UNIT 1: AN INTRODUCTION TO HIGHWAY
AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING
• Transportation = backbone of modern
civilization (smooth movement of people,
goods, services).
• Roads = flexible, cost-effective.
• Railways = heavy loads, detailed design.
• Civil Engineers ensure safety, efficiency,
sustainability of transport systems.
1.1 TRANSPORTATION
Definition: System & process of moving
people, goods, and services (via road, rail, air,
water,
pipeline,
cable).
Includes: infrastructure, vehicles, operations,
regulations.
Importance of Transportation
1. Economic Growth & Development –
Boosts trade, creates jobs, connects
markets.
2. Social Connectivity – Access to services,
enhances mobility, reduces isolation.
3. Urban Development – Shapes city layout,
increases property value, supports smart
growth.
4. Environmental
Impact
–
Reduces
congestion
&
emissions,
promotes
sustainability.
5. Public Safety – Reduces accidents,
supports disaster response.
6. Quality of Life – Convenience, reduced
travel stress, promotes health.
7. Global Competitiveness – Advanced
transport = innovation & leadership.
8. Tourism & Culture – Attracts tourists, links
cultural heritage.
1.2 MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
1. Road – Cars, buses, trucks, motorcycles
(short–medium distance).
2. Rail – Trains (medium–long distance,
heavy freight).
3. Air – Airplanes, helicopters (fastest, long
distance).
4. Water – Ships, boats, barges (bulk
goods, passengers).
5. Pipeline – Liquids/gases transport (oil,
water, gas).
6. Cable – Cable cars, gondolas, ski lifts
(mountains/steep terrain).
1.3 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Definition: Branch of civil engineering
(planning, design, operation, maintenance of
transport systems).
Sub-Disciplines
1. Highway Engineering – Roads,
pavements, safety, traffic control.
2. Traffic Engineering – Vehicle flow
management, reduce congestion.
3. Railway
Engineering
–
Tracks,
signaling, station design.
4. Airport Engineering – Runways,
terminals, air traffic systems.
5. Port & Harbor Engineering – Docks,
piers, cargo facilities.
Also includes: public transport, urban planning,
pedestrian/bike infrastructure, freight logistics.
1.4 HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD
Highway
• Major road for fast travel, connects
towns/cities.
• Example:
Pan-Philippine Highway
(Maharlika Highway / AH26 / N1)
o 3,379.73 km long, links Luzon,
Samar, Leyte, Mindanao.
o Maintained by DPWH.
o Role: trade, mobility, economic
growth.
Railroad
• Road with rails, tracks for trains.
• Philippine Railways Systems:
o PNR – Luzon commuter & inter-city.
o LRT –
▪ LRT-1: Baclaran to Roosevelt.
▪ LRT-2: Recto to Santolan.
o MRT-3 – EDSA (North Ave. to Taft).
• Ongoing
projects: NSCR, Mindanao
Railway, LRT/MRT extensions.
•
Role: reduce congestion, efficient mobility.
1.5
CHARACTERISTICS
OF
ROAD
TRANSPORT
1. Flexibility – Can reach any connected
destination.
2. Accessibility – Door-to-door, less
handling.
3. Cost-Effectiveness (short distance) –
Cheaper for local trips.
4. Speed & Convenience – Quick
deliveries, urgent travel.
5. Versatility – Handles parcels, heavy
goods, mass transport.
1.6
HIGHWAY
AND
RAILROAD
ENGINEERING
Covers
history,
planning,
design,
construction, operation, maintenance.
Aspect
Purpose
Main Users
Infrastructure
Materials
Capacity
Highway
Engineering
Roads for vehicles
Cars, buses,
trucks, motorcycles
Pavements,
bridges, tunnels,
interchanges
Asphalt, concrete,
gravel, steel
Multiple lanes
Control
Traffic signals,
signs, markings
Maintenance
Resurfacing,
pothole repair,
inspections
Roads: 20–40 yrs /
Bridges: 50–100
yrs
Lifespan
Railroad
Engineering
Rail systems for
trains
Passenger &
freight trains
Tracks, bridges,
tunnels, stations
Steel rails,
sleepers, ballast
Single/multiple
tracks
Signaling
systems,
switches,
automation
Track alignment,
rail welding
Rails: 20–30 yrs /
Structures: 50–
100 yrs
UNIT 2: HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND
PLANNING
2.1 Highway Development and Planning
Definition:
• Comprehensive process of designing,
constructing, and managing highways to
meet current and future transportation
needs.
• Involves technical, social, economic, and
environmental considerations.
Steps in Highway Development and
Planning:
1. Needs Assessment
o Traffic studies: current + projected
volumes
o Stakeholder consultation: community,
gov’t, businesses
o Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
2. Feasibility Studies
o Cost-benefit analysis: cost vs. benefits
(safety, travel time, economy)
o Technical feasibility: check engineering
challenges
3. Route Selection & Design
o Preliminary
&
detailed
designs:
alignment, cross-section, drainage,
signage
o Land acquisition & fair compensation
4. Environmental & Social Considerations
o Mitigation: wildlife crossings, noise
barriers
o Social
impacts:
relocation,
compensation
o Philippines: PD 1151 (1977) – requires
EIA
5. Regulatory Approvals
o Permits, licenses, compliance w/ gov’t
rules
o Public
hearings
for
community
participation
6. Funding & Budgeting
o Gov’t, private investors, local & foreign
funds
o Allocation
for
construction
&
maintenance
7. Construction
o Contractors & subcontractors
o Project management: ensure quality,
safety, budget & timeline
8. Maintenance & Operations
o Routine
maintenance:
resurfacing,
potholes, drainage
o Periodic upgrades & rehabilitation
o Traffic management systems
9. Monitoring & Evaluation
o Track traffic flow, safety, environment
o Feedback
mechanisms,
postimplementation review
2.2 Classifications of Roads
1. According to Usage
• National Roads (DPWH Classification –
DO No. 133, s. 2018)
o Primary Roads – connect major cities
(≥100,000 pop.); backbone of road
system
o Secondary Roads – connect smaller
cities, ports, airports, tourist centers,
provincial capitals
o Tertiary Roads – local function roads
under DPWH
o Bypass/Diversion Roads – divert
traffic away from city centers
• Provincial Roads – connect municipalities
or to ports/railways
• City Roads – within city urban areas
• Municipal Roads – within poblacion area
of municipalities
• Barangay
Roads
–
outside
poblacion/urban areas
• Expressways – limited access, with toll
systems, interchanges
2. According to Surface Course
1. Earth Roads – shaped soil
2. Gravel Roads – natural gravel w/ soil
binder
3. Asphalt Roads – bituminous binder
(flexible pavement)
4. Concrete Roads – Portland cement
concrete (rigid pavement)
3. According to Traffic Volume
• Heavy traffic load
• Medium traffic load
• Light traffic load
2.3 Road Patterns
1. Rectangular or Block (Grid) Pattern
Description:
• Streets intersect at right angles (forming
squares or rectangles).
• Simple and predictable layout.
Advantages:
Easy
navigation
Efficient land use and division of parcels
Good for distributing traffic and utility lines
Disadvantages:
Monotonous appearance
High congestion at intersections
2. Radial or Star and Block Pattern
Description:
• Combines a central focal point (radial roads)
with a grid/block layout around it.
Advantages:
Reduces central congestion by spreading
traffic
Balances directness (radial) and
organization (grid)
Disadvantages:
Harder to navigate for newcomers
Needs complex traffic management
3. Radial or Star Circular Pattern
Description:
• Streets radiate from a central point with
circular (ring) roads connecting them.
Advantages:
Direct
access
to
the
center
Circular roads distribute traffic and reduce
congestion
Multiple routes improve connectivity
Disadvantages:
Expensive to build and maintain
Complex and confusing layout
4. Radial or Star and Grid Pattern
Description:
• Combines radial roads from the center with
grid-like intersecting streets.
Advantages:
Combines direct access (radial) and
organization
(grid)
Improves connectivity and traffic flow
Reduces congestion in central areas
Disadvantages:
Difficult to plan and implement
Needs careful coordination of intersections
5. Hexagonal Pattern
Description:
• Streets form hexagon-shaped blocks (sixsided intersections).
Advantages:
Efficient use of space
Shorter travel distances
Even traffic distribution
Aesthetic and pedestrian-friendly
Disadvantages:
Complex
design
and
construction
Unfamiliar and confusing navigation
2.4 Planning Surveys: Highway Alignment
Definition: Location of highway center line
(horizontal & vertical alignment).
• Plan: Center line, ROW, carriageway,
drainage
• Profile: Soil, cut/fill, drainage flow
• Cross-section: Ground level, formation,
superelevation, cut/fill area
Requirements of Good Alignment (SESEC):
1. Safe – avoid risks in slopes, embankments
2. Easy – simple construction/operation
3. Short – minimal distance = lower cost
4. Economical – balance cost vs. operation
5. Comfort – smooth curves/gradients
FACTORS
CONTROLLING
ALIGNMENT
2. Religious places (due to cultural and
emotional value).
3. Costly structures (to minimize compensation
cost).
4. Conservation areas or restricted zones.
5. Densely populated areas.
6. Country boundaries (avoid crossing national
borders).
3. Traffic (Type, Amount, and Flow Pattern)
• Alignment should fit traffic volume and
flow direction.
• Number of lanes = Traffic Volume ÷
Traffic Capacity.
4. Geological Condition
• Select
geologically stable areas
(especially in hilly regions).
• Avoid landslide-prone or unstable slopes.
HIGHWAY
1. Governmental Requirement
• Since road projects need large investments,
the government must be clear on:
➤ When, what, how, and why the road will
be constructed.
2. Obligatory Points
These are specific points that affect where
the road should or should not pass.
Positive Obligatory Points (alignment
should pass through)
1. Existing Road – Connect to existing roads
to reduce cost.
2. Intermediate Town – Connect towns
between two main points (A–C–B).
3. Bridge Site / Existing Bridge – Road
should align properly with bridges (avoid
sharp curves).
4. Mountain Pass – When crossing hills,
select suitable passes to reduce difficulty.
Negative Obligatory Points (alignment
should avoid)
1. Valleys, ponds, and marshy lands.
5. Geometric Design
• Alignment depends on:
o Radius of curve
o Sight distance
o Gradient
6. Availability of Construction Materials &
Labor
• Choose alignments near sources of
materials and labor to reduce cost and
ease construction.
7. Economy
• Consider cost of construction, operation,
and maintenance.
• Aim for an economical and practical
alignment.
8. Other Considerations
1. Drainage – Fewer cross-drainage structures
preferred.
2. Political – Must stay within legal or territorial
boundaries.
3. Monotony – Avoid overly straight roads;
small curves help keep drivers alert
(“forgiving roads”).
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS IN HILL ROADS
a) Stability – Align along stable hillsides; avoid
excessive cutting/filling.
b) Drainage – Provide adequate drainage;
minimize cross-drainage structures.
c) Geometric Standards – Avoid steep
gradients, sharp hairpin bends, and
unnecessary elevation changes.
d) Resisting Length – Minimize ineffective rise
and excessive fall.
2.5 Planning Surveys: Engineering Surveys
Overview
Before finalizing the highway alignment, four stages
of engineering surveys must be conducted to
ensure the most suitable, economical, and safe
route.
1. MAP STUDY
Purpose:
To get an initial understanding of the area using
existing maps and aerial photographs.
Key Activities:
• Examine terrain, topography, and major
features.
• Identify possible routes and eliminate unsuitable
areas.
Information Obtained:
Alignment avoiding valleys, ponds, and lakes
Suitable mountain passes when crossing hills
Approximate bridge locations
2. RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
Purpose:
To verify map findings through actual field
inspection and identify feasible route options.
Key Activities:
• Field visit to check obstacles and terrain.
• Gather preliminary data on soil, water
bodies, and infrastructure.
Information Obtained:
Actual location of valleys, ponds, lakes not shown
on the map
Cross-drainage structures, HFL, and natural
ground levels
Gradients
and
curve
radii
Soil types and geological observations
Sources of construction materials
3. PRELIMINARY SURVEY
Purpose:
To collect detailed data for designing and
comparing the shortlisted alignments.
Objectives:
Gather detailed info on topography, drainage,
and
soil
Compare
different
proposed
alignments
Estimate
earthwork
quantity
Finalize the most suitable alignment
Methods of Preliminary Survey
A. Conventional Approach
Procedure:
1. Traverse – Establish control points along the
route.
2. Levelling Work – Create longitudinal and crosssectional profiles for earthwork estimation.
3. Topographical Features – Record all
natural/man-made features within the route area.
4. Drainage & Hydrology – Estimate crossdrainage structure requirements.
5. Soil Survey – Study soil type, stability, and
drainage needs.
6. Material Survey – Locate sources of
construction materials.
7. Traffic Survey – Determine lane requirements
and pavement design.
8. Final Center Line – Fix after computing
earthwork quantities.
B. Modern Rapid Approach
Procedure:
1. Capture aerial photographs with required
overlaps.
2. Examine photos under stereoscopes to select
control points.
3. Obtain spot levels and contours using stereopairs.
4. Use photo-interpretation for information on
geology, soil, and drainage.
4. FINAL LOCATION AND DETAILED SURVEY
The final stage involves selecting the best alignment
based on the data from the preliminary survey.
Detailed surveys are then conducted along the
chosen alignment to gather comprehensive
information necessary for the final design. This
includes precise measurements of the terrain,
detailed soil investigations, and assessment of all
factors that could impact construction. The results of
this survey form the basis for the detailed design and
construction plans of the highway.
UNIT 3: HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING
AND
RAILROAD
▪
▪
Overview
Road safety and traffic depend on 4 main
elements:
• Driver – abilities, age, mental state,
perception-reaction
• Pedestrian – attentiveness, predictability,
walking ability
• Vehicle – static, kinematic, dynamic
characteristics
• Road – alignment, surface, sight distances,
traffic control
3.1 Characteristics of the Driver
Factors Affecting Driving Ability
1. Physical Factors
o Age, health, fitness → reaction time,
vision, hearing, motor skills
o Visual Perception (90% of driving
info):
▪ Static Visual Acuity – sharpness when
stationary
(affected
by
brightness/contrast).
▪ Dynamic Visual Acuity – clear vision
cone: 3°–5° (very clear), 10°–12° (fairly
clear).
▪ Peripheral Vision – up to 160°, but
affected by speed & age.
▪ Color Vision – ability to distinguish
colors (important in traffic lights/signs).
▪ Glare Vision & Recovery – sensitivity to
glare (esp. age 40+). Recovery: ~3s
(dark→light), 6s+ (light→dark).
▪ Depth Perception – judge speed &
distance (important in overtaking).
o Hearing Perception:
▪ Recognize
sirens,
horns,
train
warnings, vehicle malfunctions.
o Perception-Reaction
Process
(P.I.E.R):
1.
Perception – sees the object/stimulus.
2.
Identification – recognizes what it is.
3.
Emotion/Decision – decides action.
4.
Reaction – executes action (e.g., brake,
swerve).
▪ Perception-Reaction Time (PRT):
▪
Affects braking distance, stopping
sight distance.
Varies
by
complexity,
environment,
age,
fatigue,
alcohol/drugs.
AASHTO Standard: 2.5 sec
(covers 90% of drivers).
2. Environmental Factors
o Weather: rain, fog, snow → reduced
visibility.
o Road geometrics: curves, steep inclines,
tunnels.
o Design
must
include:
reflective
markings, lighting, drainage, guardrails.
3. Psychological Factors
o Stress, fatigue → slower reaction & poor
judgment.
o “Highway hypnosis” (monotony).
o Solutions:
rest
areas,
varied
landscaping, clear signage, gradual
transitions.
3.2 Characteristics of the Pedestrian
• ~28% of traffic deaths = pedestrian fatalities.
• Most affected: children & elderly.
• Designers must consider:
o Space requirements (sidewalk width,
ramps).
o Walking Speed: avg. 1–1.2 m/s (85th
percentile).
o Types of Pedestrians:
▪ Adults,
Children,
Elderly,
Impaired/disabled.
Highway Design for Pedestrians
• Crosswalks, overpasses/underpasses,
refuge islands.
• Accessibility features: curb ramps, tactile
paving, audible signals.
• Wider
sidewalks for strollers &
wheelchairs.
• Longer pedestrian signal times near
schools/elderly communities.
3.3 Characteristics of the Vehicle
a) Static Characteristics
• Vehicle size & weight affect: lane width,
shoulder width, parking bay size, bridge
clearances.
• Axle weight → pavement depth & grades.
• Vehicle
height
→
bridge/tunnel
clearance.
b) Kinematic Characteristics
• Vehicle motion without forces.
• Focus: acceleration capacity → affects:
o Passing maneuvers
o Ramp design
o Gap acceptance in intersections
c) Dynamic Characteristics
• Forces acting on a moving vehicle:
1. Air Resistance – ↑ with speed (affects
sight distance).
2. Grade Resistance – uphill/downhill loads
→ impacts power & brakes.
3. Rolling
Resistance
–
tire-road
interaction → material & pavement
design.
4. Curve Resistance – stability in turns →
requires curve radii, superelevation,
signage.
3.4 Characteristics of the Road
Key Elements
• Alignment – horizontal & vertical curves.
• Cross-section – lane width, shoulder,
camber.
• Pavement
Structure – smoothness,
durability.
• Sight Distance – ability to see ahead (for
safe stops & passing).
• Traffic Control Devices – signs, signals,
markings.
Types of Sight Distance
1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD):
o Distance needed to stop safely after
seeing an object.
o Formula includes:
▪ Reaction Distance (depends on
PRT ~2.5 sec).
Braking Distance (depends on
speed, road surface, brakes).
2. Overtaking/Passing
Sight
Distance
(OSD):
o Distance required for a vehicle to pass
another safely on a two-way road.
o Must account for: distance to overtake,
clearance from passed vehicle, and
distance to opposing vehicle.
▪
UNIT 4: HIGHWAY
ENGINEERING
AND
RAILROAD
o
o
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD): time to
see + stop
Decision Sight Distance (DSD): more time
for complex maneuvers
Designing the Highway
Overview
Highway design must balance consistency,
geometry, signs, pavement markings, and
road elements to ensure:
• Predictable environment for drivers
• Safe, efficient, user-friendly roads
• Smooth flow + reduced risk of accidents
5. Intersections & Access
o Standardized
turning radii, markings,
signage
o Consistent driveway spacing & access
control
4.1 DESIGN CONSISTENCY
4.3 ROAD SIGNS
Mounted on permanent or temporary
supports to regulate, warn, guide.
Rule: Every element of roadway must align
with driver expectancy.
• Drivers
expect:
a. Clear info & guidance (signs)
b. No abrupt changes (traffic or road
standards)
Consistency → fewer driver errors at
geometric
features.
Signs/directions must convey one message
at a time and be planned early.
4.2 GEOMETRIC DESIGN CONSISTENCY
Main considerations (5):
1. Alignment
o Horizontal/vertical
curves
=
smooth
transitions
o Coordination of curves improves sight
distance & comfort
2. Speed
o Design speed = uniform, avoid sudden
changes
o Factors: highway class, terrain, land use,
traffic volume, econ/enviro factors
o Operating speed ≈ design speed
3. Cross-Section
o Consistent lane & shoulder widths
o Medians, guardrails, slopes = predictable
environment
4. Sight Distance
Effective Sign Criteria
• Fulfill a need
• Command attention
• Clear & simple
• Command respect
• Allow response time
Signing Principles (5Cs):
Conspicuous, Clear, Comprehensible,
Credible, Consistent
Classification
1. Regulatory Signs (R): require compliance
o R1
Priority, R2 Direction, R3
Prohibitive, R4 Speed, R5 Parking
2. Warning Signs (W): hazards
(curves, junctions, crossings)
ahead
3. Guide/Informative Signs (G): directions,
distances, towns, services
4. Expressway Signs (GE): advance exits,
info, services
5. Traffic Instruction Signs (S): special
directions (e.g., supplementary, movement)
6. Hazard
Markers
(HM):
highlight
obstructions/changes in alignment
4.4 PAVEMENT MARKINGS
(DPWH Standards) → ensure safety & efficient
flow
1. Lane Lines
o Broken white: same direction, passing
allowed
o Solid white: no lane change
o Double solid: strictly no change
5. Curbs: edge separators (common in urban
roads)
2. Center Lines
o Broken yellow: opposite directions,
passing allowed
o Solid yellow: no-passing zone
o Double solid yellow: no-passing both
ways
8. Right of Way: acquired land width (depends
on road importance & future dev’t)
3. Edge Lines
o White: right edge
o Yellow: left edge (divided hwy, one-way)
4. Crosswalks → pedestrian zones
5. Stop / Yield Lines → indicate stopping or
yielding position
6. Arrows & Symbols → turn-only, lane uses,
bike lanes
7. Text Markings → STOP, SCHOOL, ONLY,
etc.
8. Special Markings → speed humps, parking
spaces
4.5 ELEMENTS / COMPONENTS OF
HIGHWAY
1. Cross slope / Camber: slope for drainage
(varies by material & rainfall)
2. Carriageway / Pavement: traffic lanes
(desirable lane = 3.65 m)
3. Shoulders: emergency stopping lanes
o Soft (aggregate, unpaved)
o Hard (paved, for emergencies only)
4. Medians: separators preventing collisions
6. Road Margins: includes shoulders, bus
bays, parking, sidewalks
7. Width of Roadway: pavement + margins +
medians
4.6 OTHER ROAD COMPONENTS
Islands (defined areas for traffic control)
• Channelizing Islands → guide/turn traffic
• Divisional Islands → separate traffic streams
• Refuge Islands → pedestrian safety zones
Interchanges (grade-separated
intersections)
1. Diamond: most common; may cause
congestion on left turns
2. Directional: efficient for high-volume
freeway intersections; costly
3. Cloverleaf: accommodates left turns via
loops; but causes weaving & needs large
ROW
Intersections (at-grade junctions)
• 3-way, 4-way, or multi-arm
• Controlled by signals or roundabouts
• Classifications:
1. Grade-separated w/o ramps
2. Grade-separated
w/
ramps
(interchange)
3. At-grade
TYPES OF ROAD SIGNS (ppt ni ma’am)
Type of Sign
Purpose
Shape
Color
Visibility Requirements
Regulatory
Signs (Type R)
Indicate rules or laws (e.g.,
speed limits, stop, no
parking) that road users
must follow.
Red, white, and
black
Must be clearly visible from
a distance (depends on
road speed limits).
Warning Signs
(Type W)
Alert drivers to potential
hazards or changes in road
conditions ahead (e.g.,
curves, animals).
Provide directional and
locational information, such
as road names or distances
to destinations.
Provide specific information
for expressways, such as
lane use, tolls, and
directions.
Used for unique purposes
such as school zones,
pedestrian crossings, or
roadworks.
Rectangular,
octagonal, or
circular (for
stop and yield
signs)
Diamondshaped
Yellow with
black
text/symbols
Visible from a distance of
100–150 meters,
depending on hazard.
Rectangular
Green (for
directions) or
blue (for
services)
Green with
white text
Must be readable from high
speeds (larger font for
highways).
Orange (for
roadwork) or
fluorescent
yellow (for
schools)
Black and
yellow diagonal
stripes
Visibility depends on the
sign’s function (e.g., school
zones are highly visible).
Guide/Informati
ve Signs (Type
G)
Signs for
Expressways
(Type GE)
Signs for
Special
Purposes
(Type S)
Hazard
Markers (Type
HM)
Warn of physical obstacles
or hazards on the road,
such as bridges, cliffs, or
sharp turns.
Rectangular
Rectangular or
diamond
Rectangular or
chevronshaped
Readable from high-speed
traffic. Usually larger in
size.
Clearly visible and
reflective, especially at
night.