status of teaching and teachers and the respect afforded by
students, parents, and members of the public. According to the Australian Government Department of Education Issues Paper relating to Teacher Workforce
Shortages, “…teaching usually has a moderate level of social status, below doctors, nurses and engineers” (Australian Government Department of Education,
2022).
In some European countries, teachers enjoy high esteem, excellent remuneration and health benefits and have non-terminable contracts. Making teaching
more attractive to potential applicants, improving the enrolment and completion
rates of students in their Initial Teacher Education courses, and providing support
in schools so that early-career teachers do not find themselves part of the high
percentage of teachers who leave in their first five years of teaching are important
recommendations for improving the teacher shortage situation in Australia.
Highly reported in the Australian media is the administrative burden that
teachers carry. If this burden can be lifted, by rethinking and reassigning these
tasks to others, then teachers can concentrate their efforts on providing high quality teaching, and feedback to their students. Aligning with reducing the administrative burden is improving the working conditions of Australian teachers. This
includes salary, career opportunities and employment conditions. The low salary
when compared to other careers with similar academic qualifications in Australia and other countries’ entry salary conditions, means that potential teachers
are compromised in their willingness to choose teaching as an option, due to the
negotiated low entry salary.
Educational policy makers across the globe need to address the problem of
teacher shortage, sooner rather than later. The negative effect of overcrowded
classrooms, understaffed education systems and over-stressed educators on student learning is clear. For teachers, who are already overburdened with extra
142
M. Dawborn-Gundlach
work due to an understaffed education system, the decision to remain in the
teaching profession or leave may not be difficult.
Governments need to consider how they will solve the problem of teacher
shortage and where they will find potential new teachers, willing to fill the void.
While some governments have invested in increased marketing to attract people
into the teaching profession or attempted luring retired teachers back to the profession, other solutions proposed have been to lower the educational pre-requisite
qualifications for teaching courses, provide alternative initial teacher education
courses and to attract applicants who are considering changing careers into the
profession.
References
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Australian Government Department of Education. (2022). Issues Paper Teacher Workforce
Shortages. https://ministers.education.gov.au/clare/teacher-workforce-shortages-issuespaper. Accessed 15 Mar 2023.
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL). (2022). Australian Professional Standards for Teachers. All Career Stages. https://www.aitsl.edu.au/standards.
Accessed 15 Mar 2023.
Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL). (2016). What do we
know about early career teacher attrition rates in Australia? from https://www.aitsl.
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2023.
Bar-Tal, S., & Gilat, I. (2019). Second-career teachers looking in the mirror. Journal of
Multidisciplinary Research (1947–2900). 11(2), 27–50.
Beutel, D., Crosswell, L., & Broadley, T. (2019). Teaching as a ‘take-home’ job: Understanding resilience strategies and resources for career-change preservice teachers. Australian Educational Researcher., 46(4), 607–620.
Carver-Thomas, D., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). Teacher turnover: Why it matters and
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Dadvand, B., & Dawborn-Gundlach, M. (2020). The challenge to retain second-career
teachers, in Pursuit. University of Melbourne: Melbourne. https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.
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Dadvand, B., Dawborn-Gundlach, M., van Driel, J., & Speldewinde, C. (2023). Career
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Parker, P. (2016). Coaching for role transition/career change. The Sage handbook of coaching. 419–435.
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Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use,
sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you
give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
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obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
Learning to Teach in Different Academic
Settings: Lateral Entrants on their Way to
the Profession
Alternative Routes into Teaching:
Combined Study Programme
for Teaching German as a Foreign
Language in Ústí nad Labem
Petra Fuková
1Definitions
The combined form of study is anchored in the Czech Higher Education Act
(Zákon o vysokých školách, 2021), which details three possible forms of study.
These are: the face-to-face form, the distance form and the combined form of
study. This paper deals with the combined form, in which attendance is combined
with distance study. The combined form reduces the need to attend face-to-face
classes, whilst increasing the demand for self-study. In other aspects, the combined form does not differ from the face-to-face form. In both, students have to
master the same content, and meet identical assessment requirements for individual subjects and the degree programme overall. In both forms of study students
have the same access to supervision with lecturers.
In the Czech Republic, in line with the Bologna Process, teacher education is
divided into two stages, Bachelor’s and Master’s degree. According to the Higher
Education Act (Zákon o vysokých školách, 2021), Bachelor’s programmes
prepare students for professional practice and Master’s studies. The standard
duration of study on a bachelor’s programme is three (maximum four) years, concluding with a state examination, which includes the defence of the Bachelor’s
thesis. The subsequent Master’s programme is defined in the law cited above as
P. Fuková (*)
Czech Republic, Univerzita Jana Evangelisty Purkyně v Ústí nad Labem,
Ústí nad Labem, Czech Republic
e-mail: petra.fukova@ujep.cz
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_8
147
148
P. Fuková
Grade
School types
13
Vocaonal
Technical
4-year
12
school (2, 3
secondary
Grammar
11
or 4 years)
school
school
10
6-year
Grammar
8-year
School
Grammar
school
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
Primary
school
Primary
school
Primary
school
Primary
school
Primary
school
1
Fig. 1 School types in the Czech Republic: primary and secondary education. (Own
graphic)
a course of study that focuses on acquiring theoretical and practical knowledge
based on the current state of scientific knowledge, research and development,
on mastering its application, and on developing the skills of creative activity. Its
standard duration is a minimum of one year and a maximum of three years. This
study programme also concludes with a state examination, and the defence of the
Master’s thesis.
Next, as readers may not be familiar with the Czech formal education system,
the article provides a brief description of the different types of schools where a
trained teacher can teach. The description is supported by Fig. 1, above.
According to the Education Act (Školský zákon, 2022), compulsory education in the Czech Republic lasts nine years. It begins with primary school,
which is compulsory for all children, and consists of a total of nine grades.
These are divided into the first stage (grades 1 to 5) and second stage (grades
6 to 9). All pupils attend the first stage. After the fifth grade, they can either
continue to attend primary school or, if they pass the entrance examination and
are admitted, they can transfer to an eight-year grammar school. The eight-year
grammar school is divided into lower-stage (grades 6 to 9) and higher-stage
Alternative Routes into Teaching: Combined Study …
149
(grades 10 to 13). In addition to the eight-year grammar school, there are also
the six-year1 and the four-year grammar schools. Pupils can transfer to the
six-year grammar school after grade 7 of primary school, and to the four-year
grammar school after completing primary school. In both cases, admission is
contingent on the results of an entrance examination and the availability of free
places, which are limited in all three types of grammar school. All forms of
grammar school are completed with an end of secondary school national examination.
Other specialised secondary schools and vocational schools are available for
pupils who remain in primary school until the ninth grade, in addition to the fouryear grammar school mentioned above. These differ from grammar schools in the
subjects offered, in duration (which can be two, three or four years) and in the
type of qualifications awarded. It is important to note that four-year technical and
vocational secondary schools can also be completed with the end of secondary
school national examination, which is the general higher education entrance qualification, regardless of the type of school through which it is attained. Individual
colleges and universities may have additional, specific admission requirements
such as entrance examinations.
In this section an overview of initial teacher education and primary and secondary education in the Czech Republic was presented. The following sections
review the origins and the current form of study programmes for prospective German as a foreign language (DaF2)teachers at the Institute of German Studies in
Ústí nad Labem, and specifically its combined form.
2History of the Combined Study Programme
for Teaching German as a Foreign Language
The need for qualified DaF-teachers is closely related to political, social and economic upheavals in the Czech Republic, in particular, the abrupt political transition which occurred in 1989, and the resulting language policy. Before 1989,
Czech pupils studied Russian as a compulsory L23 and then chose another foreign
1 In contrast to the other two forms, the six-year grammar school form is relatively rare.
2 The abbreviation DaF means in German: “Deutsch als Fremdsprache” (“German as a for-
eign language”).
3 The abbreviation Ln means: L1=mother tongue; L2=first foreign language; L3=second
foreign language).
150
P. Fuková
language (such as English, German or French) as a L3. After the political transition, the popularity of Russian declined and demand for English and German
increased. As a result, schools often had to employ unqualified teachers to meet
the demand for English and German.
The Institute of German Studies in Ústí nad Labem noticed a sudden jump
in applicants for DaF-teacher education (Veselý, 2005). To illustrate the situation
at the time, selected data from a survey carried out by teacher educators at the
institute of German Studies in Ústí nad Labem in 2002, illustrates the situation
at the time (Krovová et al., 2003). To all primary and secondary4 schools in the
region were sent a questionnaire with the aim of finding out what the situation
is in schools and, if necessary, offering further training courses for DaF-teachers. The data obtained came from 29% of the schools approached (a total of 73
primary schools, and 41 secondary technical and vocational schools). The data
showed that of 149 DaF-teachers teaching at the participating primary schools,
103 did not have corresponding qualifications. At the secondary schools involved
in the study, the situation looked a little better; according to the data, of 134 DaFteachers, 36 were not qualified. Overall, these figures indicate the urgent situation, which demanded a response.
At that time, the Institute for German Studies offered DaF professional development courses for teachers who were not qualified to teach DaF. In addition,
it was possible for teachers to enrol for further studies in German language and
literature within the framework of a retraining measure. Between 1990 and 2004,
the Institute trained 124 teachers in the teaching profession (Bergerová, 2005).
The relatively low interest in these programmes can be explained by the fact that
the certificates graduates received were not equivalent to a state examination,
according to the law. Therefore, new ways had to be found to enable unqualified
DaF-teachers, who were already teaching, to obtain a full qualification and thus
promote the quality of DaF teaching at schools.
Thus, in 2005, at the Institute of German Studies in Ústí nad Labem, the history of the combined degree programme in DaF teaching began. It was the first
degree programme in this form in the Czech Republic. The standard period of
study was four years and graduates were qualified to teach DaF at primary
4 The
term secondary schools includes all schools from grade 10, including grammar
schools, technical secondary schools and vocational schools.
Alternative Routes into Teaching: Combined Study …
151
schools (Výroční zpráva PF UJEP, 2005). At the same time, unqualified DaFteachers were under increasing pressure in schools, where achieving full qualification was often a condition of their permanent employment. This might be
one reason for high levels of interest in the combined study programme for DaFteacher education. According to the university study system, 128 applicants registered in 2005, rising to 161 in 2006, although for capacity reasons only 30 to 40
of them were accepted for study each year.
In 2006 the Institute of German Studies became part of the Faculty of Humanities (Výroční zpráva FF UJEP, 2006). Despite this change, the four-year study
DaF-programme in the combined form was continued. In 2008, an application
was submitted for accreditation of a new study programme in the combined form.
This was structured in two phases reflecting the Bologna process, similar to the
current one, namely the three-year Bachelor’s programme “German for School
Practice” and the subsequent two-year Master’s programme “Teacher Training in
Foreign Languages for Primary Schools—German”. In contrast to today’s programme, this one trained DaF-teachers for primary schools (Výroční zpráva FF
UJEP, 2008).
In 2014, the combined study programme for DaF was again re-accredited
as the three-year Bachelor’s programme “Intercultural German Studies” (with
an educational-psychological elective module) and the two-year Master’s programme “Teaching German Language and Literature for Secondary Schools”
(Výroční zpráva FF UJEP, 2014). In the next section, the most recent degree programmes, accredited in 2020, are presented.
3The Current Combined Study Programme
for Prospective DaF-Teachers in Ústí Nad Labem
Even today, Czech schools employ some teachers without general or subjectspecific teaching qualifications, although according to the law, an accredited
Master’s degree is a requirement to become a teacher (Zákon o pedagogických
pracovnících, 2004). At the Department of German Studies in Ústí nad Labem,
this corresponds to the Master’s programme “Teaching German Language and
Literature for Secondary Schools”, preceded by a Bachelor’s programme “German Language and Literature for Education”. These two degree programmes, and
specifically their combined forms, which are particularly suitable, among other
things, as a part-time form of study, are presented in more detail below.
152
P. Fuková
3.1Bachelor’s Programme
In 2020, the Bachelor’s programme “German Language and Literature for Education” was accredited in face-to-face and combined forms, although only the single-subject variant5 was accredited in the combined form. These programmes are
open for candidates who have passed the end of secondary school leaving exam
in German. Other candidates with a university entrance qualification are required
to take an entrance examination, in the form of an interview, in which they must
prove their knowledge of German, knowledge of DACH countries6, basic knowledge of German-language literature, and their motivation to study.
In the curriculum of the Bachelor’s programme, philological subjects predominate (80%), only a small part is made up of propaedeutic subjects from the area
of teacher training (20%). Table 1 provides an overview of the curriculum for face
to face and combined study programmes. This includes the compulsory subjects,
the distribution of the attendance phases, and the number of credit points to be
achieved (identical for both forms of study). For the sake of clarity, all philological subjects are shown as a total, while the general pedagogical, psychological
and subject-didactic subjects and professionally oriented internships are shown
individually.
Students receive a total of 165 credit points for these compulsory subjects, and
require a further 15 credit points minimum from elective subjects that are philologically oriented. According to the Study and Examination Regulations of Jan
Evangelista Purkyně University (Studijní a zkušební řád UJEP, 2021), the minimum number of credit points required to reach the next academic year is 45 credit
points for the 2nd academic year, 85 credit points for the 3rd academic year and
125 credit points for the 4th academic year.
The only difference between the combined form and the face-to-face form is
the number of hours of attendance, as can also be seen in Table 1. In contrast to
the face-to-face form, in the combined form of study teaching does not run from
Monday to Friday, but only every second week on Fridays and Saturdays, starting
at 2 p.m. on Fridays and 9 a.m. on Saturdays, and can run until 9 p.m. on both
days. This reduction in attendance hours means that students in the combined
5 The dual-subject option (combination with other subjects, such as English as a foreign
language, Czech or history) is only available in the face-to-face form. However, this is not
considered in this article.
6 The three Central European countries of Germany (D), Austria (A), and Switzerland (CH).
Alternative Routes into Teaching: Combined Study …
153
Table 1 Curriculum of the Bachelor’s programme “German Language and Literature for
Education”—comparison between the face to face and combined form (from accreditation
records, own table)
Combined form
Total number of hours
Subject
Lecture
Philological sub- 23
jects total
Face-to-face form
Total number of hours
Seminar
Lecture
Seminar
Credit points
395
103
1020
139
Pedagogical
Propaedeutic
4
7
13
13
2
Introduction to
psychology
4
8
13
26
4
General didactics 0
12
14
28
4
3
0
14
0
1
Seminar Founda- 0
tion in DaFdidactics
14
0
28
2
German as a foreign language 1
0
13
0
26
2
Selected DaFmodule
0
13
0
26
3
German as a foreign language 2
0
9
0
18
2
Preparation for
teaching practicum
0
4
0
14
1
Observation
practicum
1 week
Foundation in
DaF-didactics
Clinical practicum 0
1 week
5
Assistence practi- 1 week
cum
Reflective seminar 0
for practicum
Total in study
programme
34
0
1
14
1 week
1
2
5
0
9
1
485
157
1222
165
154
P. Fuková
form of study are required to do much more self-study. Special teaching materials are available for the self-study phases, which include explanatory text on the
material covered, questions and tasks for self-study, and recommended primary
and/or secondary literature. The existence of such teaching materials is necessary for successful accreditation of a combined study programme at the National
Accreditation Office in Prague. These teaching materials are made available to
students together with other materials and instructions in the Moodle system.
The standard duration of the Bachelor’s programme is six semesters and the
maximum ten semesters, in face-to-face and combined study. There are no tuition
fees. Thanks to the predominance of philological subjects, the competences graduates gain make them competitive on the Czech and European market, especially
in the German-Czech and Austrian-Czech border regions, where intercultural and
foreign language skills are required in addition to general knowledge. The propaedeutic segments include pedagogical, psychological, subject-didactic modules
and professionally oriented internships. These prepare students for the advanced
Master’s programme, which is described in the following section.
3.2Master’s Programme
The study programme “German Language and Literature for Secondary Schools”
was accredited in 2020 as single-subject study programme7, which can be completed in face-to-face and combined form. Graduates of the Bachelor’s programme “German Language and Literature for Education”, described above, are
admitted to the programme without special requirements. In addition, graduates
who have completed a Bachelor’s programme with a specialisation in German
at another university may register for the programme. Candidates who have not
studied the basics of pedagogy, psychology and teaching methodology, must take
special courses8 in these areas and demonstrate their knowledge in an examination to be admitted to the Master’s programme. Table 2, provides an overview
7 This programme is also available as a two-subject variant, in which the DaF teaching pro-
fession is combined with a teaching profession in another subject (e.g. English as a Foreign
Language, Czech or History). However, the two-subject programme does not exist in the
combined form and therefore its specifics are not described in this article.
8 The pedagogical and psychological courses are taught at the Faculty of Education, while
the didactic courses are offered at the Chair of German Studies at the Faculty of Philosophy.
Face-to-face form
42
3 week
14
15
9
3
50
0
8
11
22
27
8
12
0
0
1
0
0
12
3 week
5
0
0
Pedagogy and psychology modules
Preparation seminar for pedagogical practicum
Observation practicum
Philological subjects
International placement 1
Optional module 19
Pedagogical, psychological and general didactics subjects
Block practicum at primary school10 (2. Stage)
Subject-didatics modules
Philological subjects
Optional module 2
0
84
56
42
0
0
126
6
28
56
Seminar
3
9
8
6
5
3
1
13
2
(continued)
1. Year/
Summer
semester
Credit points 1. Year/
Winter
6
semester
2
Credit points Year/
Semester
rience module.
10 Students conduct this practicum at the second stage of Primary or at an 8-year lower stage Gymnasium.
9 In the face-to-face programme there are no mandatory optional modules, students can obtain these credits from the international expe-
0
0
42
0
0
14
0
0
Lecture
Lecture Seminar
Subject
Number of hours per Number of hours
semester
per semester
Combined form
Table 2 Curriculum of the programme “German Language and Literature for Secondary Schools”—Comparison between face-to-face
and combined forms of study (Own table)
Alternative Routes into Teaching: Combined Study …
155
0
8
20
31
0
8
8
9
5
5
6
8
0
272
0
5
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
57
Comple reflection seminar for practica
Subject-didactics modules
Philological subjects
International experience 2
Optional module 3
Pedagogy and psychology modules
Didactics master seminar
Linguistics master seminar
Literature studies master seminar
Diploma seminar for teachers
Optional module 4
Dissertation
TOTAL in programme
708
0
0
18
9
9
18
18
0
0
112
56
28
120
10
3
2
1
1
2
3
3
1
12
10
2
6
6
2. Year/
Summer
semester
2. Year/
Winter
semester
tional schools.
11 Students conduct this practicum at Gymnasium (at the higher stage of the 8-year Gymnasium), technical secondary schools or voca-
205
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
14
3 week
3 week
Block practicum at the technical secondary schools11
42
70
18
Pedagogy and psychology modules
11
Face-to-face form
Combined form
Table 2 (continued)
156
P. Fuková
Alternative Routes into Teaching: Combined Study …
157
of the curriculum for face-to-face and combined study programmes. For brevity,
philological subjects, pedagogical and psychological subjects, and subject didactic subjects are aggregated rather than listed individually.
The standard period of study for both the combined form and the face-to-face
form is four semesters, the maximum eight semesters. The curriculum for both
forms of study is identical and consists of language practice, linguistics, literary
studies, cultural history and subject didactics, school-practica and general pedagogical and psychological subjects, as can be seen in Table 2.
The total credit points are divided into three module groups as follows:
a) Modules of pedagogical-psychological preparation and general didactics—26.3% of the credit points
b) Modules of subject specialisation and teaching methodology—46.1% of the
credit points
c) Career-oriented practica—27.6% of the credit points
In order to reach the second year of study, students require at least 45 credit
points; for the 3rd year of study, they require 85 credit points. In total, they must
obtain 108 credit points for compulsory modules and at least 12 credit points for
elective modules throughout their studies (Studijní a zkušební řád UJEP, 2021).
There are no differences in the content of individual modules between both
forms of study. The competences which graduates from these programmes are
expected to develop are defined in detail in the accreditation documents. These
include communicative competence, knowledge and competence in the area of
teaching methodology, linguistic and literary disciplines and intercultural competence.
Graduates should demonstrate C1–C2 levels of linguistic competence, according to the Common European Framework of Reference for languages (CEFR).
This includes knowing the (written and spoken) standard norm of German, and
being able to fully and directly understand and interpret German-language texts
related to everyday situations and functional styles close to his/her professional
environment.
In teaching methodology, graduates are expected to know modern methods,
DaF teaching principles and forms, especially the effective teaching of language
skills and systems. Graduates should also be familiar with the curricular documents and the legislative framework for DaF teaching at secondary and primary
schools in the Czech Republic. Graduates are expected to be able to carry out a
didactic analysis of the subject matter and to use appropriate teaching methods
to achieve the educational goals set out in the curriculum. In addition, graduates
158
P. Fuková
are expected to master new teaching techniques and methods, including technical tools and media for modern interactive foreign language teaching in order to
effectively promote the communicative competences of pupils.
On the linguistic level, graduates should have a good command of contemporary German, be familiar with its functional and social varieties including development trends, be familiar with cultural-historical and sociological contexts of
the German-speaking milieu and able to apply these in DaF-lessons.
Last but not least, graduates have a general overview of the development of
literature in the German-speaking world. This includes an in-depth understanding of German-language literature and culture from its origins to the present and
with a special focus on children’s and youth literature and genres relevant for DaF
teaching. Graduates should be able to interpret literary texts in a broader culturalhistorical (German-Czech) context.
This graduate profile shows that the Master’s programme is oriented towards
specific subject-knowledge and competences necessary for DaF-teachers. In contrast, the Bachelor’s programme (described above), has a clear philological focus
in which the pedagogical-psychological and subject didactic subjects play a secondary role and are mainly of a propaedeutic character.
Despite these similarities, the combined form of study differs from the face-toface form, similar to the Bachelor’s programme described above, in the number
of hours of attendance phases, as can be seen in Table 2. In this case, too, the
face-to-face teaching of the individual subjects will only take place every second
week on Fridays and Saturdays in the combined form of study. The lower number
of attendance hours corresponds to higher self-study hours required of students
in the combined form. To support the students, special teaching materials for the
self-study phases (with explanatory text sections on the material covered, with
questions and tasks for self-study, and with recommended primary and/or secondary literature) have been created. These materials are available for students in the
Moodle system with other materials and instructions. Again, successful accreditation of a combined degree programme at the National Accreditation Office in
Prague would not be possible without such teaching materials.
The only consistency that can be seen in Table 2, face-to-face and combined
study programmes have an equal time allocation for the block placements at primary and middle school, which take three weeks each in both forms of study.
However, let’s take a closer look at the mandatory outcomes of these placements
in the form of portfolios, students in the combined form have to complete four
hours of job-shadowing, eight hours of self-teaching and three hours of teacherassisting, whereas students in the face-to-face form have to account for twice as
many hours in all three areas. Thus, these block practica are also significantly
Alternative Routes into Teaching: Combined Study …
159
shortened for the combined form of study compared to the face-to-face form. Furthermore, there is no fixed three-week period in the timetable of the combined
study programme set aside for block practica, as there is in the face-to-face form
of study. In addition, in both forms of study there is the possibility of having professional experience recognised as an internship, which can be applied for by
anyone who has taught at a corresponding school for at least six months. This is
often the case for students in the combined form programme.
To complete their studies, students must take a state examination at the Institute of German Studies12, which have three parts: a didactic part, a linguistic part
and a literary part. In the didactic part, students must demonstrate theoretical subject didactic knowledge and the practical application of a teaching concept prepared in advance. In the linguistic part of the state examination, the theoretical
linguistic knowledge of the students is demonstrated in a text analysis. In the literary part, they have to demonstrate both, their general knowledge of literature
from the German-speaking area, with a special focus on genres suitable for DaF
teaching, and their ability to interpret various literary texts based on their own
reading. A component of the state examination is also the defence of the Master’s
thesis. This state examination is the same for both forms of study.
No tuition fees are required for study within the maximum period mentioned
above. Graduates of this degree programme are entitled to teach at grammar
schools, technical secondary schools, vocational schools and at the second stage
of primary school.
The typical student in the combined form of study (both in the Bachelor’s
and Master’s programmes) is usually older, employed or busy caring for a family
member (usually children) and already has a better knowledge of German, than
students in the face-to-face form. The following section explores the profile of
students in combined study programmes further.
3.3Profile of Students in Combined Study Programme
For the purposes of this paper, a short survey was conducted among current
students in the combined form at the Institute of German Studies in September
2022. This was a survey using a questionnaire consisting of eleven items, seven
12 They also take a state examination in pedagogy and psychology at the Faculty of Educa-
tion.
160
P. Fuková
of which were multiple-choice questions and four open-ended. The questionnaire
was sent by e-mail and students could participate voluntarily and anonymously.
60% of all current students (n = 33) in the combined form of the Bachelor’s
and Master’s programme at the Department of German Studies, who have already
completed at least one year of study, took part in the survey. The sample did not
include students who were just about to begin their studies because questions
included their experience of the programme. 15% of respondents were male students, which corresponds to the larger proportion of women studying for a DaF
teaching degree and also in the teaching profession compared to men. Almost two
thirds of the respondents are currently studying in the Bachelor’s programme,
39% of the respondents in the Master’s programme. This distribution correlates
with the length of the degree programmes and thus with the number of students
surveyed in the respective form of study.
The following Fig. 2 provides information about the age of the respondents.
The youngest respondent is 24 years old, the oldest 50 years old. As can be seen
from Fig. 2, students over 40 make up more than two-fifths of all respondents,
and students over 30 even two-thirds.
The survey shows that parallel to their studies, all respondents are employed
and/or self-employed, except for one who is on disability retirement. 42% of the
respondents take care of one or more children or another family member. 67% of
respondents said they use German regularly at work, and more than a third of all
of them also use it with family or friends.
More than half of respondents have experience as a DaF-teacher at a school
(primary school, technical secondary school, vocational school or grammar
school); this school year, every second person is teaching DaF at one of these
33%
43%
24 to 30 years
31 to 40 years
41 to 50 years
24%
Fig. 2 Respondents by age-group, n = 33. (Own graphic)
Alternative Routes into Teaching: Combined Study …
161
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
B Past
M Past
B Present M Present B Future
Yes
No
M Future
I don´t know
Fig. 3 DaF teaching experience and future plans of current Bachelor and Master programmes, n = 33 (Own graphic)
types of schools. 70% of all respondents report they want to work as a DaFteacher in the future. Among Master’s students the percentage is even higher;
only two students are still undecided. The comparison between the Bachelor’s
and Master’s students is shown in more detail in the following Fig. 3. In this context, there were three items in the questionnaire:
1. “In the past I have already taught German as a foreign language at…”. All the
above-mentioned school types were available for selection, and respondents
could tick several of them. In addition, they could choose the answer “I have
never taught German as a foreign language”. The data can be found in the
Fig. 3. Simplified as “yes” only if the respondents have taught DaF at least one
type of school in the past, otherwise as “no”, distinguishing between Bachelor’s (B past) and Master’s students (M past).
2. “In this school year I am teaching at…” Here, too, all school types were
offered for ticking or the variant “In this school year I do not teach German as
a foreign language”. Figure 3 shows simplified data (“yes” or “no” for Bachelor’s [B present] and Master’s students [M present]).
3. “In the future, I want to teach DaF”. Respondents chose between the answers
“yes”, “no”, “I don’t know”. Figure 3 shows the data for comparison for Bachelor’s (B future) and Master’s students (M future).
162
P. Fuková
Fig. 3 reveals that Master’s programme students have more experience of teaching DaF, and are more determined to pursue DaF as a teaching career than Bachelor’s students. Furthermore, in the context of the block placements described
above, it is evident that most of the students in the combined Master’s programme
can have their professional experience recognised.
When asked about the main reason for their decision to study in the combined form, our respondents mentioned financial reasons (e.g. “I work full time”,
“I need to dovetail work with studies”, “becoming self-employed, starting to
work and studying at the same time”, “I can’t afford to be a full-time student anymore”), family reasons (e.g. “looking after the family”, “maternity leave”), their
age (e.g. “I’m already too old”) or the distance of their place of residence from
the university (e.g. “distance from Ústí nad Labem”). These answers confirm that
the combined form of study is particularly suitable for those who are already in
the middle of their professional and/or family life. In addition, limited attendance requirements make the study programme accessible to those who come from
more distant places in the Czech Republic.
The advantages of the combined form mentioned by our respondents confirm this, and include the combination of work and/or looking after the family
on the one hand and studying on the other (for example: “At the moment it is the
only form I can afford with a job and relatively small children”. “An educational
opportunity for working people”. “I can work and look after my family while
doing it”. “I can earn money while doing it”) and time flexibility (for example:
“self-study and organising it according to my needs”, “greater flexibility”, “more
free time”). Other advantages mentioned by students include the heterogeneous
composition of the group (for example: “Mix of generations, which allows for
richer discussions”) and increased autonomy (for example: “It suits me that I plan
my own time for studying”. “A better way to divide up my studies myself”).
Respondents also cited some disadvantages in the combined form of study,
such as the lack of “student life” (for example: “lack of contact with fellow students and lecturers”) and long attendance blocks in which one has to maintain
concentration (for example: “a lot of learning material in one day”). The organisation of attendance on two days in a fortnightly rhythm is seen as an advantage
but also brings excessive demands (for example: “you have to manage everything:
work, family, studies”, “you almost don’t live any more”, “little time for everything”) and organisational problems (for example: “finding childcare on Friday
and Saturday”). Furthermore, respondents mentioned the need for self-discipline
(for example: “Even if I have a great plan, it is sometimes difficult to keep the
self-discipline, especially when there is a lot to do at work”). Only two respondents stated that they could not name any disadvantages of the combined form of
study, or that the advantages clearly outweighed the disadvantages.
Alternative Routes into Teaching: Combined Study …
163
In conclusion, the survey confirmed that the students in the combined form of
study are predominantly older people than in the face-to-face form of study, who
are often employed, have their own families and use their German skills in their
professional and/or private lives. Many of them were and/or are already working as DaF-teachers without the necessary qualification and want to achieve this
while working.
4Conclusion
This article presents the combined form of study for a teaching degree in German as a foreign language at the Institute of German Studies in Ústí nad Labem.
The article began by describing the origins of the combined programme, and then
describing the current study programmes in this form in detail. Finally, the article presents insights into the profiles of current Bachelor and Masters students on
combined study programmes.
In conclusion, the combined form of study for a DaF teaching qualification in
Ústí nad Labem is an effective strategy to meet the demand for more DaF-teachers in the Czech Republic. Combined study enables students to gain a professional qualification alongside work and family commitments. At the same time,
combined study programmes present significant challenges for students, who
must demonstrate high-levels of determination and self-discipline to complete the
course.
The two forms of study for initial teacher education in the Czech Republic
provide rich ground for comparison. Future studies could compare competences
(values/attitudes, beliefs and practices) of teachers on qualification from different
programmes, and track their career progression over subsequent years.
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Educating Ireland’s First Generation
of Computer Science Teachers
for Secondary and Primary Schools;
an Unfinished Story
Pamela O’Brien, Natasha Kiely and Conor Galvin
1Introduction
Computing as an area of teaching and learning has a longer and more complicated history in Irish schools education than most are aware. As Leahy & Donal
(2014) note:
“…a computer studies module was introduced into the Leaving Certificate examination in 1980 as part of the mathematics syllabus. This module was optional and was
monitored separately from the main mathematics course. [Additionally] a computer
studies syllabus was introduced in 1985 into the Junior Cycle Curriculum” (p. 165).
These however did not gain traction at the time and by the early 90s had been quietly vacated by schools and the Department of Education1, alike.
1 The term used in Ireland for the Ministry with responsibility for schools and school edu-
cation.
P. O’Brien (*) · N. Kiely
Technological University of the Shannon:Midlands Midwest (TUS),
TUS Thurles Campus, Ireland
e-mail: pamela.obrien2@ucdconnect.ie
N. Kiely
e-mail: natasha.kielyfennelly@ucdconnect.ie
C. Galvin
University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield, Ireland
e-mail: conor.galvin@ucd.ie
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_9
165
166
P. O’Brien et al.
The subject did not return to the Irish secondary school curriculum in any formal way until the announcement in February 2017 that a new Leaving Certificate2
subject in computer science was to be fast-tracked for introduction. An initial
pilot stage (described as phase one) was to take place in schools from September
2018 followed by a full, national ‘roll-out’. Of course, this was not totally without
foundations to work from. Informally, due particularly to the work of the Computers in Education Society of Ireland (CESI), there has been a constant and often
extra-curricular element of computing in many schools over the years—both
primary and post-primary (secondary). Additionally, as part of the Junior Cycle
reforms of 2014—and the related move to more classroom based assessment
(CBA)—a number of ‘short courses’3 were introduced; each running for three to
five weeks. One such short course was launched in 2016 in the area of coding. So,
while there was the ill-fated experiment of the late 80’s and while we saw numerous examples of ‘casual’ and less formal introduction across the system down the
years, this was the first time that computer science had been formally introduced
as a stand-alone content area in either the primary or second level curriculum in
Ireland.
During the subsequent specification process for the new subject, the National
Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) commissioned a study on computer science at second level education in other countries to inform decisions
relating to the Irish context (Keane & McInerney, 2018). A curriculum development group was established and a series of semi-consultative events followed—
which contributed further to the sense of urgency sparked by the proposed phase
one launch less than eighteen months from the initial announcement. This fastpaced and eclectic model of curriculum development certainly focused minds.
However, it also led to significant divergences from similar courses in countries
2 In Ireland there are two sets of formal state-sponsored examinations undertaken by stu-
dents during their time in second level education. The Junior Certificate closes with a number of examinations which are taken at around age 15 and the upper secondary concludes
with the School Leaving Certificate at around age 18.
3 The short course is a curriculum component in Junior Cycle (Ireland’s lower secondary
stage) which provides opportunities for schools to broaden the range of educational experiences they offer to their students.
Educating Ireland’s First Generation of Computer …
167
like the US and the UK—for example, the inclusion of applied learning tasks and
programming for embedded systems.
The new subject specification was approved in December 2017, and the official launch took place on the 5th February 2018 (NCCA, 2018a, b). The structure
for assessment consisted of a 70% terminal examination (with some discussion
at the time that it would be online) and a 30% mark for a practical project based
on one or more of the applied learning tasks detailed in the course specification
(NCCA, 2018a, b). The NCCA also specified that only two programming languages—Python and/or JavaScript—should be used when preparing for assessment within the subject. The rationale for this related to regulating for grade
consistency at the state examinations commission (SEC) level as the commission
was given responsibility for the terminal examinations in line with all other Leaving Certificate subjects.
In January 2018 it was announced that 40 strand one secondary schools would
pilot the Leaving Certificate Computer Science and sit their Leaving Certificate
examinations in 2020 (Halpin, 2018). This call for phase one schools attracted
considerable interest. From 140 expressions of interest, 40 schools were selected
to test-teach the new subject course in September 2018.
However, neither the specification itself nor the flurry of hasty activity that
surrounded the planning and introduction of the new subject addressed the question of preparing a cohort of teachers to provide the subject in schools. The point
had emerged early in the discussions that teacher preparation for this new subject
needed to take place promptly. What was not agreed was how this cohort would
be recruited and prepared—particularly given the probability that this task would,
most likely, exceed the capacity and capability of existing teacher education providers.
That extraordinary omission is the subject of this paper. We look in particular at how an unprecedented combination of haste to launch the new subject and
lack of attention to resourcing and educating teachers at the system level led to a
certain amount of innovative and imaginative thinking and the introduction of at
least one novel and innovative response from what would have been seen previously as an unusual source with no prior involvement in formal teacher education;
the Technical University of the Shannon: Midlands Midwest (TUS) Post-Graduate Diploma in Computing (Computer Science for Teachers) at its Thurles Campus.
168
P. O’Brien et al.
2The Department of Education, Ireland, Computer
Science School Subject Initiative
The core activity to frame a new curriculum subject in Ireland centres on the development of a ‘subject specification’4 that results from engaging with key education
stakeholders as well as a process of public consultation before any new curriculum
specifications are finalised. The CS curriculum development followed this general
model. When published by Ireland’s National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) the specification contained three strands: Practices and Principles,
Core Concepts, and Computer Science in Practice; and proposed 180 h of class
contact time. According to the specification, students will engage with computational and algorithmic thinking, the design, development and testing of computer
applications, computer systems, data representation and the impact of computer
science on society.
Although the curriculum is in line with the traditional vision and principles
of the Leaving Certificate5, the specification took a novel approach to teaching
and assessment at this level, incorporating student-centred pedagogical practices
within the classroom many of these based on real life scenarios with an emphasis
on student-led activities both for learning and for assessment purposes. This comprised a series of in-course applied learning tasks (ALTs) addressing interactive
information systems, analytics, modelling and simulation and embedded systems.
The course assessment component is then completed individually by students
towards the end of the course. This is similar in structure to the ALTs tackled
earlier and results in the production of a virtual or computational artefact. The
curriculum assessment is scheduled at both ordinary and higher levels to accommodate differentiation among the student population (NCCA, 2018a, b).
The initial phase targeted forty second level schools across the country with
schools selected to ensure an urban and rural regional spread. The criteria for
selection was based on support guaranteed by boards of management, an undertaking to put computer science on the formal timetable, the availability of teachers with IT qualifications (or a willingness to teach and engage with professional
development both in and out of school hours), and a viable number of students
interested in studying computer science (McGarr et al., 2020).
4 A detailed document outlining the background, rational and core content aspects of an
area of learning—including strong guidance regarding assessment and teaching practices
seen to align with the requirements of the new area.
5 Ireland’s secondary school completion examination.
Educating Ireland’s First Generation of Computer …
169
In relation to teacher qualifications, the conventional approach in Ireland
is to educate secondary teachers to masters (Level 9) standards within a formal
structure of Higher Education Institutions and Colleges, where their courses and
programmes come under the regulation of the Teaching Council (Ireland), the
standards body for the teaching profession. Clearly, this was not possible within
the proposed timeframe for introducing the new subject area. However, a Teaching Council mechanism exists that allows a qualified teacher to add additional
subjects, such as Computer Science, to their teaching repertoire. This was utilised
within the pilot schools because the speed at which the subject was introduced
made nothing else possible. As a result, the Department simply required clear
expressions of willingness on behalf of the teacher in the phase one schools to
participate and engage in professional development activities provided through
the pilot. Again, in another departure from conventional practice the vast bulk of
this training was provided not by HEIs or Colleges but by the Department’s own
agency—the Professional Development Service for Teachers (PDST)6.
Teachers from the selected schools began professional development (PD) provided by the PDST in the summer of 2018. This PD aimed to support teachers
throughout the two-year pilot implementation of the new subject. The challenge
for the PDST was to provide PD to support this new curriculum that ensured the
teachers were capable and confident in the delivery of this content and in the new
style and approach to teaching and assessment. This challenge was addressed
through the provision of a well-resourced series of skills development workshops
(nationally), regional cluster meetings, webinars, MOOCs and online sharing
platforms, all of which proved extremely beneficial to the initial cohort of teachers engaged in this phase (McGarr et al., 2020). Subsequent iterations of the rollout continued with approximately sixty additional schools participating in 2020,
forty in 2021 and forty in 2022. Despite the challenges involved, similar support
has been provided by the PDST in the PD and upskilling of the teachers involved
in these subsequent phases.
Although strong interest seems to exist among schools in introducing computer science at Leaving Certificate level, the question remains how Ireland will
continue to develop a pool of teachers qualified to teach computer science into
the future once these pilot initiatives and PDST-serviced introductory phase
cycles are complete. A sustainable infrastructure is required to ensure a continued
6 PDST is now incorporated into Oide—a new support service for teachers and school lead-
ers in Ireland; https://oide.ie/.
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P. O’Brien et al.
p­ ipeline of educators to contribute to the ongoing delivery of computer science in
the Irish classroom. This is the context against which the specific third-level programme we now consider emerged.
3The TUS Response; CS Programme
The Technological University of the Shannon: Midlands Midwest (TUS) is a
multi-campus University in Ireland with a focus on meeting the evolving needs of
society and industry through applied learning and innovative thinking. The development of the region in which the university is based through higher education,
research, and commercial collaboration is central to the mission of the organisation. TUS is not a teacher education centre in the traditional sense. However, due
to the lack of a formal curriculum for Computer Science (CS) at either primary
or second level in Ireland and to fulfil the regional development remit of the university, a number of lecturers in the Information Technology Department at TUS
have worked extensively with teachers in the region to introduce CS in an informal way to the classroom since 2000. Through these interactions the group had
seen at first hand the appetite among teachers to upskill in the CS subject domain,
even prior to the introduction of CS as an examinable subject.
Initially, to support the newly reformed Junior Cycle Programme, the Junior
Cycle for Teachers (JCT) support service was set up in 2014 to provide continuous professional development (CPD) for lower-secondary teachers across a wide
variety of subjects including computer coding. In addition to this structured CPD,
teachers began to look for more formal opportunities to upskill in the area of
Computer Science. As a result, the programme team at TUS established the PostGraduate Introduction to Coding and Computational Thinking programme, in
September 2017. The aim of this programme was to support Junior Cycle teachers delivering the short course in coding to their students.
With the further requirement to introduce CS as a Leaving Certificate subject
in 2018, the need for additional formal programmes in Computer Science became
apparent. This resulted in the development of an expanded suite of post graduate programmes at TUS up to and including the opportunity to upskill to Masters
level. These were launched in 2020, building on lessons learnt from offering the
Coding & Computational Thinking programme, and systematically accommodating content and pedagogy relating to the now-published Computer Science curriculum. Together, these informed the structure and content of the programmes
which were specifically tailored for teachers wishing to upskill to teach the newly
introduced CS Leaving Certificate subject.
Educating Ireland’s First Generation of Computer …
171
Central to this was the intention to provide opportunities for teachers to upskill
in a new, non-cognate domain—essentially one where they had little if any prior
experience. The TUS offering comprises a number of 10 ECTS credit single module certificates, a 30 ECTS credit Post Graduate Certificate, a 60 ECTS credit
Post Graduate Diploma and finally a 90 ECTS credit Masters Programme. The
structure of the programmes allows teachers to start with a single, 10 credit module to ease themselves into their studies, before progressing to either the Post
Graduate Certificate, Diploma or Masters programmes. Alternatively, they can
choose to enter directly into the Certificate, Diploma or Masters programmes.
These programmes are specifically aimed at qualified teachers who wish to
upskill in the new CS subject domain.
The motivating factors which prompt teachers to engage in CPD such as this,
ranges from a short-term immediate requirement to deliver CS at Leaving Certificate, to a medium term requirement to introduce coding at Junior Cycle with
a view to introducing CS for the Leaving Certificate, to a personal interest on the
part of the teacher to upskill generally in CS without a definite plan within the
school to deliver CS. For some teachers the programmes provide an opportunity
to add a new subject domain to their skillset which may help them to secure full
time employment. The different perspectives that the students bring to TUS programmes have been instrumental to the way the programmes have evolved over
the years.
The focus of the individual modules has been carefully chosen and put
together to meet the Teaching Council recognition criteria (Teaching Council, 2020). The emphasis is on CS concepts rather than the pedagogical context
in which they are taught. Notwithstanding this constraint, an active learning
approach is taken in all modules so that content is taught to showcase good practice in the teaching of Computer Science as a subject area. The programme team
is very aware that the students on TUS courses need to learn both the concepts
and how to teach them to their own students. According to McGarr et al (2020)
the move “towards more project-based, student-centred learning” (p. 23) was
identified as one of the challenges for teachers and students with the introduction
of this new subject. The team has found that teacher confidence when introducing
computer science topics is a major inhibitor to teachers successfully incorporating these subjects into their classrooms which is in line with the findings from the
NCCA (2019) report on its Coding in Primary Schools Initiative.
To mitigate against these inhibiting factors and teacher concerns, the programming elements of TUS courses have been carefully chosen as suitable for
use within the classroom rather than the industry standard environments that
would be taught in a traditional Computer Science undergraduate or ­postgraduate
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P. O’Brien et al.
c­ontext. The laboratory work to be undertaken by teachers on a weekly basis
requires them to work through available online resources and developed materials
suitable to a school setting. In addition, ongoing weekly assessment tasks are utilised to deepen teacher engagement with the concepts and topics. There is a focus
in the assessment material on getting students to engage with the concepts and to
develop their own resources to deepen that engagement. The practical laboratory
work and assessment materials are all structured to be transferable to the teachers
own classroom. In this way, the experience and expertise of the programme team,
gained through teaching CS at undergraduate level, shapes the ethos of the TUS
courses underpinning all aspects of the pedagogies and methodologies used.
The delivery mode has been carefully selected to facilitate full-time teachers
undertaking part-time study. A blended format maximises engagement with the
students, while also allowing for the other commitments that these teachers have.
Monthly workshops are combined with pre-recorded material and live weekly
tutorials to provide support for students while allowing them to work through the
materials at a time and at a pace that suits them. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the monthly workshops were conducted in person with all other delivery
online. The in-person workshops proved invaluable in the development of a Community of Practice (CoP) among participating teachers. This CoP was further
developed through the live online weekly tutorials with students working together
on various tasks and assessments. Again, due to the COVID-19 pandemic the
monthly workshops were also moved online with particular attention paid to fostering the Community of Practice among students. The experience of the team in
delivering the programmes prior to the Covid 19 pandemic proved invaluable in
this regard.7
In short: the CS team at TUS developed its CS teacher programmes in
response to an identified need to support teachers in their development as CS
practitioners. Through interactions with these teachers—and frequently their students—TUS was able to put together bespoke programmes that represent a direct
response to the needs of local teachers. The emphasis in all TUS CS teacher
courses is on active learning and practical skills underpinned by the appropriate
theory to deepen understanding and build confidence. Problem solving, computational thinking and unplugged activities are at the heart of the TUS approach, and
7 Now that the worst of the pandemic appears to have passed, these decisions will of course
be revisited for future intakes.
Educating Ireland’s First Generation of Computer …
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assessment for learning techniques are part of all courses to model appropriate
CS techniques for participating teachers to use in their own classroom.
4Learning from First Iterations & Participants
Responses
“To learn something deeply, students need to internalize it and make it their own. To
be able to use that learning and influence issues that matter to them, students need
to participate substantively: They need to practice leading in contexts that provide
autonomy, agency, and the personalized attention of caring adults” (Toshalis & Nakkula, 2012, p. 31).
The TUS courses outlined earlier are unique in the ways they were developed in
response to a specific regional need, with the expressed aim of empowering local
teachers to teach Computer Science within the framework of the new CS subject area. The course content, pedagogical approaches and assessment methods
TUS employed are crucial in providing the necessary autonomy and agency for
teachers. A process of continuous evaluation and improvement ensures that the
underpinning methodologies utilised achieve the overarching aim. To this end,
the programme team have sought formative and summative feedback and implemented appropriate improvements over the lifetime of the programmes.
The wide range of technical experience and expertise that teachers bring to
the programmes, the technical infrastructure within their schools, the leadership
support they receive within their schools to complete the programme and the culture around the integration of technology within the school all have an impact on
the manner in which they engage with the programmes. A collaborative approach
has been taken by the programme team in the delivery of these programmes. The
teachers, who choose to upskill in Computer Science in this way, are heavily
invested in the programmes and often have some previous experience of teaching
CS concepts in the classroom. Incorporating their experiences into the fabric of
the way in which the modules are taught has provided a rich teaching and learning environment for both the students and the teaching team at TUS. Incorporating the student voice in the classroom is particularly important in this setting; as
the students here are teachers who will themselves go on to teach the concepts in
their own classrooms.
Teacher confidence in the delivery of computer science modules in both primary and second level education can be problematic. Many teachers view their
students as 21st Century digital natives who are more in tune with technology
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than they themselves are. This can be an inhibiting factor, and indeed a paralyzing factor in some cases, to those attempting to upskill and implement CS in
their classrooms. TUS CS programmes address this issue through exposure to
skills-centred mini-projects and the development of an active portfolio of digital
tools and pedagogies to use within the classroom. Reflective practices and ongoing presentation of developed materials at tutorials and workshops, ensures that
teachers actively engage and prepare for their own classroom contexts.
Having the confidence to teach CS to students while you yourself, as a
teacher, are learning the concepts can be challenging. This, coupled with the
rate of change in the advancement of technology, and the wide variety of available online resources, can prove overwhelming for teachers. It can be difficult to
choose suitable technologies and resources for the classroom. To mitigate against
these factors, the TUS team has ensured that the programming environments—
the activities, programming languages and learning activities—chosen can be
incorporated directly into the teacher’s classroom. Given the pedagogical content
knowledge (Shulman, 1991) gained through teaching computer science to undergraduate students, the team has found that practical hands-on learning tasks prove
successful in guiding students through the process of developing competence in
CS concepts.
Identifying tasks that provide differentiation in the classroom to support students with individual needs is essential when teaching computer science. Students’ aptitudes and abilities can differ significantly, requiring activities that are
both challenging and supportive. The pedagogical principles underpinning the
CS for Teachers programmes are informed by all of these challenges. A series
of manageable learning activities is assigned on a weekly basis. These exercises
can be used by the teachers in their classrooms with a selection of the exercises
chosen as weekly assessment tasks. A selection of suitable, online resources is
also shared with teachers where appropriate. Additional assessment tasks include
a requirement for teachers to create their own resources to use in their specific
classroom. This approach helps teachers to engage more deeply with the concepts and build their confidence as the modules progress. The delivery of the programmes has a dual purpose with the primary focus being the acquiring of subject
knowledge and an equally important secondary focus of the delivery of this subject content in the teachers own classroom.
The structure of the modules, the mechanisms of teaching and learning used,
and the course assessment strategies have all been carefully chosen to encourage engagement from participating teachers and to support them as they progress
through the modules. As noted earlier, access to a Community of Practice is a
Educating Ireland’s First Generation of Computer …
175
crucial aspect of learning for many and this has been borne out in the TUS programmes. The university’s view of such a community is rooted in the views of
Etienne Wenger—and well defined by Wenger, Trayner & de Latt (2011) as a:
“…learning partnership among people who find it useful to learn from and with
each other about a particular domain. They use each other’s experience of practice
as a learning resource, And they join forces in making sense of and addressing challenges they face individually or collectively” (p. 9).
Pre-COVID, the face to face workshops provided an opportunity for teachers on
the programme to meet in person on a monthly basis. Computational Thinking
exercises were utilised during workshops to encourage teachers to work together
to brainstorm and devise solutions to a variety of real world problems. The benefits of these activities were threefold; providing activities that teachers could
use with their own students; demonstrating the benefits of using group work in
the classroom and finally providing opportunities for teachers to collaborate and
get to know each other. During the weekly online tutorials, teachers are again
required to work together on various activities, reflect on their teaching practice
and share their own experiences of teaching CS in the classroom with their fellow
students. Students are also encouraged to set up informal support groups among
themselves. The facilitation of the community of practice in this way has been a
significant success for these programmes. Due to the COVID pandemic, the face
to face workshops had to be discontinued for a number of years, but the collaborative nature of the workshops and the focus on developing a strong CoP to support participating teachers was preserved.
To ensure that the TUS programmes remain relevant as exercises in CS teacher
education, a continuous cycle of evaluation and improvement has been undertaken. Feedback has been sought from students, both informally during the module delivery and more formally at the end of the module. This feedback has been
analysed and discussed by the programme team and appropriate adjustments follow—this is what gives any programme its currency but particularly so in the CS
for Teachers case. As part of this feedback loop, teachers have acknowledged the
many strengths of the programme including the practical, hands-on nature of the
mode of delivery, the incorporation of real life problems, the supportive nature
of the learning environment, the focus on how the concepts can be taught in the
classroom and the success they have experienced in their own classrooms when
teaching the concepts.
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5Closing Commentary
In response to the introduction of CS as a Leaving Certificate subject, several
universities and colleges that have traditionally provided initial teacher education (ITE) have now started to offer formalised CS teacher education courses or
build subject pedagogy strands into existing ones. All of these seek to combine
Mathematics with Computer Science as the subject combination for second level
teachers. The University of Galway and the University of Limerick both offer
four-year undergraduate concurrent teacher education programmes on this model.
In a variation on the 3 + 2 consecutive teacher education model which dominates
in secondary teacher education settings, University College Dublin and Maynooth
University have both advertised four-year undergraduate programmes that allow
progression to an additional one-year postgraduate Masters programme (instead
of the usual two-year postgraduate Professional Masters). With these programmes
only beginning in 2021 it will be 2025 at the earliest before graduates will be
available to schools. However, due to the enduring and significant shortage of
qualified computer science graduates, both nationally and globally, and the
increasing importance of data analytics in the Information Technology sector in
Ireland, the combination of Computer Science and Mathematics will produce
graduates who will almost certainly find it easy to get employment in the IT sector. Securing full-time permanent employment as a teacher can be a long arduous process, so the ease of securing employment combined with the considerably
higher salaries in the IT sector will pose a significant threat to the availability of
these Computer Science and Mathematics teachers to schools.
As a result, there will—very likely—be a continuing shortfall in CS teacher
numbers for the foreseeable future. On the plus side, this may represent opportunities for providers such as TUS and others across the sector of higher education
not traditionally associated with teacher education to continue to offer courses
and programmes that can meet this challenge. For instance, the Atlantic Technological University–Letterkenny Campus now markets a part-time, Level 8 Higher
Diploma in Computing for Educators which is delivered in a blended mode.
Similar to the TUS approach, this Diploma is tailored specifically to the needs
of teachers. It also provides a pathway to completion via a number of 10 ECTS
credit certificates which can be amalgamated to meet the 60 ECTS credit requirement for a Higher Diploma. Others, such as the Technological University DublinTallaght Campus, recruit to general purpose software development diplomas that
appeal to some teachers because of their coding aspects.
The introduction of Leaving Certificate CS has also led to a sharp rise in the
amount of informal and non-formal opportunities on offer to teachers to build
Educating Ireland’s First Generation of Computer …
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CS capability. The PDST work in this area has already been mentioned. In addition, many third level Computer Science Departments throughout the country—as
opposed to University Schools/Departments of Teacher Education—are offering
workshops to support teachers in their CS upskilling. A number of individualised
mentoring programmes have also been developed by non-ITE academic institutions or industry to support teachers in their self-studies. Additionally, organisations such as the Computers in Education Society of Ireland (CESI) continue to
ensure the promotion and ongoing awareness of the role which computer science
plays in Irish society and our future economy. Teacher conferences are held annually to support these initiatives and demonstrate good practice in the area of computer science education.
All of this is, of course, positive. The more problematic aspects are those we
cannot fully gauge or assess at this point. The end of the piloting phases will
inevitably mean a significant scaling–back in the high-volume, PDST-provided,
free-of-cost support to schools. Anecdotally, there are already indications that students on the various HEI CS courses are indeed looking more towards industry
than teaching for work and also—rather worryingly—that entry to these courses
has not, so far, matched expectations in terms of numbers. This raises the rather
sobering question as to whether schools will choose/continue to offer CS if there
are systemic challenges around teacher scarcity; particularly if this raises issues
of having to upskill existing school staff at a cost they do not have the resources
to meet.
As mentioned at the outset, the haste to launch Computer Science as a new
upper-secondary subject resulted in a lack of attention to resourcing and educating teachers at the system level. Fortunately, this led to innovative and imaginative thinking on the part of a number of higher education providers who found
themselves having to respond to local needs—such as the TUS programmes discussed above. As an interim arrangement—particularly when accompanied by
high-volume PDST support to the various schools during their pilot phases—this
had been both impressive and successful. In addition, we see emerging an eclectic
array of non-formal (and sometimes uncertificated) cost-incurring CPD courses
for teachers which unfortunately do not feed into any organised system that
would allow formal Teaching Council recognition in the area of computer science. Coupled with the uncertainties relating to formal ITE courses noted immediately above, this suggests that we have considerable work still to do to ensure
the availability and sustainability of Computer Science as a Leaving Certificate
subject in the Irish school system.
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NCCA. (2018). Computer science curriculum specification. https://ncca.ie/en/resources/
computer-science-curriculum-specification/. Accessed 27 Aug 2022.
NCCA. (2019). Primary developments final report on the coding in primary schools initiative. https://ncca.ie/media/4155/primary-coding_final-report-on-the-coding-in-primaryschools-initiative.pdf. Accessed 3 Sept 2022.
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Academic Qualification of Second
Career Teachers in Mathematics—
challenges, Conditions of Success
and Desiderata
Andrea Hoffkamp and Kerstin Koch
1Introduction
The current forecast of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education
and Cultural Affairs (KMK) states that by 2030 the expected supply of teachers,
especially at the lower secondary level, will not be sufficient to meet the Germany-wide demand. Mathematics is at the top of the list (KMK, 2019, pp. 20,
25). The KMK considers the recruitment of second career teachers to be necessary. Above all, the practice is criticized that teacher applicants without any previous pedagogical training teach on their own responsibility from the first day on
and that the pedagogical, subject-specific and subject-didactical training is carried
out in parallel to the job and is usually incomplete. This leads to the justified concern about a deprofessionalization of the teaching profession (Hoffkamp & Koch,
2020; Reimann, 2017).
In the federal state of Saxony, hardly any young teachers were hired over a
long period of time, with the result that since 2010, the need for replacements,
especially in the STEM subjects, can no longer be met by graduates of teaching degree programmes. Between 2014 and 2024, about one in two teachers in
Saxony will retire. Thus, the demand increases strongly and will remain at a high
A. Hoffkamp (*) · K. Koch
TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany
e-mail: andrea.hoffkamp@tu-dresden.de
K. Koch
e-mail: kerstin.koch@tu-dresden.de
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_10
181
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A. Hoffkamp and K. Koch
level from 2030 on (Gehrmann, 2019; Klemm, 2013). Therefore, individuals
without a completed teaching degree will be recruited to a large extent as lateral
entrants into the teaching profession. These individuals lack essential parts of the
training of a teacher with an undergraduate degree. Their prior knowledge and
qualifications vary, and the way in which further qualification measures are handled also differs from state to state. This of course has an effect on the changing
staff in schools and therefore new ways of teacher training and teacher education
had to be established and need to be developed further.
In the field of mathematics in particular, there is a high demand for second
career teachers. In this article, we present the programme for the academic qualification of second career teachers1 in mathematics at the TU Dresden, reflect on
the basis of evaluation results and our experiences challenges and conditions for
success, and identify desiderata.
2Qualification Process of Second Career Teachers
in Saxony, Germany
2.1General Overview of the Qualification Process
At TU Dresden, we qualify lateral entrants on a part-time basis, in a programme
called “On-the-job teacher qualification” (BQL).2 The framework conditions for this
are set by the Saxon State Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs (SMK). Project
management of BQL and coordination of this scientific training for all subjects is the
responsibility of the Center for Teacher Education and Educational Research (ZLSB)
at the TU Dresden. Participants are selected on the basis of a tendering procedure. At
most one school subject can be derived from participants’ previous qualification. After
a three-month introductory training, they immediately start teaching in Saxony on their
own responsibility. In order to obtain a degree equivalent to a regular teaching degree,
they must complete a qualification of at least three years. The subject-specific and subject-didactic qualification takes place at the teacher training universities in parallel to
the work at school. Fig. 1 gives an overview of the qualification process.
1 The terms “lateral entrants” and “second career teachers” are used synonymously and
always refer to the participants of the Lateral Entry Teacher Education Programme (LETE)
at TU Dresden.
2 For a deeper insight, see the article by Gehrmann “Lateral Entry and Career Jumping into
the Teaching Profession in Germany” in this volume.
Academic Qualification of Second Career Teachers
183
Fig. 1 Overview of the qualification process in Saxony. (Own graphic)
Due to the central organization of the qualification programme at the ZLSB,
a highly effective coordination developed, which is characterized by close agreements between the actors from different fields of teacher education and which
brings the actors into close exchange.
2.2Training in Mathematics and Mathematics
Education
The Faculty of Mathematics at TU Dresden is responsible for the scientific education in mathematics and the didactics of mathematics. The courses are held at TU
Dresden on two weekdays over a period of three to five semesters, while participants teach at their school three days per week.
The modules to be studied are extensive and lead to a fully recognized teaching degree. They include all didactics modules of the regular teacher training
curriculum, but no practical phases are included. Subject modules are a lecture
for the transition to university mathematics (“Fundamentals of Mathematics and
Number Theory”), which has been newly designed for the target group, lectures
in Algebra, Geometry, Analysis, Stochastics and Numerics as well as a seminar
“school Mathematics from a higher standpoint” (Fig. 2).
In that we follow the guidelines for the development of complementary professionalization pathways of the Society for Didactics. The first guideline
demands: “The standards of an academic profession are non-negotiable. They
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A. Hoffkamp and K. Koch
The area shares in the image correspond to the study shares
Fig. 2 Modules of the in-service qualification in Mathematics (BQL Mathematics). (Own
graphic)
apply to all professionalization pathways” (Gesellschaft für Fachdidaktik e.V.,
2018). This is intended to achieve comparability with the regular programme for
teacher training at university.
3Challenges and Conditions of Success
Since the start of the programme in October 2017, approximately 100 participants
have begun academic training in mathematics at TU Dresden. They have little or
no subject-specific or subject-didactic knowledge and skills relevant for teaching
mathematics at school. For the most part, they have studied a natural science subject (Chemistry, Biology, Computer Science) or a technical subject (e.g. Engineering). In addition, there are also degrees with little affinity to Mathematics, such as
Geography, History, Law, Economics, Psychology, Sports or Music Education.
Academic Qualification of Second Career Teachers
185
The lateral entrants teach at different school forms like elementary schools,
special schools, high schools, grammar schools or vocational schools. Their average age is around 35, with a range of 25 to 54 years.3 A secure career perspective with family-friendly working hours is often cited as the reason for the career
change. Many live and work in rural areas where the demand for teachers is particularly high. In some cases, they have to travel long distances of up to 140 km
to attend courses.
When the lateral entrants start our programme they usually have various subjective convictions about teaching and learning. These often result from their
daily practice at school. For example, some results of a survey at the beginning of
the teacher training show different subjective convictions of the participants about
how to become a good teacher: there is great consent that you become a good
teacher by trial and error whereas the studies at university are not considered to
be helpful for their profession as teachers. This leads to various challenges in the
conception and implementation of the courses.
3.1Challenges and Conditions of Success
in Mathematics Courses
One challenge in teaching and learning the subject Mathematics at university
is the so-called “double discontinuity”. This term was introduced more than
100 years ago by the great mathematician Felix Klein (Kilpatrick, 2019). Felix
Klein himself was highly engaged in teacher training. He described that young
teacher students usually do not recognize their subject Mathematics they learned
at school at the university level. The reason for it is that the cultures of school
mathematics and higher mathematics are very different. But when those students
return to school as teachers they have to teach mathematics at school level and
are often not able to apply their knowledge from university to their teaching at
school. This means there are two breaks – one from school to university and one
from university to school. The second career teachers of our programme experience these breaks in a particularly intense manner because they teach at school
and study at university at the same time.
3 For a deeper insight, see the article by Bárány & Hoischen “The Academic Training of
Second Career Teachers in Saxony: Programs and Implications for the Professionalization
of Lateral Entrants” in this volume.
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Therefore, there is a need for the establishment of fruitful and convincing connections between school and university to enable the participants to recognize the
meaning of higher mathematics and to apply their knowledge in their classes.
Because we were aware of this challenge, we took it into account when we
conceptualized the programme. We established a special lecture which is called
“Fundamentals of Mathematics and Number Theory”. The aim of this lecture is to
allow a smoother transition into higher mathematics at university level.
Furthermore, a very deep and fruitful connection has been established between
the Mathematics lecturers and the Mathematics education group within the programme. This led to a greater awareness of the challenges in teaching mathematics at school so that these challenges are addressed more specifically. In
particular, instructors consciously emphasize explicit connections between school
mathematics and university mathematics by using examples from textbooks and
discussing them with the participants. These measures already provide mitigation
of the double discontinuity problem. Nevertheless, further joint work between
subject and subject didactics is needed here.
3.2Challenges and Conditions of Success in the
Courses of Mathematics Didactics
The challenges in our didactics courses can be described by the following
aspects: Based on their daily practice at schools the lateral entrants have very
deep beliefs and convictions about the teaching and learning of mathematics.
Didactical concepts or beliefs are usually filtered according to their direct
effects during classes. One example is the statement of a participant who said:
“The rule for the multiplication of fractions is so simple. I tell my students the
rule and give them some tasks to practice it”. This reflects a procedural view of
mathematics and the conviction that students need to acquire procedural knowledge rather than conceptual knowledge.
The expectations of the participants in the didactics courses are characterized by the desire to receive quickly available and applicable practical advice and
elaborated materials that they can use directly in practice. Usually they are critical
towards theoretical or academic concepts of teaching.
Therefore, the main challenges are:
• to stimulate the reflection of the daily practice at school and to become a
reflective practitioner
Academic Qualification of Second Career Teachers
187
Fig. 3 An item for pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) in the COACTIV study
(Baumert et al., 2010, p. 169). (Own graphic)
• to enable the participants to develop well-founded theoretical knowledge as a
basis for decisions and
• to establish a repertoire of methods and options to teach the various topics in
school mathematics
To illustrate this, we choose an example from the COACTIV study (Baumert
et al., 2010). Within the COACTIV study teachers and young teachers were asked
about their pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) concerning certain topics. In
the item in Fig. 1 the teachers were asked how they would explain the fact that
(−1) × (−1) = 1. One possible explanation is based on the so-called permanence
principle visualised in Fig. 3.
You start with a known task like 3 × (−1) where the result is (−3). Then the
first factor is reduced by 1 in the following lines. The observation is that the result
from line to line increases by 1. The only reasonable way to continue is to state
that (−1) × (−1) must be 1 if you want to be consistent within the operation. The
“permanence principle” as part of conceptual knowledge is an important element
in the number range extensions in our didactics training.
In order to understand the participants’ prerequisites and beliefs even better,
we conducted our own initial survey on pedagogical content knowledge (PCK).
Figure 4 shows an item of our survey which focuses on PCK about the multiplication of decimal numbers.
We gave the teachers two options in the survey. The first option relates to conceptual knowledge about the multiplication of decimal numbers whereas option 2
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A. Hoffkamp and K. Koch
Fig. 4 One task from our entrance survey 2017 at the mathematics department of TU
Dresden focussing on PCK. (Own graphic)
relates to procedural knowledge without an understanding-oriented explanation.
We asked the participants to describe advantages and disadvantages of the options
and how they would intervene in class.
The answers in Fig. 5 show that the second career teachers argue in a very differentiated way. Those who chose option 1 argued that this form of intervention
builds on prior knowledge and promotes understanding and self-regulation.
Those who chose option 2 reasoned that fractional arithmetic is too difficult especially for low-achievers. The schematic procedure of the second option
“always works” and “is an easy way to calculate the results”. The only alternative
proposed was to round the numbers in order to estimate the result and to put the
decimal point at the right position.
Two aspects are noticeable: there is a conviction that low achievers need to
learn the rule in a schematic way to be successful and there is a high need to
extend the repertoire of methods and options.
Therefore, we focus on building a wide spectrum of options in the teacher
training. Besides option 1 (Fig. 4), there are two more options that allow the
teachers to differentiate according to the abilities of their students and to be able
to respond to the heterogeneity of the learning groups. One pretty easy way is
shown at the top of the left side in Fig. 6. But there is also the option to visualize
the interrelations by using areas.
Academic Qualification of Second Career Teachers
189
Fig. 5 Evaluation of the answers to the item from Fig. 4 (n = 22). (Own graphic)
Fig. 6 Different explanations for the multiplication of decimal numbers and the position
of the decimal point. Inspired by Mathewerkstatt 6 (Prediger et al., 2013, p.127) (Own
graphic)
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A. Hoffkamp and K. Koch
In order to stimulate a change in thinking, the lecturers of the BQL programme consciously use cognitive conflicts in didactics while aiming at the establishment of a wide repertoire for teaching various mathematical topics.
However, the main potential lies in the organization of the teacher training: reflection phases and practice at school alternate during the training. Thus,
didactic concepts are not only discussed in the courses but are directly tested and
reflected in practice. This is reflected, for example, in participants’ comments
about their classes such as: “Now I know why my students had so many difficulties when dealing with negative numbers”.
4Discussion and Final Remarks
Although there are many challenges, the second-career teacher training programme
is very effective as a long-term course. Studies show that long-term and multiphase
training courses that allow for a change between input, practice, and reflection are
particularly effective in changing teaching practices. Essential for the effectiveness is a content orientation that focuses on subject-specific and subject-didactic
topics (Barzel & Selter, 2015). These elements are given in the conception of our
advanced trainings and represent a great potential. In our courses, this effectiveness
results from the special combination of theory and practice which cannot be implemented in this form in regular teacher training and therefore represents a unique
advantage of this form of training.
Furthermore, we notice positive effects concerning the awareness of teacher
training within the mathematics faculty. This awareness leads to a potential for
innovation, because new lectures were developed and evaluated for the programme and will later be integrated into the regular teacher programme.
Nevertheless, some desiderata can be identified. Besides the qualification
within the programme there is also a high need for the implementation of coaching or peer coaching at school. This is not possible so far due to organizational
reasons and due to a lack of personal resources. Of course our participants are
supported by mentors at school who visit their lessons from time to time but there
is still no cooperation between the university and the mentors at school. However, this would be necessary in the sense of greater sustainability of the concepts
taught.
Also further research is needed on the long-term effectiveness of training
interventions, to find out about the further professional career of the participants
and to get an insight into the quality of teaching.
Academic Qualification of Second Career Teachers
191
References
Barzel, B., & Selter, C. (2015). Die DZLM-Gestaltungsprinzipien für Fortbildungen. Journal Für Mathematikdidaktik, 36, 259–284.
Baumert, J. et al. (2010). Teachers’ mathematical knowledge, Cognitive activation in the
classroom and student progress. American Educational Research Journal, 47(1), 133–
180.
Gehrmann, A. (2019). Seiteneinstieg in den Lehrerberuf – Alternativer Weg oder Sackgasse? [The Way of Career Changers into the Teaching Profession – an Alternative
Pathway or a Dead End?] In: Bildung und Erziehung, 72nd Issue, 215–229.
Gesellschaft für Fachdidaktik e. V. (GFD). (2018). Ergänzende Wege der Professionalisierung von Lehrkräften – Positionspapier der GFD zur Problematik des Quer- und
Seiteneinstiegs. https://www.fachdidaktik.org/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/
PP-20-Positionspapier-der-GFD-2018-Ergänzende-Wege-der-Professionalisierung-vonLehrkräften.pdf. Accessed 24 Oct 2022.
Hoffkamp, A., & Koch, K. (2020). Seiteneinstieg als alternativer Weg zum grundständigen
Lehramtsstudium an der TU Dresden. In H.-S. Siller, W. Weigel, & J. F. Wörler (Eds.),
Beiträge zum Mathematikunterricht 2020 (pp. 437–440). WTM-Verlag.
Kilpatrick, J. (2019). A Double Discontinuity and a Triple Approach: Felix Klein’s Perspective on Mathematics Teacher Education. In Weigand, H.-G., McCallum, W., Menghini, M., Neubrand M., & Schubring, G. (Eds.), The Legacy of Felix Klein (215–225).
ICME-13 Monographs, Springer Open.
Klemm, K. (2013). Zum Einstellungsbedarf von Lehrerinnen und Lehrern im Bereich der
öffentlichen Schulen Sachsens und zu Perspektiven der Bedarfsdeckung.
KMK, Ständige Konferenz der Kultusminister der Länder in der Bundesrepublik
Deutschland. (2019). Lehrereinstellungsbedarf und -angebot in der Bundesrepublik
Deutschland 2019–2030. Statistische Veröffentlichungen der Kultusministerkonferenz.
Dokumentation No. 221.
Prediger, S. et al. (Hrsg.). (2013). Mathewerkstatt 6. Cornelsen
Reimann, M. (2017). Wer unterrichtet unsere Kinder? Die Zeit 37/2017.
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Empirical Research of the Teacher Shortage
and Specific Measures
The Complex Problem of Teacher
Shortage in Germany—Some Ideas
About the Role of Success and Failure
in Teacher Education, Educational
Planning and Second Career Teachers
Falk Radisch
1Introduction—The Complexity of Teacher
Shortage in Germany
The German school system is in trouble—for many reasons. Besides the issues
caused by the pandemic, the problem of teacher shortage is one of the most discussed problems of the school system in Germany as well as in many other countries. This paper will give some insights into the specific problems in Germany
and will suggest possible ways of handling teacher shortage, specifically from a
German perspective.
As mentioned, Germany actually needs more teachers than can be trained
through the current system of teacher training. Fig. 1 highlights the gap between
how many teachers are needed each year and how many can currently be trained.
The annual gap is shown in red. This data, taken from the official statistics suggest, that the teacher shortage will only last a few years and will then balance
itself out.
This may be the case for Germany as a whole. However, the labour marked
specifically for teachers is much more regionalised. Very few teachers leave the
Federal State (Bundesland) they train in and many even stay in the same country.
F. Radisch (*)
University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
e-mail: falk.radisch@uni-rostock.de
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_11
195
196
F. Radisch
Germany 2019 to 2030
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
-10000
Requirement
Offer
Balance
Fig. 1 Overall requirement and offer of new teachers in Germany between 2019 to 2030.
(Own graphic; data from KMK, 2019)
West Germany 2019 to 2030
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
-5000
-10000
Requirement
Offer
Balance
Fig. 2 Requirement and offer of new teachers in Western Germany between 2019 to 2030.
(Own graphic; data from KMK, 2019)
This suggests that teacher education in Germany is not organised on a federal level
but individually in each of the 16 states (Kotthoff & Terhart, 2013, p. 1).
Figs. 2 and 3 show that just like teacher education, the teacher shortage issue
is also regionalised. Figure 2 offers the official calculation for only the Western
The Complex Problem of Teacher Shortage in Germany …
197
East Germany 2019 to 2030
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
-2000
-4000
Requirement
Offer
Balance
Fig. 3 Requirement and offer of new teachers in the Eastern part of Germany between
2019 to 2030. (Own graphic; data from KMK 2019)
part of Germany. In the Western part of Germany, teacher shortage may be ending
in two years. Beginning in 2026 the Western states will have many more newly
qualified teachers than needed in that part of Germany. However, even within this
group of states the issue is highly regionalised (see KMK, 2019).
Figure 3 shows the data for the six East German states. It makes clear that the
shortage persists for many more years compared to the West. Again, there are
large differences within the group. Some will only suffer from teacher shortage
for a short amount of time, others for much longer.
To add to the complexity and diversity of the problem, there are more variables influencing teacher shortage than just regional differences. There are for
example large differences in teacher shortages for primary, lower and higher
secondary education as well as special needs teachers (Autorengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung, 2018, p. 102; KMK, 2019). A much higher number of teachers
are missing in primary and special education than there are in higher secondary
schools. Subjects also seem to play a large role. Many more teachers are needed
in the STEM subjects, than there are in social sciences or German (Klemm,
2021).
198
F. Radisch
2The Impact of the Teacher Education System
in Germany
When taking into account that both teacher shortages and teacher education are
organised at a state level, it seems obvious the problems also need to be solved at
this level. A key aspect to understanding teacher shortages in Germany is understanding how teachers are trained.
There is one main way to become a school teacher in Germany (Kotthoff
& Terhart, 2013; Terhart, 2019). Even though, teacher education and the school
system are decided at state level, there are agreements about teacher education
at a federal level, all states have to follow. In all states there are two stages to
becoming a fully trained teacher. To complete the first stage, student teachers
need to complete a teacher-education-program at university. The second and more
practical stage is completed in the schools themselves. There are still many differences at state level regarding length, content and topics, possible subject combinations and more. Generally speaking, teacher training in Germany is relatively
long compared to other countries (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice,
2021). It takes between five and seven years minimum to pass both stages.
Due to the length of teacher training, any reforms to combat teacher shortages need to happen five to seven years in advance. Even though this is theoretically possible as teacher shortages can be reliably forecast 10 years ahead, there
are several reasons why the teacher shortage issue cannot be solved by simply
reforming the teacher education system:
•
•
•
•
•
interventions in a very inert system
unrealistic ideas about governance and planning of teacher education
limited or problematic knowledge about the system
out-dated and unrealistic forecasting
unexpected dropout in teacher education and in teaching careers
Not only in the field of teacher education, but generally in educational planning
one idea is that growth could be handled in a linear manner: In a program for 200
students, it would be possible to simply increase the number of students to 400
without changing the system itself. Organisational research has shown that this
is not the case. A large system is not simply a smaller one increased only in size.
(Anderson, 1999, pp. 1–2). Growth also leads to a need in change of organisational processes, channels of communication and much more. Additionally, and
especially in teacher education, 200 extra spaces on a program don’t necessarily
lead to 200 more students and more students don’t always mean more graduates.
The Complex Problem of Teacher Shortage in Germany …
199
Normally, at least the first few years after such a change simply mean a higher
number of dropouts, unless there are other reforms. (Danilowicz-Gösele et al.,
2017, p. 18). Increasing the size of a complex system such as teacher education is
linked to many challenges. Furthermore, ending teacher shortage is not as simple
as increasing the capacity of teacher education.
3The Complexity of Forecasting Teacher Shortage
Unexpected teacher dropout greatly influences teacher shortages. In Germany a
large percentage of teachers leave the profession before reaching the end of their
working life. Many of these teachers leave the profession due to either psychological or social reasons (Weber et al., 2004) others move on to a second career
in either educational administration, politics or business. As the exact number
of teachers leaving the profession is unknown, teacher shortage is consistently
underestimated by an unknown number.
Traditionally, Germany has a well-established and detailed system of educational planning as well as systematic research on forecasting. Unfortunately, some
of the necessary assumptions and grounding ideas are complex, difficult and often
hard to handle. The literature summarises the problems and challenges forecasting faces in five main topics (see Fig. 4).
Demographic development
Development of educa onal behavior
Calcula on of teacher requirements
Calcula on of teacher offer
Development of the economic, labor market and budget
situa on
Fig. 4 Uncertainties and problems with educational forecasting (Schmittlein, 1990; Weiß,
1992)
200
F. Radisch
Schmittlein (1990) suggest that the topics are influenced by spontaneous individual decision making by the people within or associated with the educational
system (students and their parents as well as teachers, teacher students etc.) as
well as progress in economic fields, labour market and policy and political priorities. All factors are interacting with each other.
According to rational choice theory decisions made for educational careers,
such as which school (for example lower or higher secondary/grammar schools)
to enter, are partly based on associated chances on the labour market. Overall—if
the labour market is changing (digitalization, change from industry to service sector, regional changes, collapsing of parts of a region’s economy, short—or longterm problems caused by a crisis like the coronavirus pandemic), this will have a
massive effect on the school system itself and on teacher shortage calculation and
forecasting. For example, a larger number of students within the higher education
level, however lead to an increased number of teachers needed at higher secondary education and a decrease in numbers of teachers needed for lower types of
secondary schools.
Political decision making also impacts the situation. It is self-evident for
directly education-related fields—such as curricular changes or changes in the
school system itself (e.g., changes to the German types of different schools at
secondary level or all day schooling). Decisions made to support families more
effectively or to increase the compatibility of work and family effects the forecasting of teacher shortage. There are no technological links in this area, they are
only weak and loosely coupled. Sometimes measures have an impact, sometimes
they do not and sometimes they have the reverse effect than expected. This leads
to more uncertainties in forecasting teacher shortages.
Weiß (1992) pointed out two more interesting aspects: demographic trends
(e.g. birth rates, migration rates) and individual educational behaviour. Neither
can be accurately predicted. At the moment, especially migration-waves and
changes in educational aspirations make it difficult to accurately forecast teacher
shortage (Autorengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung, 2016, p. 17; Klemm & Zorn,
2017, p. 9).
Especially in the areas with these uncertainties, high quality forecasting models require robust and plausible fundamental assumptions. Ideally alternative
possibilities are used to show different possible future developments. For several
years, Bavaria has been publishing a comparably strongly differentiated educational forecast and shows, that this is a good foundation for educational planning
(Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Unterricht & Kultus, 2019).
The Bavarian example is showing the complexity of forecasting and defining
the necessary assumptions. Figure 5 shows which points have the highest impact
on teacher forecasting.
The Complex Problem of Teacher Shortage in Germany …
• Development of the birth rate
• Development of migraon movements
(especially of refugees)
• Transfer behaviour between different
kind of schools
201
• Career decisions of high school graduates
• Length of stay at the universies
• Reorientaon of graduate teachers
• Development of the number of part-me
teachers
Forecast the
Forecast the total
Forecast on the
Forecast the
number of
students
demand for
teachers
annual demand for
professional entries
total demand
for teachers
Access to vocaonal
schools
Offer of
apprenceships
Standard values
Difficult to calculate influences on the
(e.g. class sizes,
number of teachers:
• Career exits
• Leave of absence
• Re-entries
• Change of school type aer second
qualificaon
• Part-me employment
• Paral rerement
metables)
Public finances
Fig. 5 Factors making teacher forecasting difficult to accurately predict (Bayerisches
Staatsministerium für Unterricht & Kultus, 2019, p. 27, translated)
4The Problem of (Unkown) Drop-Out of Student
Teachers
Knowing how many teachers are needed each year is just one part of the problem,
it is also necessary to predict how many new teachers will be entering the system.
As mentioned earlier, in Germany teacher education as well as education overall
is mostly organised at state level and not at a federal level.
In the following results are shown from a study analysing student-progressdata of all student teachers in Mecklenburg-West Pomerania.
Mecklenburg-West Pomerania is situated in the North-East of Germany. It is a
mainly rural state with only two or three medium-sized towns and no large cities.
It’s just a small state with a small educational system, as shown in Fig. 6.
Teacher education is organised at two universities, one university for music
and drama and for vocational teachers one university of applied sciences. Annually there are approximately 800 new student teachers. On average it takes around
five years to graduate from university, which is the first step of teacher education.
Student teachers then enter the second, school centred stage of their training.
202
F. Radisch
Fig. 6 Facts about Mecklenburg-West-Pomerania, own graphic. (Data from LAIV-MV,
2022)
Individual study-progress-data of all student teachers at universities in Mecklenburg-West Pomerania between 2012 and 2019 were analysed. The results
showed when and for what reason students dropped out of teacher education.
Official statistics in Germany only show data for one semester or one academic year. That only allows for the number of new student teachers being paired
with the number of graduated students. Unfortunately, this leads to incorrect
mainly underestimated drop-out quotes. Heublein et al. (2004) as well as others
had already pointed out that even though pairing the number of new and graduated students is easily done, it has some problematic issues leading to miscalculations—mainly underestimations of the drop-out quota.
The main reasons are:
1. it only works for large sets of data,
2. it does not work if courses are switched frequently (especially if structural
aspects such as length of the course, admission requirements, or types of
assessments are changed)
3. they work with planned, rather than actual courses of study (meaning it is
being ignored if students complete substantial parts of their course later or earlier than foreseen).
This leads to the drop-out rate being calculated incorrectly (mostly underestimated) in official statistics. In Germany, educational administrators and planners
are calculating a dropout rate between 5 and 10, at most of 12% for the first stage
of teacher education.
The Complex Problem of Teacher Shortage in Germany …
203
Fig. 7 Study progress, drop-out and graduation rates for student teachers at higher secondary level at the University of Rostock. (Own graphic, averaged for all available data)
Teacher shortage cannot be explained by just taking into account the increased
need for teachers. Figs. 7 to 10 show exemplarily that a large number of prospective teachers are lost at university level.
The following citation is not describing the results of the current study, as
exemplarily shown in Figs. 7 to 9. It was written by Wolfgang Brezinka in 1968.
He was discussing Austria which has a similar system of teacher education to
Germany.
“Out of all Austrian student teachers, around half (49.1%) do not graduate. That is
a highly alarming result. An educational system where two study spaces are needed
in order to win one teacher, seems questionable as a whole” (Brezinka, 2008, translated by author).1
For the last 60 years no other empirical data about individual study progress in
teacher education have been published in Germany and other German speaking
1 Original reference: „Von allen österreichischen Lehramtskandidaten erreicht ungefähr die
Hälfte (49,1%) keinen positiven Studienabschluß. Das ist ein höchst bedenkliches Ergebnis. Ein Ausbildungssytem, in dem zwei Studienplätze frei gehalten werden müssen, damit
ein Lehrer gewonnen wird, scheint als Ganzes fragwürdig zu sein“.
204
F. Radisch
Fig. 8 Study progress, drop-out and graduation rates for student teachers at lower secondary level at the university of Rostock. (Own graphic, averaged for all available data)
countries. Of course, every year official statistics are pairing beginners and graduates
in the same year, addressing the named problems, but nothing else is available yet.
Analysing individual study progress data in Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
shows very similar results to Austria in the late 1960s. In summary, main results
focussing especially on the problem of forecasting the number of potential new
teachers are:
1. More students are lost than expected.
2. There are very different drop-out quotes when comparing the different types
of schools, teachers are prepared for—less for special need and primary teachers, much higher for lower secondary level teachers (see Figs. 7 to 10).
3. Students normally study much longer than expected.2
Concluding it can be said that using individual data of study progress leads to
much more valid and realistic calculations of drop-out quotes and thus enables a
more realistic forecast of available new teachers and teacher shortage.
2 The term students had to sit their exam normally is highlighted by a frame in Figs. 7 to 10.
The Complex Problem of Teacher Shortage in Germany …
205
Fig. 9 Study progress, drop-out and graduation rates for student teachers at primary
school level at the University of Rostock. (Own graphic, averaged for all available data)
Fig. 10 Study progress, drop-out and graduation rates for student teachers for special education at the University of Rostock. (Own graphic, averaged for all available data)
5The Need of Alternative Paths to Becoming
a Teacher
The results also suggest that trying to combat teacher shortage, only using the traditional teacher education system might be unrealistic. Reforming and developing
the traditional teacher education system has to play a main part in solving the
206
F. Radisch
problem on a long term. It needs more communication and cooperation between
all parties involved in teacher education—within and between universities as well
as between the different states. This will increase the quality of teacher education
and will help reducing the drop-out rates.
Unfortunately, reforming such a complicated system would take a long
time and solutions to the problem of teacher shortage are needed quickly. That
means, it requires a stable and flexible system of alternative paths to becoming a
teacher—not only to face teacher shortage but to have more possibilities of finding the best teachers for our schools in the short as well as in the long run. Binding yet flexible standards are needed for qualifying as a “second career teacher”
as well as tight links between this “alternative qualifying” system and the traditional teacher education system. This would ensure that both systems could benefit from each other and the same standard of education can be ensured throughout.
Creating a stable path for second career teachers will be one of the most
important things in the coming years. Most problems of the traditional teacher
education system might be easier resolved or modified when accepting and integrating the needs and requirements of second career teachers. Length and volume
of academic studies, curricular issues, linking theory and practice and guidance,
assistance and supervision within teacher education have even more meaning and
importance for second career teachers. If second career teachers were held in the
same high regard as traditionally educated teachers, the two systems could learn a
lot from each other.
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https://op.europa.eu/en/publication-detail/-/publication/78fbf243-974f-11eb-b85c01aa75ed71a1/language-en. Accessed 21 Febr 2022.
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Addressing Teacher Shortages
in Poland: Analysis, Educational
Planning, and Policy Recommendations
Joanna Madalińska-Michalak
1Introduction
High-achieving education systems place teachers in a position of utmost significance, recognizing them as the principal driving force behind students’ academic accomplishments (Madalinska-Michalak et al., 2022; OECD, 2018, 2019;
Sahlberg et al., 2012). This acknowledgment underscores the pivotal role that
teachers play in shaping the educational landscape. However, a critical challenge permeates educational contexts across Europe and beyond, transcending
borders and manifesting in diverse nations. This challenge is twofold, revolving
around teacher shortages and the imbalanced distribution of educators (DarlingHammond, 2017; European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2018; O’Doherty &
Hardford, 2018). The implications of these issues extend far beyond the classroom, reverberating through policy corridors and academic circles alike. The
repercussions of these challenges have collectively given rise to what many
experts, policymakers, and stakeholders perceive as a ‘crisis’ within the domain
of teacher recruitment and retention (European Commission, 2013; European
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2018; Madalinska-Michalak et al., 2022). This
crisis transcends national boundaries, impacting not only the quality of education
but also the broader socio-economic fabric of nations. As such, it stands as a formidable obstacle in the pursuit of educational excellence and equity.
In the context of public policy discourse regarding education and the enhancement of educational quality within Poland, as in numerous other nations, teachJ. Madalińska-Michalak (*)
University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: j.madalinska@uw.edu.pl
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_12
209
210
J. Madalińska-Michalak
ers invariably assume a pivotal role as subjects of deliberation and contemplation.
Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that, unlike the prevailing situation in most European countries, Poland has yet to explicitly recognize a forthcoming shortage in
the supply of teachers as a prominent challenge (European Commission/EACEA/
Eurydice, 2018).
This paper offers an in-depth exploration of the teacher shortage issue in
Poland. Leveraging official databases sourced from the websites of the Regional
Educational Authorities, responsible for overseeing and coordinating educational
matters within specific voivodeships (provinces) in Poland,1 the study delves into
statistical data concerning teacher shortages at both the national and voivodeship
levels. It also explores the underlying reasons for teachers leaving their positions
in schools. Additionally, the paper places a strong emphasis on educational planning and concludes with insights crucial for policymaking, educational practice,
and further research on the teaching profession, particularly in response to the
emerging trend of teacher shortages in Poland.
2Teaching Profession and Teacher Recruitment
at the Schools in Poland
In the school year 2021/22 the Polish state education system comprises over 19,8
thousand schools serving the needs of over 4.6 million pupils between ages 7
and 16 (accounting for 12% of the country’s population) at the primary and postprimary schools. Public schools represented 87.8% of primary and post-primary
schools for children and youth (GUS, 2022, p. 23). In the same school year, 515,7
thousand teachers (full-time equivalents) were employed in all types of public schools2 (GUS, 2022, p. 25), of which 423,6 thousand were female (82% of
1 In Poland, a voivodeship (‘województwo’ in Polish) is the highest-level administrative
subdivision of the country. Poland is divided into 16 voivodeships, each with its own government and administrative structure. Each voivodeship is further divided into counties
(powiaty) and municipalities (gminy). Each voivodeship has its own distinct characteristics,
cultural heritage, and economic activities. They play a significant role in the administrative,
economic, and cultural life of Poland.
2 The organizational structure of the Polish education system does not significantly deviate
from the systems of other European Union member states. Presently, the system encompasses children aged 3–6 years (pre-primary education, pre-primary centres, and pre-primary education units), mandatory pre-primary sections for six-year-olds (in kindergartens
or attached to primary schools), children aged 7–14 years (primary schools), adolescents
aged 15–21 years (four-year general secondary schools, five-year technical secondary
Addressing Teacher Shortages in Poland …
211
total). The disproportion between women and men working in the profession was
highest at the pre-school level, where women accounted for as much as 98% of
all teachers employed.
Teachers constitute 1.8% of the entire population of Poland, and 2.7% of the
professionally active population – almost three out of 100 employed are teachers working in the official education system (Madalińska-Michalak, 2021). The
teaching profession is dominated by teachers with higher education: bachelor’s
and master’s degrees (97.5%). In addition, 0.8% of teachers (5500 people) had
a doctorate or habilitation, 0.9% had post-secondary education, 0.5% secondary
and 0.2% other.
In Poland teaching is a profession requiring a high level of formal qualification. This profession enjoys high prestige3 but it struggles with low socio-economic status in Poland (Madalinska-Michalak et al., 2022, pp. 20–21).
Poland adheres to open employment of teachers. Teacher recruitment takes
mainly place at school level. Teachers are hired by the school principal in an
open recruitment procedure. In the Supreme Audit Office report on the organization of the work for teachers (NIK, 2021), nearly half of the principals (46%
out of 5152) reported difficulties in hiring teachers with appropriate qualifications during the school years 2018/2019–2020/2021. Among the teachers that
were most challenging to hire, principals pointed to physics teachers (33%) and
mathematics teachers (32%). Subsequently, there were difficulties in recruiting
chemistry teachers (24%), English language teachers (20%), and computer science teachers (18%). The most prevalent approach employed by school principals
schools, three-year first-degree vocational schools plus three-year second-degree vocational schools, vocational post-secondary schools), as well as special job-training schools
and other care, educational, diagnostic, and teacher support facilities (e.g. training centers,
educational libraries, etc.). Notably, higher education in Poland falls outside the education
system classification, even though they are recently overseen jointly by a single minister.
3 Research reports from the Polish Public Opinion Research Center, CBOS, regarding the
prestige of the professions, conducted since early nineties century, indicate stability of the
high social status perception of the teaching profession (CBOS, 2019, p. 8). These surveys
show the teaching profession placed between 5th and 7th in ranking among the other professions in Poland. Regarding respondents’ opinions about the integrity and reliability of 24
professions in Poland, in first position were scientists, second were nurses, third were ICT
specialists and in fourth position were teachers (CBOS, 2019). In Poland the teaching profession is highly valued in society, but teachers are not satisfied with their socio-economic
status.
212
J. Madalińska-Michalak
to address the problem of hiring qualified specialists was attempting to resolve
the issue internally by allocating overtime hours to other teachers within the
school (52%). Similarly, they often succeeded in recruiting personnel by posting
announcements, leading to teachers expressing interest in the positions (51%). In
other instances, more than one-third of the principals hired retired teachers (38%)
and also assigned classes to teachers without the required qualifications, with the
approval of the supervisory pedagogical authority (35%). In 12% of cases, hiring
was unsuccessful prior to the commencement of the school year.
3Methodologies Used and Data Collection
In the study, the attention was paid to the issue of teacher shortage in Poland
through the exploration of the situation of teacher shortage in each of the
voivodeship in Poland, and to the reasons for teachers leaving their jobs in
schools. In the study the official databases at the websites of the Regional Educational Authorities situated in each of the voivodeship in Poland were analysed.
Given the extensive range of teaching specializations and the varying degrees
of significance they hold for the continued functioning of schools, it has been
decided that a closer examination will focus solely on shortages of teachers in
three main following examination subjects at the eighth-grade and high school
leaving levels: Polish language, English language, and mathematics. The study
includes only those schools that reported at least one vacant teaching position
(18 h per week).
The study was conducted across the country and it included the following 16
voivodeships (Fig. 1):
1. Lower Silesian Voivodeship (Dolnośląskie)
2. Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship (Kujawsko-Pomorskie)
3. Lubusz Voivodeship (Lubuskie)
4. Lublin Voivodeship (Lubelskie)
5. Łódź Voivodeship (Łódzkie)
6. Lesser Poland Voivodeship (Małopolskie)
7. Masovian Voivodeship (Mazowieckie)
8. Opole Voivodeship (Opolskie)
9. Subcarpathian Voivodeship (Podkarpackie)
10. Podlaskie Voivodeship (Podlaskie)
11. Pomeranian Voivodeship (Pomorskie)
12. Silesian Voivodeship (Śląskie)
Addressing Teacher Shortages in Poland …
213
Fig. 1 Choropleth Map: Geographical Distribution of Voivodeships in Poland. (Own compilation)
13. Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship (Świętokrzyskie)
14. Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship (Warmińsko-Mazurskie)
15. Greater Poland Voivodeship (Wielkopolskie)
16. West Pomeranian Voivodeship (Zachodniopomorskie)
4Results
4.1Shortages of Main Examination Subject Teachers
by Voivodeships
An analysis of the official data at the sixteen websites of Regional Education
Authorities yielded the following results about the shortages of main examination
subject teachers by voivodeships (Table 1).
In total, across these three examination subjects, a total of 1557 vacancies
(unfilled teaching positions) were recorded in the voivodeships, accounting for
214
J. Madalińska-Michalak
Table 1 Vacancies of Main Examination Subject Teachers Organized by Voivodeships.
(Own compilation based on data from Regional Educational Authorities’ websites)
Polish Language
English Language
Mathematics
Vacancies
Hours
Vacancies
Hours
Vacancies
Hours
Lower Silesian 56
1127
91
1872
71
1417
KuyavianPomeranian
16
352
26
576
24
476
Lublin
15
276
8
167
10
194
Lubusz
15
293
19
373
24
466
Łódź
13
344
15
311
27
537
Lesser Poland
37
917
57
1299
50
1188
Masovian
105
2167
124
2673
118
2354
Opole
14
296
8
145
11
220
Subcarpathian
4
81
3
81
10
196
Podlaskie
12
255
11
218
17
331
Pomeranian
32
622
34
719
45
902
Silesian
32
801
44
1122
52
1332
Świętokrzyskie 8
177
9
206
7
142
Warmian-Mas- 28
urian
602
15
314
25
493
Greater Poland 41
901
46
1056
42
852
West Pomeranian
20
437
36
765
30
621
Total
448
9648
546
11,897
563
11,721
Voivodeships
33,266 h of instructional time with students for the upcoming school year. These
vacancies represented only 0.3% of all teachers in the country (GUS, 2021).
In the voivodeships with the highest values: Lower Silesian at 0.6%, Lesser
Poland at 0.3%, Masovian at 0.4%, Silesian at 0.2%, and Greater Poland at 0.3%,
it can be observed that these are mere fractions of a percent. However, if we were
to assume that an average school employs around 50 teachers, these vacancies
would allow for the closure of over 30 schools.
For the Polish language subject, shortages of 448 teachers (9648 h) were identified, with the largest number of vacancies being in Mazovian voivodeship, totaling 105 (2167 h), and the fewest in Subcarpathian voivodeship, amounting to 4
Addressing Teacher Shortages in Poland …
215
(81 h). Also notable for their substantial shortages are Lower Silesian (1127 h),
Lesser Poland (917 h), and Greater Poland (901 h) voivodeships.
Similarly, for the English language subject, a substantial shortage of 546
teachers (11,897 h) has been observed. Once again, Mazovian voivodeship leads
with 124 vacancies (2673 h), while the smallest shortages are found in Subcarpathian voivodeship, with 3 vacancies (81 h). However, significant shortages
are also notable in Lower Silesian (1872 h), Lesser Poland (1299 h), Silesian
(1122 h), and Greater Poland (1056 h) voivodeships.
However, the most significant shortages within the teaching staff are observed
in mathematics, a subject that has consistently yielded the poorest examination
results. Presently, there is a shortage of 563 mathematics teachers (11,721 h).
Similar to the previous subjects, the most substantial shortages are once again
noted in Mazovian voivodeship with 118 positions (2354 h), whereas the smallest shortages are in Holy Cross voivodeship with 7 positions (142 h). Furthermore, notable mathematics teacher shortages are also reported in Lower Silesian
(1417 h), Silesian (1332 h), and Lesser Poland (1188 h) voivodeships.
4.2Reasons for Teachers Leaving Their Jobs in Schools
These represent contemporaneous staffing deficiencies recorded within the educational superintendents. However, apart from these, there are shortages in schools
stemming from deliberate choices made by teachers or unforeseen events. On
August 9, 2023, the Polish Press Agency published a report based on data from
the Ministry of Education and Science, presenting real information about teacher
vacancies broken down by voivodeships. These vacancies result from teachers
retiring, transitioning to compensatory benefits or health-related leaves, or terminating their employment in the year 2023. The results are presented in the table
below (Table 2).
In total, this verified reduction amounts to nearly 19,000 positions. It’s essential to remember that the presented real-time shortages of teachers solely in three
subjects can be, among other factors, a consequence of these actual vacancies,
which efforts are currently underway to fill.
According to data from the Ministry of National Education (CIE, 2018),4
there were 701,840.70 teachers employed in schools and educational institutions,
4 No newer data is published by the ministry.
216
J. Madalińska-Michalak
Table 2 Reasons for teachers leaving their jobs in schools. (Own elaboration on the basis
of Rozalska, 2023)
Voivodeship
Retirement
Compensatory HealthTermination
Benefits
Related Leave
Total
Lower Silesian 137.2
30.2
1183.0
278.0
1628.4
KuyavianPomeranian
92.0
25.0
739.0
58.3
914.3
Lublin
58.7
22.0
690.0
57.9
828.6
Lubusz
91.9
8.0
520.0
77.2
697.1
Łódź
121.7
24.8
967.0
106.1
1219.6
Lesser Poland
191.4
22.6
1125.0
243.5
1582.5
Masovian
233.9
33.0
1669.0
538.3
2474.2
Opole
60.8
15.0
351.0
47.8
474.6
Subcarpathian
97.8
11.0
537.0
30.4
676.2
Podlaskie
99.6
7.0
479.0
27.6
613.2
Pomeranian
137.2
28.3
1088.0
186.0
1439.5
Silesian
192.3
87.2
1566.0
238.9
2084.4
Świętokrzyskie 121.5
12.6
418.0
36.4
588.5
WarmianMasurian
92.6
14.0
668.0
48.2
822.8
Greater Poland 157.8
29.0
1745.0
151.7
2083.5
West Pomeranian
75.4
14.0
630.0
107.1
826.5
Total
1961.8
383.7
14,375.0
2233.4
18,953.9
c­ alculated as full-time equivalents (702,595 individuals). Assuming that this level
has remained constant for the past 5 years, although this assumption may be
questionable, the recorded decrease of 19,000 teachers constitutes only 2.7% of
the total employed teachers. These shortages may potentially be filled by the end
of the summer break, but they do not significantly impact the overall examination results of eighth-graders or high school graduates since they represent only a
small percentage of all educators across the country.
The effects of teacher shortages or the implementation of unprofessional substitutions through vacancies might be noticed at the level of individual schools
or, at most, within small local government units. However, it’s challenging to
Addressing Teacher Shortages in Poland …
217
Table 3 Vacancies as a percentage of professionally active teachers by voivodeships.
(Own compilation based on data from the Central Statistical Office [GUS] and the Ministry
of National Education and Science [MEiN])
Voivodeship
Number of teachers Total Vacancies in July
Percentage
2021/22
2023 for Polish, English,
and Mathematics Teachers
Lower Silesian
34,503
218
0.63%
Kuyavian-Pomeranian
26,721
66
0.25%
Lublin
29,013
33
0.11%
Lubusz
12,742
58
0.46%
Łódź
31,229
55
0.18%
Lesser Poland
49,641
144
0.29%
Masovian
79,687
347
0.44%
Opole
12,218
33
0.27%
Subcarpathian
30,577
17
0.06%
Podlaskie
15,828
40
0.25%
Pomeranian
32,333
111
0.34%
Silesian
58,312
128
0.22%
Świętokrzyskie
15,662
24
0.15%
Warmian-Masurian
18,015
68
0.38%
Greater Poland
48,562
129
0.27%
West Pomeranian
20,658
86
0.42%
Total
515,701
1557
0.30%
definitively state that the quality of Polish education has been compromised due
to teacher shortages on a national scale.
The calculations indicate that the presented shortages represent 0.3% of the
employed teachers in schools (ranging from 0.15% to 0.63% in individual
voivodeships) (see Table 3). Even if we were to assume that all shortages constitute 1% of the teacher population, this value raises concerns. Especially since the
shortages are not evenly distributed: in the central, eastern, and southern regions
of Poland, they are below the national average, while in the western, northern,
and Mazovian voivodeships, they are above. For policymakers, this serves as a
signal for how to strategically manage workforce policy on a national scale. Conducting regionalized studies on teacher salaries in different voivodeships and their
218
Table 4  Teacher-toregistered vacancy ratio.
(Own compilation based
on data from the Central
Statistical Office [GUS] and
information from Regional
Educational Authorities’
websites)
J. Madalińska-Michalak
Voivodeship
Vacancies
Lower Silesian
155
Kuyavian-Pomeranian
124
Lublin
135
Lubusz
58
Łódź
145
Lesser Poland
217
Masovian
351
Opole
55
Subcarpathian
139
Podlaskie
73
Pomeranian
146
Silesian
264
Świętokrzyskie
71
Warmian-Masurian
85
Greater Poland
222
West Pomeranian
96
relation to the national minimum and average wages might provide insight. Economic conditions could be a significant factor influencing graduates’ decisions
about pursuing a career in this profession.
A more accurate perspective would emerge from examining the ratio of
actively employed teachers to the number of teacher vacancies in the specific subjects analyzed above in each voivodeship in July 2023 (see Table 4).
However, when we calculate the percentage of actively employed teachers
that constitute the vacancies, the situation looks somewhat different. In this case,
the values for individual voivodeships range from 4.38 to 4.69. This provides a
fairly consistent regional perspective of the shortages, with a difference of merely
0.31, a median of 4.54, and an average of 4.55. The position in this ranking is not
determined by the number of residents or students, but rather by specific educational factors. Much depends on the commitment of school principals themselves,
as well as their governing bodies, which are the local government units. The strategy of regional education management by the local educational superintendent is
also significant—how much of a corrective, inspiring, and directive role they play,
versus being entrenched in political contexts and merely representing the regional
policy of the education minister.
Addressing Teacher Shortages in Poland …
219
The entities such as teacher training centers and their mission in the region
are also not negligible. It matters whether their role is to diagnose the situation in
schools and institutions, resulting in appropriate diagnostics or training methods,
or if the entire entity’s focus is on ensuring the employment of its advisors and
consultants. The effectiveness of pedagogical libraries and psychological-pedagogical counseling centers also plays a role. Their significance, especially that of
libraries, remains underappreciated both by themselves and their environment. It
seems that the key role lies in the standards used to assess the effectiveness of
their work. The reports on their annual work submitted to local government heads
or educational superintendents are often repetitive descriptions and numbers that
are incomparable with others (e.g., the lack of presentation of progress in the
number of participants in training programs) (Fig. 2).
Warmian-Masurian
4.69
West Pomeranian
4.67
Lublin
4.64
Łódź
4.64
Kuyavian-Pomeranian
4.63
Podlaskie
4.60
Greater Poland
4.57
Subcarpathian
4.55
Lubusz
4.53
Silesian
4.52
Świętokrzyskie
4.52
Pomeranian
4.50
Lower Silesian
4.49
Opole
4.47
Masovian
4.41
Lesser Poland
4.38
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
Fig. 2 Percentage of active teachers represented by registered vacancies, author’s own
compilation based on data from the Central Statistical Office (GUS, 2022) and information
from educational superintendents’ websites
220
J. Madalińska-Michalak
5Educational Planning
In Poland, there’s a lack of medium- and long-term planning. Only yearly planning exists, which poses a risk of not being able to foresee teacher demand trends
and the teacher workforce’s structural composition. However, effective management of supply and demand among teachers can be achieved if such actions are
conducted within appropriate timeframes.
Strategic thinking and planning regarding the future school network in Poland
have been primarily of a local scope: municipal or district-based. This is closely
tied to the legal status of these levels of local government, especially concerning schools and educational institutions. Central institutions such as the Educational Development Center, Institute of Educational Research, universities, and
ministries have attempted to gather experience in this field. The scope of these
strategies is rather limited, as evident from available materials. They range from
demographic forecasts, the state and number of schools and institutions, future
student transportation, and in a few cases, professional development needs for
teachers. The attempt to outline a teacher model alongside tools useful in implementing these strategies, such as task budgets, is scarce. As such, local governments, aware that education and to a significant extent teacher development have
been taken over by the state, have largely ignored these matters in their strategic
planning. It’s regrettable that the Ministry of Education hasn’t conducted significant analyses in this area.
In Poland, it’s certainly necessary to conduct a detailed analysis of EIS (Educational Information System) data to determine whether there have been any
noticeable changes in teacher shortages over the last five years. If there is a shortage of teachers, at what levels of education (preschool, primary, secondary) is this
observed? Are there regions of the country with particularly noticeable shortages
in highly qualified teacher staff? Which subjects are particularly affected? How
many overtime hours do teachers of specific specializations work, and is this
entirely due to work organization? Is there a trend of teachers leaving the profession? What might be the reason for this? Another crucial consideration is the
prospects of retaining qualified teachers in the profession over the next five years.
Any research that aims to present the current situation within the teaching profession and provides a foundation for predictions and forecasts should serve as
the basis for creating strategic plans that support strengthening the teacher workforce. In some regions, cities, or municipalities, the issue could be a lack of good
teacher candidates, especially for specific subjects (e.g., Mathematics, Computer
Addressing Teacher Shortages in Poland …
221
Science, English, Polish), or candidates for school principals. In other places,
there might be a rising average age of teachers in particular types of schools or
excessive staff movement. Valuable information also pertains to teacher mobility,
such as teachers leaving the profession and the reasons for terminating employment. Reasons may include:
• Organizational changes (complete or partial school closure, reduction in the
number of classes)—Article 20 of the Teacher’s Charter (Teacher’s Charter,
2019)
• Teacher’s application
• Temporary or permanent incapacity to work
• Receipt of a negative job evaluation—Article 23 of the Teacher’s Charter
(Teacher’s Charter, 2019)
• Final conviction or expiration of three months of imprisonment—Article 26 of
the Teacher’s Charter (Teacher’s Charter, 2019)
• Teacher’s applications and termination of employment due to retirement
Similarly intriguing are the statistics concerning teachers: new hires, teachers
changing schools, teachers dividing their positions between different schools,
teachers on sick leave, or retired teachers. It is worthwhile to devote separate
attention to these and other issues in future studies on the state and dynamics of
changes within the teaching profession in Poland.
Furthermore, apart from other matters mentioned here, there’s a definite need
to streamline the educational information system in Poland. In this context, the
data collection stage from schools and institutions becomes especially significant.
6Summary and Recommendations
In summary, the analyses presented within this article provide valuable insights
into the prevailing teacher shortages in Poland. These analyses reveal an uneven
distribution of teacher shortages across the country. Specifically, regions in central, eastern, and southern Poland exhibit teacher shortages below the national
average, whereas those in the western, northern, and Mazovian voivodeships surpass this average. These regional disparities underscore the necessity for a more
localized approach to addressing this pressing issue.
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J. Madalińska-Michalak
For policymakers, these findings should signal the potential need to implement workforce policies at a regional level rather than a national one. Conducting region-specific studies on teacher salaries in various voivodeships and their
relationship to national minimum and average wage levels could offer valuable
guidance. Economic conditions emerge as a notable factor influencing graduates’
decisions to pursue or abstain from a career in the teaching profession.
When assessing the number of school vacancies, neither population size nor
student enrollment plays a significant role. Instead, it is specific educational factors that come into play. Key determinants include the level of engagement exhibited by school principals and their governing bodies, typically comprising local
government units. Several factors merit consideration, such as:
1. The regional educational superintendent’s approach to education management,
encompassing their role as corrective, inspirational, and directive figures,
rather than being perceived primarily as regional politicians representing the
education minister.
2. The mission of teacher training centers within the region, including their
capacity to diagnose school situations and devise appropriate diagnostic or
training strategies, as opposed to a focus on securing employment for their
advisors and consultants.
3. The effectiveness of pedagogical libraries and psychological-pedagogical
counseling centers, both of which often remain undervalued by their stakeholders and surrounding communities. The standards employed to assess the
effectiveness of these entities appear to hold considerable significance.
In light of these findings, a crucial step towards addressing teacher shortages should involve the systematic monitoring of teacher supply and demand.
Research indicates that in most European countries, proactive planning regarding
teacher supply and demand is regularly conducted.
The following recommendations are proposed for a planned, gradual, and
predictable recruitment process for new teachers at the beginning of each school
year:
1. Increase Minimum Teacher Salaries: Consider raising minimum teacher salaries by 40–60%. Schools could annually announce competitions for vacant
teaching positions and select the best candidates based on their qualifications
and prior engagement with students, such as participation in extracurricular
activities, volunteering, or previous teaching experiences.
Addressing Teacher Shortages in Poland …
223
2. Implement a Nationwide Teacher Scholarship System: Launch a comprehensive scholarship system for future teachers. School principals would need to
notify educational authorities three years in advance of their anticipated future
demand for teachers. Once candidates are identified in their third year of
undergraduate studies, a trilateral scholarship agreement would be established
between the regional education authority (acting as a guarantor), the school
authority (as the sponsor), and the student beneficiary. This agreement would
span 2.5 years of second-cycle studies and include a mandatory six-month student teaching internship, typically scheduled in the third semester. Beneficiaries would be obligated to work off the scholarship by teaching for five years
following graduation (excluding vacation time).
3. Establish Regional Scholarship Programs: Create sixteen regional scholarship
programs for aspiring teachers. Similar to the second recommendation, school
principals would project their future teacher needs three years in advance. A
trilateral scholarship agreement would then be signed between the regional
marshal (as the sponsor), the school authority (as the guarantor of employment), and the student beneficiary. This agreement would cover 2.5 years of
second-cycle studies and involve a mandatory student teaching internship,
generally scheduled in the third semester. Beneficiaries would commit to
working off the scholarship by teaching for five years following graduation
(excluding vacation time).
These proposed strategies aim to tackle the teacher shortage issue by incentivizing talented individuals to pursue teaching careers and ensuring a consistent
supply of qualified educators across regions. A localized approach recognizes
the unique dynamics and challenges of each area and encourages regional educational authorities to take a proactive role in addressing teacher shortages.
Ultimately, addressing these shortages is crucial for maintaining the quality of
education and securing a brighter future for Polish students.
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Professionalization and TeachingOut-Of-Field: How Lateral Entrants’
Resources Occur in Moments of Crisis—
Mixed Data Results
Teresa Beck
1Teacher Shortage in Germany
For some years now, the teacher shortage in Germany has been enormous. Therefore, there have been countrywide special measures to counteract this shortage
and to cover missing positions on the labour market (KMK, 2013).1 In Saxony—a
Federal State where the lack has been one of the biggest—a special target group
has recently become prominent: the lateral entrants.2 According to the forecast
of pupil numbers (published calculation already from 2017), a total of 105,000
new primary school teachers will have to be recruited by 2025. This is due to
the primarily age-related retirement of 60,000 teachers, the additional need for
around 26,000 teachers to cover teaching needs in the face of rising pupil numbers, and the necessary recruitment of 19,000 additional teachers to cover additional pedagogical tasks at all-day schools (e.g. through inclusion, all-day care,
1 For more information see Gehrmann “Lateral entry and career jumping into the teaching
profession” in this volume.
2 This article uses the English term of lateral entrant’s equivalent to Seiteneinsteiger:innen
in Germany. Since there are several descriptions in the German terminology for lateral
entry, the German concept of Seiteneinsteiger:innen is meant (State Ministry of Education
and Cultural [SMK], 2020).
T. Beck (*)
Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz, Germany
e-mail: teresa.beck@zlb.tu-chemnitz.de
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_13
227
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T. Beck
support measures). In contrast, a maximum of 70,000 undergraduates are available nationwide for the teaching profession at primary schools in the same period
(Klemm, 2019; Klemm & Zorn, 2018). According to the statistical publication
of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs in
the Eastern part of Germany (2019), there has been a steady increase in recruitment. While only about 600 teachers were hired in 2008, the number continued
to grow in the following years until reaching a peak of 5600 new hires in 2018
(Klemm, 2019; KMK, 2018, p. 11 f.). In view of the growing demand for teachers to be recruited, it will not be sufficient to increase the number of undergraduate students at universities, as these will hardly reach the labour market by 2025
and thus the peak phase of the teacher shortage. Therefore, the following chapter
will take a look at the changing school and teaching culture, considering alternative career paths into the teaching profession. Specifically, this refers to the lateral entrants in Saxony, who, due to the enormous demand for teachers, currently
cover the largest number of unfilled positions in a federal state nationwide and
thus cause a changing view of the professionalization of teachers.
2Professionalization and Lateral Entrants
In view of a critical discussed development and the enormous shortage of teachers, a focused and scientifically research seems urgently necessary. Especially
because the changing access to the teaching profession encourages the perspective towards de-professionalization and a critical development for professional
competence (Miller & Martschinke, 2017). Because non-formally trained teachers are entering schools and with a lack of content knowledge follows a reduction
in the quality of student performance (see more in the studies of e.g. COACTIV
or TEDS-M) (Blömeke et al., 2010; Kunter et al., 2011).
However, according to a paradigm of appreciation (Bosse, 2017), with a changing profession, new approaches and opportunities must be created, accompanied
and conceptually built. New times need new measures and stigmatizing new
teachers with alternative approaches is no longer enough—rather, it is the task of
researchers to provide appropriate insight and solutions. This can also be legitimized by understanding professionalization not as a path towards a profession—
but as an individual process of being professional in one’s field (Cramer, 2020).
Professionalization is therefore not a straightforward process but “rather a cultural
resource that becomes a template for the development and application of knowledge and tools, for organizational change, but also for the management of the individual in an organization-specific professional field” (Kloke, 2014, p. 159).
Professionalization and Teaching-Out-Of-Field: How …
229
Thus, with a view to a professionalization understanding of the teaching profession, the construct can also be related to the individual production of professionalism and then understands the professionalization process as an individual
development around a state of professionalism which is necessary for a professional and appropriate exercise of the profession (Cramer, 2020; Terhart, 2011).
After Evetts (2003) professions can be seen as follows:
“A different way of categorizing these occupations is to see professions as the structural, occupational and institutional arrangements for dealing with work associated
with the uncertainties of modern lives in risk societies. Professionals are extensively
engaged in dealing with risk, with risk assessment and, through the use of expert
knowledge, enabling customers and clients to deal with uncertainty” (Evetts, 2003,
p. 397).
With this more individual oriented perspective on the professionalization process
of new teachers, the aim of this research project, with the emphasis of the interviews with lateral entrants, is to gain insight into how people choose to enter a
completely new profession. What drives them to become teachers and how do
they have experienced the new professional entry into school. Coming to a new
school with the desire to teach children and teaching overnight without much support brings many challenges. Using the Praxeological Sociology of Knowledge
(Bohnsack, 2017, 2020; Bohnsack et al., 2013; Nohl, 2017), the focus is to find
out how new teachers deal with these challenges, what strategies do they develop,
what helps them, how do they understand teaching and how can appropriate training be provided. Many questions that this article touches upon, certainly not all of
which can be answered, but some aspects of which can be torn.
3Teaching In-And-Out-Of-Field in Primary School
First of all, a short orientation will be given to show, how lateral entrants are connected to the concept of teaching-in-and-out-of-field. As the definition for primary school teachers is quite difficult, whether they teach in- or out-of-field, it
is similarly difficult for lateral entrants who teach in primary schools in German.
Theoretically, lateral entrants are following formal restrictions to be ‘foreigners’
in some fields of specialisation and are missing formal qualification to work in
the field of the subject, so they do teach out-of-field (Porsch, 2016). Therefore,
teaching as a lateral entrant is obviously connected to ‘out-of-field-teaching’,
because this occurs when teachers teach a subject for which they are not qualified (Hobbs, 2012; Hobbs & Törner, 2019). Looking at the professionalization
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T. Beck
process of this group there is something important to add. Even though they are
formally teaching out-of-field, they have partially sufficient achievements in a
school related subject and while entering the profession, they participate in a special qualification program (in Saxony) of an average length of two years. Thus,
they do gain a formal qualification for a studied subject and additional content
and pedagogical knowledge (Baumert & Kunter, 2006; KMK, 2018; Kunter et al.,
2011).
Therefore, lateral entrants do not enter the profession without any prior knowledge. Rather, they already have numerous previous pedagogical knowledge and
in addition they learn, at least in first central approaches, to initiate successful
learning processes and to steer complex social situations. Learning opportunities
are in this context initiated and perhaps not holistically completed, yet in educational research around lateral entry and questions of professionalization of lateral
entrants, the connection between the qualification for lateral entrants and the academic learning success of students is still scarce in Germany.
In addition to these outcomes, it could be added the concept of a range of infield and out-of-field teaching. The term is therefore not divided into two poles,
but rather to be understood as a movement that lateral entrants experience, a
collective movement that reveals a shared orientation problem and might not be
exclusively connected to the taught subject.
Therefore, it is not a question of whether and who exactly teaches out-of-field,
much more it is a recognition of being or feeling ‘out-of-field’ in the process of
professionalization. That is, regardless of the formal assignment given, which is
increasingly difficult to make, due to the numerous additions, it is about the lateral entrants’ own experience. It is about the different school situations in which
one is perceived as a teacher who is not a specialist and about coming to terms
with an assigned and partly internalized subject alienation of one’s own role as a
lateral entrant in the process of becoming a teacher.
In the following the methodological reference shall be approached with regard
to the object of research.
4Methodological Approach
With a view to precisely these vague differentiations of ‘teaching-out-of-field’,
which nevertheless have strong implications for the practice of action, the following look at the experienced practice of action in this professional tension is
intended. The movement into the teaching profession of lateral entrants involves,
Professionalization and Teaching-Out-Of-Field: How …
231
reconstructed in the material, an orientation or a tension between norm and habitus in the professionalization process, while the construct of in- and out-of-field
teaching shines through (Bohnsack, 2017, 2020). The research data gives an
insight into the reconstruction of this transition in the teaching profession while
meandering between different aspects of how in- and out-of-field-teaching is
reconstructed.
Additionally, the project follows the theoretical construct, that teaching as lateral entrant is a boundary crossing event and marks the development towards a
professional identity (Akkerman & Bakker, 2011; Hobbs, 2013). The individual
biographies support the search for the collective movements and the shared orientations of the lateral entrants. They are not read as individual biographies, but as
representatives of common spheres of experiences. In addition, the documentary
method can provide another perspective on teaching in- and out-of-field. The orientations reveal the tension already mentioned and how these are negotiated. The
question is, how do the lateral entrants process the in-field and out-of-field localisation of their experiences.
To get a deeper understanding of how important lateral entrants became to
Germany and the narratives of their experiences, results are presented in the following.
5Quantitative and Qualitative Results
As mentioned above, lateral entrants have a variety of prior professional and pedagogical experience and can draw on an extensive professional biography.
Two different data results now follow: (1) In order to be able to first define the
target group more precisely in the following, some descriptive data are presented.
This summarizes the first part of the results. (2) The second part of the results
gives an insight into the reconstruction work of the interviews based on the documentary method. Thereby, only an insight into the developed typology can be
made with reference to three reconstructed types. The main focus of the reconstruction lies in the orientation towards ‘teaching-out-of-field’ as lateral entrant.
5.1Results (1): Who Are the Lateral Entrants?
Some results from the questionnaire are presented below to explore the question
of who the lateral entrants are.
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T. Beck
18%
male
female
82%
Fig. 1 Gender with n = 111. (Own graphic)
Gender
Out of 114 surveyed lateral entrants, 111 gave an indication of their gender
(Fig. 1). Of these, 80% are female (91/111) and 17% are male (20/111). Comparing the cohorts from summer 2017 to winter 2018/2019 shows a slight upward
trend. However, there is a significantly higher proportion of female participants
across all four cohorts.
Age
The ages vary more clearly (Fig. 2). It is striking that lateral entrants vary much
more in age than regularly qualified teachers who are in their first professional
qualification. The average age of all respondents is 35 years (median 34 years).
37.5
37
36.5
36
35.5
35
34.5
34
33.5
33
SS 2017
WS 2017
Fig. 2 Age average 2017–2018. (Own graphic)
SS 2018
WS 2018
Professionalization and Teaching-Out-Of-Field: How …
233
If comparing these values with socio-demographic profiles of prospective
teachers, the age distribution as well as the proportion of women among lateral
entrants is significantly higher compared to undergraduate students at German
universities (Rothland, 2011; Statistisches Bundesamt, 2008).
Language and migration
Furthermore, there are no differences between the respondents in questions about
origin and language. The surveyed teachers predominantly state German as their
spoken language and have no migration background. Regard to their biographical experiences, however, very large differences then become apparent. Here is a
strong difference compared to regularly qualified teachers. These teachers often
have a linear and continuous professional biography. After Illien (2009) student
teachers have been “supervised pedagogically […] for the majority of their biographical development and have thus become acquainted with our social reality decisively from pedagogically determined perspectives” (Ilien, 2009, p. 25).
Lateral entrants do not have this straight-line progression curve and are therefore
less able to refer to this pedagogical embedding, but have resources to be able to
establish a routine practice of action due to diverse previous knowledge—especially in pedagogical professional areas.
Professional biographical experiences
For lateral entrants, different previous professional biographical experiences and
knowledge play a central role in their career choice and their view of school and
teaching. Within the project, it was ascertained in which previous professional
fields the participants had worked, what previous pedagogical experience they
had gained in their professional life and how long they had been working in their
previous teaching position (since the beginning of the lateral entry). The 114 participants made a total of 152 statements about their professions within the last
two years (multiple statements possible). According to the classification of occupations in Germany (Bundesagentur für Arbeit, 2011) the occupations given can
initially be divided into 8 occupational areas.
The most frequently assigned occupational area is health, social work, teaching and education (85 mentions). Whereby the most frequent mentions (15) of
this occupational area can be assigned to the main occupational group of teaching and training occupations and the second most frequent mention is education,
social and domestic occupations and theology. The second most frequently mentioned occupational area is language, literature, social and economic sciences,
media, art, culture and design (12). In third place (8) is occupational area business organisation, accounting, law and administration (8). Other professions were
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T. Beck
either mentioned only sporadically or could not be assigned within the occupational areas (1–5).
• Rank 1. Health, social work, teaching and education
– Category 1. Occupational group of teaching and training occupations
– Category 2. Education, social and domestic occupations and theology
• Rank 2. Language, literature, social and economic sciences, media, art, culture
and design
• Rank 3. Business organisation, accounting, law and administration
Teaching experience
In addition, participants were asked about their previous teaching experience, as
it became apparent during the qualification that some participants had little, others more extensive teaching experience at primary schools. Three lateral entrants
from summer semester and winter semester 2017/2018 stated the longest teaching
experience with 4.4 and 5 years of teaching at primary school respectively. Half
of the respondents had already been teaching for 1 or 2 years. On average, individual participants differ by about 1 year.
This illustrates that some participants in the qualification measure have
already been in the teaching profession for several years (from 1–5 years) and are
working as autodidacts without practical school training.
Since lateral entrants in Saxony participate in the qualification measure parallel to their entry into the profession, they can attain the status of semi-professionals in this way through a subject didactic post-qualification (Porsch, 2020). At
the time of the survey, more than 50% of the respondents stated that they taught
mathematics, general studies (Sachunterricht) or handicrafts.
About 75% of the respondents stated that they taught at least one type of
remedial teaching in addition. Furthermore, additional areas of instruction are
mentioned. Such as: school garden, integration, migration, home economics,
swimming and religion.
Career choice motives
In addition to socio-demographic profile data, motivational aspects regarding
the choice of career were also surveyed. The lateral entrants were given 16 possible reasons (given items) for becoming a teacher to assess. It can be seen that
working with children, imparting knowledge and being involved in the education of children are the most strongly weighted reasons for becoming a teacher.
In addition, job security, the compatibility of family and career as well as interest in the subject play a central role with regard to changing professions. Exces-
Professionalization and Teaching-Out-Of-Field: How …
235
sive demands in the previous profession, a lot of free time due to the new job as
a teacher, having a family close to the city or career advancement opportunities
tend to be rejected as arguments.
First conclusion
As a conclusion from this insight into the data, it can be stated, that the lateral
entrants of this 4 cohorts are mostly female, and on average over 30 years of age
when they participate in the qualification measure. None of the respondents has
a migration background, all lateral entrants come from the federal state and cite
regional ties as a motive for choosing lateral entry.
In addition to a diverse expertise, which was made possible by previous professional qualifications and work experience, the lateral entrants have consciously
chosen the teaching profession by weighing different motives. They have similar
career choice motives as regularly qualified teachers, with slightly changed tendencies based on their professional biographies (Holland, 1959).
The motives of lateral entrants due to career biographies and breaks are mostly
temporarily shifted backwards. In summary the results show, that the career
choice motives of regularly qualified teachers and lateral entrants are stable and
very similar. This means that the major difference lies in the temporal postponement of the career entry. The exact motives of this complex career path will be
reconstructed in more detail in the further course of the research work on the
basis of the professional biographical interviews.
In addition, it is evident that those entering the profession from the side entry
often have experiences in the field of child and youth work. Furthermore, in addition to the professional qualifications, the regional ties of the surveyed teachers are also evident, like mentioned before. Almost all of them stated that they
had studied in Saxony and cited job security and the compatibility of family and
career as reasons for choosing the teaching profession in Saxony.
Consequently, regional stability can be ensured by securing teaching positions
at elementary schools, which includes the consideration and further development
of comprehensive qualification measures.
Moreover, it is a question of how those teachers who are now in the schools
can be well accompanied and further qualified. For this, it is of central importance which resources lateral entrants have and which supports are really relevant. In order to get closer to this subject, the project tries to give insights into
the career entry, to investigate how lateral entrants experience the entry and the
practice in the first years. Of particular interest, the work on the empirical material shows that lateral entry is closely linked to teaching-out-of-field and an orientation towards subject proximity and subject alienation at the same time.
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T. Beck
The existing norms of a good teacher or good teaching create a tension
between the ‘existing’ and ‘the new’, which lateral entrants have to ‘bear’ continuously. In the following, some brief insights into three reconstructed types are
given, which negotiate subject alienation and establish shared orientations. The
final conclusion tries to bundle these insights and to draw relevant conclusions for
practice and its actors here as well.
5.2Results (2): Teaching-Out-Of-Field and Lateral
Entry: An Insight into a Typology
For the research interest and the reconstruction of the lateral entrant’s beginning
into a new profession and the orientation towards a subject alienation in the context of teaching-out-of-field and teaching as a boundary crossing event (Akkerman & Bakker, 2011; Hobbs, 2013) several steps were included to generate a
typology with several different dimensions.
Along the Praxeological Sociology of Knowledge (Beck, 2022b; Bohnsack,
2017, 2020; Nentwig-Gesemann, 2013; Nohl, 2005, 2017), the research goal is to
reconstruct types of people who behave in a certain way and share a common orientation. The goal is the construction of an overall typology, in which individual
cases are compared, similarities and differences are reconstructed, and thus types
of actors emerge (Beck, 2022b; Bohnsack, 2017).
In the reconstruction of social reality, which is produced in social practice,
the action-guided knowledge of the individual actors is consequently a reflective
understanding of action practice. This reconstruction of the action practice “aims
at the habitualized and partly incorporated orientation knowledge underlying this
practice, which structures this action relatively independently of the subjectively
intended meaning” (Bohnsack et al., 2013, p. 9). In order to identify theses orientation figures, which affect the practice of action, it is necessary to work out
case-specific characteristics. According to the principle of minimal contrasts,
components of a collective orientation are thus worked out (Przyborski & Wohlrab-Sahr, 2014, p. 304). The orientation figure enables to integrate similar as well
as very different cases into the interpretation. These collective figures support the
construction of several dimensions in which different themes are negotiated. One
of these dimensions is subject alienation in the context of ‘teaching-out-of-field’
and teaching as a ‘boundary crossing event’.
The following Fig. 3 illustrates a representation of the methodological implementation considering the individual cases (large circle), the reconstructed
dimensions (prisms), the types (edges of the prisms) that “span” the dimension
Professionalization and Teaching-Out-Of-Field: How …
237
case
case
type 2
type 1
type 3
case
case
dimensions
orientation
figures
case
case
case
case
case
Fig. 3 Presentation of the methodical implementation: dimensions, types and orientation
figures. (Own graphic)
and, of course, the orientation figures that move in the dimensions, being similar
(same shading) or even opposite in relation to each other. And thus, establish a
collective space of experience or make it visible through the reconstruction work.
6The Typology: Practice of Action and Dealing
with ‘Teaching-Out-Of-Field’
The dimension is: ‘subject alienation’ in the context of ‘teaching-out-of-field’ and
teaching as a ‘boundary crossing event’.
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T. Beck
The three types3 are:
1. The adapted-pragmatic type
2. The analyzing-identifying type
3. The exploring-independent type
In the following, the attempt is made to outline the orientation figure and to illustrate interpretations regarding ‘teaching-out-of-field’ and the entry onto a new
professional sphere of experiences. In addition, it is about the formation of certain action-guiding orientations that lead to a habitualized practice of action. The
typologies thus become documents and exemplifications for several types within
the typology (Nentwig-Gesemann, 2013, p. 297). In addition, the material shows
an examination of existing norms, e.g. of the school or of society, of how to be a
good teacher—and additionally that of a beginner or a lateral entrant. The following excerpts therefore also always illustrate the modus operandi of the actors in
relation to the existing discrepancy between norms around school and their own
unfolding practice of action (Bohnsack, 2020). Now follows a closer look at the
types; about the formation of certain action-guiding orientations that lead to a
habitualized practice of action.
6.1The First Type
The first type ‘The adapted-pragmatic type’ can be defined as a type whose
modus operandi is reconstructed as stable and resilient in his daily professional
habitus and the topic ‘teaching-out-of-field’ does not have to be ‘worked on’.
The collective orientation pattern in the interviews reveal a collective negotiation
of existing norms and rules of the school, which, however, does not appear as a
crisis-like discrepancy. The interviewees do not mention conflicts in general and
situations are described in which their needs are met. And here, too, it can be seen
that the formal location as a lateral entrant does not mean any negative consequences for this type. ‘Teaching-out-of-field’ is more of an assurance of having
needs met and not being thrown in at the deep end.
3 Author’s note: The three types are merely templates for what appears in a common orien-
tation figure, i.e., what is typical of the common experiences. Thus, the individuals become
carriers of collective experiences and represent what is typical of a group.
Professionalization and Teaching-Out-Of-Field: How …
239
The entry as a lateral entrant into the school is therefore constructed as very
soft, without major problems or barriers. Differences between norm and habitus
do not emerge prominently here; the norms of the school are internalised and
absorbed without bigger conflicts and transferred into the practice of action. As a
result, the subject alienation is slowly and hardly noticeably reduced.
The type reconstructs itself as fully respected regarding her new entry as a lateral entrant and can slowly embark on the field. A negotiation that one is not yet a
fully-fledged teacher as a lateral entrant does not take place here. Being a teacher
is internalised, incorporated into the practice and does not trigger any conflicts.
The persons see themselves as a part of the school, as a part of the college which
makes its professional contribution.
Interview Mr. Schwarzdorn4
459°um°// that’s the nice thing; if I bring something (.) on and say; (.) it doesn’t
work
460 so not then that is just changed. And if I want that so then that is just so
461 changed; so it is implemented. Because I am just the (.) person for a specialized
field that
462 and that are; thus for sport are now. (.) un: yes. (2) and for the other things I can
ask
463 ask anyone, so; (.) there have never been any problems.
Thus, this type is consolidating the professional role, while adapting to the current circumstances. The type could be reconstructed with a satisfied modus operandi, embracing the situation. The subject matter does not always come to the
fore. Here, too, it is evident that the lateral entrants are able to deal with the unfamiliar in a resistant, typical manner and always develop solution proposals and
ideas. The type tries to adapt immediately and uses basic methods and didactical
knowledge to give his classes, weather it is in-, between- or out-of-field.
Interview Mr. Schwarzdorn
470 and they are there also that they still pull the brake. (.) (5) un: (.) yes I
471 have me then “n bissl reingefuchst” (incorporated) and they realize just okay;
(1.5) with him
472 you can also do something else or have something else done. (.) he will now
473 not die on it.
4 Transcription guidelines see appendix.
240
T. Beck
It is also clear that on a communicative level the needs are considered and she
has no problems. Compared to other cases, which have to experience very crisislike situations, this type shows an orientation towards a “self-progression”; things
happen, one aligns oneself with her as a lateral entrant and so she can be a teacher
without problems. The follow up via another teacher’s reference (indirect speech)
“he will not die on it” implies a kind of bravery and perseverance in difficult
times and also illustrates that it is just not that easy and others may have already
failed at it. However, as she is framed by colleagues, things are going well with
her. What this means in detail is not explained further by Mr. Schwarzdorn in this
case, for example.
6.2The Second Type
The second reconstructed type is defined as ‘The analyzing-identifying type’.
This type shows on a propositional level different conflicts in his daily school
practice. Therefore, she tries to deal with problems and difficulties in the beginning of the teaching profession as a lateral entrant.
The professional role is not at all times stable in the modus operandi, uncertainties in methods and didactical implementations are reconstructed in the
habitualized practice. Naming these problems, this type can mark difficulties
without having immediately proposed solutions in her habitualized professional
interaction in the classroom, but in a theoretical way. Therefore, challenges while
„teaching-out-of-field« are mostly implicit a part of the daily practice of action,
when no stable routines exist.
Interview Ms. Mispel
227 of course I can say I do intuitively here.
228 somehow. But with this I find that I really quickly reach a point no this uhm is
229 not quite right, because you have to be responsible for it; of course, you have no
one
230 standing in the classroom with you and hitting you on the fingers because you
are the teacher,
As seen in this excerpt, a certain expectation is placed on one’s role, which is
negotiated on a prepositional level in the mode of description by the interviewer.
Everyday practice is constructed as something that is not determined by a
clear certainty or constancy in action.
The actors deal less with the institutionalised norm and their habitualized
practice, but rather with the social norm of how a teacher should be or do things.
Professionalization and Teaching-Out-Of-Field: How …
241
This shows the double side of existing norms in which teachers often move. At
the same time, societal norms of the teaching profession are very effective (Bohnsack, 2020), while own ideas of how to be a good teacher are also included.
This construct shows that especially lateral entrants do not only deal with
existing norms and needed knowledge, but rather the construction of their entered
‘field’ of profession and the construct of ‘teaching-out-of-field’. However, the
collective orientation figure points to the tension which is negotiated in some
situations, precisely at the points where the actors reach limits and problems in
the execution of their actions. This is because they do not know exactly what is
expected and how they can meet the correct expectations or norms, but have a
vague analytical approach and know that they need more information.
Thereby, exactly these ambiguities are named, partly brought to an individual
level, but not further negotiated in the tension. Furthermore, this type reconstructs herself as mainly ‘new-in-field’, with difficulties on one hand but simple
approaches for teaching on the other hand. The field in the construct ‘teachingout-of-field’ is identified as the subject and the didactical and method knowledge.
Nevertheless, didactic considerations for this type are not finalised. Often pedagogical to general approaches are offered. However, the demarcation from teaching concepts that do not want to be pursued in this way always becomes clear.
Due to the status of being ‘new-in-field’ respectively new in the subject content,
the lateral entrants also have the chance to help shape certain structures along the
school culture and clearly distinguish themselves from old structures. This can be
seen in some cases, where newcomers are seen as profitable, bringing along new
ideas or new didactic suggestions from their qualification programs at university.
Especially in the differentiation to other mainly older colleagues, the orientation
shows itself as ‘new-in-field’, while ‘the field’ emerges as being part of the professional team.
Interview Ms. Mispel
487 it is on the contrary so that the colleagues then say; they want to know
488 also like to know what we do? (.) what we are learning? and um please current
489 research statuses so there is then expected […]
490 and there are also many things that I have learned here, that I put down in the
491 teacher’s room and say here super look at you. For example this.
As can be seen in this excerpt, in the mode of narrating a concrete situation with
descriptive elements, shows that in this type the new role is framed positively.
The situation of ‘teaching-out-of-field’ acts as a vehicle into the college by ensuring that the lateral entrant brings new impulses from the university. So, it is not a
deficit to be new, but can enrich all together and is the figure for new impulses.
242
T. Beck
It is interesting here that studies are mentioned to back up these impulses. This
clarifies a relationship that is close to science.
In this type the lateral entrants are new and incorporate their role as adding
value and do not have to deal with any fundamental conflicts. Additionally, concrete knowledge of how teaching or being in ‘the field’ can be realised, is not
available. This orientation figure of having strategies to overcome obstacles and
find solutions for problems is the main difference between this type of identification and the third type.
6.3The Third Type
The third type has some different typical modus operandi, especially in dealing
with hurdles, problems and tasks that cannot be clearly assigned. Here, the third
type makes concrete attempts to explore its options for action. ‘The exploringindependent type’ wants to make variances and is willing to stand up to inevitable
confrontations.
The professional role is mostly stable and difficulties can be solved with
the right tools. Typically for this type, support systems are gladly accepted and
are part of the problem-solving strategy in case uncertainties with methods and
didactical implementations occur. This type knows exactly about an existing
‘teaching-out-of-field’-situation and wants to explore it continuously and resolve
it.
Interview Ms. Jochelbeere
361 colleagues who have visited me now? (.) of course, I made mistakes at the
beginning, so
362 didactic mistakes, but now I don’t make them anymore, because we have
learned a lot in our
363 qualification measure. That really brings something; and um yes, so you get better and better
364 the more you teach; so I am now much more satisfied with myself than at the
beginning.
Changes are individually identified and are steered in the right or better fitting
direction. This type is also characterised as someone who does not conform to
some normative structures of the institution as well as the formal framing of lateral entry.
At numerous points in the interviews, an orientation became clear. The continually working off of formal requirements of the state or the university r­egarding
Professionalization and Teaching-Out-Of-Field: How …
243
the content of the qualification measure. At these points, the tension between
habitualized practice, the daily experience of what is considered necessary, and
the normative programmatic specifications becomes apparent. Organisational
conditions are understood here as non-action orientations. The programs contain theoretical foundations that are not needed in practice. Rather, the type seeks
structures that guide actions. The self-positioning as often left alone, strengthens
the role of independently taking care of necessities.
153 that was a bit alone and thrown in and go? I sat just in
154 the first class? so in the third class the first day and then I thought h:m °h (.)
155 what do you do with the / @(.)@ although I have already prepared privately. I
had a
[…]
180 and then I was often on my own;
181 what do I do with them so that also in a little bit something meaningful comes
out; and
182 there was simply so that I. (.) had many more ideas than I could implement.
And also
Facing several conflicts in the beginning, this type is an active-becoming one,
who does not remain stuck in the status quo, but wants to develop further. Normative guidelines are mostly rejected, own action alternatives are worked out ‘in
secret’. This indicates that the third type is more likely to experience conflicts in
the search for a belonging and the endurance of ‘teaching-out-of-field’. The profession and being a teacher is not accessible from the beginning. The type experiences many challenges and crisis moments. It is this experience of crises that
most succinctly distinguishes them from the other two types.
7Conclusion
In summary, the analysis of the types makes it clear that biographical trajectories and experiences in dealing with crisis moments (Hinzke, 2018; Oevermann,
2004) have a great influence on the self-concept as a new teacher and thus on
their concept of teaching (Beck, 2022a). Based on the biographical approach as
well as the inclusion of the concept of habitus or incorporated habitus patterns
(Bohnsack, 2020), the methodological-theoretical approach of the research is justified and it is shown how lateral entrants incorporate these performative routines
of habitualized practice and reconstruct them in tension with their educational
biographical breaks.
244
T. Beck
This conceptual development of being a teacher is partly constant but also still
in a process of development and construction. The experienced tension between
school norms and the program of lateral entry and the fact of having to shape
one’s own teaching from the beginning, i.e., to establish one’s own routine of
action, has a great influence. The experience of teaching outside the subject—or
of being formally assigned—has multiple repercussions for the practice itself.
As mentioned at the beginning, the aim is to find out how new teachers with
an alternative approach into the profession deal with challenges; what strategies
they develop, what helps them, how they understand teaching and how appropriate training can be provided. Along the typology and the three types presented,
this could be answered from different perspectives.
Looking at the results of this project it becomes clear that there is no onedimensional answer to the question. The three types point to a partly similar but
also very divergent way of dealing with the experience and endurance of “teaching-out-of-field” and the accompanying crises.
Type 1, for example, stands for a typus who experiences fewer moments of crisis, internalizes the school’s programmatic guidelines and describes its practice as
self-evident. Identification as a teacher takes place at an early stage and supports
as well as legitimizes one’s own practice of action.
Type 2, on the other hand, experiences many crisis moments in her career
entry. This is mainly a matter of tension between school norms and the idea of
a good teacher as well as one’s own school practice. While trying to be a good
teacher, there are constant irritations that disrupt this construction and bring one’s
own self-image into question. These ambiguities are named, partly brought to an
individual level, but not further negotiated in the tension. So far, there is simply a
lack of strategies and expertise to deal with teaching crises in practice.
Type 3 is similar to type 2 in that respect, recognizes challenges as well. However, in contrast to a persistence, the type takes measures to realize its individual
ideas of teaching. A large part of their habitualized practice is the use of support
and their own search for support strategies. While type 2 has no strategies here,
the third type seeks and elaborates its and frames its practice as an unfolding one
through reflection on it.
The results show some important findings with regard to practical action and
possible conclusions, which will be discussed again in the final summary. In addition, the quantitative data also showed that the target group has very heterogeneous professional prerequisites. On the one hand, lateral entrants in elementary
schools in Saxony are more often female and over 30 years of age, but on the
other hand with regard to their previous professional experiences, a diverse rep-
Professionalization and Teaching-Out-Of-Field: How …
245
ertoire of school-related and pedagogical previous experiences emerges. Finally,
some final conclusions can be drawn from this, which are presented below.
8Final Resume
First of all the goal of this project is to shed light on an area that is still less
researched and forced researchers into a debate among experts in the educational
landscape (Gehrmann, 2020; Miller & Martschinke, 2017; Puderbach & Gehrmann, 2020). It is therefore a final goal to help understand how lateral entrants
need to access the profession in order to cope well with rising crises. In addition,
conclusions are drawn for successful practice, which are briefly outlined here.
First, it should be considered that the target group has professional experience,
but at the same time has also basic needs for professional qualification. The quantitative data shows, that there is a need and how the target group is positioned.
Therefore, the sociological-demographic data can support the creation of targetoriented measures for a successful career entry and a target-oriented in-service
qualification measure.
Second, the qualitative data summarized above provide insights into shared
experiences and goals when it comes to successful teaching. In order to ensure a
good arrival and long-term progress of the lateral entrant, some recommendations
and future measures follow, which can certainly be discussed.
• First of all, it is a matter of recognizing career entry as a special challenge;
lateral entrants have to endure moments of crisis. This should be recognized
by all actors.
• This special situation makes it possible to allow for (re-)orientation as a general location of the own person as a teacher. This should be considered for
decision makers as well as lateral entrants. Therefore, it should be possible to
orient oneself at the beginning of the career entry, to teach subjects initially in
an accompanying manner.
• In this context, intensive support plays a central role, especially at the beginning of a career. What is meant here is intensive mentoring or coaching for
each individual.
• In addition, there should be ongoing qualification opportunities that lateral
entrants can put together individually. Especially the quantitative results show
different professional experience. So it should be possible that not everyone
deepens the same content.
246
T. Beck
• It should be possible to take courses according to his or her professional orientation and studied subject(s).
• In addition to subject didactic, subject-specific and pedagogical content, it is
also proposed to place a further focus on strengthening the reflection competence of lateral entrants, creating opportunities to reflect on their own teaching
practice and to create new routines for action. This can be done, for example,
through case studies and own practice or case consultation.
• In this context, it seems a particular possibility, especially in terms of the
search and desire to rework things, that lateral entrants need to be even more
involved in their own reflection on practice.
• And finally, collegial structures should be provided, supported, expanded and
established as a basic premise for teachers.
These conclusions can certainly be supplemented over time. First of all, however,
it should be made clear that there are still numerous desiderata on the subject of
lateral entrant in general. And more importantly, structured and conceptualized
measures need to be further elaborated in the future. Certainly, supporting teachers who teach out-of-field and lateral entrants, will be one of the central tasks
for educational science research for a school of the future—especially with the
alarming view of the need for teachers in numerous Federal States. A deeper
insight is provided by my dissertation (2023) on: “Professionalization between
Crisis and Routine. A Reconstructive Study on the Career Entry and the career
entry phase of lateral entrants”, which is dedicated to the complexity of lateral
entry and professionalization. Crises, strategies and their treatment are presented
in a typology and then discussed in terms of professional theory and the subject
matter.
Transcription Guidelines (TiQ: Talk in Qualitative
Research)5
(.)
short break, about 1 s
(3)
seconds that a break lasts
no
emphasised
no
loud (in relation to the speaker’s usual volume)
5 For a more detailed description see Bohnsack (2014).
Professionalization and Teaching-Out-Of-Field: How …
°no°
247
very quit (in relation to the speaker’s usual volume)
strongly dropping intonation
;
Weakly dropping intonation
?
strongly rising intonation
,
weakly rising intonation
mayb-
interruption of a word
wou::ld
Extension of a word, the frequency of: corresponds to the length of the
extension
()
word(s) not understood, according to length
(well)
uncertain in transcription
((moans))
Vents beyond language
@(.)@
laughing
//mhm//
for biographical interviews: listener signal of the interviewer if the “mhm” is
not overlapping
└
Overlapping of speech acts
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The Academic Training of Second
Career Teachers in Saxony:
Programs and Implications for the
Professionalization of Lateral Entrants
Thomas Bárány and Julian Hoischen
1Introduction
Since 2017, the academic training of teachers was established in the state of Saxony at the same time as the liberalization of the school system to permit lateral
entrants and sees itself as an organized in-service format for the professionalization of teachers without a regular teaching degree. The authors do not yet have
reliable information on the number of lateral entrants in the Saxon school system, but an estimate of around 4500 persons is considered realistic. This means
that, since 2017, just over 10% of employed teachers do not have a corresponding undergraduate degree; this does not include the proportion of teachers from
former lateral and direct entry contexts, although such measures have played
a quantitatively very minor role since the reunification of the German states in
1990. The special characteristic of the Saxon model lies in the combination of the
recruitment and employment of lateral entrants with the undergoing of mandatory
qualification measures that are directly linked to the professionalization structures
of traditional teacher training.
The article begins with a detailed outline of the concept of academic training
in Saxony and its integration into the established system of teacher education,
T. Bárány (*) · J. Hoischen
TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany
e-mail: bql@tu-dresden.de
J. Hoischen
e-mail: bql@tu-dresden.de
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_14
251
252
T. Bárány and J. Hoischen
and thus describes the purpose of the measures with regard to the professionalization of lateral entrants. In the second part, the authors present the results of a
survey conducted by the Center for Teacher Education and Educational Research
(ZLSB) at TU Dresden, which was conducted as part of academic training at the
Dresden location, and which asked lateral entrants in training there about the
(pre-)conditions for successful professionalization in the teaching profession. By
comparing this data with similar surveys of undergraduate teaching students at
the Dresden location, it is possible to formulate basic assessments of the personal
and professional pre-qualifications for lateral entrants to the teaching profession.
2Lateral Entry into the Teaching Profession
in Saxony
The massive need for replacement teachers in the mid-2010s led to the liberalization of the school system in Saxony and direct entry into teaching for interested
persons without a teaching degree. However, this principle of teacher acquisition is not without certain preconditions, and only constitutes the beginning of
a subsequent training process that is directly linked to the established structures
of teacher training. At this point, it should be noted that the central perspective
of qualification-related equal opportunity between lateral entrants and teachers with an undergraduate teaching degree is directly applied here. Accordingly,
Saxony is attempting to recruit as many motivated individuals as possible to join
the teaching profession and to guide them through a specially designed qualification system to achieve equal status under collective bargaining and personnel law.
In principle, all career paths in the teaching profession are therefore open to lateral entrants in Saxony. The basic prerequisite for the creation of equivalent professional and career paths is not only the unrestricted opportunity to participate
in similar or the same qualification elements, but above all their corresponding
legalization. Thus, both the recruitment procedures and the qualification measures are subject to binding regulations that are linked to the existing personnel
and collective bargaining conditions of the teaching profession or to elements of
the undergraduate teacher training. The basic principle of lateral entry in Saxony
is as follows:
1. Beginning of employment as a teacher in the Federal State of Saxony
2. Start of 3-month initial training with teaching-related basic skills at a federal
state site
The Academic Training of Second Career Teachers …
253
3. Entry into the teaching profession by working as a teacher
4. Commencement of in-service academic training in a subject area
5. Start of practical school training in the subject
6. Under collective bargaining law, equal status with teachers possessing an
undergraduate teaching degree (traditional way to the profession)1
The legal basis for this principle is described in the Ordinance of the Saxon
State Ministry of Education and Cultural Affairs on the in-service qualification of teachers at schools in the Federal State of Saxony (Teacher Qualification
Ordinance—LehrerQualiVO). This document regulates both the access and the
design of the qualifying elements of the training phases outlined here, taking into
account the previous professional experience of the teachers. At the same time, it
defines the formal requirements for lateral entry into the teaching profession in
Saxony:
“Anyone who has obtained one of the following non-teaching university degrees is
deemed to possess a basic qualification as a lateral entrant:
1. A master’s degree, an equivalent graduate degree (Diplom) or master’s course
(Magister), or an equivalent university degree,
2. A bachelor’s degree, a degree (Diplom) with the suffix “FH” or an equivalent
university degree, with the exception of a degree from a university of cooperative education (Berufsakademie)” (Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Kultus,
2020, p. 2).2
The professional qualifications of lateral entrants are important in that the aforementioned steps may be arranged differently for lateral entry. An important aspect
is the possibility of assignment of a subject from existing university degrees held
by the future teachers. If it is possible to clearly derive a subject-related academic
1 For more information see Gehrmann “Lateral Entry and Career Jumping into the Teaching
Profession in Germany” in this volume, and also Hoffkamp & Koch “Academic Qualification of Second Career Teachers in Mathematics—Challenges, Conditions of Success and
Desiderata”.
2 Original reference: “Über eine Grundqualifikation als Seiteneinsteigerin oder Seiteneinsteiger verfügt, wer einen der folgenden nicht lehramtsbezogenen Hochschulabschlüsse
erworben hat: 1. einen Masterabschluss, einen diesem entsprechenden Diplom- oder Magisterabschluss oder einen diesem gleichgestellten Hochschulabschluss, 2. einen Bachelorabschluss, einen Diplomabschluss mit dem Zusatz „FH“ oder einen diesem gleichgestellten
Hochschulabschluss mit Ausnahme eines Abschlusses einer Berufsakademie.”
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T. Bárány and J. Hoischen
education relevant for schools, this subject will be recognized analogously to the
subject-specific studies in the undergraduate teaching degree. In this case, this is
followed directly by practical school training in that particular subject, taking the
form of an in-service preparatory phase.
The academic training phase now offers the possibility to study a second subject in an in-service arrangement, in combination with the recognition of the first
subject and the completed preparatory phase, in order to achieve equal status
with teachers with a teaching degree. In order to achieve the desired equal status
between lateral entrants and teachers with a teaching degree, a training system
has been established in Saxony with the aim of achieving analogous qualifications
through comparable training elements.
The following overview compares the three different professionalization paths
for becoming a teacher in Saxony (Fig. 1–Fig. 3).
As previously indicated above, in lateral entry, the recognition of the lateral
entrant’s first degrees has an influence on the qualification process. Ideally, the
path to equal status follows the pattern already outlined for the first subject, but is
directly followed by practical school training (Fig. 2):
If the first degree does not allow for recognition of a subject, the academic
training can be completed several times, such that the analogous qualification can
be attained in this manner. However, the sequence between the academic training
in the second subject and the beginning of the practical school training may vary
from individual to individual (Fig. 3):
The recognition of two school-relevant subjects from a lateral entrant’s previous experience is considered an extremely rare case and leads directly to practical school training with subsequent equal status. In the recognition process for
Teaching
degree
Educaonal
sciences
Subject 1
Subject 2
Preparatory
phase
Academic
training
Praccal
school
training
Qualifying equivalent
Lateral
entrants
Inial
training
Recognion
of first
degree
Fig. 1 Comparison of training elements for teaching degrees vs. lateral entry. (Own
graphic)
The Academic Training of Second Career Teachers …
Teaching
degree
Educaonal
sciences
Subject 1
255
Preparatory
phase
Subject 2
Qualifying equivalent
Lateral
entrants
Inial
training
Recognion
of subject
from first
degree
Praccal
school
training
Academic
training
Fig. 2 Lateral entry with recognition of a subject. (Own graphic)
Teaching
degree
Educaonal
sciences
Subject 1
Subject 2
Preparatory
phase
Academic
training 2
Praccal
school
training
Qualifying equivalent
Lateral
entrants
Inial
training
Academic
training 1
Fig. 3 Lateral entrants without a recognized subject. (Own graphic)
subjects, comparable achievements in subject-specific training components of the
disciplines studied are decisive in any case. Comparison is performed according
to the subject-specific requirements in terms of the credit points awarded in the
undergraduate degree in the respective subject in accordance with the relevant
Teacher Training Ordinance (Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Kultus, 2022).
As far as the basic structure of the Saxon model is concerned, all in all two
aspects can be highlighted. The present concept corresponds to a comprehensive
and systematically designed variant of lateral entry with in-service qualification
(Bárány et al., 2020), which is based on the definitions of the Standing Conference of the Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder (KMK) for
“other (permanent) teachers”, i.e. persons who hold a university degree without
a teacher training examination and who are hired as teachers for an indefinite
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T. Bárány and J. Hoischen
period without completing a preparatory phase (KMK, 2021). A second focus
is on in-service qualification elements, which aim in particular to fill the gaps in
academic training and thus ascribe a special role to academic training.
2.1The Academic Training of Teachers in Saxony: Core
Element of Lateral Entry Qualifications
Not having studied the necessary degree-level courses or not having the necessary
degrees in teaching-related subjects is a central element of the professionalization
discourse in the context of lateral and side-entry concepts. This is especially true
for the current situation in Saxony, since academic training is an in-service equivalent to undergraduate training in the subject and in the didactics of the subject,
or at least this is what is assumed via the analogous recognition of both training
paths by the cultural authorities. Back in 2014, academic training was introduced
into the relevant legislation. The Teacher Qualification Ordinance (LehrerQualiVO) regulates the admission, the goals, the content and the scope of the qualification. Section 2 has the states the following about the goals:
“The academic training is intended to impart subject-specific academic and didactic
knowledge, skills and competencies in a subject, a subject area or a special focus,
which are required as a basis for fulfilling the educational mission in a particular
school type. After the successful completion of the academic training, and based on
previous qualifications, a teaching qualification or a permanent teaching license is
established via a qualification certificate” (Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Kultus, 2020, p. 3).3
The regulations established here are what actually allow for analogous recognition and equal status with an undergraduate teaching degree. Successful completion of the academic training establishes the teaching license and teaching
qualifications for an indefinite period. Subsequently, Sect. 7 of the Teacher Qualification Ordinance regulates the training both in terms of scope and content:
3 Original
reference: “Die wissenschaftliche Ausbildung soll fachwissenschaftliche und
fachdidaktische Kenntnisse, Fähigkeiten und Fertigkeiten in einem Fach, einer Fachrichtung oder einem Förderschwerpunkt, die als Grundlage für die Erfüllung des Erziehungsund Bildungsauftrags in einer Schulart erforderlich sind, vermitteln. Nach einer erfolgreich
abgeschlossenen wissenschaftlichen Ausbildung wird je nach Vorqualifikation eine Lehrbefähigung oder eine unbefristete Lehrerlaubnis durch ein Qualifizierungszeugnis festgestellt.”
The Academic Training of Second Career Teachers …
257
“The academic training lasts for at least four semesters. An exception to this is the
academic training in the subject for the teaching profession at elementary schools,
which lasts for at least three semesters. The content of the course includes, via the
corresponding application of parts 2 to 6 of the Teacher Examination Regulations
(Lehramtsprüfungsordnung I—LAPO I), for the following school types:
• Elementary school (Grundschule): elementary school didactics in areas A to C
and elementary school pedagogy with a total of at least 95 credit points according to the European Credit Transfer System
• Elementary school (Grundschule): one subject with at least 45 credit points or a
subject of the LAPO I including subject didactics with a total of at least 60 credit
points
• High school (Oberschule) and school for special needs (Förderschule): the subject including subject didactics with a total of at least 70 credit points
• School for special needs (Förderschule): the special subject including general
special education content with a total of at least 60 credit points
• Grammar school (Gymnasium): the subject including subject didactics with a
total of at least 85 credit points, and
• Vocational school (Berufsbildende Schule): the subject including subject didactics or the subject area including vocational didactics with a total of at least 85
credit points” (Sächsisches Staatsministerium für Kultus, 2020, p. 4).4
It should be emphasized at this point that the content of the academic training
is directly linked to the LAPO I and the associated design of teaching content
4 Original reference: „Die wissenschaftliche Ausbildung dauert mindestens vier Semester.
2 In Abweichung davon dauert die wissenschaftliche Ausbildung nach Absatz 2 Nr. 2 in
einem Fach gemäß § 23 Absatz 3 Nr. 1 der Lehramtsprüfungsordnung I vom 29. August
2012 (SächsGVBl. S. 467), die zuletzt durch die Verordnung vom 18. Dezember 2018
(SächsGVBl. 2019 S. 55) geändert worden ist, in der jeweils geltenden Fassung, mindestens drei Semester. Die Studieninhalte umfassen in entsprechender Anwendung der Teile
2 bis 6 der Lehramtsprüfungsordnung I 1. für die Schulart Grundschule die Grundschuldidaktik der Gebiete A bis C gemäß § 23 Absatz 2 der Lehramtsprüfungsordnung I und die
Grundschulpädagogik mit insgesamt mindestens 95 Leistungspunkten nach dem European
Credit Transfer System (Leistungspunkte), 2. für die Schulart Grundschule ein Fach nach
§ 23 Absatz 3 Nr. 1 der Lehramtsprüfungsordnung I mit mindestens 45 Leistungspunkten
oder ein Fach nach § 23 Absatz 3 Nr. 2 der Lehramtsprüfungsordnung I einschließlich der
Fachdidaktik mit insgesamt mindestens 60 Leistungspunkten, 3. für die Schularten Oberschule und Förderschule das Fach einschließlich der Fachdidaktik mit insgesamt mindestens 70 Leistungspunkten, 4. für die Schulart Förderschule den Förderschwerpunkt
einschließlich allgemeiner sonderpädagogischer Inhalte mit insgesamt mindestens 60 Leistungspunkten, 5. für die Schulart Gymnasium das Fach einschließlich der Fachdidaktik mit
insgesamt mindestens 85 Leistungspunkten und 6. für die Schularten der berufsbildenden
Schulen das Fach einschließlich der Fachdidaktik oder die Fachrichtung einschließlich der
beruflichen Didaktik mit insgesamt mindestens 85 Leistungspunkten.”
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T. Bárány and J. Hoischen
in accordance with the undergraduate study structure, although no examination
is administered for the academic training. Furthermore, lateral entrants who have
successfully completed the training are not considered to have passed the state
examination, but instead receive a permanent teaching license in the respective subject. With regard to the scope of study courses in academic training, the
total duration and scope of studies in the academic qualification phase for lateral
entrants vary, and depend on the recognition of each lateral entrant’s subject(s).
Thus, the following regulation applies to a teacher who has been granted recognition in one subject and needs to satisfy qualification requirements for an additional subject:
• Elementary school
min. 95 CP in min. 4 semesters
• High school:
min. 70 CP in min. 4 semesters
• Grammar school:
min. 85 CP in min. 4 semesters
• Vocational school:
min. 85 CP in min. 4 semesters
For the school type “Grundschule”, it must be added that the training in the program area elementary school didactics incl. elementary school pedagogy is obligatory in any case and must be undergone regardless of whether a subject from
previous degrees has been recognized. In the other types of school, the academic
training replaces the second subject, analogous to the undergraduate structure.
Teachers without a recognized subject who wish to obtain equal status under collective bargaining agreements and personnel law by means of a lateral entry qualification must complete the appropriate academic training in two subjects with the
following scopes as a minimum:
• Elementary school:
140 CP in min. 7 semesters
• High school:
140 CP in min. 8 semesters
• Grammar school:
170 CP in min. 8 semesters
• Vocational school:
170 CP in min. 8 semesters
The professionalization strategy for lateral entrants in Saxony thus comprises, in
the maximum variant, a total study period of at least eight semesters and at least
twelve months of practical school training as a preparatory phase. The analogous
recognition is achieved via a mixture of basic training elements with adapted
qualification modules, at least with regard to the legalization of this path into the
profession for persons without an undergraduate teaching degree. The prospects
The Academic Training of Second Career Teachers …
259
of the Saxon model are made clear by the importance of academic training as a
central link between an undergraduate degree and alternative paths towards professionalization: in addition to lateral entrants, the Free State of Saxony extends
all teachers in the school system the offer of academic training. This means that
teachers with an undergraduate teaching degree can also complete a comprehensive, recognized training course in a third subject, as can teachers with fundamentally different educational biographies, such as GDR graduates or kindergarten
teachers with a teaching qualification (Bárány et al., 2020). Hence, there are indications that this concept of a training and further education system that does not
require an undergraduate teaching degree within the existing teacher training
structure is gaining traction to continue in Saxony.
3Academic Training at TU Dresden: Empirical
Perspectives on the Professionalization of Lateral
Entrants
Thanks to the liberalization of the labor market for teachers in Saxony, which has
been ongoing since 2017, a large number of persons without a teaching degree
are entering schools as teachers. Apart from the prerequisites mentioned in the
Teacher Qualification Ordinance (Sect. 2), less is known about this group of lateral entrants.
In the BQL project (for the in-service qualification of teachers), the academic
training is being organized and implemented at the ZLSB of TU Dresden. The
duration of the project is from 2017 to 2031. In cooperation with the other university locations in Saxony (Leipzig and Chemnitz), the lateral entry qualification in accordance with the Teacher Qualification Ordinance (LehrerQualiVO)
will be carried out at all teacher training universities in Saxony. TU Dresden is
the second largest location after Leipzig and will have provided more than 756
teachers with their qualifying academic training in the period from 2017 to 2023.
The range of subjects commissioned by the Ministry of Education and Culture
includes Mathematics, German, Physics, Computer Science, Economics/Technology/Household Management and Social Affairs (WTH/S) as well as elementary
school didactics, including educational science for the elementary level.
With regard to the conditions for a successful professionalization of lateral
entrants in the teaching profession in Saxony, the authors use a comparative
approach that compares data from surveys of lateral entrant training groups with
data from surveys of first-year teaching degree students at TU Dresden.
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T. Bárány and J. Hoischen
The accompanying research projects of the BQL at TU Dresden are attempting
to identify the differences as well as the similarities between lateral entrants and
students studying to become teachers. The focus is on learning requirements and
attitudes toward the teaching profession, as well as a self-assessment of competencies.
3.1Theoretical Preliminary Considerations
Professional research on teachers has identified several characteristics and contexts that support successful training. For example, it can be shown how personal
pre-qualifications, self-evaluations, and career choice motivations facilitate successful teacher training (Rothland, 2014a, 2014b). As regards professional performance, Weinert (2001) argues for replacing the idea of performance with a
concept of different competencies. The professional decision-making competence
model is determined by five influencing factors. Problem solving skills, critical
thinking skills, general and specific professional knowledge, positive and critical self-awareness, and social skills (p. 46). Baumert and Kunter (2006) extrapolate from this general professional decision-making competence in relation to
teachers. Their model comprises four influencing factors: Professional knowledge, beliefs/value systems, self-regulatory skills, and motivational orientations
(p. 483). Blömeke (2011, p. 395) also elaborates on decision-making competency
with regard to teachers. “Professional teacher competency” is described here by
the cognitive component of professional knowledge and affective-motivational
components. The affective-motivational component is subdivided into general and
subject-specific beliefs about teaching and career choice motivation, as well as
personal learning pre-qualifications. Therefore, it is appropriate to examine these
very factors in the context of examining the conditions for successful professionalization in the teaching profession.
The empirical monitoring of academic training at the Dresden location focuses
on the affective-motivational components of professional teacher competency.
The authors record and provide a comparative analysis of a certain perspective
of preconditions for professionalization along the traditional as well as non-traditional path into the profession.
More specifically, the following factors are considered:
• Personal pre-qualifications and experience with regard to the pedagogical
decision-making contexts of lateral entrants at the beginning of their academic
training in comparison to students studying for a teaching degree.
The Academic Training of Second Career Teachers …
261
• Career choice motivations and professional convictions of lateral entrants in
comparison to regular students studying to become teachers.
• Perceptions, expectations, and self-assessments of the teaching profession
by lateral entrants at the beginning of their academic education and possible
changes in these assessments over the course of the BQL program.
3.2Research Design and Implementation
The research design includes two paper-and-pencil surveys of lateral entrants
in full-survey mode. At the beginning of the academic training, the teachers are
interviewed during the launch event about their personal pre-qualifications and
prior experience, among other aspects. These include career choice motivations
and job-related beliefs (Watt & Richardson, 2007), assessments of competence
acquisition during teacher training (Hoppe-Graff & Flagmeyer, 2008), and selfefficacy expectations specific to the teaching profession (Schulte et al., 2008).
Upon completion of the academic training, a new survey takes place during a
seminar session. The final survey includes assessments of competence acquisition
during teacher training and general and teaching-specific self-efficacy expectations.
The findings of the surveys will be compared with the results of the firstsemester surveys of the teaching degree programs at TU Dresden from the winter
semester 2019/20.
For the first project period (October 2017–October 2023), 705 entry surveys of
lateral entrants are available. With 880 participants started, this represents a participation rate of approximately 80%. The missing proportions are due to absence
or rejection of attending the survey. During this period, 756 participants successfully completed the BQL program and 274 lateral entrants took part in the final
survey, which corresponds to a participation rate of around 37%.
4Results
Gender distribution and age structure of lateral entrants
A look at the gender distribution of the participants shows that two-thirds of all
participants are female. This phenomenon is consistent with the enrolment figures
for teaching degree programs in recent years at TU Dresden. However, not only
in Dresden, but also nationwide, a high proportion of females can be observed
in teaching degree programs. Broken down according to subjects and subject
262
T. Bárány and J. Hoischen
groups, other familiar patterns become apparent in the relationship between subject and gender. For example, it can be seen that the majority of respondents in
elementary school didactics are female (81.5%). The subject German has the largest proportion of female participants. In this case, the percentage of female participants is 85%. For the subject Economics/Technology/Household Management
and Social Affairs (WTH/S), the genders were almost equally distributed. In this
case, the proportion of female lateral entrants is 54%, similar to that in the subject
Mathematics. There, the percentage of female participants is 46.5%.
In the other STEM subjects of academic training, female participants
account for a smaller proportion in the subjects Physics and Computer Science.
In Computer Science, only 28% of respondents are female, and in Physics, they
accounted for only a 25%. It can therefore be assumed that lateral entry programs
only contribute in part to the number of females in certain subjects (particularly
STEM).
As is to be expected in a lateral entry program, the age structure is more heterogeneous than among students studying to become teachers. The average age
of participants is 38 years (SD 6.72). The youngest person started their academic
training at age 24, and the oldest at age 58. The span between these participants is
approximately one generation, or 34 years.
Prior pedagogical experience
Prior pedagogical experience facilitates academic progress among students studying to become teachers (Gröschner & Schmitt, 2008, p. 608; Nieskens, 2009,
p. 169). However, it is debatable as to how exactly pedagogical experience promotes successful academic training. For example, personal experiences can be
linked to the theoretical content of the study course, thereby facilitating the learning process (König & Herzmann, 2011). On the other hand, practical experience
can also make it more difficult to deal with the theoretical content of universitylevel teacher education, as more relevance is attributed to real-world experience
than to the theoretical discussion in studies or training (Hascher, 2014, p. 555).
In addition, 80% of the lateral entrants surveyed said they had previous teaching experience before entering the teaching profession. Biographies often reveal
diverse pedagogical experience, making it necessary to subdivide this experience into general and teaching-like prior experience. Prior experience is therefore sorted by the age of the children/young people, group size, and type of job
(supervision/teaching). This includes all pedagogical experience, including those
that were not gained in professional contexts with children and young people.
According to this categorization, 405 respondents (58%) have an experience profile similar to teaching and 22% of respondents have what is primarily a general
The Academic Training of Second Career Teachers …
263
experience profile. This means that the majority of the lateral entrance group
enters the program with pedagogical experience, which allows us to postulate a
favourable prognosis in terms of successful identification with their duties as a
teacher.
Competence acquisition
For competence acquisition in an undergraduate teacher education program,
Hoppe-Graff and Flagmeyer (2008) show that practical training periods (school
internships and preparatory phase) play an important role in the development of
professional competency. On the other hand, the subject matter and pedagogical content of an undergraduate teaching degree tends to be seen as far removed
from the real world, or even as being superfluous. The authors used this instrument in the surveys of lateral entrants and the results suggest a similar relationship (Table 1).
Respondents consider practical and pedagogical learning situations to be particularly important for the training. It is striking that little relevance is attached
to university studies. In this respect, lateral entrants differ from undergraduates
in their rejection of university studies for the acquisition of competence. There
are no significant differences between the groups of lateral entrants with teaching-like experience and those without teaching experience. These assessments of
competence acquisition remain constant over the course of academic training.
Career choice motivations
Career choice motivations provide important insight into the decision to train to
become a teacher. As such, they are a central and well-studied topic in teacher
education research. The intrinsic motivation of students studying to become
teachers is one of the most important reasons for entering the degree course and
is an important factor in successful career outcomes (Rothland, 2014a, 2014b,
p. 343).
The FIT-Choice scale (Factors Influencing Teaching) is an internationally
established instrument for measuring career choice motivations in the teaching
profession. For this purpose, Watt and Richardson (2007) presented 11 factors
on the basis of expectancy-value theory, which represent dimensions of career
choice. A German translation (Schreiber et al., 2012) adds the factor of subjectspecific motivation to the FIT-Choice. An adapted instrument is used to survey
those entering TU Dresden. The instrument has been adapted to the situation of
lateral entry and now consists of 37 items grouped into 12 scales.
After examining the reliability and dimensionality of the scales, the
scales Helping to shape the future of children/young people, Reducing social
264
T. Bárány and J. Hoischen
Table 1 Assessments of competence acquisition—Comparison between lateral entrants
and teaching degree students
Lateral entrants
At the beginning of academic
training
Teaching degree students (winter semester 19/20)
At beginning of degree course
To become a good n
teacher, …
M
SD
n
M
SD
… you must learn
from successes/
failures in the
classroom
697
1.82
1.159
706
1.70
0.769
… you must learn
from practical
experience
698
1.95
1.183
707
1.65
0.755
… you must like
working with
children
700
2.10
1.214
701
1.79
0.914
… it is necessary
to get to know
yourself better
694
2.22
1.230
705
2.25
1.050
… one requires
expertise in one’s
subjects
696
2.88
1.355
706
2.75
1.319
… you need to be
born for the job
699
4.15
1.705
705
4.37
1.552
… you need to
692
undergo university
studies.*
4.93
1.446
699
3.91
1.387
Scale: 1 = strongly agree—7 = strongly disagree *Mann-Whitney U test p < 0.05 (own
graphic)
­disadvantage, and Making a social contribution were subsumed under Societal
responsibility scale. The Fallback Career scale was excluded from the evaluation
due to its low level of reliability (Table 2).
The ranking of career choice motivations hardly differs between students and
lateral entrants. Career choice is shaped by professional interest in the subjects
studied and pedagogical-social motivation, i.e. intrinsic career choice motivations. Lateral entrants only differ significantly in their motivations for Personal
learning experiences and the Social influence on career choice. These extrinsic
The Academic Training of Second Career Teachers …
265
Table 2 Career choice motivations of lateral entrants and teaching degree students
Lateral entrants
At the beginning of academic
training
Teaching degree students
(Winter term 2019/20)
At beginning of degree course
n
M
SD
n
M
SD
689
6.0
0.89
698
6.1
0.80
Working with youth 686
5.8
1.05
687
5.7
0.95
Societal responsibility
663
5.7
0.84
675
5.8
0.80
Perceived teaching
ability
667
5.5
0.85
673
5.5
0.76
Job security
685
5.4
1.26
693
5.5
1.13
Intrinsic value
Subject-specific
motivation
688
5.4
1.10
691
5.3
0.93
Prior teaching/learn- 677
ing experience*
4.7
1.50
691
5.3
1.40
Time for family
650
3.9
1.31
681
4.1
1.18
Social influence
655
3.5
1.75
689
4.3
1.57
Scale: 1 = not at all important—7 = extremely important *Mann-Whitney U test p < 0.05
(own graphic)
motivations are less relevant for the lateral entrants, which may be due to the
career choice being made later in their lives. In retrospect, the positive effects
of intrinsic motivation on career progression can be assumed to be particularly
important for lateral entrants as well as for regular students studying to become
teachers.
Job-related beliefs
Job-related beliefs can be important criteria that predetermine the understanding
of “being a teacher” (identity and role) and the duties of a teacher (imparting of
knowledge, teaching and learning processes) and determine later decision-making
and perceptions of the role (Reusser & Pauli, 2014, p. 642). In addition, social
prestige, job profile, and pay are relevant to the decision to become a teacher
(Watt & Richardson, 2007, p. 171 f.).
Beliefs relating to the teaching profession were assessed using the FIT-Choice
instrument (four scales with a total of 13 items). In order to examine whether
266
T. Bárány and J. Hoischen
Table 3 Job-related beliefs at the beginning and completion of BQL (in-service qualification program)
Lateral entrants
At the beginning of academic
training
Lateral entrants
After completion of academic
training
n
M
SD
n
M
SD
692
5.89
0.800
265
6.11
0.780
Teaching expertise* 692
4.98
1.172
271
5.49
1.222
Salary*
693
4.60
1.458
267
5.02
1.405
Social status*
666
4.37
1.075
262
4.19
1.137
Difficulty of the
job as teacher*
Scale: 1 = not at all important—7 = extremely important *Mann-Whitney U test p < 0.001
(own graphic)
these perceptions change over the course of the academic training, the scale
measuring job-related beliefs is also included in the final survey (Table 3).
A look at the results shows a consistent ranking of beliefs about the job
description of teachers at the beginning and end of academic training.
At the end of academic training, respondents agree significantly more with all
beliefs. As previously discussed in the section on prior teaching experience, there
may be a relationship between practical teaching-like prior experience and the
assessment of job-related beliefs. For this reason, the results are compared on a
group-by-group basis separately according to the level of prior experience.
However, when interpreting the results, it should be noted that a much smaller
proportion of individuals participated in the final survey. For this reason, the
results presented here should not be overestimated. However, what the results are
able to provide is a trend of how beliefs evolve over the course of the program.
Multi-dimensional teacher self-efficacy expectations
Schulte et al. (2008) present an instrument for job-specific self-efficacy. The
multi-dimensional teacher self-efficacy scale they developed is based on the
standards of the KMK (KMK, 2005). It describes five dimensions for assessing
teacher self-efficacy, which are measured by means of 28 items:
1. Teaching (10 items)
2. Performance assessment (6 items)
3. Diagnostic competence (5 items)
The Academic Training of Second Career Teachers …
267
4. Communication and conflict resolution (3 items)
5. Requirements of the teaching profession (4 items)
In the survey of lateral entrants, the dimension Requirements of the teaching profession was reduced by 2 items and renamed Stress management in the teaching
profession.
After a factor analysis of the results of the entry survey, the assumed dimensions are confirmed. Cronbach’s α is within the acceptable range (0.823 to 0.929)
for all dimensions. For the scales of the initial survey, the reliability values are
between 0.861 and 0.905 (Table 4).
The results show that the self-assessments on the different dimensions receive
a significantly better assessment after the academic training than at the beginning
of the training. The differences are strongest in the dimensions of Teaching and
Performance assessment. The difference is least pronounced in the dimension of
Communication and conflict resolution. Respondents rated their ability to successfully cope with job stress as not very strong, both at the beginning and at the
end. It is not possible at this point to answer whether the perceptions of increased
Table 4 Teacher self-efficacy expectations at the beginning and completion of BQL
Lateral entrants
At the beginning of academic
training
Lateral entrants
After completion of academic
training
Dimensions of
teacher selfefficacy
n
M
SD
n
M
SD
Teaching*
649
3.33
0.923
258
2.62
0.782
Performance
assessment*
640
3.43
1.227
260
2.42
0.893
Diagnostic compe- 658
tence*
3.82
1.187
259
3.14
1.095
Communication
678
and conflict resolution*
2.66
1.160
264
2.25
1.008
Stress management 668
in the teaching
profession*
4.47
1.541
266
3.64
1.532
Scale: 1 strongly agree—7 = strongly disagree *Mann-Whitney U-Test p < 0.001 (own
graphic)
268
T. Bárány and J. Hoischen
decision-making competence in the different dimensions are due to the training or
to the practical work in the schools.
When interpreting the results for teacher self-efficacy expectations, the lower
response rate to the final survey must also be considered. The results should not
be overestimated, but as a trend, they show a change over the course of the academic training. Whether this trend will solidify over time remains to be seen.
5Conclusion and Outlook
Although lateral entrants differ greatly from students studying to become teachers in terms of age, pedagogical experience, and life situation at the beginning of
their training, there is no fundamental difference between them and regular teaching degree students with regard to the conditions for success of the affective-motivational component of professional teacher competence. Both groups emphasize
the acquisition of practical competence and tend to be sceptical about the university education phase in terms of developing professionalism in teacher training.
In the case of lateral entrants, assessments manifested over the course of the academic training process.
Professional beliefs and motivations also show no significant differences from
teaching degree students. Existing differences can be explained by the different
life situations. Lateral entrants who transfer to the teaching profession are presumably seizing an opportunity to change their career and left school quite some
time ago. They are likely to have more decision-making autonomy and greater
wealth of experience, such that teachers tend to take a back seat as an inspiration
for their career choices.
The results of the multidimensional teacher self-efficacy expectations indicate that lateral entrants exhibit a significant increase in the dimensions specific
to teaching. It becomes interesting when the results presented here are viewed in
relation to the rest of the BQL research. By doing so, it becomes possible to correlate the conditions for success and self-assessments with the aid of the results of
the pedagogical teaching knowledge test (König & Blömeke, 2010).
It is true that in an in-service training format, it is not possible to determine
causally whether the learning successes are due to the academic training or to the
day-to-day in schools. However, conditions for success and additional training
needs (e.g., stress management) can be identified.
This holds numerous implications for the professional and practical in-school
observation of lateral entry practices in Saxony. First of all, it can be said that
lateral entrants do not serve as a personnel reservoir in times of precarious
The Academic Training of Second Career Teachers …
269
replacement demands; they primarily bridge the generation gap between an aging
teaching staff and a growing number of graduates with teaching degrees. Beyond
this quantitative perspective, lateral entrants are making their second career
choices in a reflective and motivated way with regard to the educational mission
of schools. The real and long-term effects of the Saxon lateral entry program on
the professional development of schools and teaching will become apparent over
time, and dedicated research into these perspectives is therefore inevitable.
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WATS up? What About Teacher
Shortage? International Perspectives
from Denmark, Germany, and Sweden
Lena Boström, Maria Anna Kreienbaum, Sabrina Wüllner, Frans
Andersen, Göran Bostedt and Marcia Håkansson Lindqvist
1Introduction
Teacher shortage is an urgent problem in many countries. It is real, large, and growing worldwide (García & Weiss, 2019). Shortages of qualified teachers in education
are common in almost all European countries and in the United States (Aragon,
2016; Federičová, 2020). Currently, this leads to many challenges on a societal
level (Klemm & Zorn, 2017, 2019; KMK, 2018; Kommunernes Landsforening,
L. Boström (*) · G. Bostedt
Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden
e-mail: Lena.bostrom@miun.se
G. Bostedt · M. H. Lindqvist
Mid Sweden University, Sundsvall, Sweden
e-mail: goran.bostedt@miun.se
M. H. Lindqvist
e-mail: marcia.hakanssonlindqvist@miun.se
M. A. Kreienbaum · S. Wüllner
Bergische Universität, Wuppertal, Germany
e-mail: kreienbaum@uni-wuppertal.de
S. Wüllner
e-mail: swuellner@uni-wuppertal.de
F. Andersen
Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
e-mail: frans@edu.au.dk
L. Boström
Sundsvall, Sverige
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_15
273
274
L. Boström et al.
2017; Skolverket, 2019a, b; Statistiska Centralbyrån, 2017a, 2017b). As far as
Europe is concerned, Federičová (2020) reported on the shortage in 19 countries.
Her findings show that Southern European countries experience very low rates of
teacher turnover, at about 15% on average, in comparison with northern countries,
where turnover reached 37%. Sweden and Germany are hugely affected by this,
and teacher shortage is also on the rise in Denmark.
2The Network1 and the Research
To explore, explain and compare the state of the current situation of teacher shortage in Denmark, Germany and Sweden is the overall purpose of the collaboration. The network consists of experienced researchers who have collaborated
previously. Mid Sweden University (MIUN) and Wuppertal University (BUW)
have collaborated since 2010, and there has been a fruitful exchange for some
years. The plan to establish a joint research project came up in 2020. As MIUN
and Århus University (AU) have also been in research contact, it was obvious to
expand the collaboration. Therefore, this network brings together experts from
three countries with different scientific competences and research areas, i.e. educational, sociological and political sciences as well as psychology and Information and Communication Technology (ICT), which complement each other in
a reciprocal and productive way. The network meets regularly and carries out
research activities and joint seminars, national and international meetings, aiming
at further developing the research basis and research agenda. Both junior and senior researchers are involved in all of the activities.
The analysis of the respective national situation, the causes and appropriate
measures broaden the view of teacher shortage and could lead to clever and innovative solutions for stakeholders. The project should not only map and analyse
the teacher shortage situation in each country, but also its basic idea is to talk
and hold discussions with various actors in the school systems in each country,
for example teachers, student teachers, principals, politicians, and officials within
the school system. Throughout the project phase, the individual country analyses
lead to a common view of the phenomenon with its facets and effects. The project partners also act as so-called critical friends for each other by perceiving and
questioning the situation in the other country with their specific background and
thereby contribute new perspectives.
1 The project is funded by a research grant for three years by the Swedish Research Council
(2021–2023).
WATS up? What About Teacher Shortage? …
275
Consultations with external experts from various disciplines lead to a thorough reflection of the causes of teacher shortage and of possible solutions and
turn them into sustainable, well-considered paths. By attaining and comparing
perspectives from three different countries with different degrees of teacher shortage, new insights and knowledge on the issue are enabled. An important aim of
the research network is to produce versatile and in-depth, research- and evidencebased knowledge that can contribute to international insights into the phenomenon of teacher shortage and thus, be able to create a basis for changing strategies
concerning teacher shortage.
The long-term aim of the collaboration network is to expand the national and
international networks. This involves collaborative publications by the national
and international members and a joint research database, which can be utilized
and developed in various ways. Above all, the research will be based on current empirical research, official statistical data, and a broad scope of policy
documents. Further, it will be disseminated within national networks involving
regional networks, stakeholders, and policy makers.
3Methodology
There is no simple answer to the question of how teacher shortage develops.
Several interacting and complex factors seem to influence teacher shortage. The
complexity of causes and possible solutions to teacher shortage create a need for
a methodological approach that incorporates different internal and external challenges to the educational system, schools, and the teaching profession in the three
countries. An analysis of structural, social, and cognitive/emotional dimensions
is needed to understand the current situation of teacher shortage, where some
of the categories within the three dimensions are more relevant for some of the
countries studied and others are relevant for all the countries. Due to the differences between the studied countries regarding constitutional structure, political
reforms, work conditions, the status of the profession, etc. a multiple case design
(Stake, 1995) is chosen as the methodological approach. Thereby the complexity
of reasons for teacher shortage in each country can be taken into account. Case
study design provides an opportunity for an in-depth analysis of a phenomenon
that is difficult to distinguish from the context of the phenomenon (Yin, 2003).
Data of importance for the analysis of teacher shortage in each country (literature
reviews, policy documents, questionnaires, and interviews with important stakeholders) is collected and analysed. With a mixed method approach (Creswell,
2014) building on valid empirical data from each country, the data can be
276
L. Boström et al.
Denmark
case
description
Design of
data
collection
Germany
case
description
Comparative
synthesis
Cross-case
conclusions
Sweden case
description
and analysis
Fig. 1 Multiple case design for studying teacher shortage in Denmark, Germany, and
Sweden. (Own graphic)
described, analysed, and compared using both qualitative and quantitative methods. After analysing each country separately, a comparative analysis of the conclusions of reasons for teacher shortage will be conducted. The model thereby
ensures that different types of reasons/explanations for teacher shortage are considered as illustrated in Fig. 1.
4Aim and Research Questions
Based on the prevailing situation regarding teacher shortage in three European countries the aim of the research project is to explore, explain and compare teacher shortage in Demark, Germany and Sweden. The research questions
addressed in the article are: a) How can the current situation be described regarding the teacher shortage in the respective country? b) What are the main explanations/reasons for teacher shortage in the three countries? c) What similarities and
differences can be seen between the three countries and how can these similarities
and differences be explained? d) How can each country correct the shortage of
teachers in the short and long term?
WATS up? What About Teacher Shortage? …
277
5Teacher Shortage in Denmark, Sweden,
and Germany
5.1Denmark
Like Sweden, Denmark is a unitarian state with the same basic free primary and
secondary school system all over the country. The first compulsory 9 years (out of
12) are organized in the ‘folkeskole’ (‘folk school’) consisting of primary (grades
1 to 7) and lower secondary (grades 8 and 9) school. There is no streaming; all
pupils go to the same class for nine years. Traditionally it has been attractive
for youth to enrol at the teacher training colleges and enter the teaching profession afterwards. Consequently, until around 10 years ago, there was no teacher
shortage to be found in Denmark. There have been large changes in the teacher
training system during the last decade. Before, teacher training took place at colleges, which were quite small units and nearly everyone knew nearly all the fellow students. In these seminaries all content focused on teaching abilities. The
majority of students was older than 25 years, and had gained life experience (that
resulted in self-confidence) and had gone through other qualification processes.
The ‘25 years’ rule was abolished, and the universities took over teacher training courses. It is perhaps a consequence of these changes that, during the 2010’s
some Danish municipalities surprisingly began to report a growing shortage of
teachers. In 2016, for the first time in modern times, a survey pointed to the fact
that three out of four Danish municipalities experienced a shortage of qualified applicants for vacant teacher positions (Dorf, 2018). This development has
since then continued and it has been confirmed in many other surveys, e.g., in a
large-scale survey conducted in 2017 by the Danish Municipality Organization
(Kommunernes Landsforening, 2017). A new, similar survey (2021) confirms
the tendency and documents that teacher shortage in Denmark is a growing and
permanent phenomenon. Like in Sweden, many of the newly graduated teachers
do not choose to go into teaching or they leave the profession after a few years.
Already at the graduation year (the last of the four years it takes to become a
teacher in Denmark) almost half of the teacher students say that they consider
doing something else than teaching once they have graduated (Arbejderbevægelsens Erhvervsråd, 2021).
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L. Boström et al.
5.2Germany
Although general matters of education and policy are discussed and decided
at the state level for all of the 16 Federal states, there is a certain scope which
leads to minor variations between the Federal States. For example, all states offer
teachers the status of civil servants under certain conditions, which is a recent
change. Due to the fact that non-civil servant teachers have moved from the states
without to those with civil servant status, the need for adjustment became an
urgent matter for the states with less attractive conditions. Also, everywhere in
Germany, the Gymnasium exists as a school type of secondary education with a
direct path to the university entrance qualification, the so-called “Abitur”. Selection takes place after school year four or after year six (Berlin and Brandenburg).
At least one other school type, but usually two or three, are offered at secondary level. This division into different school types is one of the central reasons
why social selection is perpetuated through school education. This is underlined
by comparative studies such as PISA, PIRLs, etc. and equality of opportunity in
education is still an illusion (Anders, 2021).
Half of the Federal States offer the traditional teacher training program which
ends with a state exam, while the other half have changed to the Bologna system with bachelor- and master periods. As the last type has led to prolonging
the study period, it contributes to the fact that students drop out of their studies (Kreienbaum, 2021). Some experts accuse those responsible for educational
planning of calculating the number of necessary study places in the teaching profession incorrectly (Klemm, 2018, 2022; KMK, 2022; Rackles, 2020). Teacher
shortages are to some extend the result of these miscalculations. Although it is
assumed that teacher training lasts 5–7 years, the reality is different; studies take
much longer (7–10 years). In some subjects and for some school types there are
not enough students, especially in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) (Klemm, 2020; KMK, 2022) as well as for vocational schools
(KMK, 2022). In Germany, the tendencies are characterized as follows: When
students start teacher training, two out of ten entrants drop out of their teacher
training studies, one graduates but decides not to go into teaching immediately.
Three to four qualified teachers in some states insist on working part-time, especially when they have children (48% of women work part time). A high number
of the young, female teachers become pregnant and take leave of absence for one
or more years within the first five years after they have taken up their posts—
they are missed at their schools in consequence. In addition, many teachers do
not work full time—almost 80% of these part-time teachers at Gymnasien are
WATS up? What About Teacher Shortage? …
279
women (Statistisches Bundesamt, 2021). This can be seen in connection with the
fact that family tasks and caring are traditionally in female hands in Germany.
Public childcare is not as developed as in other countries, despite the efforts of
the last decades. Teacher shortage is also caused by the fact that in the 1980s, for
instance, only a low number of newly qualified teachers were recruited—due to
teacher surpluses—and so called “pig cycles”2 were created (Kreienbaum, 2021).
More precisely, previously recruited teachers are retiring in large numbers at present and in the near future, but not as many young teachers have been trained
to fill their positions. Moreover, demographic developments such as an increasing birth rate and migration movements are not easy to take into account in calculations. As a result, a large number of retirees are reactivated, or students are
recruited as substitute teachers who do not yet have a sound education. Filling
the vacancies with lateral entrants and second career teachers are further attempts
to remedy the shortage of teachers (Autorengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung,
2020). In the school year 2020/21, a lack of almost 37,000 teachers was identified (Anders & Kuhn, 2021). Most teachers were needed at primary school level.3
Although many Federal States are claiming high numbers of vacant positions,
a lack of systematic approaches and long-term strategies can be observed. This
might be seen in connection with the conviction by authorities that the shortage
will change into a surplus of teachers in the near future.
5.3Sweden
In the Swedish school system, children go to school for at least ten years from the
year they turn six, as mandated by the Swedish Education Act (Skollagen, 2010),
and preschool is provided by Swedish municipalities for children ages one to five.
Except Swedish compulsory schooling (6–16 years) the school system includes
upper secondary school (16–19 years) with eighteen regular national programs. In
addition, there is School-Age Educare for students (6–12 years) before and after
school which also requires specialised teachers.
2 For more information see Gehrmann “Lateral Entry and Career Jumping into the Teaching
Profession in Germany” in this volume.
3 The latest numbers on teacher shortage in Germany can for example be found on the website Deutsches Schulportal (https://deutsches-schulportal.de/bildungswesen/lehrermangelbleibt-bundesweit-ein-problem/).
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The shortage of teachers in Sweden has been an accelerating societal problem in the last decade. According to Bertilsson (2018), the supply of teachers is
a challenge of historical proportions. The Swedish National Agency for Education (Skolverket, 2018) reports a strong shortage of certified4 teachers and preschool teachers and expects this challenge to continue in the long run. The agency
forecasts the need for about 80,000 in 2031. The proportion of fully trained and
certified teachers needs to increase by just over 50% until 2035. The shortage
of certified teachers varies greatly between school forms, between 25 and 85%,
where the largest shortage is within special schools. The imbalance will thus continue for many years to come. Statistics Sweden (Skolverket, 2019b; Statistiska
Centralbyrån, 2017a) reports that this shortage is expected to be the largest for
educated teachers in special subjects as well as primary school teachers and vocational teachers. In compulsory school 7 out of 10 teachers are certified. However,
the variation between schools is great. In some schools, only 4 out of 10 teachers
are certified (Skolverket, 2019a) and the remaining teachers may lack education
and certification. This has led to two major problems: (a) the certified teachers
who are overloaded with increasing responsibility, for example with grading, and
(b) a large number of no-academically trained teachers leads to lower quality in
school and teaching (Boström, 2024).
Therefore, it will be important for school organizers to focus on recruitment,
professional development, making the teacher profession attractive and maintaining employed teachers (Skolverket, 2018). Statistical findings indicate that one
of the problems for schools is not a shortage of teachers coming into the system.
The actual problem is the fact that many of the newly graduated teachers do not
choose to go into teaching at all or leave after just a few years (Lindqvist et al.,
2014; Statistiska Centralbyrån, 2017b).
In summary, teacher shortage is clear in all three countries but most acute in
Sweden. There seem to be both similar, but also distinctive reasons for the problem. It is clear, however, that the teacher shortage is an accelerating problem,
which needs to be taken seriously and constructive ways out of the problem need
to be found.
4 Teachers must have a certification to become permanent employees and to be allowed to
set grades. Teachers in Sweden must be certified; this is a requirement in order to improve
teacher skills and the quality of education. This was introduced in the Education Act in
2011 (Skollagen, 2010).
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281
6Results of the First Research Years
6.1Denmark
Around New Year 2020–2021, the Danish WATS up group conducted a survey
with the same questions as the Swedish team had used earlier. The survey was
sent to all 98 Danish municipalities before Christmas 2020, but only 33 municipalities filled in the survey (due to the COVID-19-shutdown). However, the
answers showed some interesting developments. So far, teacher shortage in Denmark has been a relatively limited problem compared to Sweden and Germany,
but the survey revealed that the problem is growing. The survey also showed that
the new teacher shortage has to do with factors such as geography (some localities have no shortage at all, others have a large teacher shortage), gender (there is
a greater shortage of male than female teachers), subject (there is a general shortage of German, science and technology teachers) and school type (public schools
have a greater teacher shortage than private schools). Some municipalities have
chosen to fill the gaps by employing uneducated teachers. This is confirmed by
other surveys, e.g., a survey from 2017 showing that the share of employees in
municipal teaching positions who did not have formal teacher training increased
from 10.1% in 2012 to 16.9% in 2017 (Mørch & Wingender, 2017). In addition,
surveys conducted by the Danish Labor Movement’s Business Council confirm
this trend (Arbejderbevægelsens Erhvervsråd, 2021). At the same time, figures from the Association of Local Authorities show that teacher recruitment is
becoming more and more difficult (Kommunernes Landsforening, 2017).
In the survey with the municipalities, ‘the respondents’ answers reveal two
main reasons for the increasing teacher shortage in Denmark: (1) The teaching
profession has become a low-status field and (2) the present teacher education
is not up-to-date and is viewed as insufficient basic training for an increasingly
complex profession. The same respondents (the municipal school authorities)
point to several possible solutions, mainly an improvement of both teacher education and teachers’ working conditions, especially getting more time for lecture
preparations was mentioned in several answers.
In the winter of 2022/23, the Danish group will begin conducting a series of
new, both qualitative (interviews) and quantitative (surveys) investigations, digging deeper into the questions of ‘why?’ (are we seeing an increasing teacher
shortage) and ‘what are the solutions?’.
As this text is written, a reform process of Danish Teacher Education is taking place. It is expected, the reform process will take the results of the WATS up
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project into consideration. The new reform is planned to be implemented from
August 2023 or from August 2024. A contemporary book about the later history
and policies of Danish school and teacher education was published 2018 by educational researcher, Hans Dorf (Dorf, 2018).
Another effect of the first period of the Danish WATS up activities is that a
dialogue with a range of national experts and stakeholders in the field has been
established. Politicians, civil servants from the municipality level, school leaders, trade unionists and other researchers participated in a conference on teacher
shortage held at the AU on October 29, 2021. Following the conference, throughout 2022, ‘teacher shortage’ has increasingly been a theme in Danish media.
6.2Germany
During the first project year, different stages can be outlined in the German
research process. First, the status of teacher shortage and the current state of
research were determined and summarized (Kreienbaum, 2021; Seeliger, 2020).
On the one hand, during this exploration stage regions, school types and subjects
affected by teacher shortage as well as steps taken by education policy were identified. On the other hand, the prognoses, causes and countermeasures as well as
their strengths and weaknesses discussed by the scientific community were systemized.
Second, a quantitative online survey (pre-test) following the methodological
approach of the Swedish team was carried out. All in all, 35 headmasters, trade
unionists and school authorities in Wuppertal were addressed. The analytic process clarified that the chosen approach does not contribute to an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon. This has to be seen in connection with the German
educational system which can be characterized as heterogeneous due to its federal
organization.
As a consequence, and third step, a qualitative approach was applied. Hypotheses summarizing the current state of research and discussions were formulated.
Next, eight experts in different fields of teacher education, from different regions
of Germany were invited to share their views on these assumptions in online discussions (Fig. 2).
The results of the interview analyses underline the complexity of the phenomenon. Regarding the considered causes and solutions of teacher shortage different phases (e.g., choice, studies, teacher training, being a teacher) and levels can
WATS up? What About Teacher Shortage? …
283
Fig. 2 Levels of influence on teacher shortage (Kreienbaum & Wüllner, 2024)
be identified: education policy, society and individual5. For instance, some young
adults do not enrol for teacher education studies due to a negative status of the
teaching profession (society). Moreover, the dropout rate at university is seen in
relation with a certain disorientation, a lack of knowledge to plan future perspectives with care (individual level). Further, teachers may leave school after some
time because of an unfavourable school climate or an inflexibility in career paths
(education policy). In the next step, a communicative validation of the results
was undertaken. The experts were invited to reflect on and evaluate the systemised findings during a two-day national meeting (September 2021). With the help
of this approach not only a multi-faceted debate on the main causes and effective solutions of the phenomenon but also a wider perspective was provided. For
example, some teacher students and trainees do not follow a teaching career and
drop out at some point of their studies. This does not necessarily have to be seen
as disadvantageous. Graduates gain valuable knowledge for other professions:
about the importance of communication, professionalism, learning processes,
etc. Even though they do not enter teaching careers, they contribute to society.
Moreover, the experts argued in favour of a more optimistic view and objected to
5 For a deeper view into the analysis see contribution by Kreienbaum & Wüllner in this
volume.
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a so-called catastrophism. Although it is important to identify weaknesses in the
educational system and teacher training, strengths should not be neglected.
6.3Sweden
For the first year of the project in Sweden, the progress in the research project can
be outlined as follows. The work for the first year has resulted in three articles in
which the current state of research is explored, analysed and described (Boström,
2024; Boström et al., 2021; Håkansson Lindqvist et al., 2022). The first article
summarizes the current state of teacher shortage, providing insights into the complexity of the issue. Many possible explanations emerge, from policy reform to
teacher education and retaining teachers involving teacher shortage and possible
solutions. The second article provides an overall view on teacher status, exploring
teacher shortage and its explanations, presenting teacher shortage in the Swedish context for an international audience. The third presents the results of a quantitative online survey with school organizers (n = 55) regarding explanations for
teacher shortage in the Swedish context (Boström, 2024) which is analysed in the
light of policy enactment theory.
Another effort during the first year of the project has been two dialogues with
national and regional experts on teacher shortage. Politicians, school organizers,
unionists, school authorities and researchers were invited and given the opportunity to share their views in an online dialogue. The results of the dialogue will
be used to supplement the ongoing analyses, to underline the complexity of the
phenomenon of teacher shortage and expand knowledge on teacher shortage from
the participants’ different perspectives. The causes for teacher shortage can be
said to be complex, according to the experts, and efforts are needed on several
levels and must be carried out simultaneously. Changes in education policy, for
example many reforms on a structural level (Boström, 2024), the enrolment in
teacher education studies, the lack of career paths, the professional status and the
work environment with an all too high administrative burden as well as retaining teachers and getting former teachers to re-enter the profession were identified
as issues of importance for teacher shortage (Håkansson Lindqvist et al., 2022).
A high level of dropout rates for teacher students and an unclear vision of what
being a teacher means in present-day school was another issue (Åstrand, 2021).
Teachers also experience a poor work environment for example, the climate in
the classes has become tougher, the administrative tasks more, the time with each
student less and increased pressure from parents and other actors have made work
stressful for many teachers. The discussions during the dialogue with the experts
WATS up? What About Teacher Shortage? …
285
added on to previous explanations, validated findings regarding teacher shortage
and deepened insights into the issue from political, union, school organizers and
research perspectives.
Other work that has been conducted during the first year of the project are initial discussions on comparative studies with the German and Danish teams. The
work with a database containing global research on teacher shortage is also in
progress.
7Conclusion and Outlook
The aim of the research project is to explore, explain and compare teacher shortage in Denmark, Germany, and Sweden. In the previous sections, some empirical
results from the three countries were presented. The results also give us information on reasons for the current situation of teacher shortage.
A conclusion is that several of the explanatory variables are simultaneously
described as causes of the problem (Andersen et al., 2021; Boström et al., 2021;
Håkansson Lindqvist et al., 2022; Kreienbaum, 2021). First, a solution can be
found in addressing the volume, content, and inputs of teacher education. This
concerns both the number of students at university programs as well as the quality
of teacher education and variations in possible entrance levels to teacher training.
It is not simple to point out what type of teacher training is needed because the
three countries are so different. In Sweden, teacher training is needed that can
validate previous knowledge in a better way so that many more students can graduate faster. There is also a need to make teacher education more attractive to students and to raise the quality by, for example, setting up didactic laboratories so
that the core of the teaching profession comes into focus. Dropouts from teacher
training are relatively large in the three countries and this should be analyzed further. In Denmark focus should especially be on the graduation year, where the
drop out rates have increased a great deal recently. For instance, at the universities of Greifswald and Rostock in Germany a high attrition rate can be observed:
After the regular study period, 60% of the students for Gymnasien had already
dropped out of their studies (Güldener et al., 2020). Reasons for the high drop out
rate are a deficient study entry phase as well as the insufficient study and career
orientation. Second, a solution can be found in the cultural view of school and/
or the teaching profession. By addressing the negative media coverage of schoolwork as well as the negative view of school staff, young people’s reluctance to
become a teacher can be changed. The third set of possible solutions is to address
work organization issues. This includes improvements of the teachers’ work
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e­nvironment, the salary situation and working conditions. Increased workloads
for teachers and principals have to be discussed in combination with improvements in order to attract and retain teachers. In addition, ways into the teaching profession and career paths in the profession can be discussed with regard
to flexibility. Nonetheless, positive, already existing factors concerning teacher
education should be highlighted and not neglected. In all three countries, a collective effort is needed from all school actors, from teachers to parents, politicians,
school authorities (Boström, 2024) and the media, to highlight the importance
of the teacher profession. This also became clear in the national workshops conducted with experts in the three countries. Unions and employers should discuss
what constitutes the core of the teaching profession and “let teachers be teachers”. This also implies that it is necessary to change the conditions for teachers to
practice the profession by, for example, removing some administrative tasks from
teachers.
The fourth and final set concerns resources, i.e., shortcomings in the expansion of the educational system due to demographical changes and support functions in the school to handle the various processes that exist. Teacher shortage is
especially apparent in areas with low socio-economic status and in rural areas.
What can be done to ensure that more newly educated teachers apply for vacant
positions in these areas? For example, in Saxony, a program is run which starts
during teacher training. As the sparsely populated areas are unfamiliar to the students, bus tours to good schools in remote areas are offered (Ministerium für Bildung und Kindertagesförderung—Mecklenburg-Vorpommern). Investment in the
physical environments of schools, creating a favourable working situation for students as well as teachers, can also be included in this.
All in all, the phenomenon has to be regarded as multi-faceted and complex. It
is evident that more research has to be carried out to identify causes and solutions
on different levels and in different phases to highlight interdependencies. These
are needed to suggest effective countermeasures and open a new discourse with
stakeholders, nationally and internationally.
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Teacher Shortages in Germany—
Causes, Countermeasures,
and Assessments by Educational
Scientists
Maria Anna Kreienbaum and Sabrina Wüllner
1Introduction
Shortages of highly qualified teachers are currently affecting almost all German
Federal States. In August 2022, the German Teachers’ Association estimated that
there are at least 30,000 vacant positions (Stephanowitz, 2022). A few months
later, in January 2023, 12,341 missing teachers were reported by the ministerial
side (Weber & Gläser, 2023). The demand situation is also confirmed by school
principals: of 1055 respondents, 67% see the lack of staff as the greatest challenge to schoolwork (Robert Bosch Stiftung, 2023). To take the complexity of the
phenomenon into account, it is necessary to differentiate between the 16 federal
German states, regions, school types, and subjects. For example, the Saarland or
Rhineland-Palatinate do not seem to have any shortages according to official data
(Prommersberger, 2022; MB, n.d.). In contrast, vacancies are reported especially
in the Eastern German states: for example, Saxony-Anhalt reports a teaching supply of 92% (MBSA, 2022). Moreover, vacancies are mainly described for vocational education and special needs education, in primary and lower secondary
education, and in the STEM subjects (Anders, 2022). There was a shortage of
M. A. Kreienbaum (*) · S. Wüllner
University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany
e-mail: kreienbaum@uni-wuppertal.de
S. Wüllner
e-mail: swuellner@uni-wuppertal.de
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_16
291
292
M. A. Kreienbaum and S. Wüllner
3437 resp. 892 teachers at primary and special schools in North Rhine-Westphalia
(NRW) at the beginning of the school year 2022/2023 (MSB NRW, 2022).1
Demand forecasts, considering shifts, point to continuing deficits in the next
years: according to education economist Klemm (2022), there will be a shortage
of 158,323 teachers until 2035, taking into account various demand parameters
(i.e., implementation of school inclusion). For the years 2021 to 2035, the Kultusministerkonferenz (KMK, 2022) also forecasts a higher average annual need
for teacher recruitment. Supply deficits are described particularly for the upper
secondary level (vocational subjects) and vocational schools in eastern Germany
as well as for lower secondary level schools (KMK, 2022).
(Ministerial) demand forecasts are critically discussed (i.e., Klemm, 2022) due
to a certain vagueness and the educational administrative measures derived from
them; they are brought into connection with the current shortages and identified
as a cause. Regarding the causes of teacher shortages in Germany, which now
last for two decades (Rackles, 2020), the university phase of teacher education,
German educational federalism, and the ageing and feminisation of school staff
are also considered. To meet the demand for teachers and guarantee teaching
hours, policymakers in the federal states concerned are taking various measures:
for example, in addition to increasing the number of hours of already employed
teachers, retirees are reactivated, or (student) teachers are employed. Furthermore, in the last decade, more alternative routes into the teaching profession were
opened through (institutionalised) lateral entries (Bellenberg et al., 2020).
This paper is embedded in the research project WATS up (What About Teacher
Shortage)2, which deals with teacher shortages in an international-comparative
perspective. On the one hand, the aim of our sub-study is to summarize and systematise educational science perspectives on the topic of teacher shortages. On
the other hand, the causes and measures of the crisis will be classified and discussed through interviews with educational scientists of different denominations
and a subsequent communicative validation. The respondents are seen as experts
who have special knowledge and know ‘how what they know is interrelated’ (Hit-
1 For more information see Gehrmann “Lateral Entry and Career Jumping into the Teaching
Profession in Germany” in this volume.
2 The project, funded by the Swedish Research Council, is a cooperation between researchers from Mid Sweden University, Aarhus University, and the University of Wuppertal
(duration: 2021 to 2024). Further information can be found in the article by Boström et al.
“WATS up? What About Teacher Shortage? International Perspectives from Denmark, Germany, and Sweden” in this volume.
Teacher Shortages in Germany—Causes, Countermeasures …
293
zler, 1994, p. 26). Accordingly, the assimilation of special or ‘contextual knowledge’ (Meuser & Nagel, 2009, p. 470 f.) serves both to structure and to evaluate
causes and measures.
2Teacher Shortages in Germany—Discussed
Causes and Measures
In the discussion on the causes of teacher shortages the inaccuracy of demand
forecasts, the federalism in education, the first phase of teacher education at universities as well as the structure of school staff are primarily regarded.
Medium- and long-term demand forecasts which are relevant for education
planning at different levels, are mainly discussed regarding an underestimation
of demand. This seems to be influenced by different factors. For example, GeisThöne (2022) as well as Klemm (2022) take a critical stance towards the forecasts by the KMK. Klemm (2022) calculates significantly higher deficits: up to
134,483 more vacant positions until 2035 than the KMK. He criticises, inter alia,
the assumptions on which the official calculations are based (numbers of student
teachers, persons entitled to study). Furthermore, an additional need of positions is determined by considering certain education policy measures such as the
expansion of all-day care at primary schools, the further development of school
inclusion and the support of schools in challenging social situations (Klemm,
2022). However, there are also views that consider a balanced teacher labour
market a fiction (i.e., Gehrmann, 2019; Terhart, 2020). Fiction insofar as certain
factors that influence the demand and supply cannot fully be calculated and thus
cause an imbalance. These factors include, for example, demographic developments such as rising birth rates and migration, but also the unpredictable number of graduates and dropouts. In addition, the crisis is by no means a novelty;
rather, phases of shortages and oversupplies of teachers alternate in a cyclical
manner.
Further causes of teacher shortages are seen in control deficits of the teacher
education system, which are brought into connection with the German federalism
in education (i.e., Rackles, 2020, 2022). Although capacities have been increased
in both the first and second phase of teacher education in recent years, Rackles
(2020) describes structural deficits. From 2011 to 2019, for example, there was a
nationwide increase in teacher education capacities (17%). Individual states such
as Saarland or Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania reduced their capacities and consolidated already existing shortages (Rackles, 2022). Hence, deficiencies in the
state’s demand coverage ratio adds to a so-called ‘competitive federalism’ (Rack-
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les, 2022, p. 8) for highly qualified teachers, who are attracted by better state-specific work conditions (i.e., salary, teaching load).
Eurydice (2021), the European education information network, describes a
professional crisis in the teaching profession that has been going on for years:
the challenges of a balanced teacher labour market in Germany are an ageing
teacher population and shortages in ITE (Initial Teacher Education) (Eurydice,
2021). Between 2016 and 2019, for instance, a significant decline in graduates
was recorded in 2020, however, the number of graduates rose again to just under
29,300 (KMK, 2021). While the DZWH (Deutsches Zentrum für Hochschul- und
Wissenschaftsforschung) points out that only 11% of first-year student teachers
from 2011–2013 (graduating with a state examination in 2018) dropped out (Heublein et al., 2020), there is a high attrition rate at the universities of Greifswald
and Rostock from the winter semester 2012/2013 to the summer semester 2019
(Güldener et al., 2020). Reasons for the decline in student numbers include inadequate career and study orientation as well as a study entry phase that is not sufficiently oriented towards the needs of students (ibid.). Regardless of the chosen
degree programme, the phenomenon of dropping out is interpreted as a ‘multidimensional process’ (Heublein et al., 2017, p. III f.), which is influenced by specific entry characteristics as well as external and internal factors during the degree
programme (Neugebauer et al., 2019).
With regard to the structure of the teaching staff, the ‘historical change in
the teacher labour market’ (Zymek & Heinemann, 2020, p. 377) and the associated gender-related shifts are highlighted as influencing factors, in addition to
the high age of active teachers and their expected retirements (Eurydice, 2021;
Klemm, 2022). Among other aspects, Zymek and Heinemann (2020) point out
that the occupational profile has been shaped by men in full-time employment
for a long time, but currently largely by women in part-time employment. At
general education schools, for example, the proportion of women (2020/2021)
is 74%, of whom around 53% are employed part-time or on an hourly basis
(Autor:innengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung, 2022). According to Zymek and
Heinemann (2020, p. 377 f.), it is relevant to interpret these shifts as a ‘structural problem of teacher supply’. They have to be taken into account in education
policy in order to counteract negative effects on the teaching supply (Zymek &
Heinemann, 2020).
The high proportion of part-time employees is also addressed in the recommendations of the SWK (Ständige Wissenschaftliche Kommission der Kultusministerkonferenz, 2023). Since the group of part-time employees is the ‘largest
employment reserve’ (Ständige Wissenschaftliche Kommission der Kultusministerkonferenz, 2023, p. 11), it is recommended that the option of reducing teach-
Teacher Shortages in Germany—Causes, Countermeasures …
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ing hours has to be limited. Klemm and Zorn (2018) also refer to this measure,
which is effective in the short term—they concede that the attractiveness of the
profession could be reduced consequently. To systematise the numerous short-,
medium-, and long-term measures discussed, a differentiation is made, for example, between measures that are intended to contribute to reducing the need for
teaching hours, to increasing the teaching offered by already employed teachers,
and to attracting additional staff.3 The following table follows this systematisation
to present the recommendations of the SWK (2023) and statements by Rackles
(2022) as well as Klemm and Zorn (2018).
The heterogeneous group of additional staff, who teach but are not (fully) formally qualified and who have become more relevant for balancing the demand
in recent years (Table 1.), includes, inter alia, (teacher training) students and
lateral entrants. For the latter, (institutionalised) paths into the teaching profession were established in the last years (Bellenberg et al., 2020). The proportion
of newly recruited lateral entrants quadrupled nationwide to 13% between 2012
and 2018 (Autorengruppe Bildungsberichterstattung, 2020). This group is also
receiving increasing attention within the academic discourse (i.e., Barany et al.,
2020; Bellenberg et al., 2020; Dedering, 2020; Ziegler et al., 2022). It should be
emphasised that both the designations for the use of non-undergraduate qualified teachers and their qualification frameworks vary. Studies in this area predominantly examine the entry requirements, professional experiences, and
career choice motives of lateral entrants as well as their convictions and also the
learning success of their students (Bellenberg et al., 2020). According to Porsch
(2021), three recurring theses are introduced in discussions for and against their
recruitment. First, the development of their professional competences is questioned; second, the quality of the teaching provided by lateral entrants is rated
lower than the quality of the teaching provided by regular teachers; and third, the
position is taken that their recruitment is indispensable.
To counteract deficient education planning and the resulting teacher shortages, the relevance of the most precise demand forecasts possible is also emphasised. Fickermann (2020) refers to the need to improve the quality of population
forecasts and suggests testing probabilistic projection models. Furthermore, calculations can be improved by considering demand parameters such as plural education policy measures (i.e., expansion of all-day schooling, inclusion) (Klemm,
2022).
3 The differentiation is based on Klemm and Zorn (2018).
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Table 1 Measures to deal with teacher shortages in Germany
Measures to
Measures to increase the teaching
Measures to recruit addireduce the need supply of already employed teachers tional staff
for lessons
Adjustment of Increase in the hourly workload
class frequency
Reactivation of retired teachers
Reduction of
lessons
Support or teaching by those
who are not formally (fully)
qualified
Giving non-subject-specific lessons
Increase of self- Relief from organisational and adminis- Recognition of teachers with
learning time
trative tasks
foreign degrees
Hybrid teaching Limitation of part-time work
Nationwide campaign for the
teaching profession
Limitation of leaves of absence/sabbati- Reducing dropout rates
cal years
Return of seconded teachers
Training capacities in line with
needs (1st and 2nd phase)
Checking the reduction of teaching
duties for reasons of age
Postponement of retirement
Stricter requirements for early retirement
Post-qualification for shortage subjects
Secondment to schools of need
Qualification for other school types
Preventive health promotion measures
Source Based on SWK (2023), Rackles (2022), Klemm and Zorn (2018) (Own table)
3Description of the Research Process
While the Scandinavian WATS up project partners focused on the perspectives of
actors in education administration by means of quantitative surveys at first, the
German project partners focused on the perspectives of educational scientists by
means of qualitative methods (Fig. 1). In 2020 and 2021, the research discourse
in Germany was still not very differentiated. Teacher shortages were criticized
by trade unions in particular. Klemm (2018) and Rackles (2020) addressed the
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KMK’s inadequate education planning. Conferences at the University of Dresden
(2020) as well as thematic issues of journals (Die Deutsche Schule, 2020) can be
interpreted as indicators of a beginning vitalisation of the research field. With a
study involving other experts, we therefore aimed at a broader scientific assessment and more objectivity.
3.1Sample
A total of eight professors were interviewed, including five professors from universities in NRW.4 All of them have a thematic connection to the research field:
to be more precise, these were Petra Buchwald (empirical education research,
school stress with a focus on stress management) and Christian Huber (rehabilitation sciences) of the University of Wuppertal. Also, Ewald Terhart (teaching
profession & professionalism) as well as Wolfgang Böttcher (education economics) of the University of Münster were interviewed. NRW can be described as
a densely populated federal state that is strongly affected by teacher shortages.
We also wanted to gain insights into states with a low population as a contrast.
Accordingly, educational scientists were also interviewed, who provide expert
insights into both eastern German (Saxony, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania)
and southern German (Bavaria) modalities of teacher education. Axel Gehrmann holds the chair of general didactics and empirical teaching research at the
TU Dresden and is responsible for a lateral entry qualification programme. As an
educational researcher, Falk Radisch (University of Rostock) has examined the
educational pathways of student teachers and the question of why, despite the
high number of students, not more trained teachers enter the teaching profession. Annette Scheunpflug holds a chair in general education. She researches and
teaches at the University of Bamberg on topics such as global learning and international school development.
3.2Impulse Paper
All interview partners received three documents in preparation for the individual
online interviews: a short introduction of the WATS up project with the planned
4 In the following, seven of the eight experts who gave their consent are listed by name.
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research programme, the German version of an essay on teacher shortages in Germany (Kreienbaum, 2021), and an impulse paper with statements on the situation
and (research) questions. The impulses address both possible causes of teacher
shortages and possible promising measures. They were formulated in orientation to the academic discourse (beginning of 2021) as well as our own theoretical
considerations and had an impulse function for the discussions with the experts
(April to June 2021) and their assessments (Fig. 1):
1. Federalism and education planning: In some cases, recruitment takes place
across state borders, especially in the city states. For instance: While Berlin,
Bremen, and Hamburg train a big number of students, the states in the hinterland train under demand.
2. Civil servant status and salary: Civil servant status and an attractive salary are
relevant for teachers as well as job security and other privileges.
3. North-South divide: Teacher shortages are not so relevant in the south of the
republic. Is it because the Southern States in Germany are richer?
4. Lateral entry: Do study programmes for lateral entrants like in Saxony (BQL)
and Berlin (Q-Master) have a positive relieving effect?
5. Professionalism debate: The question of what constitutes professionalism
in the teaching profession has been a top issue in the academic discourse
for 30 years (i.e., Helsper; Oevermann; Stichweh; Terhart). The discourse
focusses among other things on how to achieve professionalism through
teacher education.
6. Retaining forces through school development: ‘Good schools’ use instruments
for staff, organisational, and teaching development. They deploy teachers
according to their interests and possibilities and respect their needs (i.e., Dalin,
1997; Rolff, 2016).
7. Study conditions and dropout: There were and are many complaints about the
content and organisation of studies: are they unjustified lamentation or justified complaint? Dropout rates are alarming.
8. Teacher careers: A certain number of teachers follow alternative paths after
some years of teaching. Even though secondments or transfers are foreseen
within the education system, these teachers are often no longer available for
the school.5
5 Shortened and translated overview of the impulses.
Teacher Shortages in Germany—Causes, Countermeasures …
1.
exploraon of
the field
2.
formulang
eight impulses
3.
eight expert
interviews
2020/21
March 2021
April-June
2021
4.
interview
analyses &
systemasaon
299
5.
communicave
validaon
September 2021
Fig. 1 Research process in 2021. (Own graphic)
Depending on the respective expertise, the impulses were addressed to varying
degrees during the interviews. Although not all impulses were referred to equally,
the approach chosen was evaluated positively by the interviewees. The impulses,
especially 7, 4, 6, and 1, encouraged positioning but also allowed for the consideration of further aspects. Impulses 3 and 8 were hardly discussed.
3.3Systematisation of the Interview Results
In a first step, the interviews were transcribed, and the statements of the interviewees were categorized. To systematise the insights generated and the diverse
aspects that influence the teaching profession and thus the current crisis further,
the research team discursively created an instance model in a next step. With the
help of this model different actors, levels, and phases are marked (Fig. 2).
This instance model was presented to the experts during a two-day meeting
in Wuppertal in September 2021 as a preliminary result of the interview analyses. This step served as a communicative validation and a discussion of both our
results and the phenomenon (causes and measures).6 More precisely, the model
and its instances were presented on the first day. Figures summarizing the results
of the interview analyses were also handed out to the experts (i.e., Fig. 3). This
was followed by a structured discussion: The actors of education policy, society,
and the individual (Fig. 2) were discussed separately in three groups before a plenary discussion took place. Afterwards, the most relevant causes were focused on,
collected, and visualised with the help of a digital survey tool. On the second day,
ways out of the demand crisis and promising measures were discussed. For this
purpose, the solutions discussed in the interviews were presented to the respective
6 At this point it should be noted that four experts from the previous discussions and three
newly acquired educational scientists participated in the conference.
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Fig. 2 Levels of influence on teacher shortage. (Own graphic)
experts on cards. They were asked to classify the appointed measures (‘promising
paths’, ‘dead ends’), explain their views, and add missing aspects. The conference
ended with an open discussion, which also served as an evaluation of the applied
procedure.
4Results
4.1Explanation of the Developed Instance Model
The macro level is determined by education policy and its regulations as well
as observable views and attitudes in society (i.e., status and reputation of teachers, development towards a work-life balance-oriented attitude). The individual
(micro level), who aspires to enter the teaching profession, goes through certain
phases (X-axis), which can contribute to professionalisation or—in the worst
case—lead to dropouts. At the meso level, both universities and schools are institutions that have an educational mandate and are bound by regulations. As organisations individual universities and schools can also be regarded at the micro
level. The focus is on how they implement this mandate: which content-related
priorities are set in the (initial) training of prospective teachers, do schools succeed in winning and retaining teachers, do they contribute to teachers moving
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Fig. 3 Causes of teacher shortages in Germany—education policy. (Own graphic)
from a school or leaving the profession? For further explanation of the instance
model, the causes discussed in the expert interviews are used. The presentation
is done in two steps. First, we explain the categories on a predominantly abstract
level. Second, causes of teacher shortages which were focused on in the interviews are presented. Fig. 3 provides an overview of all the causes (education policy) discussed in the interviews.7
Education policy as an actor
Education policy provides a framework for the education system and schools.
The KMK (macro level) decides on general questions (i.e., compulsory subjects,
compulsory content). All other questions such as school types or salaries are matters of the federal states (meso level). The KMK calculates the necessary number
of new positions and thus the need for study places. Education planners assume
that a newly enrolled student teacher will be a highly qualified teacher available
7 These presentations were also shown and explained to the experts present at the meeting
(September 2021).
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for the teacher labour market after about seven years. This is seen as a misapprehension by the interviewees. At best, about half of the first-year students become
teachers. Moreover, most students need more than the regular study time of six
years. Dropout rates are a problem not only in the STEM subjects, but especially
there. Even in the following practical teacher training phase some fail or decide
to pursue a different career path despite passing their exams. Finally, the qualified
teachers who are employed do not necessarily work full time, but part time or an
individual number of teaching hours. Hence, the number of positions filled is not
a sufficient indicator. The phase of starting a career, which often does not begin
until around the age of 30, overlaps biographically with the phase of starting a
family. Radisch (2020) concludes that at least three teachers need to be trained to
fill two positions due to part-time work and the study quotas need to be increased
accordingly. When education politicians noted that federal states with no civil
servant status for teachers suffer particularly from teacher shortages because the
‘state children’ move to neighbouring states, civil servant status was gradually
reintroduced everywhere.
Society and shared values
In sociological terms, people who live in a territory form a society, which structure institutions that structure social life—an order is established, and certain
needs are satisfied.8 These include the political systems and social institutions
such as the churches, the infrastructure, the labour market, living conditions in
cities as well as rural areas and the education system and its institutions. Universities and schools have a dual educational mission. Universities educate students
both professionally and didactically. They should become experts in their (usually
two) subjects. At the same time, they need to process knowledge in educational
science so that they can react flexibly to social and scientific processes of change
in their professional lives.
Individual
The X-axis of the model shows the phases that an individual goes through to
become a qualified teacher. However, the educational processes are always
shaped by education policy decisions, corresponding framework conditions, and
by what is considered the norm or general attitude in society. If we look at the
8 Niklas Luhmann (1975) speaks of a ‘society’ when conforming and deviating behaviour
is defined in terms of norms and values and a corresponding differentiation of expectations
and reactions is present.
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process of choosing a profession, the first step is the desire for a profession and
the choice of the course of study. Moreover, the subjects and the place of study
are chosen. The study time and graduation are followed by the practical teacher
training phase, and finally by employment. In each phase, the individual decision to study can be questioned, studies can be interrupted, or the plan to become
a teacher can be discarded. It becomes clear that due to interrelations, all three
instances—education policy, society, and the individual—must be considered
when analysing teacher shortages. Since the discursively designed model has also
proven itself as a structuring model during the expert meeting, it will provide a
backdrop for presenting the results.
4.2Hurdles in the Professionalisation Process
from Experts’ Perspectives
The experts interviewed share the assessment that the shortcomings of educational planning—and therefore, the insufficient number of study places—contribute to shortages to a large extent. They describe the processes as follows: if one
cannot enrol in the university of choice, the preferred course of study, or subject,
an alternative career wish can be a consequence or becoming a teacher might
be seen as a stopgap. In both cases, alternative routes may be chosen during the
study period. Dropping out, revising, or procrastinating—and thus prolonging
study time—can, inter alia, be influenced by the organisation of educational institutions: ‘chaos’ at universities due to several reasons (i.e., overbookings, small
rooms, course overlaps, low teacher-student contact times) may influence the
motivation necessary for studying in a negative way. When internships are poorly
supervised, overloaded with extra tasks, or do not allow employment, studies may
have to be paused before graduation to ensure self-financing. This also prolongs
the study phase.
In addition, the compulsory practical teacher training phase can be a dropout
point, for example, when the seminar and/or school location is remote and moving is not an option. Sometimes rents in cities (such as Munich) are extremely
high, and they are not affordable on half a salary. Sometimes a candidate discovers that she or he is not suitable for the teaching profession at a very late
stage. Finally, not every school is a good place to work at, i.e., school management can fail, the atmosphere can be unfriendly, a team spirit might be missing,
and colleagues avoid each other rather than cooperate. The same applies when
the building is in a dilapidated condition and the equipment is inadequate, when
the requirement to meet the needs of all students proves to be utopian and one’s
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own demands fail time and again. This can cause teachers to look for a different
school, to pursue an alternative career in the civil service, or to change the professional field. Education policy also influences the conditions at schools with other
decisions. An orientation towards New Public Management (NPM) went hand in
hand with the so-called output orientation. As a result, PISA, TIMSS, comparative tests, and other standardised test procedures were introduced. They have side
effects: a lot of energy and time is tied up in tasks that do not necessarily motivate
from a pedagogical point of view, but cause stress and frustration. Teachers are
increasingly obliged to carry out documentation and administrative tasks.
Also worth mentioning is the large amount of extra (teaching) hours, partly
due to teacher shortages, which often demands non-specialist teaching, or due to
training, supporting, and supervising less-qualified assistant teachers. A growing
professional disenchantment among teachers, which is perceived by the public,
also has an impact on the social attractiveness of school as a workplace.
According to the experts, a tendency that can be observed in society is also
evident in schools: for the sake of more free time and less responsibility, employees no longer work full-time. Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania was described
as an example. There—due to decisions after the reunification—teachers were
offered contracts with 2/3 positions in well-equipped schools at the beginning
of the 1990s. The teaching staff adjusted to this. Since then, there has been little
aspiration to work full-time, although in the current situation full-time teachers
could mitigate the crisis. Leisure time orientation seems to be just as important as
a satisfactory professional life.
In sum, the systematisation of the interview results points to certain focuses.
On the one hand, the interviewees focus on education policy as an authority or
actor. More precisely, the general conditions for students (phase: studying) and
teachers (phase: being a teacher) are discussed at different levels as causes of
teacher shortages. On the other hand, the individual, embedded in society, is
addressed. A broadening of the impulses is evident here, which mostly touch
on the education policy level. Once again, the phase of employment at school is
emphasised—diverging individual ideas and work realities cause problems. In
addition, the experts increasingly focus on individual imbalances before enrolment such as the motives for choosing teaching as a career path.
Suitable measures have already been presented systematically in Sect. 2.
The experts also referred to all of them. They place an improvement of the university and school conditions, the diversification of entry conditions into the
teaching profession as well as the improvement of educational planning at the
centre of their considerations. The measures used in individual federal states were
described in detail in some cases. In Bavaria, for example, there is a stronger ten-
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dency to withdraw privileges that have been granted to civil servants, such as sabbaticals or part-time positions.
With their statements, the experts largely confirm the dominant views on the
topic of teacher shortages. In the concluding discussion during the meeting in
September, the debate was commented on and evaluated. There was consensus
among the discussants that teachers should continue to be employed as civil servants in the future. They see the education of the upcoming generation as a sovereign task: adolescents are to be educated against the backdrop of democracy,
maturity, and solidarity, in line with the basic political structure and the values of
the Basic law.
Those present also agreed that unequal employment situations in the federal
states in the past caused competition between them. At universities as well as in
the public discourse, not completing a teaching degree tends to be seen as a problem and something to be avoided. The experts reject this crisis rhetoric as catastrophism. It is true that there is a demand crisis, but it arises primarily because it
is assumed that a study place offered guarantees an available teacher in a standard period of time. The arguments are manifold: On the one hand, students go
through a process of socialisation and maturation from enrolment to graduation.
During this process, they become more aware of their strengths and weaknesses,
their potential suitability for the teaching profession, their interests and preferences, their willingness to work hard, and their stamina. Some realise that they
are better off in other professions and give up their plans to become teachers. Life
paths are often intertwined and not straight. If they decide—sometimes only after
graduation—to pursue a different career, one can assume that they acquire a lot of
knowledge and experience during their studies which they can use profitably in
their future career. This would benefit society, even though they do not enter the
teaching profession.
The experts are in favour of permanently training more teachers than the calculated number and of diversifying the access routes to the profession in a structured way. Second career teachers bring new perspectives to their workplaces and
enrich them. Flexibility should also be made possible within civil service careers
through various development and promotion options. These considerations lead
to reflections on the understanding of the profession and the question of how professionalisation can succeed. To what extent does professionalism develop during
studies and the preparatory service? What can be done to educate teachers who
are suitable and well-prepared for their tasks, who accept challenges and support
school development? From the interviewees’ perspectives, considering these two
discourses—on teacher professionalism as well as on teacher shortages—is currently necessary. Intensifying this debate may generate new insights.
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In the context of recent international research, it is, inter alia, emphasised
that it cannot be taken for granted that the teaching profession is practiced permanently by individuals. It is asked which factors make teachers stay at schools
to draw conclusions for appropriate measures (i.e., Gimbert & Kapa, 2022). The
experts are also in favour of a higher teacher autonomy. Those who make their
professional tasks their ‘own’ business, experience self-efficacy, can participate in
decision-making and design, and achieve satisfaction. This motivates teachers and
contributes to their health. In sum, according to the experts, it is appropriate and
necessary not to lose sight of the positive aspects of the field and the strengths of
teacher education in Germany—de-dramatizing the omnipresent image of catastrophism is suggested. On the one hand, the focus is on the school climate and
the retention forces that need to be developed there. On the other hand, the importance of the first phase of teacher education at universities is emphasised. At the
same time, however, it was also discussed to which extent the structure of teacher
education with a first (university) and second (practical teacher training) phase
needs to undergo reforms.
5Discussion
This study contributes to the research on the current teacher shortages in Germany from an educational science perspective. On the one hand, the aim of our
study is to summarize and systematise educational science perspectives on the
topic of teacher shortages. On the other hand, we classify and discuss the causes
and measures of the crisis through interviews with educational scientists of different denominations and a subsequent communicative validation. An increasingly
differentiated view is also emerging in the academic discourse on the phenomenon.
Within the framework of the surveys and discussions, the experts in the study
take a critical stance towards the KMK’s deficient demand forecasts and the associated educational planning (Geis-Thöne, 2022; Klemm, 2022). The focus of
the interviewees is on insufficient study capacities, which are also highlighted
by Rackles (2020). While Rackles calls for a (self-)demand-covering control of
study place capacities, the experts discuss the idea of increasing capacities above
the calculated demand for teachers. As a result, the demand might be covered in
the long term. In the authors’ view, an oversupply of teachers can help to alleviate demand crises. Nonetheless, the question arises whether there is a need
for a stronger demand-oriented control to, for example, counteract imbalances
between subjects and regions. Furthermore, the negative consequences of over-
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control should not be ignored: highly qualified teachers might not be able to take
up a position in the desired profession after a training phase of several years. As
a result, fewer qualified students may take up teacher training (Zymek & Heinemann, 2020). The so-called ‘employment reserves’ (SWK, 2023), i.e., measures
aimed at increasing the teaching hours of those already employed (Klemm &
Zorn, 2018), are also considered by the experts. This includes increasing the number of hours for part-time employees as recommended by the SWK (2023).
In addition, the feminisation of the teaching profession and the high proportion of part-time employees (Zymek & Heinemann, 2020) is addressed. This
aspect needs to be considered in education planning (Zymek & Heinemann,
2020). Moreover, the question of how to counteract a ‘part-time mentality’ needs
more attention. Against the backdrop of the length and cost of teacher education,
it does not seem economically wise when young teachers ‘only’ work part-time.
On the one hand, it can be seen as a concession to the recommended autonomy,
which contributes to the attractiveness of the profession (Klemm & Zorn, 2018).
On the other hand, it may be questioned whether costs and benefits are in a reasonable proportion. The discussion also touches on social issues that can only be
changed in the long term. Young parents protest loudly against the proposals of
the SWK (2023). Mothers feel the social pressure to give priority to childcare and
upbringing, at least in the first year, and they often internalise this demand for
the following years as well. Unless childcare facilities are expanded both quantitatively and qualitatively, the willingness to work full-time will probably be
low. Schools are family-friendly workplaces because of the flexible employment
opportunities. In the view of the authors, the guiding principle for policymakers
should be to maintain this status, but also to use existing labour reserves. This
contributes to a coordinated and long-term solution to the demand crisis.
Furthermore, the interviewed experts consider measures to recruit additional
staff. They focus on the diversification of entry and passage conditions into the
teaching profession, which is advocated as an established structured measure
(Gehrmann & Bárány, 2020; Rackles, 2020). In terms of attrition and dropout
rates, attention is not only paid to the study phase (Güldener et al., 2020), but
also to the phase of practical teacher training. In this second phase, dropouts
are also recorded, which should be examined more thoroughly. It is noticeable
that measures to reduce dropout rates take a back seat in the joint discussion on
possible solutions, and that more space is given to positive (re)interpretations
of new orientations by students and trainee teachers. In this context, the interviewees suggested a critical assessment of the long traditional path to the teaching profession in Germany with its first and second phase. When do prospective
teachers need closer counselling and support? Can the teaching profession be
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divided into a first qualifying phase and an in-service second phase? Which
phases can be shortened and restructured? It should be noted that a discussion
on this topic with experts who shape the second phase of practical teacher training could be enriching.
In addition to the critical examination of the structure of teacher education and
its conditions, the experts increasingly address work conditions. Here, an extension of the recurring ‘adjusting screws of the professionalised system’ (Zymek
& Heinemann, 2020, p. 374), which are brought into action in times of crisis, is
apparent. It is necessary to enable teachers to focus on their (core) tasks and to
understand and design school as a contemporary place of learning, working and
well-being. In this way, the attractiveness of the profession can be increased, and
retention forces can be developed. In this context, the authors consider support of
teachers through additional staff (Klemm & Zorn, 2018; SWK, 2023) important.
In addition, the proposal by Zymek and Heinemann (2020, p. 378) to ‘plan for a
general surplus of positions’ seems worthy of discussion.
Although Rackles (2022), for example, advocates the principle of cooperative
educational federalism as well as transnational structural guidelines and standards, framed by an educational state treaty, this idea is not taken up or supported
by the interviewees. Rather, in addition to superordinate measures, regional specifics as well as solutions in orientation to them were increasingly illustrated, and
their necessity was emphasised during the individual interviews. This perspective is convincing insofar as shortages can be described as regionally heterogeneous. From the experts’ point of view, teachers should be granted the status of
civil servants nationwide to avoid imbalances between the federal states and to
increase the attractiveness of the profession.
Overall, the causes and measures also focussed on in the academic discourse
on teacher shortages are referred to by the experts during the interviews and the
subsequent discussions. However, there are also reinterpretations or reassessments of certain aspects.
To systematise the results of the interviews, an instance model was designed
(Fig. 2), within which individual aspects are considered as well as the role of education policy and social developments. With the systematisation of the actors,
an (at least provisionally usable) set of instruments is presented that can help to
uncover weak spots of the professionalised system. At the same time, the model
has its limits when, for example, interactions between actors as well as causes and
measures cannot be illustrated. Interviewing eight educational scientists aimed at
a broader scientific assessment of the topic and more objectivity. Even though a
wide range of expertise was brought in by the interviewees, it constitutes a limitation. The chosen scientific perspectives are limited view points. On the one hand,
Teacher Shortages in Germany—Causes, Countermeasures …
309
some of the interviewees represent distinct positions within the discourse or their
field of research. On the other hand, representatives from education policy, associations, trade unions, and schools can also be considered as experts who can contribute different perspectives and can be included in follow-up studies.
Another limitation is the dynamic development of teacher shortages in Germany as well as the research discourse in the period of the research process
(2021–2023). As a result, the impulses underlying the individual interviews
appear to be partly outdated from a current perspective, for example, and should
be interpreted in the temporal context by the reader. In addition, the question
arises as to the degree of control the impulses provided. It should be emphasised
that at the end of the conference the experts gave positive feedback on the chosen
approach.
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Primary School Teachers and the
Digital Turn—an Evaluation Study
with Lateral Entrants from the Teacher
Training Programme of TU Dresden
Peggy Germer, Dagmar Oertel and Malte Krone
1Introduction
This chapter focuses on the experiences of elementary teacher-students taking
the part-time qualification route which TU Dresden offers as an alternative way
into the teacher profession in Saxony. The LETE-programme (Gehrmann, 2023)
has been offered at TU Dresden since 2017 and includes modules on elementary school didactics covering Mathematics, German, Social Studies and Science
(Sachunterricht) and the Educational Sciences. The qualification usually lasts
two years. The programme takes place on site at TU Dresden on two consecutive
weekdays. On the other days of the week the lateral entrants are teaching at their
elementary schools, which are located throughout the Federal State of Saxony.
As part of this academic programme, more traditional classroom formats have
increasingly shifted towards blended learning formats since 2020 in order to
develop digital literacy skills among teachers and to enable better linkages with
the elementary school experience.
P. Germer (*) · D. Oertel · M. Krone
TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany
e-mail: peggy.germer@tu-dresden.de
D. Oertel
e-mail: dagmar.oertel2@tu-dresden.de
M. Krone
e-mail: bql@tu-dresden.de
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_17
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2Problem Statement
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the “digital turn” has had far-reaching and
largely positive consequences. The “Digital Pact” (BMBF, 2022)1 and the
COVID-19 crisis caused change management in the digitalisation activity of German universities (HFD, 2021) and schools.
As a direct result, additional training and support was offered to elementary
teacher students in the LETE-programme of TU Dresden. Consequently, they
developed their digital skills further thanks to their own lived-experience of virtual teaching and learning, and therefore their own digitally supported teaching in
schools. We proposed that the lateral entrants developed a positive perception of
media education because they were receiving competent examples at the university of how to use digital media. An open, positive and subjective perception is a
precondition for the development of a media habitus of future teachers.
The implications of this for including basic competencies in media education
in the academic preparation of TU Dresden are therefore:
• training the lecturers to be role models for good use of digital media
• providing well-graduated media-related learning opportunities for lateral
entrants in their courses
• teaching media skills, especially operating skills and reflexive competences, in
ways that support didactic transfer to schools and lessons
• emphasising digital media as a natural part of learning
• modelling digital communication and cooperation through collaborative learning formats
• building participants’ capability for producing, presenting, analysing, and
reflecting using digital media
• providing an introduction to data security and copyright law2 (see also SMK,
2017, p. 19; Schmechtig et al., 2020; Bauer, 2011; Redecker & Punie, 2019)
1 Since 2019, the German Federal Government has been supporting the Federal States in
building the digital infrastructure of schools as part of the “Digital Pact” for schools (duration 2019–2024).
2 During the period of the present study, media literacy education did not concentrate on
“searching for”, “collecting”, “processing” and “storing information”, which is a basic
requirement for academically trained participants in further education. For pragmatic reasons, areas such as “solving technical problems” and “recognizing and formulating algorithms” were also not included.
Primary School Teachers and the Digital Turn …
315
In order to assess digital competencies in the LETE-programme, the present
study was conducted from Summer term 2020 to Winter term 2022/233. Based
on the results, adjustments were made by the BQL.Digital team, which performed
three main tasks during the study implementation period:
• briefing of the participants on digital services of the TU Dresden at the beginning of the further training course at the university
• building and introducing university-wide websites and digital learning tools
including the “OPAL” learning management system
• supporting the practical skills of lateral entrants and their lecturers with the
help of self-study modules and workshops on digital learning topics and tools
The training offered by BQL.Digital included workshops on using conferencing
services (BigBlueButton, Zoom), collaborative tools (CryptPad, TaskCards, Padlet), interactive tools (LearningSnacks, H5P, LearningApps, Kahoot) and creating
educational videos (Screencasts, PowerPoint files with audio comments, Cutout
animation and stop motion techniques4). Almost 20 learning modules were created during this period. BQL.Digital also supported lecturers and lateral entrants
in technical matters with the help of individual consultations or digital office
hours. The aim of BQL.Digital’s support was to ensure constant assistance with
digital teaching and learning.
3Study Questions
The focus of the scientific considerations was on the implementation of digital teaching and the associated digital support. A particularly interesting aspect
of this has been the subjective perception and the effect of adopting pragmatic,
online-education and adult-education approaches as the theoretical basis for
learning by experience and developing personal capability (Boydston, 1988).
3 The Summer term in the lateral entry programme lasts from 01.04 to 30.09 and the Winter
term from 01.10 to 30.03 in each year.
4 The two techniques “stop-motion technique” and “cutout animation technique” are animation techniques that can be used to create creative movies in a simple way. In the stopmotion technique, objects are animated by moving them only slightly for each individual
frame of the film. In the cutout animation technique, flat objects (e.g. Figures made of
paper) are filmed from above. The movement of these objects is done by hand, often filming the hand movement as well.
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The design of the present study concerns on subject theoretical foundations
about understanding teachers’ internal views and beliefs about successful learning (Dann, 1989), which were primarily gained through experiences over several
terms. Effective teaching and learning in a digital way requires a high level to
professional knowledge and skills (Ko & Rossen, 2017).
Evidence-based findings should allow the quality of scientific education at
the TU Dresden to remain at a high level, and inform the adaptation and further
development of the LETE-programme in relation to its participants.
This resulted in the following research questions for quality assurance, which
were also related to the satisfaction of lateral entrants in the area of elementary
school:
1. Which perceptions about successful digital learning with online resources
exist among lateral entrants from elementary school?
2. Which support structures are required by lateral entrants and should be provided for subsequent terms?
3. Which tools and platforms are particularly suitable for sustainable online
learning for the LETE cohorts?
4Assumptions
It was expected that lateral entrants in further education would have less digital experience in successful learning with digital media at the beginning of the
study period and that the acceptance—but also digital skills—would be lower.
However, with the constant expansion of digital learning environments in their
schools, as well as the use of digital media in the LETE academic environment, it was felt their scepticism towards digital usage and the transfer of this
to the school environment would reduce. It was further assumed that the additional digital support would be needed especially at the beginning of the training, where the LETE participants need to familiarize themselves with video
conferencing tools (BigBlueButton, ZOOM), academic learning management
systems (OPAL) and school-based learning management systems (LernSax) as
well as the cloud service (Nextcloud) and communication services. In addition,
it was anticipated that help on specific subject-related and related didactical questions would be requested from BQL.Digital, e.g. the suitability of a digital setting for a teaching lesson. It was assumed that simple digital interfaces that are
easily accessible by universities and schools and that are compatible with the
Primary School Teachers and the Digital Turn …
317
DGSVO5 would be established for teaching in elementary schools. It was further
hoped that the lateral entrants would quickly become familiar with the operational functions of common video conferencing tools and are able to use them for
independent collaborative work.
5Study Methodology
The study was built on an exploratory design that centred around a customdesigned questionnaire featuring a mix of closed and open questions. Initially, the
design was chosen to facilitate the collection of quantitative information on predefined categories. However, the range was expanded to accommodate text-based
responses to allow for an openness in the questions (Lamnek & Krell, 2016) and
so enable the focus to be sharpened in the scientific interest. This helped deepen
and made unexpected and interesting aspects of the participants’ opinions and
beliefs more transparent. More specific attention could, therefore, be paid to
issues related to online teaching in particular. In the more advanced aspects of
the lateral entrants’ practice there are allowances made for greatest creative freedom in the area of teaching, and—if necessary—opportunities for a very rapid,
active change. A block of closed questions addressed the topics of satisfaction
with online teaching offerings, frequency of use, and collaborative work itself.
Such collaborative forms of work were of particular interest to us as researchers
as the elementary school participants on the LETE-programme live and work all
over Saxony. Because of family or work commitments, they cannot meet spontaneously to work physically together as a professional learning group. However,
there was considerable variation expected in how participants engage with virtual
collaboration. Consequently, a block of closed and open questions focused particularly on the support for digital teaching and the use of digital settings LETEprogramme provided.
To better understand the impact and value of the support offered of BQL.Digital several questions focused specifically on the use and satisfaction of its offerings and services. In addition, questions addressed the challenges participants
faced in dealing with the BQL.Digital resources that lateral entrants used. Open
questions were asked about the challenges of digital learning and about tools
5 DSGVO: This acronym means “Datenschutz-Grundverordnung” in German, and “General
Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)” in English: https://gdpr-info.eu
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which, in the view of the participants, have the potential to be maintained. The
questionnaire for the study was created and made accessible online via TU Dresden’s own survey platform. The responses of the participants were analyzed using
MAXQDA—a computer-assisted qualitative structured content analysis tool
(Kuckartz, 2018; Mayring, 2016).
In total, twelve groups from the LETE-programme (N = 268) were surveyed
over the period from Summer term 2020 to Winter term 2022/23.6
6Findings
6.1Demographic Factors and Self-Assessment
of Digital Competencies
From previous surveys, it is known that a large part of the teachers who complete the advanced training in elementary school didactics at the TU Dresden are
between 30 and 39 years old (Bárány et al., 2020, p. 200; Gehrmann, 2023). The
youngest participants are between 25 and 29 years old, the oldest are over 55.
About 80% of them are female. That underlines the typical situation for elementary school teachers in Germany.
Many are mothers or fathers. The catchment area in terms of the places of residence of the lateral entrants is wide-ranging (Fig. 1). The majority currently lives
in Dresden, Bautzen, Görlitz and in the district of Saxon Switzerland-Eastern Ore
Mountains. Because of the arrival and departure routes, it can be observed that
lateral entrants have difficulties in optimally organizing family, further education
and school activities. Therefore, blended learning formats can be a time-saver, as
travel distances are no longer so problematic, according to a participant in further
education in the second term:
“Due to very long travel times to Dresden, I prefer online studies. It allows relaxed
learning, free time management and much lower costs” (SoSe22p13).7
6 The lateral entry groups were all interviewed online at the end of each term. Participa-
tion was voluntary. The number of participants varied throughout the terms. Four to seven
groups were surveyed simultaneously per term.
7 Original reference: „Durch sehr lange Anfahrtszeiten nach Dresden, bevorzuge ich ein
Onlinestudium. Es ermöglicht entspanntes Lernen, freie Zeiteinteilung und sehr viel geringere Kosten“ (SoSe22p13).
Primary School Teachers and the Digital Turn …
319
Places of residence (n=48, Summer term 2021)
Dresden (0 to 10km)
4%
Bautzen (10 to 60km)
Görlitz (60 to 90km)
2% 2%
10%
35%
District Saxon Switzerland-Eastern Ore
Mountains (10 to 30km)
13%
District Central Saxony (30 to 70km)
Meißen (10 to 40km)
Chemnitz (60 to 65km)
15%
19%
Zwickau (90 to 100km)
Fig. 1 Distance of the place of residence of lateral entrants to the place of academic training, shown as an example for the Summer term 2021. (Own graphic)
Fig. 2 The participants’ self-assessment of their own digital skills in Summer term 2022.
(Own graphic)
If we look at the lateral entrants’ self-assessment of their own digital skills, it
becomes clear that they do not represent the ideal state of a media habitus at the
beginning of the LETE-programme (Fig. 2).
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P. Germer et al.
If the values from Fig. 2 from the LETE survey are compared with the international IPSOS survey from 2022, the values mentioned differ only slightly from
IPSOS. The IPSOS survey referred to self-assessment of the level of competence (Rubach & Lazarides, 2020) in the use of digital technologies in teaching.
Approximately 38% of German teachers across all school types rate their digital skills as “good” (expert level), according to the Vodafone Group Foundation’s
2022 IPSOS study, 10% of the study participants affirm that they have excellent
competencies and can guide and inspire others (leader level). 4% of the respondents’ state that they have no experience (Vodafone Foundation Germany, 2022,
p. 28). Interestingly, this last value correlates exactly with the survey results of
lateral entrants at TU Dresden in the Summer term of 2022.
The longer the academic training of the lateral entrants lasts, the more positively the respondents rate their digital skills in the study. This correlation is moderated by the age of the respondents. If the impact of age is taken into account,
the correlation decreases, but the tendency of the correlation shown can still be
confirmed (Table 1.). One conclusion that should be taken from this is that the
teaching of media competence is a sustainable task of academic training, but
also in the area of further education and training. LETE-programme participants
clearly benefit from well-structured and versatile support, both on-site at TU
Dresden and at their schools, in terms of the development and implementation of
digital teaching.
Table 1 Self-assessment of digital skills in correlation to term completed. (Own table)
Correlations
In which term of
How would you
qualification did you rate your digital
study 2021/22?
skills?
0.364**
In which term of
Pearson-Correlation
qualification did you Sig. (2-sided)
study 2021/22?
N
1
86
86
How would you rate
your digital skills?
Pearson-Correlation
0.364**
1
Sig. (2-sided)
<0.001
N
86
<0.001
** The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-sided)
86
Primary School Teachers and the Digital Turn …
321
6.2Acceptance of Digital Teaching-Learning Formats
Looking back at the challenges of experienced by the wider LETE-programme
itself, it is evident that the digital literacy development of lateral entrants was
directly and significantly impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. In March 2020,
the entire LETE-programme was moved to an online format almost overnight.
Thus, lecturers and lateral entrants were forced to work across a distance in space
and time to evaluate and optimize teaching formats and also rethink collaborative
learning formats for lateral entrants. An ability to study and learn in a sustainable
manner within these new arrangements was essential:
“Another essential condition for a sustainable use of digital media in the classroom
is [...] that teachers are basically willing and motivated to integrate them into their
teaching concept” (Franke et al., 2023, p. 2).8
The consequence for academic training is, on the one hand, to promote access to
digitalisation-related professional knowledge. On the other hand, it is important
to maintain or awaken motivation to gain digital skills. Clear trends relating to
this change can be seen across the study period (Fig. 3).
A particularly high acceptance was evident regarding online lectures. They
would therefore seem particularly suitable to be retained permanently after the
digital turn caused by the pandemic. In this context, both synchronous and asynchronous formats received positive attributions from as early as the initial 2020
pilot study:
“Lecture recordings—I can follow the explanations more relaxed and concentrated
at home and have the impression to have learned much more this term. They were
very intensive and rewarding lectures/seminars” (SoSe20p14).9
8 Original reference: „Eine weitere wesentliche Bedingung für einen nachhaltigen Einsatz
digitaler Medien im Unterricht ist […], dass Lehrkräfte grundsätzlich bereit und motiviert
sind, diese in ihr Unterrichtskonzept zu integrieren“ (Franke et al., 2023, p. 2).
9 Original references: „Vorlesungsaufzeichnungen—Ich kann zuhause entspannter und
konzentrierter den Ausführungen folgen und habe den Eindruck dieses Semester viel mehr
gelernt zu haben. Es waren sehr intensive und gewinnbringende Vorlesungen/Seminare“
(SoSe20p14).
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Note: Online lectures, online seminars and online office hours were offered synchronously.
Fig. 3 Satisfaction with web-based learning and teaching formats, as an example in the
Summer term 2022. (Own graphic)
The positive trend was also observed in subsequent terms (Summer term 2021):
“The downloadable recordings of the lectures were also great. Sometimes I had to
listen to the content two or three times to understand it. That’s not the case in a
classroom lecture. There, sometimes you couldn’t keep up with the notes. This is no
problem at all with online teaching formats” (SoSe21p11).10
Aspects such as repeated, time-independent viewing of the recordings, independent rewinding, individual stopping, listening louder or more quietly, as well
as high quality explication through the visualisation were frequent offered as
10 „Toll waren auch die Aufzeichnungen der Vorlesungen zum Runterladen. Manchmal
habe ich Inhalte zwei-drei Mal gehört, um sie zu verstehen. Das ist in einer Präsenzveranstaltung nicht der Fall. Da kam man manchmal mit dem Mitschreiben nicht hinterher. Bei
der Onlinelehre gar kein Problem“ (SoSe21p11).
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323
r­easons for this. It is therefore not surprising that the lateral entrants recommend
the “lecture recordings” for the future:
“The format of the recorded lectures meets my requirements best. I can freely
arrange my working time and combine it well with teaching, preparation and childcare” (SoSe21p6).11
Another Lateral Entrant emphasizes the value of being able to continue to use and
work on the content even after periods of illness:
“I would very much like to continue learning digitally, as I can better integrate digital learning into my everyday life. The driving time of 2 hours per day is eliminated
and I can make better use of the time I gain! I would prefer exclusively or partially
online learning. Even when I was sick, I could easily follow up on the lectures and
work at home as well. That was great. I didn’t miss a single lecture or seminar!
Great! Definitely continue to offer digital learning!” (SoSe20p19).12
However, despite the many advantages that online provision offers not all study
participants were totally convinced. For some, this represented a shortcoming in
opportunity to exchange:
“A disadvantage is the lack of possibility of further questions. Online lectures failed
for me partly because of the quality of the [video data] transmission (despite DSL—
it sometimes jerked and unfortunately I could not follow some events completely
because of that—additional recordings were very good!)” (SoSe20p3).13
This would echo concerns from a major survey by Lörz et al. (2020) that suggest
among undergraduate student teachers in Germany about a quarter did not have a
11 „Das Format der aufgezeichneten Lehrveranstaltungen entspricht meinen Anforderungen
am besten. Ich kann mir meine Arbeitszeit frei einteilen und diese gut mit Unterricht, Vorbereitung und Kinderbetreuung vereinbaren“ (SoSe21p6).
12 „Ich würde sehr gerne weiterhin digital lernen, da ich das digitale Lernen besser in
meinen Alltag integrieren kann. Der Fahrtweg von 2 Stunden pro Tag entfällt und ich kann
die gewonnene Zeit besser nutzen! Ich würde ausschließliches oder teilweises OnlineLernen bevorzugen. Auch bei Krankheit konnte ich die Vorlesungen unkompliziert nachholen und auch daheim arbeiten. Das war super. So habe ich nicht eine Vorlesung oder ein
Seminar verpasst! Spitze! Unbedingt weiter digitales Lernen anbieten!“ (SoSe20p19).
13 Original references: „Nachteil ist die fehlende Möglichkeit von Rückfragen. OnlineVorlesungen scheiterten bei mir teilweise an der Qualität der Übertragung (trotz DSL—es
hakte manchmal und einigen Veranstaltungen habe ich leider dadurch nicht vollständig folgen können—zusätzliche Aufzeichnung war sehr gut!)“ (SoSe20p3).
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P. Germer et al.
stable Internet connection. This drove a similar lack of opportunities for learning
exchanges. Additionally, difficulties with motivation and concentration and with
higher perceived workload as reported in that study were found also in the LETE
context:
“[The biggest challenge for me was to] manage all the lectures and the seminar
assignments—which I think increased a lot, not only subjectively perceived—in the
two course days despite the distractions at home” (SoSe20p29).14
In response to these early findings from the study—even while it was ongoing—
extra office hours were offered by the LETE lecturers in the later terms. In addition, they switched partly to synchronous lectures in which questions could be
asked either via chat or by using the microphone function. Synchronous, digital
formats are also suitable for interactions to a limited extent, but these interactions
are not the focus of university lectures anyway.
“In the [video] conference there is the possibility to ask questions and you have the
teacher in front of you. It was a pity that the audience mostly hid behind a name tag
and nobody wanted to appear in front of the camera” (SoSe20p1).15
After the pandemic, one course day (consisting of lectures) continued to be
planned and implemented exclusively online, based on the experience gained.16
However, the second course day per week is reserved for face-to-face exchanges
during the seminars in Dresden. With regard to other additional online offers
(Fig. 4), mainly tools with transfer possibilities to the everyday life in elementary schools were used. The pin board tools: “Padlet” and “TaskCards” were
14 „[Die größte Herausforderung für mich war,] mit den heimischen Ablenkungen zeitlich
alle Vorlesungen und die Seminaraufgaben—welche meines Erachtens nicht nur subjektiv
wahrgenommenen sich stark erhöht haben—in den zwei Lehrveranstaltungstagen zu schaffen“ (SoSe20p29).
15 „In der Konferenz gibt es die Möglichkeit Rückfragen zu stellen und man hat die
Lehrperson vor Augen. Bisschen schade, dass sich die Zuhörerschaft meist hinter einem
Namensschild verbarg und sich niemand vor die Kamera traute“ (SoSe20p1).
16 Virtual seminars were generally only offered during the core period of the COVID-19
pandemic, as interactive work in particular was difficult to implement.
Primary School Teachers and the Digital Turn …
325
Evaluaon of digital tools (n=42, Winter term 2021/22)
Padlet/Taskcards (27)
Kahoot (13)
Menmeter (22)
AnswerGarden (15)
Edupad (17)
Surveymonkey (12)
Miro-Board (7)
Wonder.me (10)
H5P/Lumi (7)
3.33
3.14
3.1
2.86
1
2
3
4.3
4.15
4.14
3.87
3.82
4
5
Average value (scale 1 "not at all good" to 5 "very good")
Fig. 4 Evaluation of selected tools by lateral entrants in the Winter term 2021/22. (Own
graphic)
particularly well received since these proved easy-to-use tools for motivating lesson introductions, for presentation purposes, for securing results and for sharing
materials—particularly in science education.
“I recommend the Padlet because it’s visually appealing and you have everything in
the overview. There I could look at the things that were interesting for me and didn’t
have to click on many different links” (SoSe20p20).17
“Mentimeter” an interactive presentation tool allowing feedback can be collected quickly and easily, surveys to be conducted and quiz games to be easily
implemented, also received very high approval. “Kahoot!” learning app, which
teachers can use to easily create quizzes or puzzles and integrate them into the
classroom in a subject-specific way was also popular with lateral entrants in the
early cohort.
17 Original reference: „Ich empfehle das Padlet, weil es optisch ansprechend ist und man
alles in der Übersicht hat. Da konnte ich mir die für mich interessanten Dinge anschauen
und musste nicht zig verschiedene Links anklicken“ (SoSe20p20).
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P. Germer et al.
6.3Collaborative Work
Collaborative work represents a special focus in teaching. It is clear that the TU
Dresden’s learning management system “OPAL” with its various applications18 is
suitable for this. At the same time, the participants did not always find OPAL easy
to use:
“Finding your way in OPAL is not easy sometimes, because one lecturer always
saves files in a different way than other lecturers and uploads them in a very delayed
way. A uniform way would be desirable” (WiSe20/21p24).19
This seems to relate to the non-intuitive structure of the LMS on the one hand,
and the different ways in which lecturers handled information storage on the
other. In order to meet the participants’ expressed desire for structure, BQL.Digital provided assistance for structuring the OPAL courses for lecturers. Although
relatively easy to use for most, Big Blue Button (BBB), the TU Dresden’s video
conferencing tool, was not always stable when hosting meetings with large numbers of participants and was also not initially intuitive for many when getting to
know it and familiarizing themselves with it.20
“The only thing I can think of is when I use BBB for an afternoon seminar, I can
only turn on mic or video. If I use both at the same time, it breaks down and I get
kicked out of the room. Maybe an overload?” (WiSe20/21p23).21
18 In OPAL, lecturers can provide documents and link collections for the lateral entrants in
a course. Communication between participants and lecturers takes place via email, forums
or the video conferencing tool “Virtual Classroom”. Participants can upload their submissions in the course or select their presentation topic in the module called “Themenvergabe”
(in English: “topic assignment”). All work takes place in a protected learning management
system (LMS), which is only accessible to TU Dresden members.
19 Original reference: „Sich in Opal zurecht zu finden, ist manchmal nicht einfach, da
ein Dozent vergleichsweise immer anders als andere Dozenten Dateien abspeichert und
zeitlich sehr versetzt hochlädt. Da wäre eine einheitliche Art und Weise wünschenswert“
(WiSe20/21p24).
20 From the Winter term 2022/23, the TU Dresden also provided all lecturers and participants with free use of the “ZOOM” tool, which was by far the most used.
21 Original references: „Mir fällt nur ein, wenn ich BBB nutze für ein Nachmittagsseminar,
kann ich nur Mikro oder Video einschalten. Benutze ich beides gleichzeitig, bricht es bei
mir ab und ich fliege aus dem Raum. Vielleicht eine Überlastung?“ (WiSe20/21p23).
Primary School Teachers and the Digital Turn …
Table 2  Individual
networking of lateral
entrants in the Winter term
2021/22. (Own table)
327
% Share used (n = 42)
Elementary School
Email
97.1
Messenger Services
94.3
Zoom
82.4
Phone
77.1
Social Networks
8.8
This was addressed iteratively within the LETE-programme in a number of ways:
Since the COVID-19 pandemic, BQL.Digital has held obligatory introductory
events at the beginning of the term. There, it was necessary to familiarize students
with the digital TU Dresden services (e.g. access to their own email inbox, access
to and functioning of the LMS “OPAL”, use of video conferencing tools). In the
two introduction days, mainly competences in handling OPAL and the basics for
collaborative work could be gained. As described above, BQL.Digital was also
available as a support partner for lateral entrants and lecturers throughout the
term. For example, weekly online office hours were offered to lateral entrants,
especially during COVID-19’s peak period, but individual help was also provided
via email or (video) calls. To network with each other inside and outside of the
courses, almost 100% of the participants use their email account and messenger
services (Table 2).
The synchronous and asynchronous exchange of lateral entrants was important, e.g. to prepare group presentations, but also to get in touch about the organisation and contents of the everyday further education. In derivation to the services
used, the participants preferred for a future communication in descending order:
email, messenger services, the telephone and TU Dresden video conferencing
tools. However, despite multiple virtual networking opportunities, a lack of physical presence remained a deeply felt loss during the peak of the pandemic. As one
respondent noted:
“Digitalisation cannot replace an exchange within the group in face-to-face presence, which is, however, very important for our part-time studies. Here are the limits
of digital teaching” (WiSe20/21p25).22
22 „Digitalisierung kann einen Austausch in der Gruppe in Präsenz nicht ersetzen, welcher
aber für unser berufsbegleitendes Studium sehr wichtig ist. Hier sind die Grenzen der digitalen Lehre“ (WiSe20/21p25).
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P. Germer et al.
For inert or tacit knowledge to develop into intelligent or active knowledge, it
needs sociality in the sense advocated by Weinert (2002). This requires interaction between online and face-to-face format that was not always easy to achieve.
6.4Support Offerings by BQL.Digital
Because of the digital turn of the COVID-19 pandemic, the services of BQL.Digital have received more publicity. This allowed the support team to readjust its
activities in order to help the lateral entrants in this challenging situation and to
promote the training of digital skills.
Both institutional and individual supports were designed, developed, and implemented. In various support formats for lecturers and lateral entrants, questions about
video conferencing tools, digital exams and presentation formats (e.g. video recording of a presentation, creation of PowerPoint files with audio comments), but also
individual IT problems of everyday school life were solved. For example, the lateral entrants identified a problem from everyday school life and addressed it to the
training at the TU Dresden. The problem was dealing with the learning platform
“Lernsax”, as well as questions about digital lesson design and classroom management. BQL.Digital responded professionally and quickly and organised three
online events. 83 people from TU Dresden’s BQL Lateral Entry programme voluntarily took advantage of this format to receive further training in the afternoon
hours. Parallel to this, asynchronous online tutorials were created to help users work
more effectively with the digital services at TU Dresden (e.g. for the learning management system “OPAL”). In addition, bespoke learning modules were developed
for lateral entrants about topics such as “digital media in school”. Especially at the
beginning of the pandemic (in the Summer term 2020), the support formats of BQL.
Digital were in high demand. However, the demand also remained throughout the
course, even if not quite as strong as at the beginning (Fig. 5). This can be seen in
the frequency of use of the BQL.Digital offerings in the Summer term 2021.
Producing digital media and preparing them for classroom use was—as can
be seen in the following quote—an urgent concern for lateral entrants in their elementary school didactics:
“[I would like to receive:] more mandatory online exercise formats (Kahoot, Quizzlet, or similar)” (WiSe19/20p27).23
23 Original references „[Ich würde vorschlagen] mehr verpflichtende Online-Übungsfor-
mate (Kahoot, Quizzlet o. ä.)“ (WiSe 19/20p27).
Primary School Teachers and the Digital Turn …
329
Frequency of use of the BQL.Digital offerings
(n=50, Summer term 2021)
Individual support via video conference
6%
84%
24%
Individual support via email
6%
50%
Online workshop series
46%
28%
Introducon to digital services
0%
Yes
4%
72%
20%
62%
40%
No
60%
4%
8%
80%
100%
Offer unknown
Fig. 5 Self-assessment of own use of BQL.Digital offerings by lateral entrants in Summer
term 2021. (Own graphic)
A direct combination of BQL.Digital offerings with academic teaching was of
lesser importance at the beginning of the study, but came more and more into
focus in the following terms:
“Instructors still use interconnections in courses too rarely” (WiSe20/21p3).24
BQL.Digital joined the online lectures and online seminars on demand and gave
introductions to the use of digital media during courses. This integration of the
BQL.Digital services into the courses was particularly welcomed by the participants. However, BQL.Digital also offered additional activities in the afternoon
hours. But for some it was problematic to find time for additional training formats
outside of the scheduled courses:
“BQL.Digital is an enrichment for me when it is integrated into the lecturers’ courses. It is not possible for me to use it outside of the narrow time frame”
(WiSe20/21p4).25
24 „Die Dozenten greifen noch zu selten auf eine Verknüpfung in den Lehrveranstaltungen
zurück“ (WiSe20/21p3).
25 „BQL digital ist eine Bereicherung für mich, wenn es in die Lehrveranstaltungen der
Dozenten eingebunden wird. Eine Nutzung über den engen zeitlichen Rahmen hinaus ist
mir nicht möglich“ (WiSe20/21p4).
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P. Germer et al.
As a result, over the course of the research, more teaching content on digitalisation and media education was integrated into the academic programme days at
TU Dresden, and not only as additional offerings.
Over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, the lateral entrants as well as
the team of lecturers working on LETE have both gained knowledge and competence in terms of media literacy and digital communication forms. It was therefore possible to test more experimental forms of teaching together: A special
format in this context is the “Learning Workshop” (in German: “Lernwerkstatt”),
which was assisted by the BQL.Digital support team both in digital form and, at
a later date, in hybrid form (Germer, 2021; Germer & Oertel, 2023). In this context, a project week was planned and implemented for the lateral entrants, which
included many different digital training formats (Actionbound rallye, 360-degree
virtual environment explorations, podcast production, collaborative knowledge
Padlets). There were also opportunities for collaborative online interactions (virtual classrooms, OPAL forums, Mentimeter surveys) on a selected focus topic of
teacher education.
In short: the digital turn initiated by the pandemic has led to an increase of
openness towards digital media on the one hand, but also to more intensive use of
the services of TU Dresden’s BQL.Digital. As a result, the knowledge of lateral
entrants and lecturers has been raised to a new level of media competence and
awareness, which makes it possible to test new formats together (such as digital
“Learning Workshops”).
7Conclusion
From the results of this seven-term study, it can be concluded that a radical and
transformative digital turn to alternative, technology-enhanced teacher education was initiated within the LETE-programme at TU Dresden by the COVID-19
pandemic but is still far from completed. In response to the research questions,
successful digital learning in the academic space is not only related to operating competencies of technical tools or the compensation of technical deficits.
The promotion of digital competencies in the LETE-programme for elementary
schools goes hand in hand with the teaching of the theoretical foundations of digitalisation as well as the facilitation of learning opportunities for experimentation
and reflection for teaching in elementary schools. The study’s main observations
on building digitalisation-related competencies can be found below:
Primary School Teachers and the Digital Turn …
331
1. Well-designed digital competence development enables the (joint) design, testing and evaluation of didactic settings with transfer to elementary schools.
There is particular potential in receiving professional development units for transfer to classroom situations. This includes both the constant asynchronous support
of BQL.Digital (video tutorials on digital services of TU Dresden, info pages,
learning modules with videos, links and self-tests) and the testing of new learning
formats (hybrid workshop learning, inclusive Escape Room, Actionbound rallye,
Audacity for podcasts, Kahoot!, Mentimeter). Further developments and good
practice examples exist in the context of initial academic training, but also afterwards in the context of in-service and further learning and thus the third phase26
of teacher education. If the digital competencies gained are to become permanent
didactic elements in elementary school teaching, they have to be further developed across all phases. This is not just about technology-based knowledge, but
about subject didactic adaptation for the respective age group depending on the
competencies of the teachers.
2. Digital competence development enables the measured and thoughtful transfer
of ‘traditional’ learning and teaching formats into the digital space within the
framework of university courses, while weighing up the advantages and disadvantages of digital didactic learning formats—such as synchronous/asynchronous lectures.
This requires us to critically question the role of long accepted teaching-learning
formats. The large-auditorium, face-to-face lecture is where the biggest change is
probably taking place. The goal is no longer—as in the Middle Ages—to recite
or comment on intellectual products: the purpose and possibilities of digitally
enhanced learning spaces redefines this totally. The goal today is to inform on
a topic and to generate interest. Lectures are usually intended for a broad audience and are also supported by audio-visual techniques in the auditorium. The
contents will be further deepened in the seminars, but also in self-study. But as
the fundamental purposes of lecturing is increasingly implemented in more
26 Third phase of teacher training: The longest phase of the professional development of
teachers is the so-called third phase. This refers to the independent continuing education
over the entire period of professional activity as a teacher, after the studies and the preparatory service (in German “Referendariat”).
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P. Germer et al.
agile, engaging, and accessible virtual formats this is very likely to change. Why
should universities not seek to maximise the pedagogical and learning value we
have uncovered in the digital space? Discussion of alternative teaching-learning
formats should therefore be expected to intensify greatly in the aftermath of the
COVID-19 pandemic.
3. A stable, secure, digital infrastructure to support both pedagogical and professional learning is a precondition for the development of digitally competent
and confident teachers.
The lateral entrants are involved in both school and university contexts during their professionalisation. The digital tools they use in the university for new
learning concepts are often not allowed or cannot be implemented in the schools.
Therefore, the support structures in the IT sector of the federal government, the
Federal States and the university administrations must create the requirements for
digital media use. This involves the acquisition of licences for digital platforms,
conferencing systems, learning apps and learning software.
In addition, broadband, the use of firewalls, but also improvements and training in the handling of video conferencing tools and learning management systems
are important. Currently, there is still no clear regulatory framework for dealing
with data protection and copyright for lecturers and teachers with commercially
available tools. Many teachers in their schools also lack the necessary technical
infrastructure (e.g. interactive boards, mobile devices, WiFi) to be able to put into
practice with their classes what they have learned in academic training. Many
teachers in rural areas have problems following virtual lecture formats in their
home offices due to insufficient bandwidth. Again, the federal and state governments urgently need to create better conditions for the digital education infrastructure.
4. Digital competence development is promoted through the expansion of support
structures.
With regard to BQL.Digital’s support offerings, it can be stated on the basis of
the research reported here that intensive individual support at the beginning of
the LETE-programme and online office hours (as needed) are especially necessary to familiarize lateral entrants with both pure and hybrid online learning as
forms of professional study and learning, and to enable them to work indepen-
Primary School Teachers and the Digital Turn …
333
dently in digital contexts. Essentially, in support of championing novel didactic
settings for academic teaching and its potential for transfer into everyday elementary school life, media education should play a greater role and, in perspective, be
integrated even more intensively in teaching and in all subjects of academic elementary school education. Aspects of inclusive digital education as well as technical media production in a dedicated “Media Lab”, along with aspects of data
protection, copyright and IT security can be the building blocks that provide the
necessary support for digital literacy development.
8Limitations and Outlook
The exploratory study confirmed that the academic training of lateral entrants
in elementary school teaching makes a significant contribution to helping teachers perceive themselves as competent and motivated in the use of digital media.
The results presented suggest that lateral entrants expect and need special support
at the beginning of their education due to heterogeneity. In addition, it becomes
clear that the recent opening of university practice in teacher education—resulting principally from COVID-19 experiences—towards blended and hybrid learning formats must be consolidated in order to remain viable for the future. An
adequate adaptation to the initial conditions of the lateral entrants must be taken
into account. A comparison of the media habitus of student teachers and lateral
entrants cannot be made in this study, but should be of further central interest.
Desiderata exist with regard to the adaptation of future-oriented training formats in the third phase of the teaching career, but also with regard to the effectiveness research in the teaching process in comparison to traditionally trained
teachers. The concrete specification of the digital competencies that need to be
trained will remain the subject of the current research discourse. It is not the “if”
that is of interest here, but the “how”.
As the present study showed, there has been a perceptible digital turn in the
LETE-programme, because lateral entrants are now habitually at a higher level
than before in terms of their digital skills and technology-enabled collaboration
abilities. The digitalisation process has been successfully initiated and an ending is not yet visible. With the new openness towards digital forms of teaching
and learning, a sustainable digital transformation in the education system could,
finally, take place.
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P. Germer et al.
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Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
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Engineering Teacher Discourse
in Distance Learning Environment
Mourat Tchoshanov
1Introduction
There is an ongoing debate in literature on teacher quality produced by different routes of certification (e.g. traditional vs. alternative). Research suggests “that
highly selective alternative route programs can produce effective teachers who
perform about the same as teachers from traditional routes after two years on
the job” (Boyd, D. et al., 2007). At the same time, literature reports that distance
learning environment presents certain challenges in teacher preparation (Cheng
& Chau, 2016; Ellis et al., 2020). The question of quality still remains open: how
to prepare effective teachers, including those in alternative route, in a challenging
online environment? What strategies are effective in designing discipline-specific
online courses in traditional and alternative teacher certification programs? This
chapter attempts to unpack one of the effective strategies in engineering teacher
discourse in online mathematics methods class.
The global pandemic made those challenges more acute across different
countries. Researchers sought to understand how to address the challenges that
the pandemic-2020 presented to the practices of teacher preparation. More specifically, literature documents and reports that the switch to distance learning
“impacted the teachers’ ability to support hands-on competency development
owing to inequitable student access to tools, materials and resources, all of which
affected student motivation and engagement” (Code, Ralph, & Forde, 2020).
M. Tchoshanov (*)
University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, USA
e-mail: mouratt@utep.edu
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_18
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M. Tchoshanov
At the same time, scholars share insights into “how initial teacher education practices might develop in the years ahead” and whether the change in teacher education during the pandemic can, in any way, create opportunities for innovation
(Ellis et al., 2020; Honigsfeld & Hordmeyer, 2020).
Furthermore, the meta-analysis of 134 empirical studies about online teaching
and learning practices came to conclusions that there is a need for “a comprehensive view of the pedagogy of online education that integrates technology to support teaching and learning” (Flores & Swennen, 2020, p. 454). The analysis also
suggests that “learning design needs more attention” (Flores & Swennen, 2020,
p. 454).
Within the framework of learning design, literature considers issues related to
the design of learning environments, content development, and content interactivity, among the few. Along with the content development and interactivity, promoting and facilitating effective content-focused discourse is critically important to
the success of an online course (Andresen, 2009; Herbel-Eisenmann et al., 2013;
McCrory et al., 2008; Tchoshanov, 2013). Well-designed and seamlessly implemented content interactivity and content communication significantly contribute
to the effectiveness of learning environment in an online course (Testone, 2003;
Trenholm et al., 2016). A number of studies (Cheng & Chau, 2016; Erichsen &
Bolliger, 2011; Gao et al., 2013; Kim et al., 2014) report that students’ attitude
toward online discussion depends on social and cultural factors including but not
limited to communication, connectedness, support in online environment.
This chapter capitalizes on existing research on distance learning and discusses strategies that support teacher learning and discourse in an online environment. Strategies were used in mathematics method class designed to meet the
needs of teachers in both traditional and alternative routes. The chapter is organized around two main strategies:
• engineering of teacher discourse on didactical moves;
• design of teacher communication on didactical situation in mathematics
method course.
First, the paper presents the design of the teacher discourse on didactical moves
using analysis of videos of classroom teaching. Then, it discusses the strategy of
engineering teacher discourse on didactical situation in mathematics learning.
Engineering Teacher Discourse in Distance Learning Environment
339
2Teacher Discourse on Didactical Moves
To initiate and engage teachers in discourse and encourage the open communication between them, it is helpful to provide an opportunity for teachers to introduce each other at the beginning of the class (further through the text, teachers
enrolled in the course will be called students). There are various tools available
to support individualized communication with students and among students via
multiple channels of communication such as texting, e-mailing, using Skype,
FaceTime, Facebook, Twitter, etc. Instructor may choose to schedule phone or
Skype conversations with individual students in an online course during virtual
office hours, which should be posted in the course syllabus. As an instructor of
the course, you may also interact with individual students via text messaging
and e-mailing. Another form of virtual communication with individual students
is using Skype, Zoom, and/or FaceTime that enables face‐to‐face interaction by
video as well as by voice. You may also use social networking tools such as Facebook and/ or Twitter to communicate with individual students as well as with
the groups of students and the whole class through posting messages, blogs, and
other ways of promoting communication.
Group communication and discussions are equally critical for the online
course as individual communication. Various learning management systems offer
multiple channels for the group communication such as chat rooms, different
modifications of discussion boards (e.g. Contribute, WebEx), collaborative document sharing and editing tools in real time (e.g. Google Docs, CampusPack).
These virtual tools allow students and instructor to engage in a text‐based synchronous group conversation and discussion for various purposes including but
not limited to the review sessions for major course assignments, to discuss group
projects and presentations. Instructors have preferences in using particular tools
for the group communication.
The strategy on engineering of teacher discourse on didactical moves is based
on the author’s experience while working with traditionally and alternatively certified teachers in the course titled “Learning Theory in Mathematics Classroom”
in one of the Southwestern universities in the USA.
One of the central course assignments the author uses in this online mathematics method class is didactical problem solving, analysis, and reflection based on
the selected video cases of middle school mathematics classroom. This assignment presents a connected set of activities that addresses the learning objectives of the course and outlines the student learning pathway. It consists of the
following steps: pre-video problem solving activity; during-video analysis of the
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M. Tchoshanov
Fig. 1 Engineering of teacher discourse on didactical move. (Own graphic)
didactical situations occurring in the video; post-video reflection; post-video discussion. The game-based learning activity designed for this assignment we call
“Didactical Chess”. The first step is to involve students in solving the problem
that later they will watch in the video (Fig. 1).
Let us consider the following “Border problem” from one of the video episodes as an example (Boaler & Humphreys, 2005). The instructor divides the
class into small groups to work on the following activity: “Using the 10 by 10
grid, figure out without writing and without counting one by one, how many unit
squares are in the border of the grid? Explain your method!”. The groups post
their solutions and explanations on the discussion board. The whole class has
a chance to comment on posted group solutions before the next online session
where the instructor provides access to the video case.
During-video activity phase includes an element of gamification. Objective of
the game is to watch the video case until the pause point purposefully selected
by the instructor, analyze the situation, come up with the most effective didactical move, and justify why the selected move is most effective regarding student
learning. The literature suggests several types of teacher moves to sustain the
classroom discourse: waiting/wait time, inviting student participation, re-voicing,
asking students to re-voice, probing a student’s thinking, creating student-student
opportunities (Herbel-Eisenmann et al., 2013).
Below are the steps on implementation of the game. First, the designer/
instructor carefully selects didactical situation(s) in the video that has teachable
moments such as student ways of problem solving, student misconceptions, student questions, to name a few. The designer includes the pause point in the video
Engineering Teacher Discourse in Distance Learning Environment
341
track. The students watch the video until that very point and during the pause they
individually work on the “Engineering of a didactical move” chart which includes
the following segments below.
Analyzing the situation: analyze the content, the teacher action(s), the student
action(s), and the classroom environment.
Designing possible didactical moves: define the didactical task, identify main
factors impacting potential move(s), and list possible didactical moves.
Selecting the move and constructing the next didactical situation: select the
most effective didactical move, justify why it is effective, and construct similar
didactical situation.
The main purpose is to come up with the next most effective move if they
were teachers in the classroom situation presented on the video. The students can
rewind the video back, but they cannot continue watching the video until they
submit the response. The most intriguing part for the students after completing
the response is to watch the teacher’s move in the video case. It usually happens
that few students might come up with exactly the same move as in the video. The
designer/instructor usually selects one-two didactical situation per video case.
The “Didactical Chess” activity involves teachers in zooming into details and dissecting the “molecular” didactical situations into “teaching atoms”. After all, “the
devil is in the details”. Good teaching is about being able to conduct microscopic
analysis of teaching craft and, based on this analysis, to understand how to effectively engineer student learning.
Post-video activity includes individual student reflection on the entire video
case. The sequence of events in the video lesson included the following: the
teacher collected “wrong” answers to the “Border Problem” and asked students
reaction and thinking about the incorrect answers; the teacher collected different
methods for thinking about the correct solution; the teacher gave a method from
the previous day’s class and asked students to make sense of it geometrically; discussion of the similarities and differences between methods; the teacher posed a
question about shrinking the square to a 6 × 6 grid and there was some discussion of the proposed student answers.
The reflection is supported by the following guiding questions subdivided
into four main areas: the activity; the teacher; the students; and the classroom
environment (Boaler & Humphreys, 2005). The Activity section includes the
following questions for reflection: What were the mathematical tasks of the
lesson? How did they follow from the main activity? What do you think about
each of the events in the lesson? What do you think about the progression of the
events? What mathematics means did each of them suggest? What were the decision points in the lesson that had changed the flow of the activity and when did
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M. Tchoshanov
they occur? Were there any didactical situations in the lesson you would have
approached differently? What mathematical content and mathematical process
did the lesson address? Where could this lesson go from here? What could students work on during in the next lesson?
The Teacher section of the reflection consists of the following questions: How
did the teacher respond to student’s different methods? How did the teacher capitalize upon the student’s diverse way of thinking? How did the teacher gather
information from the students? What kinds of information did she gather? What
would you have done differently if you were the teacher? At which didactical situations would you have made different decisions and why?
The Students section includes the following questions: What did students learn
in this lesson? Do you think it was different for different students? How? Why?
What were the various roles students played in the classroom? What different
things were the students required to do? What questions did students ask? Which
students were contributing or not contributing to the discussion?
Finally, the Environment section of the reflection includes the following set of
questions: What classroom norms did you see in this class? What do you think
the teacher had done to set up these norms? How was the classroom arranged?
What materials were used, and which role did they play? What in the classroom
environment made mathematics more visible?
After the students submit individual reflections, the instructor invites them to
the post-video discussion. Through the invitation, the instructor encourages students to dig dipper into the important content-specific issues addressed in the
video case. Unfortunately, some of the middle school teachers tend to use general and descriptive way of reflecting on the video cases. Some of them shy away
from the content. The instructor’s role is to engage the students into the contentfocused discourse and sustain the focus throughout the discussion.
After the individual participation in the discussion, students work in groups on
developing the lesson plan based on the same video case. When the draft of the
lesson plan is ready, the group submits it to the instructor and requests a virtual
office hour to conduct a pre-teaching conference. The instructor holds a synchronous conference with the group via chat room or Skype and provides feedback on
the lesson plan developed by the group. The second synchronous post-teaching
conference is conducted after the group teaches the lesson and submits the videotape to the instructor. The post-teaching conference concludes the cycle of the
connected teaching activity: teacher learning—lesson planning—teaching practice—student learning (Fig. 2).
At the end of the semester, students develop an “e-folio”, which consists of all the
major assignments for the course including didactical problem solving, reflections,
Engineering Teacher Discourse in Distance Learning Environment
343
Teacher
Learning
Analyze
Student
Learning
Design
Engineering
Teacher
Learning
Quality Control
Lesson
Planning
Construct
Teaching
Pracce
Fig. 2 Engineering teacher learning cycle. (Own graphic)
lesson plans, classroom videos as well as students’ contribution to the class discussions. The students’ course evaluations conducted at the end of the semester reflect
the level of intellectual challenge as well as engagement the course offers for preservice teachers enrolled in the class.
The next section discusses the strategy aimed at engineering teacher discourse
on a specifically designed didactical situation while addressing the selected
mathematical problem and its solution within the same online teacher education
course.
3Teacher Discourse on Didactical Situation
With regard to distance learning, content communication is an essential point of
distinction between truly effective online course and poorly designed or old-fashioned correspondence course. Content communication within online course could
be organized in individualized and/or group-based format. It also could be synchronous and/or asynchronous. Regardless of the format, communication is a key
to creating and sustaining an effective learning environment in the course.
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M. Tchoshanov
The following section presents a strategy that was employed to engineer
teacher discourse using “Blackboard” discussion board with a goal of promoting
group communication in a content-specific topic. The class was assigned to read
the chapter on rational numbers and take a test. One of the questions in the test
asks:
Which statement below is true?
a) 2.4999… < 2.5
b) 2.4999… = 2.5
c) 2.4999… > 2.5
d) Cannot be determined given the above information.
Explain your answer.
The level of complexity of this test item is determined by its connection to a
fundamental idea of duality. Most of the class participants felt unfamiliar and
challenged by the question posted in the assignment. Some of the students who
selected an a) as their answer choice, e-mailed the instructor expressing the confusion. The most trivial solution to this situation is that the instructor could simply provide a correct answer to ‘avoid’ discussion on the challenging concept.
However, this option would significantly limit student learning. The instructor
decided to provoke a whole group discussion using the “Blackboard”. The structure of the discourse consists of the following four major stages:
Provoke: instructor selects a provoking question and invites participants to
the discussion; instructor monitors student responses and provides
clarification.
Sustain: instructor capitalizes on students’ reasoning to require students
exploring further.
Evaluate: instructor asks students to explain and evaluate the solution.
Synthesize: instructor brings a closure to the discussion.
Below we include discussion actions and discussion context to illustrate the complexity and challenges of purposefully engineered and orchestrated discussion in
supporting teacher learning.
Provoke. The instructor selects a provoking question and invites participants to
the discussion.
Engineering Teacher Discourse in Distance Learning Environment
345
Instructor: “Dear All, one of the participants had difficulty understanding
problem 5 on Chapter Test #3. The student wrote: “I don’t understand why my
answer (letter A) was incorrect. 2.4999… Has to be smaller than 2.5”. Do we
have people answering this problem differently? Share your responses, please”.
Excerpts from participants’ reactions to the provoking question posted by the
instructor are presented below.
Participant-1: “I agree with the student, due to the construct or the limited
information though of the question1 regarding the answer responses. I understand
what the student is thinking. 2.4999 is smaller than 2.5, unless you estimate the
value (though this was ‘no’’ indicated as an approximation). They are ‘virtually’
the same, but they are not, there is a difference which is miniscule. There is no
way we could view the difference. For example, in measurement all measurements are approximations, a measurement of 2.5 and 2.4999… Would be virtually the same, if you are in ‘approximation.’ Technically, it is smaller value even
if the value is a miniscule in difference” (Brianna).
Participant-2: “Brianna, I also agree with you. Mathematically, I think
2.4999…. is less than 2.5 because there is a very small difference in between
these numbers. Also, we can say 2.4999… is approximately equal to 2.5. I do not
think 2.4999…. is equal to 2.5. If we see this problem through a student’s point of
view then, 2.4999… is equal to 2.5. Because, in a number line, 2.4999…. is very
close to 2.5. We teach them to round to the nearest number in the number line”
(Pat).
Participant-3: “When I answered this question, I was picturing a number line
which in that case the 2.49999 is smaller than 2.5, but then I second guessed
myself thinking should I round up to the nearest tenth? If so the two numbers
would be equal. I guess as you say it all deals with the approximity of your numbers” (Enrique).
Participant-4: “I too think that if you look at it in a technical and mathematical
way, 2.4999 is literally smaller than 2.5, but if it is being compared through the
form of approximation then they are the same. Depends on how you look at it”
(Radhika).
Participant-1: “Radhika, I completely agree on your thoughts, it really
depends how your are viewing the contexts of this problem. I do not believe there
was sufficient amount to answer if greater than or equal. It does depend on how
1 Students’ grammar and style are intentionally left unchanged. Also, students’ names are
anonymous.
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M. Tchoshanov
you see it, I do not think it incorrect. I put D. for the answer (I view things in
a technical light) since all the above answers is plausible, if you counting the
approximations or not. Good point” (Brianna).
Instructor (monitors student responses and provides clarification as needed):
“However, the problem didn’t ask for rounding or approximation.”
Participant-5: “I think we can all make a strong point for every answer choice
there was, but the question did not state if this was an approximation or not, so I
read the question in its most literal definition and chose the answer the was most
correct, I also chose A” (Jaime).
Participant-6: “I agree that it really depends on how you view it which is
why I also chose D on this question. I can definitely see why A looks like a good
answer because really it could be true, but I too think it depended on how you
viewed the problem which is why I ultimately chose D” (Samantha).
Participant-7: “When I answered this question, I chose to think of it in terms
of fractions. For instance, 1/3 can be represented physically. But if you put it in
decimal form, 1/3 is the same as 0.3333…. Then I thought to myself, is this number less than 0.34? Yes! I can represent both. So to me 2.4999…. is less than 2.5.
I as well do not understand why a is wrong. I went through the reading as well as
searched the web and looked in my old math texts. I did not find anything contradicting my idea” (Ann).
Sustain. Instructor capitalizes on students’ reasoning to require students
exploring further.
Instructor: “Let me provide you with a counterexample to sustain the discussion. Ann uses a very convincing argument saying “1/3 is the same as 0.333…” If
we accept Ann’s argument then let’s do the following:
a) lets multiply both sides of 1/3 = 0.333... by 3;
b) (1/3) × 3 = (0.333...) × 3
c) 1 = 0.999...!
Share your insights on 1 = 0.999..., please”.
Participant-8: “Lets consider the inequality that we use for domain and range
of a function (introduction of function in Algebra 1) with a graph using closed
and open circles. For example, the domain of a graph of a function with an open
circle at x = 1 extend to the negative infinity is −∞ ≤ x < 1. Even though the function is very close to x = 1, the domain is not −∞ ≤ x ≤ 1. Thank you” (Rick).
Instructor: “Rick, very valid point. Thank you. The question is how do we
connect the two ways of reasoning about the same concept?”.
Engineering Teacher Discourse in Distance Learning Environment
347
Participant-9: “I asked a middle school math teacher and she didn’t know.
Then I asked an engineer, and he sent me this email:
Debbie,
2.49999… = 2.5. To prove this, assume: 10 * x − x = 9 * x, so:
24.9999… − 2.49999… = 9 * 2.4999 … Considering that 0.0999… Will cancel in the subtraction, then: 24.9 − 2.4 = 9 * 2.4999… Simplifying:
22.5 = 9 * 2.4999… Dividing by 9: 2.5 = 2.4999… QED
It did make sense. We know that simply substituting numbers didn’t necessarily make something true. Here is a case where you could try simple numbers
like two or three and the final numbers would be the same, but if you substituted
2.4999…, it would come out as 2.5 on one side and 2.4999… on the other. However, the expression still holds even though there is a case where substituting
doesn’t work. This is a very interesting problem and I’m curious to see what others will say about it” (Debra).
Evaluate. Instructor asks students to explain and evaluate the ‘engineer’ solution.
Instructor: “Debra, I appreciate you researching this problem and getting an
engineer involved. I think he has a solution to be discussed further. Let’s call it
the ‘engineer’ solution and ask everybody to share their insights on this.
Post your reaction the ‘engineer’ solution, please”.
Participant-5: “Here is my attempt to go against the engineer just to be difficult. The problem states 2.5 equals 2.4999… I think there is a difference of saying ‘exactly 2.5’ and ‘infinitely close to 2.5’. We can say that 2.4999… may have
a limit but it will never be reached because it does on forever, so in reality there
is a difference between both. Depending on your calculator 2.49! does not equal
2.5! If we consider this in a real word application and have two runners one a
time of 2.49 sec and one with 2.5 sec who would be considered the winner? I
think infinity is a concept and not a number, its like saying 1/infinity = 0 you cannot divide a number by a concept” (Jaime).
Participant-1: “Hi Debbie, Thanks for posting the engineer’s solution. I went
from step to step, and realized it did make sense. I never had this mathematical
training as most engineers would receive. A lot of my education, in my undergraduate work has been fully in the Liberal Arts category. It keeps reminding me
of DNA how the match of 99.9999…% is essentially a complete or 100% match.
It makes sense, after this supplemental solution. Again, it was very interesting
viewing this!” (Brianna).
Participant-10: “This question is really bothering me. My answer was A
because the question was very straightforward: ‘Which statement below is true?’
And it is true that 2.49999… < 2.5. It does not matter how many 9’s we add to
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M. Tchoshanov
the 2.499…. it will never reach 2.5, it will always be smaller than 2.5. I also have
talked to some people, a PhD mathematics student told me that of course, 2.499
is smaller than 2.5, but that it will also depend on the context. Looking at the
context of the question, my answers is still <. As an engineer myself I know how
critical is to work with decimals” (Juan).
Participant-11: “I actually enjoy reading the lively discussion this problem has
created. I think it helped me see ‘proof’ in a new way, and it was a good extension
of our previous discussions. I believed the instructor also pushed us to come up
with our own understanding of the challenging problem” (Joanna).
Synthesize. The instructor brings a closure to the discussion.
Instructor: “Dear All, this was a thought-provoking discussion and, most
importantly, it exemplified the convincing a skeptic strategy that we have discussed last week. Let me synthesize the discussion.
Juan made a good point that the solution to this problem ‘depends on the
context.’ Pat earlier mentioned that “… mathematically, I think 2.4999…. is less
than 2.5 because there is a very small difference in between these numbers.” At
the same time, Debbie presented the ‘engineer’ solution to the problem that convinced some of the participants: 2.4999… = 2.5. Extending further, Jaime argued
that “there is a difference of saying ‘exactly 2.5’ and ‘infinitely close to 2.5’.
Thus, throughout the discussion we were looking at the same problem from
the two distinctly different lenses: (1) the ‘process’ view (e.g., 2.4999… < 2.5),
and (2) the ‘object’ view (e.g., 2.4999… = 2.5). In mathematics education, this
phenomenon is called ‘process-object duality’. We will be further unpacking the
idea of duality in our forthcoming discussions. Greatly appreciate everybody’s
input into this intellectually challenging yet engaging discussion”.
Summarizing this section, we conclude that engineering of teacher discourse
on a purposefully yet carefully selected didactical situation requires not only posing a thought-provoking question yet sustaining the discussion with a constant
evaluation and immediate feedback that leads teachers to a collaborative argumentation and synthesis of their learning.
4Conclusion
As literature suggests that “learning design needs more attention” in teacher education (Flores & Swennen, 2020, p. 454), in this chapter we presented two strategies that engage teachers into content specific conceptual discourse in an online
environment. Synthesizing the process of designing and implementing those strategies, one may conclude that it requires seamless integration of teacher educators’
Engineering Teacher Discourse in Distance Learning Environment
349
content, didactical, and engineering knowledge to create an effective learning
environment in distance education. This knowledge integration emerges as a critically important approach to address challenges in designing effective learning
environments and improving teacher learning in the digital age. Engineering of
teacher discourse leads to the design of effective and engaging online experiences
for teachers regardless of certification route. Moreover, carefully designed and
skillfully implemented content communication and conceptual discourse significantly contributes to the effectiveness of learning environment in online teacher
education (Cheng & Chau, 2016; Testone, 2003; Trenholm et al., 2016). Finally,
the focus on engineering of teacher discourse in distance learning environment
creates opportunities for collaboration and innovation in both traditional and
alternative teacher preparation programs (Ellis et al., 2020; Honigsfeld & Hordmeyer, 2020).
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Final Remarks—Navigating a Global
Challenge: Understanding Teacher
Shortages from a Multifaceted
Perspective
Axel Gehrmann
1Introduction
Traditionally, research on the teaching profession points to the fact that an
increasing number of births, resulting in a higher number of students, and a
growing number of exits from the teaching profession due to retirement lead to
teacher shortages. Consequently, there are challenges in the short-term recruitment of new teachers, ultimately resulting in declining student performance. For
the moment, this argumentation seems to be valid, as the portraits of the eleven
countries under consideration all clearly or particularly emphasize this context in
one way or another.
Nevertheless, the issue of teacher shortages is becoming an increasingly multifaceted complex, as the presentations in this volume also demonstrate. Like under
a magnifying glass, very different contexts and approaches gather to explain
teacher shortages. It quickly becomes apparent that the issue cannot be discussed
without considering pre-service teacher education, the prevailing school system,
and the associated school types and subjects. Teacher shortages have many reasons, and therefore, there will not be a single solution to address them, as the
explanations also confirm.
All contributions also indicate that the topic of teacher shortages is accompanied by a discussion that, while not questioning the established fundamental teacher education, has at least raised the possibility of alternative paths into
A. Gehrmann (*)
TUD Dresden University of Technology, Dresden, Germany
e-mail: axel.gehrmann@tu-dresden.de
© The Author(s) 2025
A. Gehrmann and P. Germer (eds.), Teacher Shortage
in International Perspectives: Insights and Responses,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-45398-5_19
351
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A. Gehrmann
the profession. Each of these paths leads in one way or another via an alternative route into the teaching profession. Lateral entrants, second career teachers
and career changers are increasingly welcomed in the established teacher education system. While these paths are not yet in the majority, they could continue to
evolve if the traditional university route becomes more precarious due to early
exits or not leading to a teaching career after completing the degree.
It would be very difficult to provide a comprehensive final assessment of the
eleven country portraits, but some central observations can nevertheless be made
in the following conclusion.
2Reasons About the Teacher Shortage
Student increase and age of the teaching staff
It is evident that in all considered countries, the aging of the teaching staff poses
a particular problem. Currently, the retirement rate is higher than the entrance rate
into the profession in many countries. This is often justified by the increase in
student numbers, either due to demographic shifts or migration. However, it can
also be shown that the duration of staying in the education system has significantly increased everywhere, and overall, the teaching staff has grown disproportionately. Thus, the supposedly normal replacement for retirements is no longer
sufficient.
Role of teacher education and demographic change
It is apparent that the inflow (the pipeline) from initial teacher education through
university, teacher training colleges, and colleges is no longer sufficient to meet
the replacement needs. This has different reasons in different countries. In practice, there seems to be a significant break concerning the initial decision to
become a teacher, or the desire for the profession itself was not necessarily considered as the ultimate goal. Rather, it was accepted to study at a specific location,
such as due to regional networking, the professional prestige of the institution,
or particularly attractive offers in the job market. When it is assumed that an
above-average percentage of teacher education students also not become teachers, teacher shortages persist during times of increasing student numbers or the
expansion of teachers’ tasks throughout the day.
Regional disparities
Increasingly, it becomes apparent that teacher shortages are initially an event
located in the peripheral areas of metropolises. No country portrait is complete
Final Remarks—Navigating a Global Challenge …
353
without this representation. Especially when teacher training institutions are predominantly located in major cities with few alternative locations in rural areas,
teacher shortages are inevitable. Teacher education students then prefer to stay in
the metropolises and disdain rural areas. This fact exacerbates when the teacher
job market in the metropolises becomes unstable due to a shortage of teachers.
Different needs in subjects and school types
Individuals interested in the teaching profession often do not focus on the subjects that are particularly needed in schools, as the shortage of teachers is strongly
driven by future school subjects. The interest of the younger generation in the
teaching profession tends to have less emphasis on STEM subjects. It is also the
types of schools, especially those attended during puberty, which do not offer an
option for a university degree, that generate little interest in the teaching profession. This includes, in Anglo-American influenced school systems, the Junior
High School or Middle School. In the German school system, this particularly
affects schools that have evolved from the Realschule, such as Oberschulen/Mittelschulen or schools with multiple educational tracks.
Socioeconomic factors: Status, income, working conditions
Obviously, the social status of the teaching profession, its income, and working
conditions correspond with entry into and exit from the teaching profession. If all
three negatively align, teacher shortages are significantly more pronounced than
in countries where, for example, teacher working hours are particularly high and
there is also high prestige. When all three elements are positively correlated, there
seems to be a long tenure in the profession with few early retirements.
Societal pressure: Parents and administration
General working conditions and hours unmistakably differentiate access to the
profession. However, complaints about the conditions have expanded in recent
years and are also visible in country portraits. Teachers increasingly have to take
on parenting functions that are no longer predominantly performed at home. Various expectations clash, negotiation processes become less frequent, and aggression towards teachers increases. Additionally, administrations burden schools and
teachers with more accountable bureaucracy, so that it is no longer guaranteed
that over half of the working time is spent on teaching or preparing for it. This
leads to frustration and early departures from schools.
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A. Gehrmann
Revolving door
As mentioned earlier, traditional research on the teaching profession points to
the fact that a rising number of births, i.e., students, and an increasing number
of exits from the teaching profession due to retirement lead to teacher shortages.
However, Richard Ingersoll adds a different empirical connotation to the justification of teacher shortages in this volume. He empirically points out that in the
USA, premature exits from the profession, particularly after five years of service,
drive teacher shortages, not the low access to studies or the profession. The early
departure of almost 50% of teachers corresponds with particularly disadvantaged
school locations. In the USA as a whole, this means that 25% of potential teachers are in a constant cycle of entering and exiting the profession, and disadvantaged schools continually need new teachers who only stay for a short time. A
revolving door effect occurs.
Career paths
All country portraits show that alternative paths into the profession have been
established everywhere, and new providers in the market satisfy the high replacement demand alongside universities. These can be actors from the university itself
or private entities to whom state tasks are transferred for money. The programs
aim more or less to initially place people in front of a class. Usually, there are no
local standards for this yet. However, upon closer inspection, the offerings differ
significantly. Some programs aim to establish shorter and more cost-effective training courses, while most rely on quasi-university standards that aim to make second
career teachers equivalent to regular teachers. It is obvious that there are two variants. One aims for training with temporary school contact during qualification, the
other for shortened employment in schools with parallel education at the university
or alternative providers. Overall, all alternatives that do not lead directly into the
teaching profession are associated with discussions about quality and standards.
These discussions usually do not lead to the discontinuation of measures but put
those implementing them under constant pressure not to allow depersonalization.
Thus, something new is also created for the established teacher education system.
3Attempt to Find Country Profiles for the Teacher
Shortage and How to Overcome
In the review of the eleven country portraits, it becomes evident that potentially
three characterizations of teacher shortages and their management can be heuristically traced:
Final Remarks—Navigating a Global Challenge …
355
1. Denmark, Germany, and Switzerland (State Responsibility Model):
These countries address teacher shortages more in a national responsibility or
regional leadership. The shortage is already regional in some areas or on the rise.
It is unquestionable that in the future, the shortage will become more pronounced
due to the overall shortage of skilled workers and numerous career opportunities. Alternative paths into the profession have been or are being paved. Teaching
enjoys high prestige, receives a substantial income, and society generally respects
and acknowledges educators. The teaching profession has a strong retention
effect, and early exits are rare. Nevertheless, in Germany, in particular, it remains
unclear how alternative paths will unfold, while in Switzerland, they are clearly
established.
2. Australia, Czech Republic, England, Ireland, Poland, Sweden, USA (Market Economy Model):
These countries, like their societies in general, rely more on a market-oriented
approach to addressing teacher shortages. It is particularly regionally influenced
because there is less national responsibility for replacement needs. This makes
local solutions easier but also more fragile. Private providers also emerge to shape
teacher education. Consequently, even in smaller countries, there are over 1000
providers for teacher education. Generally, this does not align with particularly
good quality of education, reduces professional prestige, income, and burdens
teachers in their professional dealings. Some lack the prerequisites to shape lessons adequately. Although the introduction of New Public Management in the
education sector is increasingly questioned in these countries, its supposed
increased autonomy of the actors seems to lead to even higher teacher shortages
in the future than in the first group of countries. It may be possible to speak of
30% or more missing teachers in the future. This is also because much stronger
regional segregations exist, which deter teachers, and there is little done in principle statutorily or nationally to counteract it.
3. Japan (Modell of Overproduction of Teacher Certificates):
In comparison to the other two groups, Japan remains in its own category. In fact,
Japan exhibits a particularly Asian style that was influenced by the post-World
War II American approach and resulted in a distinctly island-oriented independence. Here, significant influx like migration in the education system is absent.
Student numbers will continue to decline, and teacher shortages will be less
severe than in other countries. However, it is not yet certain whether the high
professional prestige and good remuneration, combined with internationally high
working hours, will maintain a positive approach to the profession.
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A. Gehrmann
In Japan, a high cultural responsibility of individuals for education and
upbringing corresponds to both state control and market-oriented opening, as well
as competitive incentives and requirements. Regarding the teaching profession,
this means that Japan produces proportionally more teaching certificates than any
other country in this comparison, so historically, the ratio of supply and demand
for teachers could be as high as 10:1 and above. Selection was always available to
the hiring school boards, albeit at the cost of the many teaching certificates being
somewhat “lightweight”. Japanese teacher education students are, in comparison,
considerably less prepared for the teaching profession than in all other nations.
In this country, the emphasis is not on a particularly qualified initial education
for the teaching profession, but, as throughout society, on “learning on the job”.
Currently, the positive selection rates are decreasing significantly. Alternative
paths are not yet extensively paved, also because there is a focus on recruiting
people for the profession who possess a teaching certificate but have never used it
because they are initially engaged in other professional activities.
4Summary
In the wake of a worldwide educational crisis, this book delves into the multi-faceted complexities surrounding teacher shortages, unraveling a narrative that transcends borders. It explores the global teaching landscape, revealing a troubling
revolving door scenario fueled by an intricate interplay of factors such as region,
race, gender, and dependence on subject and school type. Demographic developments, birth rates, and migration patterns further complicate the intricate web of
challenges faced by educational systems worldwide.
Teacher shortages are not solely a result of inadequate demographic development; rather, they are exacerbated by a host of interconnected issues, including
the status and income disparities faced by educators. The book sheds light on the
low status of teachers, coupled with their comparatively low income, contributing
to a lack of prestige that undermines the teaching profession’s appeal. High working conditions, an absence of career paths, and poor working environments act as
deterrents, pushing educators towards alternative career choices.
Moreover, the narrative unfolds to reveal the significant role played by societal
pressures, both from parents and administrations. Intense pressures, coupled with
challenging working hours, contribute to the burnout and attrition rates among
educators. The anthology emphasizes the critical role teachers play as the largest
workforce in the public service globally, highlighting the urgent need for reform
and recognition of their vital contributions.
Final Remarks—Navigating a Global Challenge …
357
5Implications
Understanding the multi-faceted nature of teacher shortages is imperative for policymakers, administrators, and educators alike. Addressing these issues requires a
holistic approach that considers the interconnectedness of various factors such as
social status, income, working conditions, and societal pressures.
The volume underscores the importance of investing in teacher education, creating viable career paths, and improving the overall working environment. Recognizing the diversity in challenges faced by teachers across regions, races, and
genders is crucial for developing targeted strategies to alleviate shortages.
Additionally, it calls for a re-evaluation of societal attitudes towards teachers, advocating for increased prestige, fair compensation, and improved working
conditions. A shift in perspective is necessary to view teaching as a valued and
respected profession, attracting and retaining talented individuals.
Furthermore, the international collection highlights the need for global cooperation and research initiatives to comprehensively understand and address teacher
shortages. With teachers being the backbone of education systems worldwide,
there is a pressing demand for increased research to inform about evidence-based
policies and practices, ultimately fostering a sustainable and thriving educational
landscape.
Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use,
sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you
give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter’s
Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If
material is not included in the chapter’s Creative Commons license and your intended
use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to
obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.