Physical Education and Sport 300
Exam notes
Unit 3 & 4:
Chapter 7: Managing and Teaching the Physical Education Lesson
Teaching Strategies:
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Direct instruction:
o Use to present information and provide initial practice of new motor skills
o Teacher controls when, where, how, and with whom the activities are performed
o All learners perform the same activities at the same time
o Teacher serves as “expert” (provides all instruction and performance feedback)
Individual or Partner practice:
o Use for independent practice of motor skills
o Learners select where and when to begin/end practice
o Task sheets keep students “on task”
o Practice can be set up in “stations”
o Teacher provides performance feedback
Movement exploration:
o Learners explore movement possibilities
o Teacher controls when, how, and with whom activities are performed
o Learners respond to teacher-posed questions that require exploratory or creative
movement responses
Cooperative activities:
o Use when lesson goal is cooperation
o Teacher develops and assigns activity, then serves as a facilitator
o Each learner in the group has a clearly defined role
o Learners help each other complete the task, but do not “take over” another student’s role
Challenge activities:
o Goal is for a group to solve a movement challenge
o Emphasis is on solving the challenge while also operating as a team
o After explaining the challenge, teacher’s role is to encourage the group, be sure solution
attempts are safe, and provide hints or key words
Problem solving:
o Goal is for small group to solve a movement problem
o More than one solution exists for solving the problem
o Learners “figure out” how to organize to solve the problem and determine when they have
a solution
o Teacher develops problem and establishes criteria for a viable solution
Selecting Teaching Strategies:
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Select teaching strategies based on the primary lesson objective.
Use direct methods for skill reproduction and maximum practice repetitions.
Use either direct or indirect methods for creative problem-solving movement.
Implement a problem-solving approach to promote student independence in learning.
Consider students' previous experiences when choosing teaching strategies.
Ensure a variety of teaching methods to achieve diverse lesson objectives.
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Plan activities that maximize participation, align with student interests, and are developmentally
appropriate.
Presenting Information within Different Teaching Methods:
Teaching methods vary based on:
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Source of information and instruction
Communication pattern used to deliver information
Two broad categories:
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Direct teaching methods
Indirect (student-directed) teaching methods
Direct Teaching Methods:
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Teacher is the sole source of all information
Students communicate primarily with the teacher, not with each other
Teacher answers all student questions directly
Common in more structured, teacher-controlled environments
Skill presentations include:
o Teacher live demonstration of the skill
o Demonstrations performed at regular and slower speeds
o Verbal performance cues provided during demonstration
o Emphasis on critical elements of skill execution
Rule of thumb: “Model more and talk less”
o Perform the skill multiple times during demonstration
o Focus on visual learning by minimizing verbal overload
Check for understanding after demonstration:
o Ask students to:
▪ Identify three important performance cues
▪ Explain why a skill is performed a certain way
Teacher may compare new skill to previously learned skills (similarities/differences)
3. Indirect Teaching Methods
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Students become increasingly independent learners
Students rely less on the teacher for information
Students obtain and share information from multiple sources:
o Videos
o Books
o Task sheets
o Wall signs
Increased peer communication – students work and interact together
Teacher’s role shifts:
o Instead of providing information, refers students to appropriate sources
o Uses probing questions to guide student thinking
▪ Example: A student asks, “What am I supposed to do next?”
• → Teacher directs her to the task list on the wall sign
▪ Example: A student asks, “How do you perform a soccer dribble?”
• → Teacher refers student to a videotape set up at the station
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Partners are primary sources of information for each other
Example: Using check sheets, partners give feedback
o One partner observes and marks the check sheet
o The performer receives feedback from partner, not directly from teacher
Teacher may communicate with the feedback provider to help them evaluate accurately
Use of Written and Visual Aids in Student-Directed Methods
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Written materials are essential in indirect teaching methods:
o Task sheets
o Wall signs
o Project descriptions
Benefits of using written/visual aids:
1. Multi-modal learning: Combines verbal and written instructions → improves understanding
2. Reference tool: Allows students to check back when uncertain about next steps
Recommendations by age group:
o Young children:
▪ Use wall signs with graphics (for those who cannot read well)
▪ Helps maintain focus on correct skills
o Older children:
▪ Use individual or group task sheets
▪ Use project descriptions for more complex tasks
Skill Demonstrations Across Teaching Methods
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Most teaching strategies use skill demonstrations with verbal cues
In direct methods:
o Live demonstrations by teacher or student
o Teachers may choose to have students demonstrate because:
▪ Peers tend to listen more attentively to other students
▪ Can enhance engagement and relatability
In indirect methods:
o Skill presentation may be:
▪ On videotape, available for students to access when needed
▪ On task sheets or wall signs with drawings/pictures of correct technique
Model similarity enhances learning:
o Study with fourth-grade girls learning to juggle showed:
▪ Best acquisition and retention occurred when girls observed:
• Other girls (same sex)
• Still learning (similar skill level) – not expert performers
o Suggests importance of selecting diverse student models
Best practice:
o Include demonstrations from students who vary :
▪ Skill level (skilled vs. still learning)
▪ Gender (female vs. male)
▪ Ethnic background
o Use multiple students to demonstrate the same motor skill
Verbal Instructions in Direct Teaching Methods
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Used to communicate organizing events, such as:
o What to do next
o Where to move
o When to move
o How to form partners
Characteristics of effective verbal instructions:
o Short and concise instruction
o Loud and clear
o Match cognitive level of learners
o Straight forward step-by-step explanation
o Link content - other study areas & learner goals
o Maintain eye contact
o Animated presentation
o Listen
o Repeat
Instruction length recommendations:
o Kindergarteners: ~30 seconds; 1–2 action requests only
▪ Due to short attention span
o Fifth graders: 1–2 minutes; can remember multiple instructions
Avoid long, detailed explanations:
o Break long instructions into parts
o Deliver parts between active learning periods
Five Key Communication Skills for Effective Teaching:
1. Be succinct:
o Give straightforward, step-by-step explanations
o Use examples when needed
o Check for understanding
2. Show relevance:
o Link content to other subjects studied
o Connect to students’ personal goals and interests
3. Show immediacy:
o Maintain eye contact
o Smile often
o Vary voice tone
o Move around the teaching area
4. Use animated presentation style:
o Be dramatic and expressive in speech
o Use hand gestures
o Avoid nervous habits
o Be friendly with open body position (arms uncrossed, facing students)
5. Actively listen:
o Maintain eye contact with speaker
o Do not interrupt
o Nod head to show listening
o Determine the message being conveyed
o Rephrase student’s message to confirm understanding
Providing feedback to students:
Key Importance of Feedback in Teaching Motor Skills
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A critical element across all teaching methods and strategies is providing quality and timely
feedback to students on their performance.
While children can practice and learn motor skills independently, they:
o Improve more rapidly with adult guidance.
o Display more mature motor patterns when supported by a trained adult.
Feedback enhances learning because the brain’s neural pathways are naturally set up to use
feedback.
Effective feedback should be:
o Specific
o Frequent
o Accurate
o Timely
Definition and Focus of Congruent Feedback
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Congruent feedback refers specifically to positive and corrective statements about students’
movement technique.
Feedback focuses on the process (technique), not the result (product) of performance.
o Example: When throwing at a target, the result is whether the target was hit.
o The teacher observes both technique and results to determine:
▪ Which technique elements were correct
▪ Which were incorrect
Teachers give feedback on movement techniques to help students achieve desired results over
time.
For young children, correct skill performance is more important than achieving the desired
outcome.
Guidelines for Providing Quality Feedback
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Observe Carefully
No one performs perfectly every time.
Observe the student’s performance multiple times before offering feedback.
Only provide corrective feedback if you are confident that the error occurs consistently.
If unsure of the error, say nothing until further observation confirms it.
Use established teaching (verbal) cues and descriptions when giving feedback.
Consistent cues help learners remember correct technique.
Discuss Both Correct and Incorrect Technique
Students may be performing some technique points correctly without realizing it.
Provide feedback on both:
o What they are doing correctly
o What needs correction
• Many physical educators structure feedback by:
o Beginning with correct technique
o Addressing one incorrect technique point in the middle
o Ending with correct technique
• This approach reinforces success and keeps motivation high while targeting improvement.
3. Focus on Improving the Most Important Error
• Children cannot process large amounts of information at once.
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Correct only one error at a time.
Example: Errors while dribbling a basketball include:
o Hunched over the ball (bent forward at waist)
o Locked knees instead of slightly bent
o Ball projected too close to body, contacting foot
o Hitting motion instead of pushing motion
o Palm contact instead of finger pads
o Watching hand instead of looking up and using peripheral vision
• Select only one of these errors for feedback—the most important one.
• Priority ranking of motor skill errors (in general):
o 1. Body position
o 2. Focus point (where the learner looks during performance)
o 3. Movement actions that produce force
o 4. Movements that occur after force production
• In the dribbling example, prioritize body position errors first (e.g., back straight, knees slightly
bent).
• Corrective feedback examples for body position:
o "Keep your back straight (and head up) while your hand moves up and down to snap and
catch the ball."
o "Flex your knees just slightly while dribbling."
• Since most students won’t master complex motor skills until after elementary school, focus first
on fundamental errors.
4. Provide Consistent, Specific Feedback
• Consistency is key:
o If Suzie works on body position today, she should continue focusing on it tomorrow—
unless she has made significant improvement.
o Avoid switching focus between technique elements without clear progress.
• Feedback must be specific, not general.
o Example: A fourth grader throws a ball, but it doesn’t reach the partner.
▪ General feedback: "Throw the ball harder." → Too vague
▪ Student likely don’t know how to throw harder.
• Instead, specify how to generate more force:
o Weight transfer from back foot to front foot
o Trunk rotation
o Arm movement from behind to in front of head (full extension)
o Wrist snap upon release
• Possible specific feedback statements:
o "Be sure that as you step forward to throw, you also rotate your body to face your partner."
o "Be sure to snap your wrist as you release the ball."
o "Be sure as you begin the throw that your elbow is bent and the entire arm is extended
backward, so you can move the arm forward as you throw."
5. Offer Immediate Feedback
• Provide performance feedback during practice sessions so students can apply suggestions
immediately.
• Immediate feedback allows for real-time correction and reinforcement.
• Exception:
o When students are learning new skills, allow them to practice without feedback initially.
o This helps them establish a frame of reference for interpreting future feedback.
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After initial exploration, introduce targeted, timely feedback.
Summary of Best Practices for Feedback
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Focus on movement technique, not performance outcome.
Observe multiple trials before giving feedback.
Use consistent verbal cues from established teaching resources.
Acknowledge both correct and incorrect aspects of performance.
Prioritize and correct one fundamental error at a time, starting with:
1. Body position
2. Focus point
3. Force-producing movements
4. Follow-through movements
Use specific, actionable language in feedback.
Maintain consistency in focus across practice sessions.
Deliver feedback immediately during practice whenever possible.
Individual versus Group Feedback
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Feedback is given to individual students as they perform in class
Sometimes giving feedback to a group of students is beneficial
When to use Group Feedback:
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When students are learning something new
When most of the students are doing something fundamentally incorrect
May be helpful to stop the entire class and instruct them how to correct the error
Sources of Feedback:
Primary Sources of Congruent Feedback
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Teacher
Peers
Performer (self-evaluation)
Teacher as the Source of Feedback
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The suggestions provided earlier in the text are specifically relevant when the teacher delivers
the feedback.
Teachers play a critical role in guiding learners toward correct performance.
Feedback from teachers should focus on improving motor performance, but can also address
other objectives.
Peers as the Source of Feedback
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In structured learning environments, peers can offer feedback to one another.
Peer feedback is often facilitated through the use of checklists.
o These checklists reference the specific performance technique being practiced.
Benefits of peer feedback:
o Helps students recognize what correct performance looks like.
o Encourages observational and analytical skills.
o Promotes collaborative learning.
Performer (Self-Evaluation) as the Source of Feedback
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For self-evaluation to be effective, teachers must help learners:
o Feel the difference between correct and incorrect performance.
This is achieved by:
o Asking students questions that prompt them to reflect on:
▪ The result (product) of their performance.
▪ How the performance felt during execution.
Goal of self-evaluation:
o Learners eventually match performance outcomes with their technique.
o Enables recognition of performance quality independently, without relying on external
feedback.
Scope of Feedback Application
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The feedback strategies and examples discussed in this section focus primarily on:
o Improvement of motor performance.
However, feedback can be applied to multiple types of learning objectives, including:
o Motor skills
o Fitness skills
o Knowledge of physical education and fitness concepts
o Social skills
Supervising Classroom Activities:
Active Supervision:
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Active supervision in the physical activity setting is a difficult skill to master.
With practice, teachers can implement active supervision techniques automatically.
This allows the teacher to concentrate on lesson content during instruction.
Active supervision involves:
o Paying attention to the teacher’s location in relation to students.
o Scanning for problems (e.g., safety issues, inappropriate behavior, students not on task).
o Keeping eyes on all students at all times.
Position Yourself to Keep All Students in View
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First supervision technique used by physical educators.
Teacher must take a position in the activity space so that all students are within their line of vision
at all times.
This is imperative for safety reasons.
o Scattered Students:
▪ Teacher should position themselves on the outside of the activity space.
▪ Stand with back-to-the-wall so no student is behind them.
▪ Brief visits to the activity space may be necessary to interact with students, but
should be short.
o Students in One Big Circle:
▪ Teacher should stand in the circle with the students, not in the middle.
▪ Standing in the middle allows the teacher to see and speak to only half of the
students.
Standing in the circle provides a full view of all students.
Allows easy movement around the circle to contact individual students for
feedback and instruction.
Students in Rows and Columns:
▪ Teacher usually stands at the front of the room facing the students.
▪ Can then walk the square around the students to reach all for instructional
purposes.
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Move Around the Activity Space
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Second technique: move around the perimeter of the room or around the class formation.
Keeps all students in sight, avoids standing in one spot.
o Why Movement Matters:
Teachers often develop a favorite spot in the space.
Students then situate themselves close to or far away from the teacher during practice.
Students farthest away are usually the ones who need the most supervision.
o Benefits of Moving:
Moving in different and unpredictable patterns throughout the class period increases supervision
effectiveness.
Helps teacher view performance of all students.
Enables provision of corrective feedback.
Assists students with visual or auditory disabilities.
o Example – Using Front Redefinition:
In row and column formation:
o Students who misbehave often place themselves toward the back of the room.
o Teacher can overcome this by designating a new front of the room (using a different wall).
o Begin teaching from that new front.
o Students who were in the back are now in front.
Scan to Detect Problems Early
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Third technique: scan the class frequently to detect problems as early as possible.
o How to Scan:
▪ Teacher scans periodically, while continuing other tasks such as:
• Lecturing
• Demonstrating
• Helping students
• Providing feedback
o What to Look For:
▪ Students who are:
• Off task
• Interfering with the learning of others
• Being disrespectful of others or equipment
• Behaving dangerously
Watch Everyone All the Time
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Fourth technique: keep eyes up and look across the class even when providing individual or
small group feedback.
o Key Principle:
▪ Do not focus only on the students currently being helped.
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▪ Maintain awareness of all students’ actions.
Why This Matters:
▪ Students will realize the teacher is supervising all of them.
▪ Teacher can intervene promptly if issues arise.
Example of Application:
▪ While students are practicing:
• Use a loud voice to give affirmative feedback to Ron and Becky, who are
correctly playing catch.
• Or provide corrective feedback to Ralph and Janea, both of whom are
throwing incorrectly.
▪ This demonstrates active, constant supervision across the space.
Instill Safety in Every Lesson
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Fifth supervision technique: instill safety in each lesson.
o How to Plan for Safety:
▪ Think about and plan for safety during lesson preparation.
▪ Examine the appropriateness of activities:
• Based on the age and ability of the students.
▪ Indicate specific safety procedures in the written lesson plan.
Unit 8:
Chapter 10: Sociological Aspects of Children Moving
SOCIALIZATION AGENTS
Definition of Socialization Agent:
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Any individual, group, or organization that influences a person’s behavior or sense of self.
Influence occurs through:
o Rewarding and punishing behavior.
o Providing instruction in social rules and roles.
o Serving as a role model.
Influence can be positive (e.g., parent modeling caring behavior) or negative (e.g., athlete
displaying violence on TV).
Primary agents for children today: family, peers, school, and mass media.
Family:
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Primary agent of socialization during early childhood.
Family size, composition, structure, socioeconomic status, ethnic culture, and time parents
spend with children affect parenting techniques and messages about:
o Work
o School
o Family
o Peer and adult relationships
Family structures adapt to sociocultural contexts; traditional two-parent married family is now
one of many functional structures.
Examples of diverse family structures:
o Single-parent families
o Extended families
o Foster and adoptive families
o Gay or lesbian couples
o Stepfamilies
o Committed individuals without legal ties
Grandparent-headed households with children under 18 increased by 65% from 1990 to 2000.
School and Peers:
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Once child begins school, school environment and peers become extremely important
socialization agents.
Basic function of school: socialize child into becoming an adequately functioning adult.
School consciously teaches academic content (including physical education) to prepare for
further education and jobs.
School also consciously and unconsciously teaches:
o Habits
o Skills
o Values necessary for functioning as social beings
School provides forum for children to:
o Learn who they are
o Develop and sustain close relationships with others
Peer interaction within school promotes cognitive and social maturation.
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Children influence each other through:
o Modeling
o Talk
o Social reinforcement
How peer influence occurs is not fully understood.
Conditions affecting outcomes of peer interactions:
o Gender
o Age
o Ethnicity
o Social competence
o Social status
o Quality and stability of peer friendships
Teaching social skills is addressed in physical education and classroom settings.
The Mass Media:
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Includes television, computer and Internet games, video games, Nintendo, etc.
A particularly enticing socialization agent.
Messages through mass media are problematic in areas of:
o Violence
o Gender and race stereotyping
o Boy–girl relationships
Television often portrays:
o Violence as an effective problem-solving tool
o Women and minorities in stereotypic roles
o Unrealistic messages about male-female relationships
Video games often include:
o Violence against men and women
o Portrayal of violence as an effective solution to problems
Some positive examples:
o Magic School Bus and Sesame Street encourage:
▪ Curiosity
▪ “Pretend” play
▪ Nonaggressive ways of dealing with peers
▪ Acceptance of differences
o Some video games help build reading and math skills
Child experts recommend limiting:
o TV viewing and video/computer game time
Reasons to limit screen time:
1. Risk of negative modeling.
2. Sedentary activities reduce time for other beneficial play (e.g., board games, pretend play,
reading, helping with cooking), which help children develop mastery over their environment.
3. Reduced physical activity (e.g., climbing trees, biking, in-line skating, playing tag)
contributes to increased childhood obesity.
Increased TV and video game use is linked to higher prevalence of childhood obesity.
Movement as a socialization agent:
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Four well-accepted socialization agents: family, peers, school, and mass media.
Proposed fifth agent: ability or disability to perform well in movement.
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Movement performance, especially in forms relevant during school years, significantly affects
children’s development.
Role of Movement in Self-Image
o Central part of children’s self-image involves perceptions of physical performance
competence.
o Children who are physically skilled participate more effectively in games and sports.
o Physically skilled children tend to have better peer relations and higher self-esteem.
Physical Play and Social Learning
o Much of children’s play involves physical activities.
o Through physical play, children learn about their world and form opinions about their
physical abilities.
o Physical play is observable by others, making successes and failures visible.
Comparison with Academic Abilities:
o Unlike academic abilities (less observable in classroom settings), physical abilities are
openly displayed.
o Children quickly make judgments about their own and others’ physical competence.
Ideal Outcome:
o In the best case, children believe they possess high ability in multiple physical skills.
Role of Teachers:
o Classroom and physical education teachers should support development of physical
skills.
o Helps enhance children’s opportunities to make friends and gain peer acceptance.
Socialization of Movement in Society:
o Society instills numerous beliefs about movement in its members.
o Movement is used to help children develop an appropriate gender-role identity based
on societal views of appropriate gender roles for men and women.
Sex vs. Gender:
o Sex is a biological term indicating male or female.
o Gender is a social, cultural, and psychological creation.
o Sex is inherited; gender is learned through socialization.
o Individuals learn behaviors and beliefs considered appropriate for their sex according to
cultural standards.
Societal Influence on Physical Activity:
o Society defines:
▪ The role of physical activity in individuals' lives.
▪ Who are appropriate activity partners.
▪ What activities are considered appropriate.
▪ The importance of winning in physical activity.
o Society tells individuals who they are and how they are expected to behave relative to
physical activity based on their sex.
The Role of Physical Activity:
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o Recent evidence highlights significant health benefits from exercise and sport.
o Public health messages emphasize that all adults should engage in physical activity.
o Physical activity is recommended regardless of age, gender, or ability.
Children’s Need for Physical Activity:
o Society is only beginning to acknowledge and promote regular physical activity for
children.
Role of Physical Activity in Ethnic Groups:
The role of physical activity among various ethnic groups must not be overlooked.
Different ethnic groups hold varying beliefs about:
▪ The importance of physical activity.
▪ The types of physical activity are considered appropriate for their members.
o Female African Americans are often socialized away from physical activity at an early
age.
o Activity preference studies reveal disparities based on ethnicity and gender.
Example of Ethnic Disparities in Activity Preferences:
o Among ninth-grade students in California:
▪ 52.9% of Asians selected badminton.
▪ Only 15.1% of African Americans selected badminton.
▪ 61.5% of Hispanics selected soccer.
▪ Only 18.1% of African Americans selected soccer.
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Appropriate Activity Partners:
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Physical Activity Participation by Gender:
o In elementary school:
▪ Boys and girls may participate together in physical education classes.
▪ During recess, boys and girls share the same playground but generally do not
play together across gender.
o In junior and senior high schools:
▪ Historically, physical education classes were separated by gender.
Physical Activity Participation by Ethnic Background:
o Society prescribes rules on how and when individuals from different ethnic backgrounds
may engage in physical activities together.
o Research:
▪ Children from different ethnic groups generally do not play together on the
playground.
▪ This separation is especially evident when:
• Language acts as a barrier.
• A small number of children from a minority ethnic background are
present within a large majority group.
Appropriate Activities:
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Prescribes physical activities deemed suitable for specific genders, ethnic groups, and
religious communities.
Gender-Based Expectations
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Girls are encouraged to participate in less active or more artistic sports (e.g., volleyball,
softball, dance, figure skating).
Girls are expected to perform physical activities in a "ladylike" manner.
Girls are explicitly discouraged from participating in contact sports such as boxing or
football.
Boys are encouraged to play in a rough and tumble manner.
Boys gain respect and are nearly required to be physically skilled to be considered
men, especially through participation in physical contact sports.
Ethnic Group Representation in Sports
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Ethnic minority men are overrepresented in very rough sports (e.g., football, boxing).
Ethnic minority men are underrepresented in "gentlemen’s sports" requiring significant
financial means (e.g., golf, tennis, sailing).
Ethnic minority women are overrepresented in sports traditionally viewed as men’s
domain (e.g., basketball, track and field).
Ethnic minority women are underrepresented in traditional women’s sports (e.g., dance,
gymnastics, ice skating).
Gender Categorization of Sports
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Recent findings show high school students (Anglo and African American) classify
certain sports as masculine or feminine based on gender appropriateness.
Religious Influences on Participation
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Religious mores may exclude participation in certain activities (e.g., dance).
Religious requirements may restrict participation due to dress codes (e.g., inability to wear
shorts or pants).
Religious beliefs may limit participation due to the public presence of boys.
The importance of winning:
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It is generally considered unacceptable for skilled and nonskilled performers to play together.
This belief stems from the primary goal of most adult physical activities and sports: winning.
Winning and Team Composition:
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The likelihood of winning increases significantly when teams are composed of skilled players.
As a result, there is a preference for grouping individuals by skill level.
Impact on Physical Education:
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The emphasis on winning has filtered into physical education programs, including at the
elementary level.
This creates challenges for movement educators who aim to:
o De-emphasize winning.
o Promote skill acquisition among all students.
Changes in social beliefs:
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Society instills certain beliefs in its members, but these beliefs can and do change over time.
Human identity, especially in movement, is constantly evolving.
Changing Gender Roles in Physical Activity:
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What boys and girls (men and women) were allowed to do in physical activity has changed in
the past 10 years.
o Example: Girls no longer play half-court basketball.
Increased Inclusion of Individuals with Disabilities:
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There is growing acceptance of individuals with disabilities in movement settings.
Shift in Values Surrounding Physical Activity:
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The emphasis on winning is decreasing.
Greater recognition of other values:
o Joy of effort
o Benefits of exercising
o Playing with others
Children with low skill levels are better supported in physical education and sport due to this
shift.
Impact of Research and Information on Attitudes:
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Availability of new research leads to changes in societal attitudes.
o Example: The surgeon general’s report has significantly changed how adults view the
importance of physical activity.
Media Influence and Public Awareness:
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Recent media focus on the rising incidence and negative effects of childhood obesity shows
society is becoming aware.
Society is increasingly supportive of schools and communities implementing quality physical
activity programs to combat childhood obesity.
Ongoing Evolution of Societal Expectations:
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Society’s expectations change over time.
Expectations will continue to evolve as society adapts to the wishes of its members.
Learning social concepts through movement:
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Children learn socialization through movement during play and collaborative activities.
Key social concepts learned include:
o Cooperation
o Friendship
o Fairness
o Doing what’s right
Children develop understanding of acceptable and unacceptable social and moral conduct in
their society.
Social development occurs during:
o Free play
o Instructional physical activity
o Collaborative work in the elementary classroom
Role of Classroom Teachers:
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Teach social skills such as:
o Respect
o Responsibility
o Safety
Encourage appropriate behavior at school (Darch and Kame’enui 2004)
Role of Physical Educators:
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Aim to develop specific social skills in students
Focus on social skills outlined in NASPE’s Standard 5:
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Following class rules and procedures
Using appropriate etiquette for the activity
Practicing physical skills in a safe manner
Behaving ethically
Interacting with others in a positive manner
Developing the skills of teamwork and cooperation
Unit 9:
Chapter 11: Creating a Physically Safe Movement Environment:
General Legal Concepts:
Tort Law:
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•
Purpose: Awards compensation to individuals for losses caused by the actions (or inaction) of
others.
Types of Acts Covered:
o Intentional acts (e.g., deliberate actions causing harm).
o Unintentional acts (e.g., accidental harm due to carelessness).
o Omissions (failure to act when a duty exists to prevent harm).
Examples of Legal Concepts in Practice:
1. Omission Example:
• A teacher allowed Jarod to participate in gym activities in bare feet despite knowing he
lacked proper shoes.
• Result: Jarod tripped and fell.
• Legal Issue: The teacher failed to act (omission) and should have stopped him.
2. Intentional Act Example:
• A teacher insisted Karen climb a rope despite her stating she could not.
• Result: Karen fell and broke her foot.
• Legal Issue: The teacher’s intentional insistence led to injury.
Negligence in Movement Settings
•
•
Common Litigation Claims: Most involve unintentional acts or omissions by teachers during
routine duties.
Definition of Negligence: Failure to use reasonable care (i.e., not acting as a reasonably
prudent person would in similar circumstances).
Five Elements to Prove Negligence:
•
To establish negligence in court, all five factors must be present:
1. Duty:
a. The teacher owed a legal duty to the student.
2. Breach of Duty:
a. The teacher failed to meet the standard of care (e.g., allowed barefoot activity,
insisted on risky actions).
3. Injury Occurred:
a. The student sustained a physical or legal loss.
4. Causal Relationship:
a. The breach directly caused the injury.
5. Foreseeability:
a. The harm was reasonably predictable (e.g., tripping without shoes, falling during
climbing).
Duty:
Teacher's Legal Duty to Students:
•
Legal obligation:
o A duty exists between teachers and students, recognized by law, requiring the teacher
to conduct job responsibilities with a standard of care to protect students against
foreseeable harm and unreasonable risk of injury.
In the Movement Setting:
•
1.
2.
3.
4.
The teacher’s duty includes four basic responsibilities:
Duty to provide adequate and proper instruction
Duty to supervise
Duty to maintain equipment and facilities in safe conditions
Duty to provide proper first aid
Teacher’s Responsibility:
•
Must exercise reasonable care to protect students from harm, including:
o Recognizing foreseeable harm
o Taking steps to negate or minimize that harm
Breach of Duty:
Definition:
•
•
Unreasonable Conduct: A breach of duty occurs when a teacher fails to meet the prerequisite
standard of care.
Example Scenario:
o A teacher permits fifth-grade students to play a competitive game of regulation soccer
without:
▪ Assigning teams based on size, weight, or ability.
▪ Considering varying skill levels (some are novice players; others are in
competitive community teams).
▪ Assessing the danger of possible injury.
Standard of Care:
•
•
Measured by what a reasonable, prudent, trained, experienced teacher would do in the same
circumstances.
Focuses on actions that prioritize student safety and well-being.
Variability of Reasonable Care:
•
•
Case-by-case basis:
o Reasonable care is not fixed; it depends on the specific circumstances of each
situation.
No identical scenarios:
o Circumstances in real cases are never exactly the same, so judgments must adapt to
context.
Injury Occurred:
Definition:
•
•
An injury or loss occurs to a particular person when the teacher fails to give the appropriate
standard of care.
Mechanism:
o Failure to meet the required standard of care directly leads to harm.
Example Scenario:
•
•
Incident:
o A forward on one team collided violently with the other team’s goalie.
Outcome:
o The goalie suffered a concussion.
o The concussion resulted in a hospital stay.
Direct Link to Standard of Care:
•
•
The injury/loss was a direct result of the teacher’s failure to provide the appropriate standard of
care.
No additional context or external factors are described beyond the collision and its
consequences.
Consequences of Injury:
•
•
Immediate Impact: Concussion requiring medical attention.
Severe Consequences: Prolonged hospitalization.
Causal Relationship:
Definition:
•
A causal relationship exists if the teacher’s action or inaction is the immediate cause of an
injury to another person.
Legal Standard:
•
Requires direct, clear link between the teacher’s conduct and the injury.
Example 1: Physical and Skill Disparity
•
•
Scenario:
o Teacher’s decision (e.g., coaching action) leads to an injury.
o Forward: Tall, heavy, experienced fifth grader.
o Goalie: Small, light, inexperienced fifth grader.
Causal Link Established: The teacher’s role (e.g., managing players or designing drills) may be
the immediate cause if it directly contributed to the injury.
Example 2: Intersection with Others’ Actions
•
•
Scenario:
o Forward was mad at the goalie for a prior incident and intentionally collided with them.
o Teacher’s actions (e.g., oversight, instruction, or failure to intervene) intersect with the
forward’s intentional behavior.
Causal Link Established: Both the teacher and the forward are immediate causes of the injury.
Foreseeability:
Definition:
•
The teacher must have been able to predict the likelihood of an injury occurring in a given
situation for negligence to be established.
Factors to Consider:
•
•
•
Match students/teams based on size, ability, strength, and experience
Failure to match students appropriately is identified as a preventable risk.
The standard of care requires teachers to foresee injury risks and make necessary
adjustments in lesson delivery.
Legal Duty of Teachers:
•
Duty to Provide Standard of Care:
o Courts emphasize that teachers must provide a reasonable standard of care to protect
students.
o This duty includes:
▪ Conducting instructional lessons.
▪ Supervising students.
▪ Maintaining equipment and facilities.
o The standard is based on what a prudent, reasonable, up-to-date teacher would do in
the same circumstances.
Standard of Care in Movement Settings:
•
•
•
•
Application in Physical Education:
Lesson adjustments must be made to mitigate foreseeable risks (e.g., mismatches in student
abilities).
Documentation Requirement: Adjustments must be explicitly noted in the teacher’s original
lesson plan.
Supervision and equipment management must align with current best practices.
Relevance to Classroom Teachers:
•
General Applicability:
o Legal principles (foreseeability, standard of care) apply beyond physical education.
o Classroom teachers also have a duty to plan, supervise, and maintain a safe learning
environment in their regular teaching duties.
Best Practices:
Using up-to-date instructional methods:
Responsibility of Teachers:
•
Classroom and physical education teachers must stay informed about the latest teaching
techniques, methods, and procedures through professional development activities.
Professional Development Activities:
•
•
Reading:
o Professional journals
o Position statements of national organizations.
o Articles on professional websites.
Collaboration:
•
o Talking to other professionals.
o Observing “master” teachers.
Training:
o Attending conferences and in-service workshops.
o Taking college courses.
Instructional Methods for Safety:
•
•
Current best practices emphasize standard operating procedures (SOPs) to ensure safety.
Teachers must be aware of:
o SOPs relevant to safety in instructional settings.
Health Status of the Students:
•
•
•
•
•
Importance of Knowing Health Status:
o Teachers must be aware of students' health problems, disabilities, and medical
conditions before engaging them in physical activities.
o Some needs are obvious (e.g., crutches, wheelchairs), while others are hidden (e.g.,
asthma, diabetes, epilepsy, allergies).
Methods to Gather Health Information:
o Review medical records on file at the school.
o Consult the school nurse for medical and special needs information.
o Participate in Individual Education Plan (IEP) meetings for students with disabilities.
Key Health Conditions to Monitor:
o Common conditions in children today: asthma, diabetes, allergies.
o Other conditions: epilepsy, severe allergies.
Medications and Side Effects:
o Teachers must know:
▪ Specific medications students are taking.
▪ Possible side effects of those medications.
o Identify students who self-medicate (e.g., with inhalers for asthma or food to control
sugar levels).
Self-Medication Management:
o Ensure students and staff understand how/when self-medication (e.g., inhalers) is
administered in the classroom or on the playground.
Warm-up Activities:
•
•
•
Importance of Warm-up Activities
o Provide adequate warm-up activities prior to skill or fitness tasks.
o Plan warm-ups to meet students’ individual needs.
o Vary warm-up activities frequently to prevent boredom.
o Relate warm-up activities to the primary lesson content (e.g., dribbling while running
around the gym for a basketball lesson).
Tailoring Warm-up Activities
o Not all students may participate in the same activity (e.g., a child with asthma may
alternate walking and jogging during a group jog).
o Adjust intensity or type of activity based on individual physical conditions or abilities.
Examples of Warm-up Strategies
o Skill-Specific Warm-ups:
Dribble a basketball while running around the gym perimeter during a basketball
lesson.
General Warm-ups:
▪ Jog laps around the school; allow modifications (e.g., walking breaks for
students with asthma).
▪
o
Instructions to the Students:
•
•
General Instructions to Students
o Provide sufficient instructions before students perform skill activities or move within the
space.
o Use age-appropriate, ability-level, and special needs–adjusted language.
o Supplement verbal instructions with:
▪ Demonstrations
▪ Written material
▪ Pictures
o In cases where needed, physically assist students in following instructions.
Safety Procedures:
o Present daily safety procedures specific to the lesson’s activities.
o Teach and enforce safety rules established for each activity.
▪ Practice complying with rules.
▪ Allow teachers to establish/enforce rules during practice.
Motor Skills Instruction:
•
•
Ensure technical correctness of skill instructions based on the latest available knowledge in the
field.
Provide individualized performance feedback to students:
o Avoid general comments to the entire class.
o Address correct or incorrect skill performance (e.g., incorrect performance risks
injuries).
Selecting Partners or Groups:
•
•
Selection Methods
o Student-Selected:
▪ Groups/partners often consist of friends.
▪ Results in groups of the same gender and same ethnic background.
▪ Safety concerns: Some activities (e.g., Partner Get-Up) require partners of the
same size/weight for safety.
▪ May not promote social mixing.
o Teacher-Assigned:
▪ Use when mixing students to encourage interaction.
▪ Techniques to avoid friend-based selection:
• Partner with someone who has the same color shirt, same birthday
month, or same number of siblings.
Social Goals vs. Lesson Goals:
o Developmental/Team Settings:
▪ Focus is on teamwork or skill development.
▪ Grouping can be mixed regardless of height, weight, skill proficiency,
experience, or health status.
Competitive Settings:
▪ Factors like height, weight, and skill proficiency are critical.
▪ Example: Three-on-three soccer requires teams matched by height/weight to
prevent injury.
▪ Skill-matching may involve grouping by skill level to challenge students with
varying abilities.
Skill Proficiency Considerations:
o Skill-specific factors:
▪ Students may excel in one activity (e.g., rope jumping) but not others (e.g., ball
throwing).
▪ Pretesting the specific skill in question is necessary for accurate grouping.
▪ Example: Observing jump rope skills before assigning partners for jump rope
practice is more effective than using general motor skill or fitness test results.
Safety and Practical Examples:
o For activities involving physical contact (e.g., Partner Get-Up, soccer), ensure equal
size/weight in groups/partners to reduce injury risk.
o In team settings (e.g., three-on-three games), group students by height/weight if
contact is possible.
o
•
•
Competition vs Practice:
•
•
Provide skill practice in a noncompetitive setting.
Developmental (practice) setting vs. Competitive setting differs significantly in purpose and
risk.
o Developmental (Practice) Setting:
▪ Focus: Skill acquisition and exploration.
▪ Appropriate activities:
• Practicing basic locomotor skills (e.g., forward, backward, sideward
directions) in movement exploration activities.
• Low risk (e.g., students not moving at full speed).
▪ Goal: Build foundational skills and confidence.
o Competitive Setting:
▪ Focus: Applying skills in structured, high-pressure environments.
▪ Inappropriate activities:
• Performing locomotor skills (e.g., backward running) at fast speed or in
races.
• These are high-risk and not developmentally appropriate.
▪ Appropriate activities:
• Low-risk tasks.
• Activities students are proficient in performing.
Using appropriate task progressions:
Key Principles of Task Progressions
•
Safety First:
o Children must not be forced to perform skills/activities against their will to avoid
physical/psychological harm.
o Encouragement is allowed, but educators must carefully distinguish it from forcing them
to prevent injury.
Role of Task Progressions:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Purpose: Enable students to progress from simple to complex skills effectively and safely.
Implementation Challenges:
1. Assessing Student Ability Levels:
o Teachers may lack prior knowledge of students’ abilities in situations like:
▪ New teachers at a school.
▪ Substitute teachers.
▪ New students joining a class.
o For elementary students without health issues/disabilities:
▪ Observation during activities is the most efficient method to assess:
• Physical fitness: Cardiorespiratory endurance, muscle
strength/endurance, flexibility.
• Skill development: Space/body awareness, speed, coordination,
balance.
o For students with health issues/disabilities:
▪ Teachers must:
• Learn about specific conditions (e.g., asthma: continuous exercise may
trigger asthma attacks).
• Avoid traditional fitness tests for students with conditions.
2. Developmental and Skill Variability:
o Students in a class differ in motor development and skill levels.
o Developmentally appropriate activities reduce injury risk by matching lesson content to
children’s physical, cognitive, and psychomotor capabilities.
o Adjustments are required to suit varying abilities:
▪ Example (throwing lesson):
• Motor-delays students: Throwing yarn balls at a wall target.
• Intermediate students: Throwing/ catching tennis balls off a wall.
• Advanced students: Partner catch games.
3. Lack of Standardized Skill Hierarchies:
o No universally accepted lists of activities exist for tasks like balance.
o Educators create their own task progressions.
4. Social and Communication Readiness:
o Students’ readiness for activities depends on:
▪ Communication skills (ability to act unsupervised).
▪ Social development (comfort in group settings).
o Adjustments needed in:
▪ Grouping structures (individual, pairs, groups).
▪ Level of teacher supervision based on social capabilities.
Professional Responsibilities:
•
Teachers must:
o Address all four challenges (ability assessment, individual differences, skill hierarchies,
social readiness).
o Specify task progressions in lesson plans.
Using proper supervision techniques:
Scanning for Unsafe Behavior:
•
•
•
•
Purpose: Monitor class for off-task behavior, disruptive actions, disrespect for
equipment/others, or dangerous behavior.
Immediate Action: Stop unsafe behavior immediately to prevent harm.
Timing: Increase scanning frequency during high-risk activities (e.g., physically demanding
tasks).
Practice: Scanning is a difficult skill for inexperienced teachers.
o Becomes automatic with sufficient practice.
o Teachers should practice in real movement settings during school hours.
Factors Affecting Supervision:
•
•
Class Characteristics:
o Age: Younger classes (e.g., 2nd grade) require closer supervision than older students
(e.g., 6th grade).
o Skill Level: Less-skilled students need more active supervision than highly skilled
peers.
o Class Size: Larger classes demand more intense supervision.
o Social Responsibility: Students with lower social responsibility (e.g., aggressive or
wandering behavior) need stricter oversight.
Examples:
o Allow 6th graders to step outside for water; prohibit 2nd graders from doing so.
o Monitor students known for aggression or wandering.
Handling Injuries:
•
Guidelines:
o Never Leave Students: Stay with the class during an injury until appropriate support is
provided.
o First-Aid Supplies: Carry a fanny pack with:
▪ Bandages, antiseptic wipes, sterile gauze pads.
▪ Non-latex gloves.
▪ A non-blood-soaked storage bag (e.g., sandwich bag).
▪ Cell phone (for calling school office or using intercom).
o Emergency Response:
▪ School office may call paramedics (teacher stays with class/injured student) or
send the school nurse to treat the injury on-site.
▪ If nurse is unavailable, assign staff to supervise the class while the teacher
provides care (if certified).
Emergency Action Plan (EAP):
•
•
•
•
Components:
1. Roles and Responsibilities:
o Specify who administers first aid, supervises students, and calls for help.
o Train non-injured students to:
▪ Stop all activities.
▪ Place equipment on the floor.
▪ Gather within the teacher’s view, sit down, and wait.
2. First-Aid Equipment:
o List and location of available supplies.
3. Communication Protocol:
Who notifies school personnel/parents, how/when contacts are made, and procedures
if parents are unavailable.
4. Debriefing:
o Scheduled staff debriefing after the incident.
5. Injury Documentation:
o Complete injury report forms (include who completes them, when, and where records
are retained).
6. Follow-Up Steps:
o Notify insurance company/police if needed.
o Arrange parent calls/visits.
o
•
•
•
School District Policies:
•
•
Compliance Required:
o Follow district-specific procedures (e.g., handling blood/body fluids, head injuries,
seizures).
Extended Supervision:
o Responsible for students even outside class (e.g., hallways, buses).
Documenting safety practices:
Importance of Including Safety Practices in Lesson Plans:
•
Specifies risks and actions to minimize risks:
o Help teachers (and substitutes) recall safety concerns during lesson preparation.
o Ensure safety procedures are implemented into the lesson.
o Allows teachers to identify foreseeable risks during the planning stage (not
implementation).
What a Detailed Lesson Plan Must Include:
•
•
•
•
Sequential learning experiences (task progressions):
o Clearly outline the order of activities students will participate in.
Organization for safe participation:
o Describe how activities are structured to ensure safety.
Safety knowledge for students:
o Teach how to perform skills correctly to be safe.
Specific safety warnings:
o Provide clear warnings to students about potential hazards.
Handling Outdoor and Indoor Activities:
•
•
Outdoor activities:
o Include alternative indoor activities if inclement weather prevents going outdoors.
Risks of last-minute alternatives:
o Poorly planned activities may not align with original lesson goals.
o Disorganized activities increase risk of unintended injuries.
Adequate Physical Environments:
Maintenance, storage, and use of equipment
•
Inspection and Safety Measures:
Regular inspections: Movement educators must inspect indoor and outdoor equipment
(fixed and disposable) periodically and just before each use.
o Unsafe equipment:
▪ Do not use unsafe equipment.
▪ Prevent access to unsafe equipment or areas (e.g., stored equipment in gyms
like volleyball standards, bleachers, balance beams).
o Prevent injury:
▪ Identify and rope off unsafe areas to mark them as off-limits.
▪ Add padding to stored equipment to reduce injury risk from accidental contact.
▪ Lock climbing ropes when not in use.
o Attractive nuisance:
▪ Visible equipment (even if roped off) may tempt students to use it unsafely (e.g.,
balance beams in gyms, sharp scissors left out).
▪ Store equipment in enclosed storage closets when not in use.
Storage and Placement of Equipment:
o Lesson planning:
▪ Plan equipment locations to ensure easy access during lessons but not
obstructive when not in use.
o Distribution strategy:
▪ Place equipment (in boxes or hula hoops) scattered around the gymnasium
perimeter to avoid crowding at one spot.
o Safety reminders:
▪ Equipment should not entice students to play inappropriately.
Use of Equipment:
o Intended purpose only: Use equipment for its designated function.
o Adaptations for students:
▪ Select equipment based on age, ability, and special needs:
• For poor eye-hand coordination: Use foam balls.
• For limited vision: Use soft balls with beepers.
▪ Playground equipment must be age-appropriate (use only permanent
equipment designed for the group).
Protective Equipment:
o Use when necessary:
▪ For activities like in-line skating, require helmets, knee pads, and elbow pads.
o Proper care:
▪ Ensure protective gear fits students correctly.
▪ Disinfect protective equipment after each use to prevent communicable disease
spread.
o
•
•
•
Maintenance of Activity Surfaces and Spaces:
•
OUTDOOR SURFACES AND SPACES:
• Grassy Areas:
o Mow regularly.
o Must be free of holes or indentations to prevent student injuries.
• Cement, Blacktop, Dirt, and Loose-Fill Areas:
•
o Surfaces (around permanent equipment, walking trails) must be smooth and level.
• Loose-Fill Areas Under Climbing Equipment:
o Depth: 12 inches.
o Extension: 6 feet in all directions (7.5 feet for swings).
o Material Adequacy:
▪ 12 inches depth sufficient for 8-foot-tall equipment if loose-fill is compressed
sand, shredded rubber, wood chips, or engineered wood fiber.
▪ 12 inches depth is sufficient for 6-foot-tall equipment if loose-fill is pea gravel.
o Citation: Olsen, Hudson, and Thompson (2010).
INDOOR AREAS:
o Storage: Avoid stored equipment; if necessary (e.g., gymnasium doubling as
lunchroom), recess lunch tables into walls instead of storing them along walls.
o Walls: Free of protruding objects from floor up to 10–15 feet height (prevents injury and
supports instructional activities).
o Floors:
▪ Smooth but not slick.
▪ Sweep and mop regularly to prevent dirt buildup (damages floors and increases
slip risk).
▪ Prohibition: Never conduct running activities on slippery or uneven surfaces.
Adequate space for activities:
•
•
•
•
•
The space (indoor or outdoor) used for activities must be large enough to accommodate all
children in the class.
Variations in space requirements:
o Depending on age, ability, and special needs (e.g., more space required for a student in
a wheelchair).
o Additional space is needed for activities involving striking instruments (e.g., bats, golf
clubs, hockey sticks).
Accessibility:
o The space intended for the lesson must be accessible to all children.
o If inaccessible areas exist, discuss solutions with school administrators.
Buffer Zone/Safety Zone:
o Space between the activity area and obstructions (walls, equipment, bleachers) is
required.
o This buffer zone allows children to stop movement before collisions.
o Activities must not occur in the buffer zone.
Wall Boundary Safety Rules:
o Gym walls (or school building walls outdoors) must not be used as boundaries.
o Children should never run from one wall to another wall.
Reporting Unsafe Conditions:
•
School District Policies:
o Most school districts have formal policies to notify physical plant personnel
(Maintenance staff responsible for addressing unsafe conditions.) about unsafe
conditions on school property.
o Small districts: Teachers may inform the custodian directly to address the issue.
o Large districts: Require a form to be completed and submitted to the physical plant
office (Administrative department overseeing property safety in larger districts.).
•
•
Teacher Protection & Documentation:
o Teachers should keep a copy of the submitted form or make written requests to the
custodian to protect themselves.
o Follow-up is required to confirm the unsafe condition has been resolved.
Off-Limit Zones Responsibility:
o Teachers should identify the responsible individual within the school system tasked with
establishing off-limit zones around reported unsafe conditions.
Adapting to Weather Conditions:
•
Key Weather Factors to Consider
o Moisture (Rain/Melting Snow):
▪ Ground and equipment surfaces may become slippery and unsafe.
o Lightning:
▪ Extremely dangerous; children should be moved indoors during threatening
storms.
o Extreme Cold/Heat:
▪ High Temperatures:
• Risks: Sunburns, heatstroke, heat exhaustion.
• High humidity intensifies risks.
• Reduce physical activity intensity and duration.
▪ Cold Weather:
• Prevent frostbite by covering body parts.
• Adjust outdoor activity duration based on temperature.
o Hot Weather Management
▪ Hydration:
• Allow students to drink water freely or schedule frequent, mandatory
water breaks.
• Water is the best beverage to consume.
▪ Rest/Activity Adjustments:
• Provide frequent rest periods in shaded areas.
• Shorten outdoor activity duration.
o Cold Weather Management
▪ Ensure body parts are covered to prevent frostbite.
▪ Modify outdoor activity periods according to temperature.
o Air Quality Considerations
▪ In regions with poor air quality:
• Follow school standards for outdoor activity decisions.
• Be aware of student-specific health risks from breathing contaminated
air.
Unit 10:
Chapter 4: Exercise Concepts and Fitness Education:
Fitness education:
Importance of Early Fitness Exposure:
•
•
Childhood Habits:
o Attitudes and values toward fitness are often formed early.
o Children who enjoy fitness activities are more likely to maintain them into adulthood.
Role of Schools:
o Quality, developmentally appropriate physical education programs (e.g., collaboration
between classroom teachers and PE educators) are essential to encourage all students
to value and succeed in fitness.
Public Health Context:
•
•
•
Rising Health Concerns:
o Obesity, Type 2 diabetes (especially in minority groups), and chronic diseases linked to
sedentary lifestyles.
o Public health policies emphasize physical activity as a preventive measure for
conditions like diabetes and heart disease.
Government Initiatives:
o Recommended 30+ minutes of moderate daily physical activity for health benefits.
Academic Impact:
o Cutting PE programs to prioritize academic subjects may be counterproductive; high
fitness test scores correlate with improved academic performance.
Role of Fitness Education in Schools:
•
•
Goals of Fitness Education:
o Emphasize the importance of physical activity to a healthy, productive quality of life.
o Focus on "why and how" of physical activity, fitness, and exercise—not just testing.
Skill Integration:
o Combines skill development with appreciation for fitness (e.g., agility, strength,
coordination).
o Skill-related fitness includes speed, explosive power, and cardiovascular/muscular
endurance.
Health-Related Fitness Components:
•
•
Four Key Components:
1. Cardiovascular function (e.g., endurance for daily/sport activities).
2. Body composition (ratio of fat to muscle).
3. Muscular strength and endurance (ability to exert force over time).
4. Flexibility (range of motion in joints).
Purpose:
o Promote health-enhancing fitness to support an active lifestyle.
Movement vs. Fitness Education:
•
Movement Education:
o Focus on efficient movement techniques (e.g., throwing, catching).
•
Fitness Education:
o Aims to improve cardiorespiratory and musculoskeletal systems through sustained
exercise.
o Emphasizes lifelong fitness and reduces stress/effort in daily activities.
Challenges in Schools:
•
•
Cutting PE Programs:
o Reduced PE time to prioritize subjects like math/science, despite evidence of fitness’s
academic benefits.
Need for Educator Collaboration:
o Classroom teachers must integrate fitness education with movement education.
Long-Term Benefits:
•
•
Lifelong Appreciation:
o Requires skills to enjoy fitness activities and understand their health value.
Public Policy Alignment:
o Physical activity is classified as a leading health indicator in public health frameworks.
The musculoskeletal system:
Role of the Heart and Musculoskeletal System:
•
•
An efficient heart is necessary for physical activity and exercise.
An efficient and adequate musculoskeletal system is essential for movement.
Teaching Muscles and Bones:
•
Classroom teachers can teach students about muscles and bones in the human body.
Musculoskeletal Fitness Components:
•
•
Divided into three related but distinct components:
1. Muscular Strength
2. Muscular Endurance
3. Flexibility
Each component is slightly different from the others.
Muscular Strength:
•
•
•
Muscular Strength (Definition and Measurement):
o The ability to create a large amount of force at one time is muscular strength.
o Measured by determining how much weight can be lifted in one repetition (onerepetition maximum or 1RM).
o The more a person can lift at one time, the more force that muscle can generate for that
movement.
Importance of Muscular Strength:
o Although it is not necessary for good health, all persons should have sufficient strength
to pursue recreational and daily activities.
o Children demonstrate strength through activities like lifting, pulling (e.g., tug of war), or
sports (e.g., baseball, basketball, Frisbee).
o Strength is necessary for success in many sports (e.g., hitting a ball, making a basket).
Variation in Strength Among Children:
Differences in strength are easily observed on playgrounds (e.g., some children
struggle to climb while others excel).
o The stronger child in the first grade may not necessarily be the strongest in the fifth
grade due to growth and maturation.
Muscular Strength Development:
o As children grow and mature, muscle tissue develops, increasing strength.
o Some children grow at a faster rate and are stronger than others.
o Body types can be more conducive to a muscular build.
o Physical activity directly causes muscles to develop more strength.
Consequences of Poor Strength:
o Poor upper-arm or leg strength can affect a child’s ability to perform desired activities.
o Poor strength definitely affects success in certain types of activities.
o
•
•
Muscular Endurance:
•
•
•
•
•
Definition:
o Muscular endurance refers to a muscle’s ability to perform repeated contractions or
sustain a contraction over time.
o It differs from muscular strength, which is the ability to exert maximum force in a single
effort.
Key Differences:
o Strength: Ability to lift a heavy weight once.
o Endurance: Ability to lift a lighter weight multiple times or hold a position for an
extended period.
Examples of Muscular Endurance:
o Performing multiple crunches or sit-ups.
o Lifting a weight 10–20 times.
o Holding a heavy weight without fatigue.
o Doing several pull-ups (requires endurance after the initial strength to do one).
o Completing push-ups (requires upper-arm endurance).
o Participating in activities like running, squatting, crawling, or crab-walking (requires leg
endurance).
Importance of Specific Muscle Endurance:
o Abdominal endurance:
▪ Supports proper body alignment throughout the day.
▪ Essential for safe lifting and low-back health.
o Upper-arm endurance:
▪ Needed for exercises like push-ups and repeated pulling motions.
o Leg endurance:
▪ Crucial for sustained lower-body activities and dynamic games.
Practical Application:
o A child needs strength to perform one pull-up but muscular endurance to do multiple
repetitions.
o Endurance training improves performance in daily activities and physical games.
Flexibility:
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Definition of Flexibility:
o Flexibility is the ability of a limb or body part to move through its full range of motion
(ROM).
o Range of motion refers to the movement of a body part around a joint.
•
Bones:
Examples of Flexibility in Practice:
o Hip Joint Flexibility:
▪ Most individuals can lift their leg to about 45° from a supine (lying on back)
position without bending the knee.
▪ Many can lift to 90° without knee bend.
▪ High flexibility allows lifting the leg over the head without bending the knee,
indicating excellent flexibility in the back of the leg (e.g., hamstrings).
o Lower Back and Hamstring Flexibility:
▪ Ability to sit and touch the toes without bending the knees indicates good
flexibility in the lower back and hamstrings.
▪ Poor flexibility in these areas has been associated with low-back pain in adults,
though research shows the link is not definitively proven.
o Importance of Flexibility:
▪ Often overlooked or rushed in physical activity routines.
▪ Essential component of overall fitness.
▪ Helps prevent injury and improve movement efficiency.
o Role in Exercise Routine:
▪ Stretching improves flexibility and is typically done:
• Before and/or after exercise.
• As part of the cool-down phase.
▪ Acts as a muscle relaxant post-exercise and aids recovery.
Sternocleidomastoid
Pectoralis major
Deltoid
External obliques
Biceps
Rectus abdominus
Brachialis
Trapezius
Flexors
Triceps
Sartorius
Latissimus dorsi
Extensors
Quadriceps
Hamstrings
Gluteus maximus
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
Muscles:
Exercise principles for developing fitness:
Three Principles of Training for Physical Fitness:
•
The development of physical fitness in both adults and children is guided by three fundamental
training principles:
1. Overload Principle:
o Definition:
▪ The overload principle states that to improve a fitness component (such as
strength, endurance, or cardiovascular health), you must gradually increase the
workload beyond what your body is accustomed to.
o Key Points:
▪ The body adapts to increased physical demands by improving the efficiency of
muscles, the heart, and the respiratory system.
▪ As adaptation continues over time, a training effect occurs—meaning the body
becomes capable of handling more work.
▪ Progress should be gradual to allow safe and effective adaptation.
o Example:
▪ When starting a walking program, it may initially feel difficult to complete one lap
around the block.
▪ By consistently walking faster and farther (applying overload), the body adapts.
▪ Over time, the same walk becomes easier, showing improvement in fitness.
o Application:
▪ To see fitness improvements, progressively increase:
o Intensity (e.g., speed, resistance)
o Duration (e.g., longer workouts)
o Frequency (e.g., more days per week)
2. Specificity of Exercise (Specificity Principle):
o Definition of Specificity
o Specificity means that training adaptations are specific to the muscles, movements,
and energy systems used during the exercise.
o The body adapts precisely to the type of demand placed upon it.
o Examples of Specificity in Action:
o Running:
▪ Short sprints (e.g., 40- or 50-yard dashes) improve speed but do not
significantly enhance endurance for longer distances like a half mile.
▪ To improve endurance, children need to engage in prolonged running.
o Strength Training:
▪ Push-ups build strength in muscles used for pushing (e.g., chest, shoulders,
triceps), but do not directly improve pull-up ability.
▪ Pull-ups require specific strength in the back, biceps, and shoulders to lift
the body against gravity.
o Skill Transfer:
▪ An excellent swimmer may not perform well in running due to different
muscle use and movement patterns.
▪ A right-handed tennis player may have a larger, stronger right arm due to
repetitive use.
o Practical Application for Children:
o To develop a specific physical skill or ability, children must practice that exact or
closely related activity.
▪ Example: The best way to improve rope climbing is to practice climbing
ropes.
o Continuous repetition of one exercise (e.g., daily pull-ups) is not necessary.
o Instead, incorporate a variety of fun, upper-body strength activities into daily
physical education.
o Role of Playground Equipment:
o Climbing walls and playground structures are excellent tools because they:
▪ Build upper-body strength and overall conditioning (teacher’s goal).
▪ Are engaging and enjoyable for children (child’s goal).
3. Progression (or Progressive Resistance):
o Definition:
o Progression is the third principle of training, which emphasizes gradually increasing the
intensity, duration, or frequency of exercise to allow the body to adapt safely and
effectively.
o Key Points:
o Purpose of Progression:
▪ Encourages children (and individuals) to challenge themselves enough to create
a training effect.
▪ Avoids extremes; the goal is steady improvement, not immediate results.
o Why Gradual Progression is Important:
▪ The body needs time to adapt to increased physical demands (overload).
▪ Rapid increases in effort or duration can lead to:
• Muscle soreness
o
o
• Frustration
• Risk of injury
How to Apply Progression:
▪ Start at a manageable level.
▪ Slowly increase the workload over time.
▪ Example: To reach 50 crunches (curl-ups):
• Week 1: Start with 10 crunches
• Gradually add a few more each week
• Progress steadily until reaching the goal of 50
Principles to Remember:
▪ Patience is essential.
▪ Small, consistent improvements are more effective and sustainable than
sudden, intense changes.
The Body’s Composition:
•
•
•
Variety in Body Types:
o Children in a classroom display a wide range of body sizes and shapes. This includes
differences in:
▪ Height (very small to tall)
▪ Build (narrow to wide)
▪ Body composition (muscular, thin, overweight)
Genetic Influence:
o Genetics play a significant role in determining body type.
▪ Tall and large parents often have tall children.
▪ Overweight parents may have overweight children, suggesting a hereditary
component.
Multiple Influencing Factors:
o While genetics are important, many other factors (e.g., nutrition, activity level,
environment, health) contribute to a child’s body composition.
▪ It is difficult to isolate the exact contribution of each factor (genetics vs.
environment vs. lifestyle).
▪ Body type results from a complex interaction of various influences.
Body Type:
Three Major Body Types (Somatotypes):
Mesomorph:
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•
•
•
Muscular build
Naturally strong; well-developed muscles
Advantages for strength-based activities
(e.g., weightlifting, bodybuilding)
Ectomorph:
•
•
•
Thin, slender, and light build
Often has difficulty gaining weight or muscle
At risk of becoming underweight if undernourished, especially in childhood
Endomorph:
•
•
•
Rounded physique, may be plump
Higher tendency to store body fat
Genetic predisposition can be worsened by poor lifestyle (overeating, inactivity)
Influences on Body Shape and Size:
•
•
•
Genetics (primary factor in determining body type)
Lifestyle (level of physical activity)
Nutrition (diet quality and quantity)
Important Considerations:
•
•
•
Most people are a combination of body types, not purely one.
Body weight alone is not a reliable indicator of health or body fat.
o Some children may be naturally heavier without being overweight or overfat.
Terms like overweight, overfat, and obese can be misleading because they don’t reflect actual
body composition (ratio of fat to muscle).
Assessing Body Composition:
•
•
Measuring body composition (e.g., fat mass vs. lean mass) provides a more accurate picture of
leanness or fatness.
Useful for both children and adults to better understand health and fitness status.
Body Composition:
•
Definition of Body Composition:
• Body composition refers to the ratio of body fat to lean body weight.
• Lean body weight includes non-fat components such as:
o Muscle mass
o Bone
o Organs and other tissues
Methods to Measure Body Composition:
1. Underwater (Hydrostatic) Weighing
• How it works: Measures body density by weighing a person underwater.
o Fat is less dense than water → floats more
o Lean tissue is denser → sinks more
• Accuracy: High
• Limitations:
o Impractical for large groups
o Not feasible in school or routine settings
2. Body Mass Index (BMI)
• Formula:
o Weight/height²
• Adult BMI Categories:
o 25–29.9: Overweight
o ≥30: Obese (regardless of age or sex)
o BMI-for-Age in Children & Adolescents:
o Uses sex-specific growth charts due to changing body composition during growth.
o ≥95th percentile: Classified as overweight
o (Note: avoid the term “obese” for children)
o 85th to <95th percentile: At risk of being overweight
o <85th percentile: Healthy weight
• Advantages:
o Quick, easy, non-invasive
o Only requires height and weight
o Widely accepted for screening in schools
• Limitations:
o Does not directly measure body fat
o May misclassify muscular individuals as overweight (due to higher weight from
muscle, not fat)
3. Skinfold Thickness Measurement
• How it works:
o Pinch a fold of skin and underlying fat
o Measure thickness with calipers
o Common sites for children: triceps and calf
o Use standardized formulas to estimate % body fat
• Advantages:
o Relatively quick and inexpensive
o More direct fat measurement than BMI
• Limitations:
o Requires training and practice for accuracy
o Should be performed by a professional (e.g., physical educator)
o Sensitive procedure—may be inappropriate in school settings due to
privacy/emotional concerns
3. Considerations in School Settings
•
•
BMI is preferred for schoolchildren because:
o Easy to measure
o Non-invasive
o Uses simple data: height and weight
Caution with body fat measurements:
o Topics of weight and body fat are sensitive, especially for children
o Risk of stigma or body image issues
o Best conducted with professional guidance and discretion
Improving body composition:
Body Composition vs. Body Type
•
•
Body type is largely determined by genetics.
Body composition (ratio of muscle to fat) is significantly influenced by lifestyle factors, including
exercise and nutrition.
Role of Exercise and Physical Activity:
•
•
•
Primary Goal: Improve body composition by:
o Increasing muscle mass
o Decreasing body fat
Effective in both adults and children.
Types of Exercise:
o
o
o
Muscle Mass Gains: Best achieved through muscular strength and endurance activities
(e.g., resistance training, weightlifting).
Fat Loss: Most effective with prolonged, sustained physical activity (e.g., jogging,
cycling, swimming).
General Benefit: Any increase in daily energy expenditure helps burn calories,
supporting weight management and improved body composition.
Importance of Nutrition:
•
•
•
•
Critical for balancing caloric intake and energy expenditure.
Small dietary changes can have a big impact:
Replacing a high-calorie snack with lower-calorie fruit can save ~100 calories.
Burning 100 calories through activity often requires significant effort — making diet changes
highly effective.
Practical Diet Improvement Strategies:
•
•
Reduce:
o Fats (especially saturated/trans fats)
o Refined sugars and processed snacks (e.g., chips, cookies, cakes)
Increase:
o Fruits and vegetables
o Whole grains and fiber-rich foods