Research Article
Published: 2025-04-30
https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadMatSci7678
In situ heat treatment in laser beam welding: a study on
high-temperature processing of low-carbon steels
Milton Sergio Fernandes de Lima1, *, Rafael Humberto Mota de Siqueira1 , Antonio Jorge Abdalla1 ,
Raquel Alvim de Figueiredo Mansur2 , Caroline Cristine de Andrade Ferreira3 , Vagner Braga4 ,
Isabela Atílio Ligabo3 , Sheila Medeiros de Carvalho5 , Stephen Liu Chuen6 , Daolun Chen7
Academic Editor: Vladimir Ivanov
Abstract
Pre- or post-heating is commonly employed during welding. Inducing heat to the joint prior to welding is known to be an efficient way
of reducing susceptibility to cracks and improving the toughness of the weld metal. In laser beam welding (LBW), the use of pre- or
post-heating is less common, mainly because of the high productivity and restrictions on access to the small molten pool. However, in
situ heat treatments during LBW are very common in the steel industry when joining hot-rolled sheets before coiling. Nevertheless, the
implications of heating and cooling routines during LBW are still not fully understood, and studying them is important for industrial
applications. This study intends to contribute to this discussion by reviewing some phenomena associated with high-temperature laser
beam welding (HTLBW) and examining a case study of low-carbon steels. Sheets of low-carbon enhanced-plasticity steel were subjected
to in situ LBW heat treatment in accordance with their chemical composition, thermomechanical treatment, and proposed use. Because
this steel required rolling after welding, a ferritic microconstituent instead of martensite provided superior workability to the product.
For some other classes of steels, there is an advantage in processing flat products at high temperatures, depending on the case, which
was reviewed in this study.
Keywords: laser beam welding, heat treatment, continuous-cooling transformations, phase transformations, low-carbon steel
Citation: de Lima MSF, de Siqueira RHM, Abdalla AJ, de Figueiredo Mansur RA, de Andrade Ferreira CC, Braga V et al. In situ heat
treatment in laser beam welding: a study on high-temperature processing of low-carbon steels. Academia Materials Science 2025;2.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadMatSci7678
1. Introduction
In the welding of metals and alloys, it is very common to use preor post-heating of the joints. The preheating of the joint allows
the deposition of materials with a lower thermal gradient, which
reduces the crack susceptibility. In addition, a temperature above
ambient allows for a dry joint, which reduces hydrogen cracking.
However, post-welding heat treatments reduce the thermal gradient, and therefore the rate of solidification, leading to a lower
vulnerability to hot cracks. Apart from these thermomechanical
effects, the microstructure of the weld changes owing to changes
in the cooling rate during solidification (fusion zone, FZ) and in
the solid state (heat-affected zone—HAZ). Some authors have also
proposed using a preheating laser beam welding to increase the
weldability of dissimilar metals or to limit the effect of a high heat
concentration in a small joint volume.
Li et al. [1] carried out a study of laser welding of a low-alloy,
high-strength steel (HSLA) using inductive preheating. The microstructure of the weld steel, with the use of preheating, was
shown to be marked by ferrite to the detriment of the lath martensite and bainite observed without induction heating. Preheating
induces larger grains and flatness in the weldment. This study and a
few others, such as the work of Pinto et al. [2], considered inductive
preheating before welding, but without maintaining a constant
temperature after it. This is an important difference because the
metallic substrate cools rapidly after heating, and the gain in terms
of phase transformations is always limited. On the other hand,
holding at relatively high temperatures well after welding has the
ability to provide more interesting treatments for the physical
metallurgy of alloys, such as austempering and martempering.
In previous studies, the present authors proved the usefulness of
in situ inductive heating of the base material during and after laser
beam interaction for controlling the volume fraction of martensite
in the FZ and HAZ. Braga et al. [3] produced a bainitic fusion zone
instead of a martensitic zone when transformation-induced plasticity (TRIP) steels were laser-welded at 500 ◦ C and maintained
1 Photonics Division, Institute for Advanced Studies (IEAv), Sao Jose dos Campos 12228-001, SP, Brazil.
2 Conestoga College, Kitchener, ON N2G 4M4, Canada.
3 Space Sciences and Technologies Program, Aeronautics Institute of Technology (ITA), Sao Jose dos Campos 12228-901, SP, Brazil.
4 Research & Development Division, Bruning Tecnometal, Panambi 98280-000, RS, Brazil.
5 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Espirito Santo (UFES), Vitoria 29075-910, ES, Brazil.
6 George S. Ansell Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, USA.
7 Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Toronto Metropolitan University, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada.
∗ email: miltonmsfl@fab.mil.br
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isothermally for 10 min. These in situ austempered welded sheets
exhibited outstanding behavior in cup-drawing tests. Lima et al. [4]
introduced the same concept for in situ tempered laser welds
for an 18%Ni Maraging 300 steel. One problem raised by these
authors is the chemical heterogeneities in the FZ due to dendritic
microsegregation, which cannot be solved by inductive heating
at 570 ◦ C. As a result, the tempering of martensite cannot be
accomplished in the same way as conventional heat treatment.
However, a common result for both steel alloys is the flatness of the
hardness profile across different regions, BM, HAZ, and FZ, after
the in situ treatment, resulting in solids with higher toughness.
Using a similar approach, Mansur et al. [5] reported that in situ
induction-heated laser beam welding was useful to avoid centerline
cracks in SAE 4130 steel blocks. The weld was maintained at 500 ◦ C
for 10 min after welding, and, according to finite element analyses,
the average residual stresses in the fusion zone decreased from
164 to 4 MPa for the room-temperature and high-temperature
samples, respectively. Therefore, high-temperature welds induced
outstanding reliability of these welds.
https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadMatSci7678
This article aims to summarize the main phenomena associated
with high-temperature laser beam welding (HT) and discuss the
possibilities of using this technique in industry. In addition, a case
study of HT in low-carbon steel samples was discussed.
1.1. High-temperature laser beam welding
The challenge of inductively heated laser welding is to couple a
furnace with the laser workstation so that a time–temperature
profile is imposed on the metallic substrate before, during, and
after the interaction with the laser beam. Special care must be
taken regarding the effect of eddy currents on the welding head
and process table, especially when using stepper motors, as in
our case. Figure 1a shows a schematic of the experimental setup
used in this study. In this specific configuration, the plates to be
welded (D) need to be rigidly joined with weld spots or clamps, as
thermal expansion tends to separate them; however, research on
bead-on-plate welds is less complicated.
Figure 1 • (a) Schematic of the inductive furnace with the sheet welded in position. (A) Heating source wire and spiral cables,
(B) thermocouple, (C) sacrificial metal part to increase the heating coupling, (D) steel sheet to be welded, I laser beam, (F) melting pool at
the laser focal point, and (G) alumina block support. (b) Typical temperature versus time profiles for high-temperature laser-beam welds.
In our study, the temperature profile is similar to that shown in
Figure 1b. From room temperature, inductive heating raises the
temperature at a rate of approximately 0.2 ◦ C/s to temperature T*.
At this temperature, we leave the blocks for a couple of minutes for
equalization until time t1, when the laser beam interacts with the
material. The temperature increases suddenly, although the rate of
cooling shortly after soldering is similar to the condition of welding
at room temperature (~1700 ◦ C/s). The temperature T* is maintained up to t2 by switching the inductive current source on and
off. Subsequently, the material is free to cool down, still inside the
oven, at rates that vary between 0.01 and 0.2 ◦ C/s. These results are
obtained from the numerical simulation by finite element analyses
validated by the thermocouple data (B in Figure 1a). According
to the experimental evidence, this procedure greatly changes the
thermometallurgical and mechanical behavior of the weld coupons
compared to the room-temperature case.
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During the heating stage, the base material undergoes continuous
annealing for approximately 40 min, during which there can be
several phase transformations even before welding. In the temperature range between 350 and 550 ◦ C, typical of our experiments,
tempering of ferrous martensites and secondary precipitation of
carbides can occur [6]. Additionally, both the heat-affected zone
(HAZ) and fusion zone (FZ) are subjected to phase transformations arising from heat treatment after welding. Provided that it
is conveniently positioned above the starting temperature of the
martensitic transformation on cooling Ms, the overall tendency
in steels is to favor the bainitic transformation [7]. The bainitic
transformation tended to be different in the HAZ and FZ because of
the initial structure of the austenitic microconstituent. On the one
hand, because HAZ contains relatively homogeneous grains of an
initially austenitic, ferritic, martensitic or pearlitic base material,
it undergoes a bainitic transformation similar to that described in
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the classical literature [7]. On the other hand, the FZ presents an
as-cast microstructure with dendrites and microsegregation that
is hardly homogenized in this brief period of maintenance at high
temperatures (T*). Therefore, the preaustenitic dendrites showed
the formation of bainitic ferrite in different ways in different regions according to their growth. The formation of bainitic ferrite
favors the partitioning of solutes that can precipitate carbides on
the transformation front (top) or internally between the ferrite
platelets (bottom). However, a discrete temperature rise event
followed by restricted isothermal treatment hardly offers ideal conditions for carbide precipitation. If these occur, they must be on a
nanometer scale, which was not verified in our previous studies owing to the lack of more adequate techniques, such as transmission
electron microscopy. On the other hand, the stress field generated
by the transformation of austenite to bainitic ferrite, as well as
the partitioning of solute in front of the ferrite-austenite interface,
tends to stabilize austenite and decrease Ms. Thus, the proposed
treatment has the propensity to generate retained austenite at the
end of the cooling cycle. This austenite is available for continuous
transformation into martensite during plastic deformation in the
transformation-induced plasticity or TRIP effect.
1.2. High-temperature laser beam welding in practice
First, it is necessary to conduct a systematic study on which phase
transformations of the metallic alloy are possible, which should
be preferred in the HT case. Normally, these metallurgical studies
start from assumptions well known by the industry, thermodynamic or kinetic simulations, or from state-of-the-art knowledge.
In some experimental alloys, it may be necessary to carry out
experimental studies, such as differential calorimetry, dilatometry,
and/or dynamic thermal–mechanical testing. When, as in most
of our studies, it is desirable to remain slightly above Ms, it is
necessary to determine the temperature T* with good accuracy,
including considering the effect of rapid solidification of the weld
bead, HAZ cooling, and effects on the base material itself. If postweld heat treatment induces mechanical stresses, it is important to
verify that clamping is sufficient to maintain the part in the laser
beam focus and path positions. If the magnitude of the stresses
is too high, additional transformations may occur, such as the
formation of martensite and twins in the resolidified material.
Once the post-weld treatment temperature has been determined,
it is important to determine the time. Because most reactions are
diffusional, both time and temperature are relevant. A very short
treatment time, such as t2 – t1 in Figure 1b, does not allow the
austenitic structure to enter the loci of solid-state transformations
just above Ms because the diffusivity is relatively low. On the other
hand, long treatment times induce grain growth and secondary
precipitation that can negatively influence the prioritization of
certain behaviors, such as formability.
Welding conditions are important because they are the primary
source of heat and are responsible for the highest number of
thermal cycles. There has been some success in determining the
temperatures at a given point in the weld using precision pyrometry
or indirectly by thermocouples. However, the laser weld is so fast
and the heat source is so small that there are always relatively
large inaccuracies. It is best to use a semi-empirical approach for
thermometallurgical understanding by combining physical measurements with computational models. Computer models such
as finite element analysis (FEA) are effective in determining the
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thermal evolution of a process such as HTLBW. However, the
absorptivity value between the laser beam and material is unknown and needs to be validated through experimentation. The
semi-empirical model provides more security and reproducibility
for the process.
2. Experimental
In industrial practice, it is common to preheat steel sheets before laser welding, although the effects of this induced heat on
their microstructure and mechanical properties are unknown or
unpredictable [8]. Continuous pickling lines in many steel-making
companies rely on the continuous supply of hot-rolled carbon steel
sheets that are welded together using laser beams. This operation
ensures the non-stop feeding of the looper as an intermediary
stock steel coil for surface finishing, rolling, and sending to the
customer [9]. During laser beam welding, the coils endings are
joined using specific clamping and joint preparation techniques,
including the use of pre- and post-heating of the coils around the
welded area. Many authors, such as Hu et al. [10], Jahn et al. [8],
and Bang [11] reported the challenges of in situ heat treatment
during the LBW of carbon steels. The present study aims to understand the effect of pre- or post-heating on the microstructure
and hardness of a typical low-carbon steel (AISI 1003) produced
in Brazil.
The material used in this work was low-carbon steel sheets (Fe0.03%C-0.13%Mn-0.014%P-0.014%S-0.040%Al) with 1.4 mm
thickness and galvanized by a 45 g/m2 Zn coat. The sheets were
welded in a fiber laser workstation comprising a 2 kW YLR2000
laser, a CNC table, an induction furnace, and protective shielding
gases. In the current setup, the steel sheets were welded using a
1000 W laser power, a speed of 50 mm/s, and a focal position on the
surface. The sheets were welded at room temperature (RT, 20 ◦ C),
high temperature (HT, 500 ◦ C), or post-heat-treated at 500 ◦ C
(PWHT). The furnace was conceived for inductive heating during
welding, as previously reported in the literature [4]. The auxiliary
systems comprise water-cooled jackets and a nitrogen cross-jet to
protect the optics. For the PWHT, RT welds were subjected to
conventional furnace aging. The temperature setpoint (500 ◦ C)
was the same as that of the Brazilian steel-making company in the
continuous pickling line. In this study, conventional metallography
methods, X-ray diffractometry, and Vickers microhardness tests
were used. The temperature fields were estimated using the finite
element method (FEM; SysWeld® Software version 17.0). The
obtained welds were analyzed using an optical microscope (Zeiss,
model Imager2M, Hamburg, Germany). A solution of 2% nitric
acid in ethanol was used for etching. The Vickers hardness values
were obtained using a FutureTech FM-800 instrument. The indentation load was set to 100 g for 10 s. X-ray diffraction analyses were
performed using a Rigaku Ultima IV instrument (Tokyo, Japan)
with a copper anode. Phase analyses were performed using PDXL
software (Rigaku, Tokyo, Japan) and the International Centre for
Diffraction Data (ICCD) database.
3. Results and discussion
Figure 2 presents the FEM calculations and temperature estimations in the current study. The plotted lines in Figure 2 are
Ms: martensite start temperature (isotherm at 526 ◦ C); B: bainite
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start temperature; F: Widmanstatten ferrite start temperature; TC:
thermocouple measurement comprising the isotherm at 500 ◦ C
and the cooling profile; RT: the estimative (FEM) cooling curve for
the RT weld; and HT: the estimative (FEM) cooling curve for the
HT weld. The estimated martensite start temperature agreed with
that reported by Peel [12]. As can be seen, the room-temperature
https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadMatSci7678
(RT) welds produce ferrite with some martensite, and the hightemperature (HT) welds might produce ferrite and bainite. Widmanstatten ferrite is expected to occur in the range of 540–880 ◦ C,
and the bainite range is 540–500 ◦ C. In the current study, the TTT
diagram was considered sufficient to provide an estimation of the
phase loci in continuous cooling at different cooling rates.
Figure 2 • Calculated time–temperature transformation for the current steel together with estimated profiles: Ms: martensite start
temperature; B: bainite; F: ferrite; TC: thermocouple measurement; RT: room temperature; HT: high temperature.
Figure 3 presents the cross-sectional metallographic images of
the RT, HT, and PWHT welds together with micrographs of the
center of the welds in each case. Metallographic examination of
the welds indicated that the HT procedure reduced the presence of
residual austenite within the grains, which eventually transformed
into martensite in the RT welds. The same result was not achieved
when the RT welds were subjected to PWHT because part of the
martensite was tempered and some carbides nucleated, which
explains the wide variation in the HV values (Figure 4). Therefore,
for further steel processing, such as coiling or stamping, preheating
of the laser weld joint in situ at 500 ◦ C (HT) is preferable. As shown
in Figure 4, HT greatly reduced the hardness around the weld
center line from approximately 330 HV (RT) to 220 HV (HT). The
same effect could not be perceived when the RT weld was annealed
in a furnace at 500 ◦ C for 10 min, because the PWHT HV values
varied from 350 to 450 HV. The hardness values for the HT welds
were similar to those reported by Grange et al. [13], who studied
tempered martensite in low-carbon steel. The highest HV values
have been associated with grain refinement.
Table 1 summarizes the X-ray diffractometry results for each
welding route (RT, PWHT, and HT). The columns indicate the
phases, ICDD reference, lattice parameters (a and c), crystallite
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sizes, and residual strains. Room-temperature welds (RTs) contain ferrite and austenite together with martensite, as previously
described. After RT aging in an external furnace, PWHT also
presented ferrite and austenite; however, the iron–zinc phase appeared to suggest some contamination of the Zn coating in the
weld zone. PWHT also presented a lower crystallite size and higher
strain in the austenite phase as a result of partial recrystallization. High-temperature in situ welds (HT) only contain ferrite and
austenite with crystallite sizes and strains comparable to those of
RT welds.
The example presented the application of the concept of in situ
high-temperature welds of an AISI 1003 steel sheet under laboratory conditions similar to an industrial pickling line. The development of the FEM calculations was useful for determining the most
relevant cooling conditions for the welds and correlating them with
the microstructural and structural features. The results show that
the resulting microstructure, phase evolutions, residual strain, and
hardness are different when the weld is aged in situ compared with
a weld component that has to be aged after the room-temperature
weld. Therefore, for the current steel, it is important to pre- and
post-heat the coils during laser beam welding. X-ray diffractometry
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revealed Zn contamination in the PWHT weldments, along with
partial recrystallization (high strain and low crystallite size). A temperature range between 480 and 520 ◦ C has been reported in the
literature as the recrystallization interval for low-carbon steels [14].
https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadMatSci7678
In terms of hardness, it is relatively high for PWHT, medium for
RT, and low for HT, with advantages in the subsequent forming
processes of the steel blank. In conclusion, HT laser welds are
recommended for current alloy systems for various applications.
Figure 3 • Microstructural visualization of welds. RT: room temperature; HT: high temperature; PWHT: annealed at 500 ◦ C after
welding. The first row shows macrographs of the welds in the transverse sections, and the second row presents the microstructure at the
center of the fusion zones nitric etching.
Figure 4 • Vickers hardness (HV) profile as a function of the distance between the weld center line (CL). RT: room temperature. HT: high
temperature. PWHT: annealed at 500 ◦ C after welding.
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HT
PWHT
RT
Table 1 • X-ray diffractometry analysis of welds.
Phases
ICDD
a (A)
c (A)
Crystallite size (A)
Strain (%)
Ferrite
00-006-0696
2.87377
-
178.5 ± 0.5
0.111 ± 0.003
Austenite
00-052-0513
3.683974
-
139.5 ± 0.2
0.191 ± 0.014
Martensite Fe1.86 C0.14
00-044-1289
2.862887
3.061472
183.6 ± 0.9
0.06 ± 0.01
Ferrite
00-006-0696
2.874328
-
185.8 ± 0.6
0.05 ± 0.02
Austenite
00-052-0513
3.697597
-
82.25 ± 0.06
0.330 ± 0.003
Fe11 Zn40
00-032-0478
17.97626
-
74.34 ± 0.13
0.39 ± 0.01
Ferrite
00-006-0696
2.874108
-
175.71 ± 0.19
0.153 ± 0.001
Austenite
00-052-0513
3.682042
-
184.5 ± 0.2
0.145 ± 0.001
4. Conclusions
Conflict of interest
Pre- and post-heat operations are already common in industrial welding practices, whether with laser beams or other energy
sources. The proposed difference is the maintenance at a sufficiently high temperature for the FZ and HAZ to undergo diffusional
phase transformations, such as austempering [3] and aging [4].
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Apparently, this routine has advantages in terms of the formability and toughness of the welded joint to be investigated on a
case-by-case basis. In some cases, the bainitic transformation was
hampered by other microconstituents, such as pearlite and ferrite;
however, there were gains in terms of residual stresses that were
mapped earlier.
Although the focus is on steel products, there is evidence that the
same process applies to non-ferrous metals such as aluminum,
copper, magnesium, and titanium alloys, with advantages in the
thermomechanical post-processing of welded samples. A similar
method was successfully used for metal alloys grown from powders
via additive manufacturing [15].
Data availability statement
Data supporting these findings are available within the article, at
https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadMatSci7678, or upon request.
Institutional review board statement
Not applicable.
Informed consent statement
Not applicable.
Additional information
Received: 2025-01-29
Acknowledgments
Accepted: 2025-04-14
RAdFM, CCdAF, VB, and DC thank the Emerging Leaders in America Program (ELAP) of the Canadian Government.
Funding
Published: 2025-04-30
Academia Materials Science papers should be cited as Academia
Materials Science 2025, ISSN 2997-2027, https://doi.org/
10.20935/AcadMatSci7678. The journal’s official abbreviation is
Acad. Mat. Sci.
This study was financed in part by the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, Brasil (CAPES), Finance Code 001 and the National Council for Scientific and
Publisher’s note
Technological
Development
(CNPq/Brazil)
grant
#
301910/2022-7. One author, MSFdL, thanks the São Paulo Academia.edu Journals stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional
Research Foundation (FAPESP) for grants 2020/08432-0, claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. All claims
2019/25229-7, 2018/23884-5, 2016/11309-0, and 2014/26930-7. expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do
not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or
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Author contributions
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Conceptualization, S.L.C. and D.C.; methodology, R.H.M.d.S.; soft- its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.
ware, S.M.d.C.; validation, R.A.d.F.M. and V.B.; formal analysis, A.J.A., I.A.L. and C.C.d.A.F.; investigation, R.H.M.d.S. and
C.C.d.A.F.; resources, V.B. and D.C.; data curation, I.A.L.; writing— Copyright
original draft preparation, M.S.F.d.L.; writing—review and editing,
M.S.F.d.L. and S.M.d.C.; visualization, V.B.; supervision, S.L.C. © 2025 copyright by the authors. This article is an open access
and D.C.; project administration, M.S.F.d.L.; funding acquisition, article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative
S.L.C., M.S.F.d.L. and D.C. All authors have read and agreed to Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.
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the published version of the manuscript.
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