AP World History Modern AMSCO Textbook

::,.._ -_.,.. ., ---:?::.- .. --- - _,:-: .... . .. - -._ -----';) --- ~ >~ • ~ ........ AMSCO® ADVANCED PLACEMENT '' EDITION WORLD HISTORY: MODERN[1200-PRESENT] Senior Reviewers Phil Cox AP"' World History Exam Reader Btoad Run High School Ashbllln, Virginia Charl es Bart AP® World History Exam Tabfe Leader Westmont High Schoo l Wesunont , lliinois David L. Drzon e k AP® World H.istory Teacher CarJ Sandburg High School Orland Pat:k, lllinois John Maunu AP®World History Exam Table Leader Crai1brook/Kingswood High School Bloomfield Hills, Micbigan Writers and Reviewers Jod y Jani s AP~ European History Teacher J. Frank Dobie H igh School Houston , Texas Jamie Oleson AP~ World History Teacher Rogers High Schoo l Spokane , Washington Dav id Brian La sher AP® World Hist01y Exam Reader Northwest Pennsylvania Collegiate Academy Erie, Pennsylvania Thomas J. Sako le AP 11l>World History Exam Question and Exam Leader Ri verside High School Leesburg , Virginia Amie La Porte-Lewi s AP ~ World History Exa:m Table Leader Holy Innocents ' Episcopal Schoo l Atlanta , Georgia Clara Webb AP 1111European History Exam Table Leader Boston Latin School Boston , Massachusetts Kevin Lewis AP'~ World History Ex,"imTable Leader Holy Innocents ' Episcopal Schoo l Atlanta , Georgia .. 11 AMSCO® ADVANCED PLACEMENT WEDITION WORLDHISTORY: MODERN[1200-PRESENT] Perfection Learning ® Adli8J1ce d Piacemenl'"and AP• areiradema rk!; registeredand/or owned by ltle College Board, which was1'l0I involved In th!! production or,and does nol endorse, mis product. t) 2020 P.crfoction Leaming' Ple-asc visit our websiics at: ww,-v.t1111sccip ub.com and w,vwpe1fectio11let1rn i11g .com When orderingtbis book, please specify: .8 742401 Soffcover : ISBN 978-l-53 U-29 J 6-3 C>r eBook : ISBN 978- 1-5311-291·8-7 o.rR7424D All rights reserved. No part of this book.may be reproduced , stored lL, aretricval system . or transmitted in any form or by any means , elec tronic . mechanical. photocopying, reco rding, or 0tberwise, without the prior permissiC>nof the publisher . -For information .regardingpennis sions. write to: Pc1missions Department , Perfection Leaming , 2680 Berksbirc Parkway , Des Moines. Jowa 50325-. 1 2 3 4 5 PAH 23 22 21 20 19 Printed iii the U11itedStates of.America Contents Int rodu ction: Studying Advanced Place1nent1t•Wor.ld History: Modea1 Prologue: History before 1200 C.E . Part 1: Human Development to 600 B.C .E Parl 2: The Class ical Era, c. 600 B. C.E. to c. 600 C.E, Part 3: The Post classi ca/ Civiliza{ions , c. 600 C.E. to 1200 C.E. xvu 1 xli xli xlv Liv PERIOD 1: c. 1200 to c. 1450 UNIT I: T l1e Glo bai Tapestry from c. 1200 to c. 1450 I Topic 1.1: Developments in East Asia Governm enl De velopment s in the Song Dynast y Economic Developm .ents in Postclassical Chine, Social Structures in China int ellectual and Cultura l De11elopments Religious Diversity in. China Comparing Japai1, Korea , and Vietnam Japan. Korea Vietnam Think as a Historian: Contextualize Historica l D evelopments 3 3 4 6 7 8 9 9 10 11 14 15 l5 Topic 1.2: D evelopments in Dar a l-Islam invasions and Sh[fts in Trade Routes Cultural and Social L[fe Free Women in ls/am Islami c Rule in Spai n Think as a Historian: Iden tify Histo rical Concepts, D evelopments , and Processes 22 Topic 1.3: Devefopme n ts in South and Sou theast Asia Political Stn .ictures in South Asia Religion in South Asia Social Struc.tures in South.Asia Cultu ral in teractions in South Asia Southeast Asia Think as a Historian: Identify Clainls 23 23 25 26 26 28 32 16 18 18 V Topic 1.4: Deve lopments in the Ame ricas The A1ississippian Culture Chaco and Me:,,a Verde The J\,faya City-States The Az tecs The Inca Continuities and Diversity Tlrinkas a Historian: Identify Evi dence 33 33 34 34 35 37 Topic 1.5: Deve lopments In Afr ica Poli tical Structures in i nland Africa Political Structures of West and East Africa Socia l Struc tures of Sub-Saharan.Africa Cul tural L((e in S ub-Saharan Africa Think as a Historian: Explain the 1:list0rical Concept of Contin uity 43 43 Topic 1.6: Developments in Europe Feuda lism: P olitical and Social Systems Politicctl 1}·ends in the L ate r lvfjddle Ages R oman Catholic Church du ring the J.\1/iddle Ages Chrisliafl Crusades Economic and Social Change 53 53 54 39 42 45 47 49 52 56 57 Re'i1C1issimce 58 60 The Origins of Russia 6] Think as a Historian: Ident ify Histo rical Deve lopments 64 Topic 1.7 : Co1np ariso n in the P eriod fro 1n c. 1200 to c . 1450 State -Build ing and New Empi res The R ole of Religion in State-Bui lding State -Build ing Through Trade The impact o_f'Nomadic Peoples Patr iarchy and Religion 65 65 U.nit l Review Historical Perspectives: W h o D eve loped Guns? Write as a Historian: Check List for a Lon g Essay Answe r Long Essay Questions Document-Based Question: Ach ieveme nts of Sub -Saharan Africa 69 69 70 71 72 UNIT 2: Networks ofE _xch~nge from c. 1200 to c. 1450 75 Topic 2.1: The Silk Roa ds Causes of the Growth of Exchange Netwo rks Effects of the Growth of Exchange NeNvorks Think as a Historian: Iden tify and Descri be Cont ext 77 Topic 2 .2 : Th e M ongo l Empire and the 'Modea1 World The 1\1/ongolsand Their Surro undings Genghis Khan VI 66 67 67 68 77 78 84 85 85 86 Mongolian Empire Expands The Long-Term Impact of the Mongo'lia.11 lnvasions Think as a Historian: Identi fy Connect ions Between Historical D evelopm ents Topic 2.3: Exchange in the Indian Ocean Causes o_f'ExpandedExchange in LheIndian Ocean Effects of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean Think as a Historian: Appro .ac hes to Making Hi stor ica l Connections Topic 2.4: Trans-Sah~u-an Trade Routes Trans-Saharan Ttade WeslAji-ica.11 Empire Expansion Think as a Historian: Identif y Historical Pro cesses by Asking ''How' ' Topic 2.5: Cultural Conse .quences of Connectivity Religious, Cult.ural,afld Technological Effects o.fli11erac;tion Travelers' Tales Think ·as a Historian: Sourcing and Situation in Primary Sources Topic 2.6: Environ1nental Conseq uences of Conne ctivity Agricubura1 Effects ofExchange 1Vet1a;orks Spread of Epidem:icsthrough Exchange Networks Think as a Histot:ian: Making Connections by Analyzing Causation Topic 2.7: C01nparison of Economic Exchange Similarities Among Networks o.f E.xchange Differen ces Among Networks of Exchange Social lmpli cali.onsof Networks of Exchange Unit 2 R eview Historical Persp ective s: Ho w B1uta l Was Genghis Khan? Write as a Historian: Historical Thinkin g Skills and Long Essays Long-Essa y Questions Docwnent-Based Question: Women in Afro-Euras ia Soc ieties 87 90 94 95 95 97 102 103 103 105 LlO 111 111 lJ 5 120 12 1 121 123 126 127 127 130 13 1 134 134 135 136 137 PERIOD 2: c. 1450 to c. 1750 UNIT 3: Land-Based Empires 141 Topic 3.1: Europe~ East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand 143 Europe Russia East Asia Rise qfthelslcmiic Gunpowder Empires The Ottoman Empire The Safavids .IJ!fughalIndia Decline of the Gunpowder Empires 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 149 VII Think as a Historian: Explain the Historical Concept of Empire 154 Topic 3.2: Empires: Administrations Centralizing Control in Europe Reigning in Control of the Russian Empire Centralizing Control in the Ottoman Empire Centralizing Control in East and South.Asia Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art Finan cing Empites Tltlnk as a 'Historian: Contextualizing Across Culnu-es . 155 155 157 158 159 160 162 166 Topic 3.3: Empires : Beli~f Systems Protestant Reformation The Orthodox Church and Refo11ns in Russia Counter-Rejhrmation or Catholic Re/o rmtllion Warsof Religion Islamic Religious Schisms Scientific Re volution Think as a Historian: Explain Point of View in a Source 167 167 169 170 171 172 173 176 Topic 3.4 : Comparison in Land-Based Empires MililOJJIAlig ht Centrali zed Bureau cra cy Striving.for Legitima cy 177 178 179 181 Unit 3 Review Historical Per spe ctives : Why Did the Islamic Gunpowder Empires Rise ,'ind Decline? Write as a Historian: Analyze the Question Long Essay Que stions Docum ent-Based Que stion: Modernization under Peter the Great 182 UNIT 4: Tran soceanic Int erconne ctions from c. 1450 to c. 1750 189 Topic 4.1: Technol ogical Innovations 191 191 192 198 ~ Developments o..fTransocea11ic Travel and Trade Classical , Islami c, and Asian Technology Think as a Historian: Identify and Describe a Historical Context To11ic4.2: Exploration: Causes and Even.ts The Role of States in Maritime E:xploration t"'>.;pansionof European lvlaritim e Exploration The Lure of l?iches Think as a Historian: Make Connections by Relating Histor ical De.velop1nents Topic 4.3: Co lumbian Exchange Diseases imc/Popula tioil Catastrophe VIII 182 I 83 184 185 199 199 200 202 208 209 209 Anin1afs and Foods. . Cash Crops and Forced Labor African Presence in theA1nericq.s Environme ,u al and Demographic impact Think as a Historian: identify Evidence in an Argument 210 2 11 212 214 2 17 Topic 4.4: Maritime Empires Li nk Regions State -Building and Empir e Expansion Continui ty and Change in Econo,nic Systems Continuities and Change in Labor Systems Think as a Historian : Purpose aridAudience in Prima ry Sources 2 18 218 222 224 23 1 Topic 4.5: Maritin1e Em pire s D evelop Economic Strategies Change and Continuities in Trade Networks Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade ~/feels of Belief Systems Think as a Historian : Identify a Claim i n a.Non-text Source 232 232. 235 235 237 24 1 Topic 4.6: internal and ExternaJ Challenge-s to State Po wer Re sis tance to Portu gp l in Afi ·iqa Local Resistance in Russia R ebellion in South.Asia Revolts in the Spanish Empire Struggles for Po1;ve r in Eng land and its Colonies Think as a Historian: Sit11ateHistorical Developments in Context 243 243 244 245 245 246 250 Topic 4. 7: Chan ging Social Hierarchies Social Classes and Min orities in Gunpowder Empires Manchu Power and Co1!flicts in the Qing Dynq.sty European Hierarchies J?, :ussian Socia l Classes Polit.icctlimd Economic Elit es in the Americas Think ·as.a Historian: Exp.lain thePu rp0ses ofEvidence 25 1 251 253 254 255 255 259 Topic 4.8: Contin uity and Change frpm c. 1450 to c. 1750 Transo ceani c Travel and Trade Econom ic Changes Effec ts of the New Global Eco nomy Demand .for Labor Intensifies 26 1 26 1 262 263 264 Unit 4 R eview Hi stoti .cal Perspectives : How Harsh Were the Spanis h? Write as a Historian: Gather and Organize Evidence Long Essay Question s Document-Bas ed Question: Consolidating and Expanding State P0wer 265 265 266 267 268 IX PERIOD 3: c. 1750 to c. 1900 UNIT 5: Revolutions from c.1750 to c. 1900 273 TQ,pic5.1: The Enlightemnent An Age ofNew id eas New ideas and Their Roots The Age q(1Vewid eas Continues Thitlk as a Historian: D escti be an Argument 275 275 276 278 283 Topic5 .2: Natio.nalism and R evo lutions The America n Revo lution The 1'vew Zealand Wars The French Revo lution The Haitian Revolut ion Creo'le R evo lution·s in Latin America Nationalism and Unifica tion in Europe Tlrinkas a Historian: Co1npal'.eArguments 285 285 286 286 287 288 290 295 Topic 5.3: Industrial Revo lution Begins Agri cultura l improv ements Preindustrial Societies Growth of Technology Britain lhdu strial Advanlaf;es Thitlk as a Historian: Explain the Process of Indu striaJizati on 297 297 298 298 299 303 Topic 5.4: Industrializ ation Spreads Spread ofli1d ustrialization Shifts in lvfan.ufacturing Thitlk as a Historian: Conneet lmpecia Jism and Industr ialization 304 304 305 309 TQ,pic5.5: Technology in the lndus _trial Age The Coal Revol ution A Second b1duslrial Revolut ion Global Trade and Migration. Tlrinkas an Historian: Explain the Effects of the Develo pment ofEiectricity 310 310 312 313 316 Topic 5.6: Industriali zation: Governme nt's Role Ottoman h1d11slrializat ion Japan and the Meiji Restoration Thitlk as a Historian: Identify Differing P atterns of 1ndustrialization 317 318 319 .324 Topic 5.7: Economic De velopme nts and innovations Effects on Bu~iness Organi za tion Ejf"ect on Mass Culture Tlrinkas a Historian: Explain Relationships Betwee n Developme nts 325 325 327 33 1 s X Topic 5.8: Reactions to the Industrial Economy labor Unions The Intellectual Rettction Karl Mar ,\; Ottoman Response to Industriali zatio n Refo n11Ejforts in China Resistanc e to Refor m in Japan Limit s to Rejonn Think as a Historian: Ex:plain the Historical Situation of a Source 332 332. 333 334 334 336 337 338 34 1 Topic 5.9: Society and the Industrial Age 343 343 347 350 F:ffecls on Urban Areas Indu~frial Revolutions Legacy Think as a Historian: Situate a .Historica l Process in Context Topic 5.10: Continuity m.1dChange in the lndustria l Age E co nomic Continuitie..s tmcl Changes Social Continuities and Changes Politi ca l Continuities -and Chan-s;es 35 1 351 353 354 Unit 5 Review llistoricaJ Persp ective s: Did Ottoman Reforms Succeed? Write as a Historian : Develop a Thes is Lon g Ess ay Qu estions Do c ument-Ba sed Qu estion : Women in Japan and Argentina 357 357 358 360 36 1 UNIT 6: Consequen ce s of industrialization from c. 1750 to c. 1900 365 Topic 6.1: Rationales for In1perialism Nationalist Motives.for Imp erialism Cultural a11dReligious Motives for hnpeN alism Economic Mot ives for linperialism Think as a Hi stot:ian: Explain the Context of tbe Colonizatio11of Africa 367 367 368 370 374 Topic 6.2: State Expansion imp erialism in Africa The Europetm Scrtunble for Africa Imp erialism in South Asia Imperialism in East Asia Imp erialism in SoutheastAsia Australia and New Zealand U.S. imp erialism in Latin America and the Pac(fic Russian E'.l:pansion Think.as a Historian: Si tuate the Monroe Doctrinein Context 375 375 3 77 379 379 380 381 382 383 387 Topic 6.3: Indl.genous Responses to State Expansion Nationalist Mov ements i11the Balkans Resistance and R ebe llion in the Americas 388 388 389 XI South Asian Movements Southeas.t Asian Resistance Resistance in Australia and ·New Zealand A./i·'.icun Resistance Think as a Historian : Significance of Point of View in Sou1:ces 390 39 1 39 1 392 397 Topic 6.4: Global Econonlic D evelopn1ent Technological Developments Agricultural Products Raw J\ilaterials Globa l Consequehces Think as a Historian.: Explain Purpose and Audience of Sources 398 398 399 40 J 403 406 To:pic 6.5 : Economic Imperialis1n The Rise of Eco,10111:ic Imperialism Econqmicl1nperialism inAsia Economiclmperialism inAfrica E cono1nic imperialism in Latin America Economiclmperialism in Hawaii Contextual izing Economic 1T11peritilisn1 Think as a Historian: Explain the Context of Economic Imperialism 407 407 408 409 412 4 13 4 I3 416 Topic 6.6 : Causes of Migration in an lnrercotmected World Afigration through Labor Systems Migrat ion in the Fa ce of Chet/Ienges Migration to Settler Colonies Migrat ion, Transportation , e,u,dUrbanization Think as a Historian: Connect Migration to Othe r Developments 417 417 420 422 423 428 Topic 6.7: Effects of Migration Changes in Home Societies Effects of Migration on Re ceiving Societies Prejudice and Regulation of Immigration Think as a Historian : Connect Migrat ion and Systematized D iscrimination 429 429 430 434 Topic 6.8: Causation in the Imper ial Age Changes in Standards ofLiving Overseas Expansion See4s of Revolution and Rebellion Migration and Discrimination 439 439 440 44 1 442 Unit 6 Revi ew Histodcal Perspec.tiveSc : How did Colonization Promote European Economic Growth? Write. as a Historian: Write the ln troduction Long Essay Question s Document-Based Question: States and Imperia lism 443 XII 438 443 444 445 446 PERIOD 4: c. 1900 to Present UNIT 7: Global Conflict After 1900 451 Topic 7.1: Shifting_power Revolul.ion in Ru ssia Upheaval in China Self-Determination in the Otton1an Collapse Power Shifts in Mexico Think ·as a Historian; Situate the Power Shifts in Context 453 453 454 456 456 460 Topic 7.2: Causes of World ·warI immediate Causes of the Great War 461 461 462 464 468 Long-Tenn Cause-s -of Lhe Great fJlar Consequences of the Great W41 · Think as a Historian: Explain the Concept of Alliance Topic 7.3: Conducting World War I Changes in Wa,fia:e The United Stat-es Enters the War Total War A Global War The Paris Peace Cor!ference Think as a Historian: Identify Supporting Evidence 469 469 471 Topic 7.4: Econo1ny in the Interwar Period The Great Depression Political R evolutions in R ussia and Mexico Rise qfRight-Wing Governments Think as a Historian: Significance of Historical Situation 480 480 Topic 7.5: Unresolved Tensions After World War I Effects qf the War The Mandate System AnLi-Colon.ictlismin Soulh Asia Nqtionalism in East Asia Resistance to Fren ch Rul e in West Afr icci Think as a Historian: Significance of Purpose and Audience 493 493 Topic 7,6: Causes of World War Il 503 503 The Path to Weir JVaziGermany sAggressive Militarism Japans Expa.11slonin Asia Think as a Historian: Identify Assumptions Shaping Point of View Topic 7.7: Conducting World War ll .Japan and imperialist Poli cies Germany sEarly Victories and Challenges 471 472 474 478 483 485 491 494 495 497 499 502 505 507 510 511 5l l $J 2 ... XIII Japan Overreaches Ho me Fronts The Tide Turns in the European Theater The Tide Turns in the Pacijic Theater The Last Years of the Wcu· Consequences of World 117ar II Think as a Historian .: Evidence to Support, Modify, or Refute Topic 7.8: Mass Atrocities Atrocities in Europe and the Middle East Ptmde1nic Disease Suffering and Famine Casualties of World War 11 Genocide and H uman Rights Think as a Historian: Relate Historical Developments Topic 7.9 : Causation in Global Conflict Political Causes of Global Conflict in the 20th Ceniuty Economic Causes qf Global Co11 flict in the 20th Century Effects of Global Conflict in the 20th Centwy 514 514 514 515 515 515 519 52 ] 52 1 522 523 523 525 530 53 1 53 J 532 533 U.nit 7 Review Historical Perspectives: What Caused Totalitarianism? Write as a Historian: Write the Supporting Paragraphs Long Essay Questions Document-Based Question: The Ontbreak of World War I 536 536 537 538 539 UNIT 8: Cold War and Decolonization 545 Topic 8.1: Setting the Stage fo.rthe Cold War and Decolonizat ion B ringin-s;the War lo an End Sh(fting Balance of Power 547 547 548 549 550 553 The Start ofthe Cold War· Breakdown of Ernpires Think as a Historian: Situate the Cold War in Context Topic 8.2: The Cold War Cooperation Despite Coitflict: The United 1Vations R ivalty in Economics and Politics Conflicts in International Affairs The Space Race and the Arms Race The 1Vo11-A !ignec!lvfovemenl Think as a Historian: Explain the Historic.al Situation of the "Red Scare" To:pic 8.3: Effects of the Cold War A llied Occupation of Germany 1VDO, lhe WarsawPact, and Other Alliances Proxy Wars Antinuclear WeaponA1ovement X IV 554 554 554 555 557 557 56J 56_2 562 563 564 567 Think as a ffistorian: Ex_plainRelationships Through Comparison 570 Topic 8.4: Spread of Communis1n Com muni sm in. China Turmoil in lran Land Reform in Latin. America Land Refonn in Asia and Africa Think as a Historian: Ex_p lain The Significance of Purpose in a Source 571 571 572 573 574 578 Topic 8.5 : Decolonization after 1900 lv.lovements .for Autono my: India and Pakistan D eco loni.zation in Ghana a.11d Algeria 1Vegotiated Independence in French West Africa Nationalism .and Divi.sion in Vietnam Struggles and Compromis e in EgJpt independ ence and Civil War in Nigeria Canada and the ···si lent Revolution,, in Quebe c 579 579 580 582 583 583 584 585 588 Think as a Historian: Make Connections Through Comparisons Topic 8.6: Newly lndependeilt States 1.sraels Pounding and Its R elationships with Neighbors Ca;nbodia Gains I11depe11denc e and Sun 1ives Wars J11di a and Pakistm1,Bec9me Separat e Counlries Women Gain Power in South Asia Ta11 za.11laModernizes Emigration .from Newer Countries to Older Ones Think -asa Historian: Use Evidence t0 Supp01t,Modify, or Refi1tea Claim 589 589 59 l 592 593 594 594 597 Topic 8.7: Globa l Resistance to Established Power Structures Nonviolence Resisu1i1 ce as a Path to Change Challenges to Soviet Po wer in Eastern Europe 1968: The Year of Revolt An Age of Terrorism Respo nse of Militar ized States The Milita, y- lndustrial Complex Think as a Historian: Point of View and the Limits of Sources 599 599 600 601 602 603 604 607 Topic 8.8: End of the Cold War The Final Decades of the Cold War Era The End of the Soviet Union Think as a Hi storian: From Perestr0ika to Collapse 608 6 11 6 14 Topic 8.9 : Causation in the Age of the Cold War and Decolonization Challenges to Existi11g Social Order-s Supe1power Ri valries Hopes for Greater Se!fGover11me11t Compa6 ng Politi ca l EjJect.s of the .Cold War 615 6 15 617 6 17 618 608 xv ComparingEconomicE[fects ofLhe Cold War ComparingSocial and Cultural Effects Developm ent qf Global LnstituLions 6 19 620 621 Unit 8 R eview Histori .cal Perspe ctives : Why are s01ne Countries Wealthy? \-Vrite as a Historian: Write the Conclusion 623 623 624 625 626 Lon g Ess ay Que stions Do cum ent-Ba sed Question: The lmpact of Decolonization UNIT 9: Globalization after 1900 63 I Topic 9.1 : Advances in Technology and Exchange 633 633 634 635 635 640 Communication and Transportation The Green Revolution Energy Technologies Medicctl innovations Think as a Historian: Identify and Connect Patterns Topic 9 .2 : Tech11ologicalAdvancements and Limitations - Disease Disease and Povehy Emerging Epidemics Diseases Associated with Longevity Think ·as. a llistorian: Com1ect World War I and I.he Flu Epidemic Topic 9.3 : Technology and the Environment Causes ofE11virof7mentalChanges Effects of Eilvironmental Changes Debates About Global f¥a,rming A New Age? Think as a Hist orian: Environmental Changes in Different Contexts Topic 9.4 : Economics in the Global Age Acceleration of Free-A1arketEconomies Economic Cha,tge: New Knowledge Economies Economic Continuities: Shffiing Manufacturing Transnational Free-Trade Organizations Multinational Co,porations Think as a Historian: Political Campaign .vs. Acadetnic Research Topic 9.5 : Calls for Refonn and R esponses An Era of Rights Steps toward Gender Equality Steps toward Racial Equalit y flwnan Rights Repression in China Steps toward En11ironmental Repair Steps toward Economic Fairness XVI 641 641 643 644 648 649 649 650 652 653 656 657 657 659 660 661 662 666 667 667 669 670 673 674 675 Think a.s a Historian : Human Rights in a Digital Age 678 Topi c 9.6: Globalized Clllture Political , Social , and Artistic Changes Global Consumer aiid P opu lar Culture Global Culture and Religion Thlnk as a Hi stori:an: Compare Periods of Globalization 679 679 680 684 687 Topi c 9.7: Res istance to Globa lization The Roots of Globalization and Anti-Globalization Why Res ist Globalization? 688 Economic Resistance A_nti-Globalization and Social Media T hink as a Histor i an: Compare Points of View Topic 9.8: Instituti ons Developin g in a Globalized World The United Nations: A Structure.for Peqce Assemblies of the United 1Vations The UNand Human Rights Keeping the P eace Other UN Priorit ies international Financial lvGOs 1VGOsSepar«te.fi·om . the UN Think as a Historian : Compare Two Arguments on the United Nations 688 689 691 692 695 696 696 697 698 698 700 700 701 705 Topic 9.9: Continuity and Change in a Globalized World Advances in Science and .Technology Changes in a Globalized liflorld 707 Unit 9 Revie,v Historical Perspectives : What Happens Tomorrow? Writ e as a Historian : Reread and Evaluate L ong Essay Questions Do cum ent-Ba sed Question: Developn1ent andHealth 713 713 714 7 I5 716 AP ®World Histo ry: 'M odern- Practice Ex a.m 722 lnd ex 786 707 109 XVII Introduction Advance:d Placement ~' courses can be challenging and demanding and you already have a lot of pressures in high schoo l. So why take an AP®course like this one in world history? A growing number of students are enTolling in AP<lll classes because th ey realize the many benefits they provide , including: • They are a great preparation for eollege. AP!j(,courses require independent work , like research and analysis, and you have to cover a lot of n1aterial in a short tilne. Taking college level courses can help ease the transition from high schoo l to college. • They strengthen your college application. College ad1nissions officers value how APiacourses show that you are ready for college lev el w.0rk. They indicate that you are serious about education and are able to handle a challenge. • They can increase your chance of getting scholarship aid . Near ly onethird of colleges consider AP®work when deciding on who will get .academic n1erit .assistance. • They save time and money. Getting college credit for classes will enable you to graduate sooner . ·Tb.is saves not only on tuition, but on room and board , and living expenses. • They are associated with greater college success. Students who take APui,courses and exruns have a higher likelihood than other students of .academic .achievement and completing college on time. • They provide greate r flexibility in college . With basic coursework handled through AP®credit , you will be free to exp lore elective studies , study abroad and still graduate on time , and add variety to your acade1nic p.lan. Advanced Placement fll'classes are a good choice whaiever your academic goals ru·e- getting into college , saving ti1ne and n1oney, and succeeding in and enjoying your college career. The plaeement and credits offered \Villvary fron1 college to college. The College Board 's website provides ·a comprehensi ve list of colleges and universities that accept AP®examinations and the credits they. aw<,1rdfor passing scores. The re'\,\'.ardsof taking on the challenges of an AP!Jl) program go beyond the scores ·and placement. They include the development of lifelong reading, reasoning, and wr iting skills, as well as an increased enjoyment of history. This introduction will help you understand the stn 1cture , content organization , .and question types ·of the AP®World History: Modern exam . XVII I WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP0 EDITION Overview of the AP® World History Exam This textbook was created to help you learn world history at tbe level assessed on tbe AP®World History: Modem exam. The exam en1phasizes the histo1ical thinking skills used by historians such as analyzing primaiy .and secon dary sources , making connections betw een ideas, and develo ping historica l arguments. It asks students to app ly three r_easoning processes: exp laining co1npariso11S, explaining causation , and explaining continuity and change . The AP'B'World History: Mod ern exrun is 3 hours and 15 minutes long. The details of the exam, including exam weighting and timing, are outlined below: Section Question Type Number of Questions Exam Weighting Timing I Part A Multiple-Choice Questions 55 40% 55 minutes Part s Short-Answer Questions • Question 1: Secondary source(s) 3 20% 40 minutes Document-Ba sed Question • Question 1 25% 60 minutes (includes 15-mlhute reading period) Long Essay Question Studems selec t one of tlreJollowing: • Question 2 15% 40 minutes • Question 2: Primary source Stud ems select one of the.following: • Question 3: No stimu lus • Question 4: No stimulus II Free-Response Questions 2 • Question 3 • Question 4 Source: Adapcct!Ji:omAJ> " Worli!Hilltory: Modem Course and E;rnm D.c,ac 1{pJJQ a AP® Scorin.g Each of these exam co1nponents will be explained in this .introduction . APt; exams score student performance on a five-point scale: • 5: Extre1nety well qualified • 4: Well-qual ified performance • 3: Qualified • 2: Possibly qualified • 1: No recommendation INTRODUCTION XIX An AP Ql,score of 3 or higher is usually considered evidence of mastery of course content siinilar to that demonstrated in a college-level introductory course in the sa1ne subject area. However , the requirements of introductory courses may vary fro1n college to college. Many schools require a 4 or a 5. The AP® exams are built differently than typical classroom tests . For examp le, the developers ofthe AP'lilex.ams want to generate a wider distribution of.scores. Th.ey also \.Vant higher reliability , which 1neans a higher .likelihood that test takers repeating the smne exan1 will receive the sa1ne scores. In addition , AP't exams are scored differently. The cutoff for a "qualified ," or level 3, score varies ftoth ye·ar to year depending on bow well a gToup of college students who take the test do on it. The writers of the AP <II• exam also design it to be more difficult. [f you take a practice exam before you have fully prepared for the test 1 don 't be surprised if you have difficulty with many of the questions. More importantly, don't be discouraged. AP'~ World History: Modern is challenging . But like many challenges, it can be mastered by breaking it down into n1anageable steps. How This Book Can Help The goal of this textbook is to provide you with the essential content and instructional materials needed to deve lop the knowledge and the historical reasoning and writing skills needed for success on the exam. You can find these in the following parts of the book: • Introdu ction This section introduces the thinking skills and reasoning processes, six course themes, and nine units of the course. A step-bystep skill develop1nent guide provides instruction for answering {l) tlle multiple-choice questions, (2) ·the short-answer questions , (3) the document-based essay question , .and (4) the long essay question. • Concise Hi story The nine units , divided into 72 topics of essentia l historical content and accessible explanation of events , are the heart of the book. Each unit begins with an overview that sets the context for tlle events in the unit and a list of the learning objectives covered in each topic. • Maps and G1·aphic s Maps , charts ; graphs , cartoons ; photographs , and other visual materials are also integrated into the text to help students practice analytica l skills. • His torical Persp ectives Each unit inc ludes a section that introduces significant histo1ical issues and conflicting interpretations. • Key Terms by The mes To assist reviewing, each topic ends with a list of key terms organized by theme. • Multipl e-Choice Qu estions Each topic contains one set of three multip le-choice questions to assess your historical knowledge and skills using a variety of sources. XX WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP 0 EDITION • Short-Answer Questions Each topic contains two short-answer questions to provide practice writing succinct responses. • Document-Based Questions Each unit inc ludes one DBQ for practice. • Long Essay Questions Each unit contains long essay que·stions based on each of the reasoning processes . • Practi ce Examination Following the fina l unit, the book includes a con1plete practice examination. • Index. The index is inc luded to help locate key tenns for rev ie,v. A separate Answer Key is available for teachers and other authorized users of the book and can be accessed through the publisher 's website. Tbe Study of AP® World History: Modern Historians attempt to give meaning to the past by collecting historica l evidence and then exp laining how this information is cotmected . They interpret and organize a w ide variety of evidence from primary sources and secondary texts to understand tl1e past. A P®World I-Iistory: Modern should develop a student 's ability to think like a historian: to analyze and use evidence , and to dea l with probing que·stions a bout events , individuals , develop1nents, and processes :froth 1200 to the pres .cut. Often there is no one "answer " for histor ical questions any more than one historical sourc .e can provide a complete answer for a question . Rather, AP® teachers and readers are looking for the student's abi lity to think about history and to support ideas. with evidence. APw candidates should appreciate how ·both paiticipants in history and h istorians differ a1nong then1selves in their interp retations of critical quest ions in world history. Each mtit of this book inc ludes a I-listori.cal Perspectives feature to introduce some of the issues raised and debated by historians. The AP ®World History: Modem exam does not require an advanced know ledge of historiography-the .study of ways historians have constructed their accounts of the past-which some refer to as "the history of history. " Neverthe less , prior knowledge of the richness of historical thought can .add depth to your analysis of historical questions . Students planning to take theAP®Wo rld Fiistory: Mode rn exam also need to become fa)lliliar with and then practice the development of 1) historical thinking ski lls, 2) the reasoning processes to app ly when engaging in histoiical study , 3) thematic analys is, and 4) the con.cepts and understandings of the nine units that provide the organization of the course content. These four cow·se components are exp lained below for orientation and future reference. Don 't become ovenvhelmed with this introduction, or try to comp rehend ail the finer points of taking the AP® exam in the first few days or weeks of studying . M astery of these skills and understanding takes time and is an ongoing pa 1t of the study of AP®history . This introduction w ill become more helpful as a reference after you have studied some histo1ica J content and have begun to tackle actua l assignments. INTRODUCTION XXI The Historical Thinking Skills and Reasoning Processes Advanced Placement® history courses encourage students to become "apprentice historians." The College Board, which creates the AP!ffi exams, bas identified six .historicaJ thinking skills and three historical reasoning processes for this cow·se. Every q11estionon the exam will require you to apply one or 1nore of these skills or processes. Questions and features at the end of each topic and unit provide frequent opportunities to use them . Historical Thinking Skills Throughout the APiliiWorld History : Modern course , students deve lop the complex skills that historians exhibit , and benefit from multiple oppo1tunities to acquire these skills. These six skills are: 1. Identify and explain historical development s arid proc esses. This involves , based on the historical evidence, identifying the characteristics and traits of a historical concept , development, or process. Using specific historical evidence, it requires explaining how and why a historical concept , development, or process emerged. 2. Analyze sourcing and situation of primary and seconda ry sources. This re.quires identifying the point of v iew, purpose , historic~l situation, or ·audience of a historica l source and describing its significance and limitations. 3. Analyz-e claims and evi dence in primary and secondary sources . This involves identifying what a source is trying to prove and the evidence used t.o support the argument, co1nparing the arguments of at least two sources, and explainin g how the evidence affects the argument. 4. Analyze the context of historica l events, developments , or processes. This entails identifying and expla ining how a specific historica l development or process :fits within a historical context. 5. Using historical reasoning processes .(comparison, causation, continuity andchange) , .analyze patterns and connections between and an1ong historical developinents and processes. This skill allows students to co1111ect .a □ concepts by identifying patterns among historieal developments and processes and explaining how one historical developn1ent or process relat es to another one. 6. Develop an argum ent. This requires: n1aking a historically defensible claim ; suppo1ting an argument with evidence; using historical reasoning to explain relationships within pieces of evidence; a:nd corroborating , qualifying or n1odifying an argu1nent. XXll WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP 0 EDITION Historical Reasoning Processes Historical reasoning processes are taught in AP!j( , World E-Iistory:Mod em and tested on the exam . These are the basic cognitive methods that historians use to understand the past and connect with the historical thinking skills. They include: 1. Comparison This skill is tl1e ability to describe , compare , contrast , and evaluate two or more historica l events or deve lopments in the saine or different eras or periods , or in the saine or different locations . I t requires an ability to jd,entify, compare, contrast, and eva luat e a given historical event or development from multiple perspectives. 2. Causation This skill is the ability to identify, analyze , and eva luate the relat ionships among many historical events and developments as both causes and effects. Not all causes and effects are equally in1portant. A key task of a hlstorian is to detennine which causes and effects are primary , and which are secon dary. Showing persuasive evidence of causation is difficult. Many events are simply corre lated , which means they occur at the same time or one occ urs right after the other, but there is no persuasive evidence that one caused the other. 3. Continuity and Change over Time This skill is the ability to recogniz e, analyze , and evaluat e the dynanu cs of histor y over periods of tune of varying lengths , often investigating important patterns that eme rge. The study of themes in history (exp lained later in this introduction) is often the tool of choice to understand continujty and change over time. Course Themes EachAP ®World I-listory: Modern exam question is also relat ed to one orn1ore of s.ix eourse themes. The strong focus on these six themes and related concepts will help you think about the main ideas and deepen your understanding of world history. They help identify trends and processes that hav e developed thro·ughout centuries in different parts of the world: 1. Humans and the Environment The environment shapes hU1nan societie ·s, and as populations grow and change , these populations in turn shape their envi ronn1ents. 2. Cultura l Developments and Interactions The development of ideas , beliefs , and religions illustrates how groups in society view themselves , and the interactions of societies and their beliefs often have political, social , and cul tural .imp lie a tions. INTRODUCTION ... XXI 11 3. Governanc e A variety of internal and external factors contribute to state formation, expansion, and decline . Governments maintain order through a variety of administrative institutions, policies, and procedures , and govermnents obtain , retain , and exercise power in differen t ways and for diffe rent ptnJJoses. 4. Economi c Sys tems As societ ies develop , they affect and are affected by the •;,vaysthat th.ey produce , excha:nge, a.nd consume goods a:nd serv1ces. 5. Social Int eractions and Organization The process by which societies group their members , and the nonns that govern the interactions betwe en these groups and between individuals, influence politica l, economic, and cultural institutions and organizations . 6. Technolo gy and Inno vation 1-Iuman adaptation and innova tion have resulted in increased efficiency , comfo1i , and security , and technolog ical advances have shaped human deve lopment and interactions with both intended and unintended consequences . Sourct: Adapted fro111AP' World HistmJ: Modem Course nnd l!xatn De,,~rip11on Onderstanding · and applying the themes wiU enable you to make connections across units (explained below) and to think about broad historical ideas and trends. Course Units The AP'll'World History: Modern course is divided into nine units that are arranged in a sequence frequently used in college texts . Chrono logical periods are covered in two or three speeific units .although the dates are not intended to be lin1iting. Events , prdcesses J and developments tnay begin before , or continue after, the dates assigned to each unit. E.ach unit wi U include exainining the topics using historical thinking skills and reasoning processes . The units are furtl1er broken down into topics. The nine historica l units are: • The Global Tapestry (c. 1200 to c. 1450) This unit's topics address deve lopn1ents in East Asia , Dar al-Islam , South and Southeast Asia , and Europe , and state building in the Amer icas, .as well as comparisons of these various developments. • Ne tworks of Exchang e (c. 1200 to c. 1450) Th.is unit's topics address important trade and cultural interchange deve lop1nents including the Silk Roads, the Mongol Empire, and the Indian Ocean and transSaharan trade. The unit discusses the cultural and environmental consequences of these exchanges and suggests economic comparisons of the various networks. XXlV WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP 0 EDITION • Land-Bas ed Empir es (c. 1450 to c. 1750) This unit describes and compares the expansion , administration and belief systems of various land-based empires. • Transoc eanic Int erconnections (c. 1450 to c. 1750) This unit includes: the technolog ical innovations of thatiime; the canses and events connected to exploration in that period ; the trade of natural resources , popu lations , technology, and diseases between the An1ericas , Europe , and Africa after Cohunbus ' exploratjons; and the establishment, maintenance and development of maritin1e empire·s. It addresses challenges to state power and changes in socia l hierarchies and focuses on a iliscussion of continuity and change during this.period. • Revolutions (c. 1750 to c: 1900) This unit first deals with the Enlightenment, nationalism , and revolutions during this period . I t then focuses on the Industrial Revolution: its beginnings, spread, and the associated technolog ies. The unit fu 1ther addresses the role of governments , econo1mc deve lopments, reactions to the ind ushial economy , and societa l changes in the age of industrialization . Fina lly, it concentrates on exam ining continrnty and change during this period. • Consequen ces of Industrialization (c. 1750 to c. 1900) This unit addresses the rationa les for imperialism and desc ribes the state expans ion at tha t time , as well as the inmgeno us populations' response t6 it. Global economic deve lopment and i1nperialism are topics , and the causes and effects of migration are dis.cussed . This unit emphas izes causation as an essential reasoning process in historical analysis. • Global Conflict (c. 1900 to the Pr_esent) This unit ex:an1inesthe globa l power shifts after 1900 .and the causes and conduct of World War I . It explores the economy between the two world wars , the tensions fo llo\ving World War I, and the causes .and conduct of World War II. The unit also disc usses the mass atrocities after 1900 and exa 1n ines causation in global conflict. • Cold War and Decolonization (c . 1900 to the Present) This unit begins with the antecedents of the Cold War and decolonization. It discusses the period of the Cold Wai·, its effects , and its end . lt addresses the spread of communism and decolonization, including resistance to estab lished power structures and newly independent stat_es. It finally focuses on causation in this period . • Globaliz~tion (c. 1900 to the Presen t) This unit examines advances and limitations of techno logy after 1900. It considers economjcs in the global age as well as the calls for refonn. Globa lized culture and institutions are addressed and the resistance to globalization is reviewed. The final topic emphasizes continuity and change in the era of globalizat ion. INTRODUCTION XXV The following table specifies the weight given to each unit in the AP'lllexam. Unit Chronological Period Exam Weighting Unit 1:The Global Tapestry c. 12oo ·to c. 1450 8-10% Unit 2: Networks of Exchange C. 1200 to C. 1450 12-15% Unit 3: land-Based C . 1450 to C. 1750 12-15% Unit 4: Transoceanic .Interconnections C. 1450.to C. 1750 12-15% Unit 5: Revolutions C. 1750 to C. 1900 12-15% Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization ·c. 1750 to c. 1900 12-15% Unit 7: Global Conf lict c . 1900 to the present 8-10% Unit 8: Gold War and Deco lonization c. 1900 to the present 8-10% Unit 9: Globalization c. 1900 to the present 8-10% Empires Source: Adap ted from AP' World H1s10r y: Modern Coun;e .a,,d ExamDcscri pu on Answering the AP® Exam Questions I-listory, like any field of study, is a combinatjon of subj ect matter and 1nethodo logy. The history thinking skills, reasoning processes , and themes are 1nethods or tools to explore the subject matter of history. One cannot practice these skills without .knowledge of the histolical eontent and understanding of specific historical evidence. The following section provides suggestions for development of another set of skills useful for answering the questions on the AP'ioexarn. Again , the "n1astery" of these skills, particularly writing answers to AP®questions , takes practice. This section \Vill suggest how to develop the skills related to ea.ch different kind of question .on the exam: • mu ltiple-choice questions • short-answer que·stions • document-based questions • long essay questions XXV I WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP 0 EDITION The AP :Jl)exam assess es six h isto rical thinking skills. Historical Thinking Skill Multiple -Choice Questions Free -Response Questions Skill 1: Developments and Processes Mult iple-choice questions assess studen ts' ab ility to ident ify and exp lain histor ica l developments and proce·sses. The short-answer questions, document-based questio n, and !orig essay questio n assess students ' ability .to id.entity and expla in historieal developments and processes. Skill 2: Sourcing and Situation Multiple -choi ce qu~stions assess students ' ab ility to analyze sourcing and situat ion of primary and seeondary sources . Short ~answer quest ions 1 and / or 2 assess students ' ability to analyze the sourcing or situat ion in primary or sec ondary sources. Students will need to Ident ify and exp lain a source !s po int of v1ew, purpose , histor ical situat ion and audience , Includ ing its significanc ·e. Additionally, students wil l need .lo explain how the .soureing ·and s1tµatlon might limit the use(s) of a source . Skill 3: Claims and Evidence in Sources Multiple -cho ice quest ions assess students ' ability to ana lyze arguments ih primary and ·secondary s.ources , includ ing Identi f ying and describing cla ims and evidence used. Addit ionally , studen ts w ill need to compare arguments and exp lain how cla ims or evidence supp .ort , modify , or refute a source 's argument. The do cument-based ques tion assesses students ' ability tQ analyze how the J1>0 int ·of view, purpose , histor ica l situat ion, and/or aud ience is relevant ·to an argument. Short-ans wer quest ions 1 and / or 2 assess students ' at)ility to analyze arguments in primary or secondary sources. The _document-b'ase-d quest ion also prov ides opportuni ties for stude nts tQ analyze arguments in primary sources . Mult iple-cho ice questions assess students ' abi lity to 1dent ify arid describe a histor ica l con text for a specific histor ical deve lopm.ent or process as we ll as explain how a spec ific development or process Is situated within a broader historica l context. The _document-b'ase-d quest ion and Jong essay question assess students ' ab ility to describe a broader historical context relevant to the topic of the question . Skill 5: Making Conne ctions Mult iple-cho ice questions assess students ' abi lity to. analyze pc1ttems and connections between and among histor ical deve lopm·ents and processes using historical reasoning (e.g., c9mparison, causation , continui ty and chang-e). The document-based quest ion, long essay question, and one or more of the short -answer quest ions all assess th is ski ll. Skill 6: Argum entation No_mult iple-choice questrons explicitly ass·ess the argumentatiQn skil l. T he document -based question and long essay ·question assess argumen t atiQn. Skill 4: Contextua lization One or two of the short-answer quest ions may also assess .this ski ll. Sou.rte: AP* World Hlstory: Modem Cou~ e .ood Exa m Description INTRODUCTION XXVI I Section I: Part A- Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs) The College Board .asks 55 multiple-choice questions on the AP ® World I-Iistory: Modern exam , and students have 55 minutes to complete this section. Questions \Vill be re lated to the analysis of a stin1ulus-a primary or secondary source , such as a passage, image, map, or table. Each question will have one best answeT and three distracters. The questions will en1phasize the student's ability to analyze the sot u·ce and use the historical reasoning skill the question l'equires. This textbook provides preparation for the 1nultiple-choice que·stions section of the exam through items at the end of each top ic and on the Practice Exam at the end of the book . The MCQs in .this book are similar in forn1 and purpose to those appearing on the AP l\1 exan1 but are also designed to rev iew the content and understanding of the topic . A plan of a<,tion for ans~ rering multiple choice questions consists of several steps: • Anal yzing the Stimulus On the AP ®exam, multiple-cho ice quest ions \\ 1ill be introduced with a stiinulus . When analyzing a s-tin1ulus, ask yourself basic quest ions to spark your thinking: Who? What? When? Where? and Why? Beyond these questions, one of the most important questions to ask is, "What is the point of view of the author , artist , or speaker?" The multiple-choice questions about an excerpt wi ll test your understanding of it. In addition, the questions •;,villfocus on one or more historica l thinking skills. • Making a Choice You need to read the sten1 (the qnestion or statemenl before the cho ices of possible answers) and all four choices carefillly before you choose your answer. More than one choice may .appear to be correct at first, but onJy one will be the best answer. If you ·are confide 1it wh ich answer is best , elin1inate answe rs you recognize as incorrect. Choices that include words that reflect absolute pos itions, such as al-wa y s or never are seldom correct, since historica l evidence can rare ly support such clarity . Make judgments about the sign ificance of a variety of causes and effects. Since the exam format does not deduct for incorrect answe rs, you get no pena lty for guessing wrong. So you should answer every question . Obvious ly, though, the process of frrst eliminating a wrong answer or two before guessing increases your chances of chooslllg the con·ect answer . • Budg eting Your Tim e The exam allows 55 minutes to answer the 55 questions. F ifty-five nlinutes does not allow enough tune to spend 2 or 3 minutes on difficult questions . For questions involving a passage, chart, or picture , read the question first. If you find a question is hard , make a guess and then come ba_ck to it later if you have tune . Recomm end.ed Activities Practicing samp le mu ltip le-choice que·st ions is impo1iant before the exam, if for no reason other than to reduce the number of surprises about the format of the qtiestions. 1-1owever, for many students , the review of content through mu ltip le-choice questions is not the tnost productive XXVIII WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP0 EDITION way to prepare for the exa 1n . The purpose of tl1e chapter content in tl'ris text is to provide a useful and meairingful review of the essential concepts and evidence needed for the exam . By reviewing the essentiaJ facts in the historical content , you will better recall and understand connections between events, which is extreme ly important for applying the historical reasoning skills. Section I: Part 8-Short-Answer Questions {SAQs) The APOl.World 1-Iistory: Modern exam wilJ include four SAQs. No thesis is required in the SAQ answers. You wilJ have 40 minutes to answer three of them. Each question consists of three parts, labe led A, B, ·and C. • Short-answer question I is required and inc ludes a secondary source stimulus . The topic of the question will inc lude histoiical develop1nents or processes between the years 1200 and 2001. • Short-answer question 2 is required and includes a pri1nary source stimulus. The topic of the question will inc lude historical deve lop1nents or processes between the years 1200 and 2001 . • Students may select either short-answer question 3 or 4, neither of which includes a stimulus . Sho1t-answer question 3 wil l focus on historical develop1nents or processes between the years 1200 and 1750. Short-answer question 4 \Vill focus on historical developments or processes between the years 1750 and 2001. Section II: Free Response QuestionsDocument-Based Question {DBQ) The exam includes one document-based question (DBQ) that -includes seven . documents. The topic of the DBQ will include historica l developments or processes between the years 1450 and 2001. The answer should do the follo\ving: • Respond to the pro1npt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establis _hes. a Line of reasoning. • Describe a broader historical context relevant to the protnpt. • Use the provided documents to support an argument in response to the prompt. • Use historic~l evidence beyond the documents relevant to_an argument about the proinpt. • For at least three documents, explain how or why the document 's point of view , purpose , historical situation, and/or audience is televant to an argument. • Demonstrate a complex understanding of the historicaJ developn1ent that is the focus of the pro1npt , using evidence to corroborate, qu_alify, or modify .an argument that addresses the question. Source:AJ >' W,irld History: Modem Course s od E,a.m Dcscriptlon INTRODUCTION XX IX In sho1t, you should state a cl.ear thesis and provide support for it from the documents. To rec.eive a top score, you will need to refer to at least .six of the documents in your analysis. To strengthen the probability of earning the maximum point value for this question, however, use .all seven documents. In addition, you shottld analyze one or more of these elements of three documents: • the ereator 's point of vie\v • the creator's purpose • the historica l situation when the document was produced • the intended aud ience for the document Some teachers refer to this analysis of the elements as ''sourcing '' the document Eanling credit for sourcing a docu1nent requires more than a simple statement such as "The intended audience is the elite class." You wi ll also need to state the significance of this analysis . In other words , give a reason or ftnther explanation of the significance for the point of view, purpose , historical situation , or intended audience. To dete1mine significance , ask yourself , 'What is the creator 's point of view?" "Why did the creator produce the document ?" ''In \Vhathistoriea l situation was the document created?" "What audience was the creator addressing?'' The answers to these questions are often overlapping. Besides using evidence stated in the documents , you should include .outside knowledge in your response. This consists of addit.ional examples, details , and analysis that provide context or clarify what is in the docun1ents or that provide new information that supports your thesis. Answering a DBQ builds on the skills tbr writing re·sponses to the essay qnestions. (These are discussed in more detail in the following section on the long essay question.) The same skills .app ly bere: • Write a thesis statement that addresses all parts of the question. • Provide historical context for your argun1ent. • Build argumentat ion supported by relevant specific evidence. • Use the historical thinking skill targeted in the question . • Use evidence in a compelling way. The most i1nportant difference betwe .en a DBQ response and a long essay is that your DBQ response shou ld refer to specific sources to support argu1nents. A coID1non mistake writers make in answering a DBQ is to write little more than a descriptive list of the docu1nents. The ordeT of the documents in the DBQ should not control the organization of the essay. Rather , group the documents based upon how they support your thesis. Analyze the documents for evidence they prov ide, and integrate them into an organized and persuasive essay. XXX WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP 0 EDITION In a strong essay, a writer groups pieces of evidence fro1n the documents that relate to each other. Ho_wever, grouping requires more thc_lllsimply placing related evidence within the san1e paragraph. It also requires seeing commonalitjes and contradictions in the evidence, and explaining how they both fit your argument. Words.and phrase·s such as silnilarly, in addition, and as well as ale1i the reader that you see a con1mon ele1nent among the docu1nents. Phrases such as in contrast to or this is difj 'erent _from alert the reader that you see contradictory evidence in the documents. Use the practice DBQs to develop your historical reasoning skills as well as the writing skills needed for answering the DBQ on the exam. Here _are son1e tips for writing an effective DBQ: 1. Use the 15-minute reading period to make marginal notes on the documents. Underline key parts of the prompt to help keep yon on track. Before writing, formulate a thesis that addresses all parts of the question. 2. Keep referen~es to the documents brief. B._ecause the exam readers know the content of the documents, you do not need to quote them. A reference to the docun1ent's author or title is enoug h. Man y. writers simply cite the document nu1nber in parentheses, such .as (Doc. 1). Readers like this system as well because it is simple arid clear. 3. Use all of the documents . Hovvever, recognize that each documenl represents a point of view, and some might contain information that is not .accurate. 4. Address contradictory evidence. Your thesis should be con1plex enough to account for evidence that does not support your argument, a,nd you should de1nonstrate that you understand other points of view and the context in whlch documents were created. Detnonstrate your judgment about the sources based on your knowledge of the historical period. Recommended Activities As a prewriting activity for the DBQs, work with a s1nall group of classmates to read and discuss a con:temporaryprimary source docu1nent and two historical ones. For each, discuss the author 's point of view, intended audience , purpose, and historical context. Following is a p1·acticescoring guide for DBQs based on the College Board's grading n1bric. (Check apcentral.collegeboard.com for the fu11rubric and any. updates.) Use this guide to evaluate yo1u·work and to internalize the criteria for writing a strong DBQ essay. INTRODUCTION XXXI Practice Scoring Guide for the Document-Based Question AP History LEQ Rubric (6 points) Reporting Category Scoring Criteria Decision Rules A . Th esis 1 point for a historical ly defensib le thesis/c laim that estab lishes ·a line of reasoning to address the question , arid goes not merely restate it. The thesis must be at least one sentence and loeated in one place•, either in the introduct ion or in the conclusion . To earn th is point , the thes is must make a, cla im that responds to the prompt , rather thari merely resta,tihg or rephrasing the prompt. The thesis must consist of one or more sentences located in one place, .either in the introduct ion or the ·conc lusjon. 1 point to. describe . ' . the broader historical context of the question ,.such as deve lopments either before , during ! or after its time frame. De.scrib ing the context requ ires more than a mere phrase or reference. To earn this P.O int, the resP.onse must relate .the topic of the prompt to broader historica l events , developments , or processe .s that occur before, during, or continue after the time frame of the question. This point is not awarded fbr merely a phras·e or a reference. 1 poiht for accurate ly describing the content of three documents that address the question. OR (Either the 1 point above or the 2 po ints below , but not both). To earn one point , ·the response must ident ify specific histo rical examples of evidence relevant to the topic of the prompt. (0-1 points) B. Context ualizat ion (0-1 points) C. Evidence (Ci-3 points) 2 poihts for accurate ly descrit)ing the content of six doeuments and using them to support the arguments used In response to the question. U_sing the ·documents requlres more than simply quoting t,hem. 0 . Analys is an d Reason ing (0-2 Points) 1 point for using a,t least three documents to explain how or why the docume .nt's point of view , purpose , histor ica l situation , and/or audience is relevant to an argument used to address the question. 1 point for demonstrating a complex understanding of the historical developmen ts by analyz ing the multiple variables in the evidence. This can include analyzing more than one cause , bo th similar it ies and differences , both cont i.nuity and change, and/or the diver.sity of evidence that corroborates, qualif ies; cir modifies an argument used to address the question. XXXII WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP 0 EDITION To earn two points the response must use specific historical eyidence to support ari argument in response to the promp t. Section II: Free Response Questions Long Essay Questions (LEQs) ln forty 1ninutes, test takers will .answer on.e of three questions with .a long essay . All three options focus on the san1e reasoning process , but on historical developments an.d processes in different time periods. The first period is from 1200 to l 750, the .second from 1450 to 1900 and the third from l 750 to 2001. Befor e you begin to write , take a few n1inutes to identify key poi1its and plan the structure of your essay . Your essay responses will be evaJuate.d on the argument you pre·sent. It is impo1tant to provide a clear thesis ·and support it w ith evidence . Development of Essay Writing Skills Begin developing your writing skills .as soon as the course starts. Rather than silnp ly wiiting and rewriting co1nplete essays , break down the skills needed to write an effective AP ®history essay into sequential steps and \vork 011one of them at ·a time. Following are basic steps in vvriting an essay : • Analyze the question. • Organize the evidenc e. • Take a position and express it in a thesis and :introductory paragraph . • Write the supporting paragraphs and conclusion. • Evaluate the essay. 1. Ana lyze the Question Some students rush to start writin g and fail to grasp the question fu lly. Before writing , ask your .se lf two ques ti ons: • What is the topic? • What is the historical reasoning skill? Read over the question or prompt two or more times . What are the key wor ds or phrases in the q11estion? Underline then1. They could be verbs such as evaluate, analyze, e:xplain.,support. or refute. All questions have one thing :in common: They demand the use of historical reasoning skills and analysis of the evidence. An essay answer will not receive fuTIcredit by simp ly repo1ting information.: You need to den1onstrate that you can use the target e:d historical reasoning skill. An essay that fails to deal with all parts of the question will receive .alo,ver score than one that addresses the entire question. The few seconds you take to identify the topic and key reaso ning process will help you avoid the 111istakeof writing a clear, information-rich essay that receives little or no credit because you answered a question that was not asked . ... INTRODUCTION XXXI 11 Recommended Ac tivity As an initial skill-building aGtivity, analyze essay questions provided throughout this book. Underline the key words that indicate what the writer should do, and circle the words that indicate the specific parts or aspects of the content that need to be addressed. 2. Org~nize the Evidence Dir,ections for the AP®World History: Modem exam .advise students to spend son1e time planning before starting to answer the essay question. This advice e1nphasizes how critica l it is to first identify what you know about the question .and then organize your information . A recommended practice is to spend five minutes to create a brief outline , table , or other graphic organizer snnm1arizing what you know abou1 the question. Recommend ed Activity Practice identifying the type of evidence you •;,vill .need to .answer questions by creating .an outline, table, Venn diagram , or other graphic organizer for a provided sa1nple essay question. 3. State Your Thesis in the Introductor y Para graph After you organize the evidence that you know , you can write a thesis staten1ent that you can suppo1i. A strong thesis , or argument , is an essential part of every long essay answer. Writers usually state the thesis in the first paragraph and they often restate it in the final paragraph . A thesis musfbe more than a restate1nent of the question. A thesis requires taking a pos ition on the question. In other words, it must be evalua tive. Many students have difficulty taking a position .necessary to build a strong argument. S01netimes they are afraid of making a tnistake or taking a position they think the readers will disagree with. But think about the nature of history. History does not offer the certitude of mathe1natics or the phys ical sciences. Disagreen1ent over the interpretat ion of historical evidence develops because of the limitations of the evidence available and the differing perspectives of both participants and historians . AP®readers are looking not for the "right answer" but for a \Vriter's ability to interpret the evidence and use historical support for that interpretation. If you think that you can write an essay without n1akiug so1ne judginent that results in a thesis statement, you have not understood the question, Recomm ended Activity Work with one or two partners. Each of you should write a prompt that might appear on a test based on a current event in the news. Exchange prompts . Then write a thesis statement in response to your pruiner 's prompt. Compare and discuss your thesis statements using these guide questions: • Does the thesis take a position? • Does the thesis offer an interp retation of the question? • Does the thesis help organize ideas for an essay? XXX IV WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP 0 EDITION The main point oft he first paragraph is to state clear ly a thesis that addresses the question . Readers will look for a clear thesis that sets the organization for the rest of t:l1eessay . An effective introductory paragraph may also provide the context of the question and a preview of the main argwnents that will be developed -inthe subseqtient paragraphs . However, this .additional info11nation should not distract from the thesis state1nent. One classic model for making an argument is the five-paragraph essay. ft consists of a one-paragraph introduction, three paragraphs of support , and a one-paragrl}.ph conclusion that ties back to the introduction. This n1odel shows the importance of the introductory paragraph in shaping the full essay , including the arguments to be developed. However , the total number of paragraphs in your essay is for you to determine. Your introduction and your conclusion 1night each require n1ore than one paragraph, and you are likely to need 1nore than three paragraphs of support. R ecomm ended Ac tivi ty Practice writing jutroductory paragraphs for the sample essay questions. Next , follow up the introductory parag raph with an outline of the supporting paragraphs. For each paragraph , list histotical evidence that you wi ll link to the thesis. The exercise of writing an introductory paragraph and an outline of your supporting par~graphs helps in two ways. • It reinforces the connection of the main points in the introduction to the supporting paragraphs. • It requires you to think in tenns of historical evidence before you start writing .a co1nplete essay. 4. Wr ite the Suppor ting :Paragr aph s and Conclusion The number and lengths of the paragraphs forming the body of the essay will vary depending on the thesis, the main points of your argwnent, and the amount of historica l evidenee you present. To receive the highest score , you must also explain how specific historical evidence is linked to the thesis. Each essay .also will have a targeted historical reasoning skill that you .should use to analyze the historical development or process you identified in your thesis. INTRODUCTION XXXV The list that follows shows the main focus of an essay based on key words in the prompt. • C.01npa1·e: Provide a description or explanation of s_imilarities and/or differences. • Describe: Provide the relevant charac teristics of a specified topie . • Evaluate: Judge or determine the significance or importance of information, or the quality or accuracy ofa claim. • Explain: Provide information about bow or why a relationship , process , pattern, position , situ_ation, or outcome occurs, using evidence and/or reasoning. Explaining "how'' typically requires analyzing the relationship , process , patte1n, position , situation , or outco1ne, whereas explaining "why" typically requires analysis of motivations or reasons for the relationship, process , pattern, position , situation , or outcome. • Identify: Indicate or provid e infonnation about a specified topic , -.vithout elaborat ion or explanation . • St1pport an Argument: P1·ovide specific examp les m1d explain how they support a clain1. Source: AP'.i.World History : M odern Course and Exam Descr iption Besides your ability to address the targete d reasoning p1:ocess, your essay w ill b e as.sessed on how weU you develop your argument. Readers will consider bow we U you use specific historica l evidence , recognize the historical context , a:nd include eviden c.e fron1 outside the theme and time period of the question prompt. Your goal is not to fill a specific number of pages bnt to write an insightful , persuasive , and well-supported .answer. Many s_tudents fa il to achieve th e full potential of their essay becaus e they simply list a few · genera lities or a "laundry. lisf' of facts, and they do not answe r the fuU question. not looking for a retelling Keep in rn.ind that the readers of your essay <_1re of histor y, or "storie·s." They will be grading you on your ability to craft an analytical essay that suppo rts an argument with specific evidence. A short yet concise e·ssay in which every word has a ptu-pose is better than .an essay bloate d with fillers , flowery language , and interesting stories. Your conclusion should restate the thesis . In addition, it shou ld answer the larger question of "So what? " That is, the conclus ion should provide the con text and exp lain why the question is relevant in a broader understanding ofhisto1y. General Writing Advice Here are some tips to keep in mind as yo u starr practicing the writing of history essa ys for the exan1. • Write in the third person. Avoid using first-pers.on pronoun s (I, we). Write your essay in th e third person (it, they, she., etc .). XXXVI WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP 0 EDITION • Write in the past tense. Use past tense verbs , except when refe n-ing to sources tha t currently exist (e.g., the document imp lies) . • Use the active voice. Readers prefer the active voice ("The M ongo ls conquered China. ") over the passive voice ("China was conquered by the Mongo ls.") because it state·s cause and effect more clear ly. • Use precise words . Use words that clearly identify persons , factors , and judgments . Avoid vague verbs such as felt. Use stronger verbs instead such as insisted , de,nanded. or supported. Also, avoid vague references , such as they and others, unless you are clearly referring to peop le already identifie d. Use specifics, such as Louis XVI of Prance . Use verbs that communicate judgment and analysis , such as reveal, exe,npljfj;, detnonstrate, in'l}Jly,and sy,nbolize . • Explain key terms. The majority of questions will deal with specific terms, and an essential part of your analysis should be an explanation of these te1ms. • .i\nticipate counterargum ents. Consider arguments .against your thesis to show that you are aware of opposing views. The strongest essays confront con.ilicting evidence by exp laining why it does not underct it the thesis . The statement of counterarguments is kno·wo as the concess ion or the conc iliatory parag raph. Writers often present it direct ly following the introduction . • Remain objectiv e. Avoid opinionated rh etoric. The AP :J!I test is not the place to argue that one group was the "good guys," while another was the ''bad guys. " A.lid do not use slang terms such as "bad guys " ! • Communicate you:rorganization. Each paragraph in your essay should develop a main point that is clear ly stated in the topic sentence. It is also good practice to provide a few wor ds or a phrase of transition to connect one parag raph to another. Each para.graph should also inc lude a sentence that links the ideas in the paragraph to the thesis statement. • Return to the thesis. W1iters often restate their thesis in the fina l paragraph in a fresh and interesting manne r or explain its significance . The conc lusion should not try to surnn,arize a □ the data or introduce new evidence. If you are runni ng out of tune , but have written a wellorganized essay w ith a clear thesis that is suppo rted with evidence , your conclusion can be ve 1y short. As noted earljer, including yow· thesis in the first and the last paragraph helps you make sure you have stared it clearly . Recommended Activity You r first effort to write an AP®World History: Modern essay will be a more positive experience if it is an INTRODUCTION XXXVI I untimed assignment. After gaining confidence in writin .g the essay, you should try your hand at a timed test similar to that of the AP·t!Jexam (40 minutes for the essay). The purpose of suob pract ice is to becon1e familiar with the time constra,ints of the exam and to l~arn ways of itnprov ing the cJaiity as well as the efficiency of your writing arid to gain insight into the type of information needed. The feedback from these practice tests'vvhether from teachers , peers, or self-evaluation-is essential foT making progress. 5. Evaluate Your Essay Peer evaluation, as well as self-evaluation, can also help yoa internalize the elements of an effective essay and learn ways to improve . Breaking down the process into 1na,nageable steps is one key for improvement. The use of the essay-evaluation techniques can help students better understand the characteristics of an excellent essay . Recommended Ac tivity The following activity provides a set of questions about how effectively an essay achieves the elements that the AP®readers look for in their grad ing: 1. Introduc tory Paragraph Underline the thesis and circle the structuial elen1ents identified in the introduction . How effectively does the introductory paragraph prepare the reader for the rest of the essay? How .might you improve the introductory paragraph? 2. Thesis Is the thesis clear? Does it take .a position and address all parts of the question? 3. Analysis Does the body of the essay provide analysis of the que.stion? Does the body reflect the argument and controlling ideas stated in the introductory paragraph? Does the body acknowledge opposing points of view? l--Iowcould the analysis .be improved? 4. Evidence ls the thesis supported clearly \-Vithsubstantial, relevant information? Is the evidence clearly connected to the stated thesis through strong paragraph topic sentences? What significant additional information or evidence could have been used for support? 5. Errors What minor or major errors in fact or analysis does the essay display? 6. Presentation How well organized and persuasive is the essay? Do the supporting paragraphs and their topic sentences address all parts of the essay pro1npt and stated thesis? Do paragraph composition, sentence structure, word choice, and spelling add to or detract fron1 the essay? Identify areas that need improvernent. XXXV III WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP 0 EDITION Recommend ed Activity Evaluation by a teacher and self-eva luation of essay work may be initially less threatening than peer evaluation, but once a leve.J of confidence is established, peer evaluation can help you beco1ne a better writer and is often the 1nost useflll form offeedba ok. This scoring guide for the long essay question is based on the College Board's grading rubric. (Check apcentral.collegeboatd.com for the full rubric and any updates .) Use the guide to evaluat_e your work and internalize the charactetistics of a strong long essay. AP History LEQ Rubric (6 points) Reporting Category Scoring Criteria Decision Rules A. Thesis/Claim 1 point (0-1 poin ts) Responds to the prompt with a historically defe.nsible thes is/c!a_im that e.stabl ishes a line o.f reasoning To earn this point , the thesis must make a claim that ·responds to the prompt , rather than merely restat ing or rephrasing the prompt. Th e thesis must consist of one or more•sentences lo.cated in one place, either in the introduction or the conclus ion . B. Contextualization 1 point (0-1 points) Describes a broader hist<;>ric .al eontext relevant to the prompt C. Evidence 1 point (0-2 points) Provides ·specifiG examples of evidenc.e relevant to the topic of the prompt. OR 2 points To earn this polnl, the response must relate the topio of the prompt to broader historical events , developments , or processes that occur before , during , or eontinue after the time frame of the quest ion. This point is not awarded for merely a phrase .or a reference. To earn one point , the response must Ident ify spec ific historica l examples of evidence relevant to the top ic of the prompt. To earn two points , the response must use specific historica l evidence to support an argument in response to the prompt. Supports an argument in respon se to the prompt using specific and relevant examples of evidence Source.: AP., World Histo ry: Modern Comsc and Exam Description INTRODUCTION XXXIX Review Schedule Plan how you will prepare to take theAP ®World rlistory exam. Set a schedu le for your review of each unit. You 1night spread your review over a long or a short amount of time . Many students find that study groups are helpful. The follovving is ·a samp le of a review schedu le using this text. It assumes the review will take p lace over six weeks: • Week 1: Review vv1itingskills • Week2:--Period 1, (Units 1-2) • Week 3: Petiod 2, (Units 3-4) • Week 4: Period 3, (Units 5-6) • Week 5: Period 4, (Units 7-9) • Week 6: Complete and review the Practice Exam Staying with a schedu le requires discipline . A study group that chooses a specific time and place to meet and sets specific objectives for each meeting can reinforce the discipline of all its n1embers. So1ne individua ls may find it more productive to create a review schedule for themselves. If this review text has been used in conjunction with a history coui-se, your familiarity with the essential content and skills deve loped in this book should make it an even more convenient and efficient. review tool. XI WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP 0 EDITION PROLOGUE: History before 1200 O.E. Part 1: Human Development to c. 600 B.C.E. The First Migrations Modern hmnans first ~ppeared in East Africa between 200,000 B.C.E. and 100,000 B .C.E. (Before the Colllinon Era, sometime s refe1Ted to as B.C.). They survived by bunting animals and foraging for seeds and edib le plants . Living in small groups, usu.ally no more than a few dozen people, they did not have permanent homes . As they moved about in .search of food, they slow!y adapted to new envirou1nents, deve loped genetic and cultural differences , learned how to eontroJ fh-eand n1ake stone tools, and created artistic drawings and paintings. They developed a system of religious beliefs called animism , a reverence for deities associated w ith features of nature, such as anin1als or specific mountains or rivers. These societies were fairly egalitarian, but they showed early signs of patriarch y, domination by 1nales. Sometime between 100,000 and 60,000 years ago, and perhaps due to the end of the last. major jce a.ge,peop le's movements in search of food took them beyond East Africa. They began popu lating the rest of the globe. By 10,000 B.C.E. , humans lived on every continent except Antarctica . Migration Out Of Africa ARCT J C - OCli .tl N ,s,qoo B.C.J:: ., • ~~ t; ":"il;c iJtt ltJ/1{(.. 5't1L..ir r l'.➔ Cll"JC O C bA .V E ,Jlld'fO, 200 ,000 B,C.E. .·I fLA!, ' 7'1C UC}l:,I N ,IN}.)IA:V 9 1,ooomiles 0 1°000 kilometers OC:EA., 1 .. ,\ 0 l' I' 1:113.I{ N, Accurate al 30° N, O"E and at 30' S . O' E. C) <: h A N PROLOGUE XIj The Agricultural Revolution Around 10,000 years .ago, or about 8000 B.C .E., the climate was warming from an Ice Age. As it did, hun1ans began to plant crops and raise animals for food. This change, called the Ag ricultural Revolution , began in the Midltie East. Because of this de ve lopment , peopl e began to produce a surplus of food. For the first time in hwnan history , one part of the populatjon produced enough food to feed everyone . This allowed patt of the population to specialize in non.food producing activities. This specialization change transfon.ned eve1y aspect of hwnan life , causing innovations .and trends that have existed ever since: • The population grew. People lived in larger sett lements that eventual ly developed into citjes . • Peop le became highly skilled at one job. Artisans made tools and weapons. Merchants engaged in trade. Priests conducted 1itua ls. • Peop le deve loped new techno logy . They lea1.-nedhow to improve irrigation systems, make use of the wheel in transpo1tation , and rep lace stone with metals such .as bronz e and iron for making tools .and art . • People created more extensive governments and taxation. The des ir_e to keep records about trade a:nd taxes Jed to the invention of writing . • Compet ition for resources and the a6cun111 l ation of wealth inc reased group conflicts. Ho _wever, the development of government provided a .more peaceful way to settle conflicts betwee n indiv iduals. • People became more sharply divided into socia l classes by wealth and occupation . In genera l , the status of wo1nen declined. The First Civilizations Trends that began to emerge after the Agricultural Revo lution led to the fu·st civilizations , large societies with cities and a powerful state . Most were in river valJeys , places with fresh water and ferti le land. Mesopotamia The wor ld 's fu·st civilization was in Mesopotamia, a regio n around the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in what is today Iraq. Several cultures emerged in this region, many based on city-states . A city~state is an independent state made up of a city and its surrounding ten:itory. All citystates were highly patriarcha l, built n1onrnnental architecture such as religious temp les called ziggurats, and engaged in Long-distance trade. The people were po lytheistic, believing in many gods. Swner was a city-state along the southernmost region of ancient Mesopotamia . As taxes and trade became more co1nplex, the Sumerians invented cuneiform , the first written language in history. They used cuneifo1m to record the first written laws . Egypt In the Ni le River va lley, Egypt prospered. Though it shared many trmts with Mesopotamia , Egypt was highly centralized under 011eruler, called ·a pharaoh. The Egyptians deve loped their own writing system (hieroglyphics) Xiii WORLD HISTORY MODE RN: AP"' EDITION and a complex system of mathe1natics. They built monumental archjtectw·e (pyramid s) that demonstrate d the pbaraoh's power. Egyptian women were allowed to own property, and they were recogniz ed as lega lly equ~ to men in com1.·The·se rights gave women a.higher social standing than their counterpruts in other patriarchal civilizat ions. Indus Archaeological rema:ins show the sophistication of ancien1 civilizations along the Indus River in South Asia. Cities such as Harappa and Mol1enjo-Daro engage d in long-distance trade with Mesopotamia, :practiced polytheism, developed technology such as indo or plumbing, and p lanned the layout of urban areas. However , no one has deciphered their language , so less is known about them than about other early civilizat ions. China Along the Huang li e Rive r in northern Chin a, a highly patriarchal and centraliz ed system developed. One of its dis t_inctive features was the special honor that its peop le gave to their ancestors. Non-River Valley Civilizations Two early civilizations in the Ame1icas did not develop in river va lleys . The Olmec in Mesoamerica and the Cha vin in the Andes we re complex soc ieties that partjcipated in extensive trade. Sourc e: Getty Imagos Monumemal arc.bitecture sucb as pyramid s in Egypt (upper) and ziggurat s in Mesop otamia (lower) reflected the p_ower of early govarnmellt s to organiz.c work ers to build large structure s. PROLOGUE Xii j j Hinduism and Judaism At the same time that cities were growing, people began developing new ideas about religion. In animism , most deities were identified with specific places. Over tim_e, people developed more abstract beliefs in which deities were not fixed in location. As people moved, they could take their deities with then1. In so1ne places, belief in 1nany gods (polytheism) was replaced with a belief in just one supreme deity, monotheism. Hindui sm The belief now ca lled Hinduism is sometimes categoriz-ed as polytheistic and sometimes as monotheistic. The origins of Hinduism go back at least 3,500 years . Peop le called Aryai1s from north of the Himalaya Mountains n1igrated south to what is now Pakistan and h1dia. They spoke an Ind_o-Etu·opean language, and they brought with them scriptw ·es cal led the Vedas and a belief that 1nany deities existed . I-Iowever, over time , people came to regard all deities as the expression of one supreme deity . The Vedas taught that the soul of a person is reborn , OT reincarnated , 1nany times. Evenntally , a sou l would spiritually advance enough t6 become liberated from this cyc le of death and rebirth . The Vedas taught that peop le shottld organize society into sharply defined classes , called castes . The caste system prohib ited social mobility. While the caste systen1 kept society stratified, society was also unified . Zoroastriani sm A clea r example of an early form of 1nonotheism is Zoroastrianism. This belief system developed in Persia . Follo _wer-s of this faith focus oi1 human free wil l -and the eternal batt le between the forces of good and evil . Judai sm The most influential examp le of monotheism is Judai sm. Its earliest adherents were known as Hebrew 's or Israelites, but tl1ey have long been called Je\.vs. Judaism developed in and ,around what is novv the state of Israe l. The Jewish people trace their history to the teachings of Abrahan1, who lived about 4,000 years ago. Jews believe that they have entered into a covenant, or mutuaJ promise, with their God, whom they cal l Yahweh. In return fo r their devotion, Yahweh wou ld consider them his chosen people. Judaism was further deve loped with the codification of Hebrew Scriptures , sometilnes called the Old Testament. Like Juda ism , two other faiths-Christianity and Is lam-are also 1nonotheistic religions thatJooked back to Abraham as ,an important figure. Christianity and Islam will be discussed later in this Pt'ologue. xliv WORLD HISTORY MODE RN: AP"' EDITION Part 2: The Clas-sical Era, c. 600 B.C.E. to c. 600 C.E. Several great e1npires that arose between 600 B.C.E . and 600 C.E. becrune the core foundations of later civilizations in their region: • western Eurasia: the Persian, Greek , R61nan and Byzantine e1npires • southern Asia : the Matuyan and Gupta empires • easte1n Asia: the Qin and Han dynasties • Mesoamerica: the Mayan Empire These empires provided political and econotnic security for their people. Goods and ideas flowed ·along land roLitessuch as the ones in Eurasia known as the Silk Road s and matitime routes in the Mediten-ru1eanSea and Indian Ocean. These trade routes fostered the development of such great cities as Ro1ne (Italy), Constantinople (Turkey), Dan1ascus (Syria) , Pataliputra (India) , and Chang'an (China). The Spread of Buddhism 0 0 1.000 Mlle• , ,oooKUom01ers, PACJYI C OCl1 .'1N Su111i1 r,1,;,,rr . 1 ' ,.\ ,,.I_.~ • 1 N.D I 11 N OCEAN SVMAT • I ~ \ <-i-~ . .~ "' • •I • • ,J JAVA Buddhism and Developments in South Asia While intense spirituality and distinct social organization have provided continuity in South Asian history, strong political centralization bas not. The region was unified under a single government only twice dUiing the Class ical Period. The most influential deve lopment in South Asia was the development of the religion of Buddhism. PROLOGUE xiv Beginning of Buddhi sm The founder of Buddhism was Siddhartha Gautama. Born into a wealthy Hindu fainily around 530 B.C.E., be became sha1ply aware of all the suffering people endured. To understand why people suffered, he left bis wealthy family and plu:sued a life of poverty and 1neclitation. According to Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha bad been rneclitating for several days undemea ·th a bodhi tree when he finally understood the cause of suffering and how to end it. He called himself the Buddha or '·enlightened one," and sought to teach others what he had co.me to understand. Buddhist doctrines became swnmarized in the Four Noble Truths, which sought to eliminate desire and suffering by follo\\1ing the Eightfold Path. This path requires an individual to meditate , reflect, and refrain from excessive earthly pleasure s. The goal is, over time, to achieve enlightenment and the peaceful bliss known as nirvana, which would end the cycle of reincarnation. The Spread of B uddhis m Buddhism provided an a.lternative to the Vedic beliefs that were the foundation of Hinduism'. Because Buddhism !'ejected the caste system, it became popu lar with members of the lower caste. [t spread quickly throughout India and .across Asia . Those spreading it included 1nissionaries and merchants along the Silk Roads and around the Indian Ocean. Unlike 1Iinduism and Judaism, which remained the faiths of particular groups of people in particular places, Buddhism was a universalizing religion, one that actively sought converts among all people. Buddhisn1 is also a 1nonastic faith, one that develops monastery communities for men and women. The M auryan Empire The first period of unity in South Asia was m1der the M auryan E mpire (322 B.C.E .- 187 B.C.E.) It reached its high point dlll"ing the n1le of Ashoka. I-le pro1noted prosperity by creating an efficient tax system and by building roads that connected commercial centers. Ashoka spread knowledg e of the la,;,vby inscribing his edicts on pillars throu ghout the emp1re. Ashoka is. one of the few powerful rulers in histo1y who conve11edfrom one faith-J{induism-to another. }le became a Buddhist. His conversion helped spread the faith throughout India . After Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire soon declined in power, resulting ·in political decentralizat ion. The Gupta Empire The second period of unity in South Asia was m1der the Gupta Empire. It ruled fr.o-mc. 320 C.E. to c. 5,50 C.E. (C.E. stands for Common Era, sometimes called A.D.; c. stands for circa and nieans approximately). This period is referred to as the Golden Age of India . Under a centralized government based in Pata liputra, a city in 11orthwesten1 India , intellectual and cultural Life flourished. In public hospitals, physicians made advances in medicine, s.uch as using inoculations to prevent disease. Mathematicians developed a numbering system that combined a small nun1ber of syrnbo ls, 0 through 9, and the idea of place value. The syste1n was so efficient that it is used throughout most of the world today. The social structure in the Gupta era was patriai·chal. Men held most positions of power in public life. To unify people, the Gupta strongly supported I-Iinduism.1-Iinduism is the most colllmonr eligion.in India today. xlvi WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP"' EDITION Confucianism and Developments in East Asia Cenn:al China was united under the Zhou Dynasty ( 1076 B.C .-256 B.C.E.). 1-Iowever, as the dynasty weakened , Ch ina suffered a time of instability and decentralizationi-eferred to as the Warring States period. Mandate of Heaven One legacy of the Zhou Dynasty in China was in how peop le thought .about government. This \Vas the concept of a Mandate of Heaven, the idea that ''heaven,' ' or some universal force , provided the justificatio n for an emperor and his family to rule China. If the ruler was corrupt or ineffective , ''heaven " would sho_w its displeasure in the form of natural disasters. The·se disasters, such as drought or famine , were a sign to the Chinese people that the ruler had lost the Mand~te of I-feaven. Several major peasant uprisings _in_China were a direct result in this belief. Confucianism During the Waning States pe1iod, around 551 B.C.E., the philosopher K 'ung Fu-tzu , whose westernized name is Confucius , was born. I-le lived around the same time as the Budd.ha in India. The teachings of Confucius , written down by his followers in the Anal ects, describe bow peopl.e should behave .in evetyday life. Unlike the teachings of 1-linduism and Judaism, the Anale cts do not focus on any deity. Rather , Confucius focused on education , benevolence, virtue , respect for those with authority (especially the emperor), and a patriarchal sociaJ structm'e. He emphasized filial piety, the duty of people to honor their ancestors. The teachings of Confucius affected Chinese beliefs and v.alues 1nore than any other philosophy. Daoism A second response to the chaos of the Warring States period was Daoism . While Con:fi.1cianismfocused on how people could live in harmotiy with one another , Daoi.sm focused oil how peop le could .live inhamioily with nature. The practices of Daoism emphasized internal reflection more than external behavior. Daoism would be influential throughout Chinese history. The Qin and Han Dynasties China regained stability when the Qin Dynasty (221 B.C.E .-:207 B.C.E .) and Han Dynasty (206 B .C.E.- 220 C.E.) established centraliz-ed control. The Qin standardized Chinese sc1ipt, estab lished a uniform system of weights and measures , and built canals and roads.: Together, these changes provi ded the foundation for increased trade and prosperity . Buildin g on the accomp lishn1ents of the Qin , the Han Dynasty became a Gal.den Age of Chinese histo1y. Under the Han, China was more peaceful and its population grew. Chirte·se science and technology prospered , producing such developments as the magnetic compass , paper, and the stern.post 1udder. Under Han regulat ion, trade extended from Chaug ' an, the capital of the empire , we·st to the Mediten°anean Sea . Most of the trade was in luxury ite1ns such as spices , gems, precious metals, tea, and, most fa1nously, silk . The Hau transfonned China's gove1nment by creating a civil service exam. It required students to analyze Confucian teachings. Those who scored well received prestigious job s in the government bureaucracy. This system p1:oduced a government of weU-educated. individuals ·and allowed for some socia l 1nobility. PROLOGUE xlvii Civilizations of Western Eurasia and Christianity In western Eurasia between 600 B.C.E. and .600 C.E., strong civilizations developed in Persia , Greece , and Rome. Trade , war , and the flow of ideas connected these civilizations . to one .another. Each civilization prospered through a combination of trade and military strength . Persia Around 559 B .C.E ., a large en1pire developed in Persia (mode1nday Iran) under the leadership of Cyrus the Great. The Persian Empire included n1ost of tl1e lands fron1 the Aegean Sea in the west to the border of India in the east. The empire als.o beca.me known as the Achaemenid Empire . With a strong centralized gove1nnient , efficient bureaucracy , and network of road s, the Persian empi re promoted trad_e, prosperity, and stab ility. The vast emp ire was ethnically and religiously diverse , whi.ch the government recognized by pra.cticing religious toleration. Greece While Persia was .a vast but united empire, Greece was divided into approxinui.tely 1,000 city-stat es. The nu1nerous islands and mountainous ten-a:inmade unifying the Grecian region under one leade r very difficult. One cultura l trait shared by Greeks was re.ligion . Unlike the monotheistic 11ebrews who worshipp ed a single all-powerful God , the Greeks be lieved in 1nany deities and each possessed human frailties . These frailties help explain why Gi'eeks developed a feeling that they controlled their own destiny. Two of the largest city-states, Athens and Sparta, reflected the great vari .ety an1ong Greece 's 1nany city-states . • Spartans organized their soc iety around a powerful military. Women , the elderly , .and slaves .all filled rol es that allow ed free 1nen to train as soldier s and fight when needed. • Athenians made impressive advances in architeeture , literature , theater , and philosophy. Many of these came dtnin g its Golden Age in the late 400s B.C.E . Athens also developed the concept of democracy , a system of government in wh ich a large part of the popular ion runs the governn1ent. Athens allowed free adult 1nales the ability to participate directly in making political decisions. In the 300s B.C.E. , the army of Ale.~ander the Great spread Greek culn 1re into Egypt, across Persia, and east to [ndia . This i-egion becan1e known as the 11.ellenistic world. Rome According to legend , Rom e was founded in 753 B.C.E. Roman cu ltur e bo1Towed heavily from the Greeks. The Romans incorporated the Greek gods into their pantheon of de ities , relied on slavery, and n1ade adv ances in gove1nment that continue to have lasting influence on governments today. Roman s developed the practice of a representative government and of the judicial concept "innocent until proven guilty. " To protect individ1,1alrights , the Romans publicly displayed vvritten la ws known as the Twelve Tabl.es. Spreading awareness of laws provided a check on abuses of g6ve 1runent power, a concept that would be built into numerous cons.titutions in the future. xlviii WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP"' EDITION Like Greece, Ron1e had a patriarchal society. Ifowever , co1npared to Greek women, Roman wo1nen gained more rights , including the right to own and inherit property and the right to initiate divorce proceedings. While the Greek city-states remained small , Rome expanded outward in all directions, tuming the Mediterranean Sea into "a Roman lake.'' At the peak of its powe r, the Ro1nan En1pire ruled territory from Scot land to northern Africa to the Middle E.ast. In the large size of its territory, Rome was more like Persia . Both Rome and Persia were land-based e1npires under a strong central government. Both fostered ti-ade and prospe rity with well-1naintained roads and strong militaries to proteet trave lers. Rome was .also famous for other public ly funded projects , such as aqueducts , which were systems to transpott water to citi_es,and large stadiums for public entertainment. Despite Rome 's wealth and power , it faced many challenges. Roman leaders over-extended the Roman 1nilitary, were often corrupt , and failed to deal \Vith devastating epidemics caused by smallpox .and the bubonic :plague . Gradually , trade and urban. populations declined. As a resuJt, Roman. lands suffe red economica lly. Ron1e's decline was made worse by invasions from groups such as the Huns, Qsh·o.goths, Visigoths, and Vandals. By 476 C.E ., the empire was so weak that a non-Roman becrune e1nperor for the first ti1ne in more than a thousand yea rs. The Development of Christianity Raine's most enduring legacy was not in its military or its engineering achievements . It was in religion. Rome generally tolerated .aU faiths as long as subjects agreed to accept the divine nature of the emperor . Peop le with po lytheistic beliefs could do this easily. The Roman Empire GAUL -~O 0 • ~~ X "';::::,, ,Wed i terr<1ner111 -· □ 117C..E. - 182C..E. 0 500 MIies 0 500 KIiometers AFRICA PROLOGUE xi ix However, monotheists could not. In particular, Jews Living the Middle East tefused to recognize any deity but their own. Roman persecution of Jews living in the Middle East contributed to the diaspora , or spreading, of Jews to lands throughout northern Africa and Europe as they looked for places to worship :freely. One leader who emerged from the Jewish community was Jesus. For bis teachings , he was executed by the Romans . Since the followers of his teachings considered hin1 the Christ, or savior of humanity sent by God, they beca1ne known as Christians. Despite persecution by the Romans, Jesus's disci_ples continued to spread his teachings . By the end of the 1st century C.E., Christians were practicing their faith throughout the empire. This new faith was partic:ularly attractive to the poor because it taught that people could have a better life after death if they believed in Jesus. Despite continued persecution, Christianity gre\v stronger. In the 4th century, under the emperor Constantine , C-hristianity becaine legal and was accepted as the official religion of the en1pire. Constantine 's end.orsement of Christianity accelerated its growth , Like Buddhism, Christianity was a uni versalizing religion, meaning it actively sought converts and it was easily adaptable to areas outside its place of origin. It also offered.monastic lifestyles for n1en (n1onks) and women (nuns) to devote their lives to practicing the faith. This new 1nonotheistic'faith would have far-reaching impact on future civilizations. Byzantine By the middle of the 4th century, the eastern half of the Roman Empire had become \veaJthier and politically more powerful than the western half. For this reason, in 330; Empe ror Constantine n1oved the capital of the e1npire eastward to Byzanthnn and renan1ed the city Constantinople (Istanbul today). In 395, the Roman Empir e was divided into two distinct entities. Rome became the capital in the west, and Constantinople became the capital in the east. Constantinople quickly became a political and economic hub. Geography aided its rise to prominence as rivers from the north flowed ilito the nearby Mediten-anean and Black seas. As an entrepot , or coastal trading center, Constantinople prospered as raw goods arrived from northern Europe, cereals came from Egypt , and precious spices and finished products came from the east. At its height, the Byzantine E mpire extended throughout the eastern half of the Mediterranean world . The reign of Justinian the Great (527-565) included great accomplishments . One was the construction of a n1agnificent church called Hagia Sophia (537). Another \Vasthe creation of the Justinian Code. This consolidation ofRon1anlaw would serve as the foundation oflegaLknowledge in Europe into the 19th century. Though constantly threatened by foreign incursion , the Byzantine Empire would survive for another 900 years. WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP"'EDITION Source : Getty ln1agcs. }lagia Sophia was originally built as a Christian church. After ConstanttnopJc was conquered by the Ottomam E mpirc in 453 , lt b.ecamo a mosque. Today it is a ml!lleum . Early American Civilizations Afro-Eurasian civ ilizations developed in isolat ion ..from An1erican civilizations during ·the classical era. Two of the most important were in Meso@l erica , the region that is now Mexico and Central America. Teotihuacan One of the most impo1tant civilizations in the Americas was based .in the city of Teotih uacan , located near modern-day Mexico City. It was a multicultural urban area that prospered through regional trade. By the 6th ce1itu1--y c:E. , its population of 125 ,000 made it one of the Largest cities in the world. Te6tihuacan featured streets laid out on a grid and 1nonun1ental religious ten1ples dedicated to the gods of the sun and moon. The eity was. abandoned by 650, but the ••city of the gods '' as it was called, would later influence other powerful civiliz ation such as the Aztecs. The Mayans SouthofTeotihuacanJived the Mayans. They were the most influential classical civ ilization in the Americas. The Mayans can be traced as far back as 1500 B.C.E. They reached their height of population and wealth between 250 C.E. a.lid 900 C.E . The Mayans developed the most complex written langu_age in the Americas before conta_ct with people from Europe. Mayan priests created .a very accurate calendar, .a sign that they studied and understood the 1noven1ent of Earth through space. Mayans understood the importance of the concept of zero , something :people in tbe Mediterranean world had not grasped in this period. PROLOGUE Ii Comparisons in the Classical Age The empires that emerged bet\.veen.600 B .C.E. and 600 C.E. shared several traits in econo1nics and politics. In general , inc reased trade , technological innovation , and centralized government worked together to make the Lives of people longer, safer, and n1ore comfortable. In general, the e1npires also shared simi lar reasons for their decline. Early Trade Ne tworks As technological developments made trade easier, strong and stable governn1ents provided the wealth and security. to foster and sponsor trade. The Eurasian ex.change networks utilized the strength of the Roman and Han innovations , such as stirrups that made riding horses easier and networks of places to rest and eat that ma.de long journey travel more dependable. Other key techno logies included the i1np1'ovements in sail design and ship hulls that enabled ships to maneuver in less than favorab le wind conditions. The knowledge of monsoo11 winds facilitated trade along the entrepots in the Indian Ocean. The itnproven1ents to the caniel saddle n1ade caravan trade profitable and possib le across the Sahara. The Mediterranean Sea lanes continued to facil itate cultural exchange and goods between the Phoenicians, Gr_eeks, Rotnans , and people of North Africa. Long-distance trade was only beginning to hit its stride. These deve lop1nents ushered in the first Go lden Age of the Silk Roads. Decline of Classical Empir es By 600 C.E., many of the great classical empi res were losing or bad lost their unity and political powe r. As a result , people faced growing problems that they could not agree on ho\v to address. Each unsolved problem then made peace and prosperity more precarious: • challenges collecting taxes weakened government • declirte·s in trade decreased access to foreign goo ds and markets • spread of disease reduced urban popu lations • increases in the gap between the rich and poor created social confl ict • lack of°broad support for leadership 1nade solving prob lems harder • attacks by outside groups led to a need for more spendmg on defense In some areas, the spread of a common religion helped keep society unified even as a government failed. In later centuries , this unity would help new empires .arise . For example , in Europe, the Roman Empire broke apait in the 5th century , but Christianity held society together . Confucianism filled a simi lar role in China, while Hinduism and Buddhism did the same in South Asia . Iii WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP"'EDITION Government in the Classical Period, c. 600 B.C.E. to c. 600 C.E. Civilization Form Importa nt Individuals and Government Bodies Characteristics Role of Religion Ma uryanand Gupta Centra lized empire • Ashoka Developed a sop_hi.sticated bureaucracy The Gupta tolerated religious diversity , but Hindus dominated Centra lized empire • Qin Shi Huangdi • Han Wudf Used a civil service exam to create a merit-based bureaucracy The H.an supported Confucianism Centra lized empire • Darius Organized empire into regional provinces State was religiously tolerant Decentralized city~states • Pericles Created a direct democracy in Athens for free adult males Religion was separate from government but influentia l Allowed citizens to elect senators Religion was separate from government but influentia l (c. 320 B.C.E.-c. 550 C.E.) Qin/ Han (421 B.C.E.-220 C.E.) Persian (c. 550 B.C.E.-c. 330 B.C.E.) Greek (c. 550 B.C.E.-336 s :.c.E .) Roman (c. 509 B.C.E.- c. 476 C.E.) Byzantine (c. 330 C.E.-1453 C.E.) M ayan (c. 250 C.E,c. 900 C.E.) Centra lized republic and then empire • Xerxes • Assemb ly of Citizens • Julius Caesar • Ceasar Augustus • Senate Centralized empire • Justinian Established laws known as the Justinian Gode The government appo inted religious leaders Decentra lized city-states · None are wellknown Considered emperors as descended from a deity A theocracy with powerful priests PROLOGUE Iii i Part 3: Postclassical Civilizations, c.600-c. 1200 In many parts of the world, the decline of classical civilizations \Vasmarked by a century or more of declines in trade, intellecn1al innovation, .and social stability. However , new centralized states that pro1noted peace and prosperity emerged to replace them. Throughout Afro-Eurasia , trade intensified after 600 as networks of exchange vvidened and became more profitable. The Silk Roads, the Indian Ocean trade networks, and the trans-Saharan traderoutes were britruning with items such as porcelain , ivory, tea,kwood, spices, and silk. These networks of exchange also provided ways for techno logy and ideas to move from one culture to another. More and more regions became fan1iliar With the compass, the astrolabe , new forms of credit, paper money, and new religious beliefs. Hov.1ever, all of this exchange came with a high price. Deadly diseases also spread along these same pathways. Afro-Eurasia and the Americas ren1ained separate, but people in Mesoamerica .and the Andes Mountains experienced similar developments. The growth of more centralized states in each region also pro1noted trade and 'the spread of ideas. The Spread of Islam At the beginning of the 7th century, the people of the Middle East were a 1nixture of anin1ists, Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians , and others. A merchant named Muhrunmad living on the Arabian Peninsula believed that he had received revelations from God. These revelations were later recorded in the Qur 'an, the sacred scriptures of the religion of Islam . Those who followed the teachings in the Qur'an became known as Muslims. They believed that Muhamtnad was last in a line of great prophets that included Abraham , Moses , and :resus. The Teachings of Islam The col'e principles of the Qur 'an became knov.'Il as the Five Pill.ars of Islam: a belief in one god called Allah, ritual prayer, almsgiving, fasting, and making a pilgrimage to Mecca. ·They evoJved a law code based on the Qur 'an, called sharia, to regulate Muslin1 religious and civic behavior. Unlike the laws of the Romans , sharia made no distinction between religious and civil lavv. Sunnis and Shi'as Through Muhammad 's leadership , Islam quickly unified and brought peace to the warring tribes of the Arabian -Peninsula. 1-Iowever, Islan1 experienced a crisis upon the death of Muhanunad in 632·. I-le had made no provision for a successor. People fell into two warring camps over who should become the political leader, called the caliph, of the ls lainic community. This rift, which continues today, created a divide between the two major branches of Islam: Sunni .and Shi 'a. Sunni Muslims felt that the caliph could be selected from among all leaders in the Islamic collllnnnity. Iiv WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP"' EDITION Shi 'a Muslims felt that the caliph shou ld be a blood relative of Muhammad . Today, Sunnis form the 1najority of Muslin1s in the world . Shi 'a Mn slin1Sare stro ngest in Iran and Iraq. Expansion of Islam Despite this early division among Muslims , Islam spread rapidl y. In Jess than a centu1y, Islam had united southern Spain, North Africa, the Middle East, and parts of India. This area became known as the I-louse of Islam, or Dar al-Islam . The Abbasids The most influentia l rulers in Dar al-Islam were those of the Abbasid Caliphate (750- 1258). Under them , Islamic culture exper ienced a golden age. A stable government allowed trade to once again prosp er. The Abbasids he lped China , then unde r the Tang Dynas ty, reestablish a boon1ing trade along the Silk Roads . They also facilitated the growth of trans-Saharan trade to West Africa and were major participants in the diffusion _of ideas and goods throughout tl1e Indian Ocean. Islamic society; particularly in the capita l :in Baghdad, thrived under the Abbasids. The empire becainea center of learn:ing where peop le made advance ·s in m _edicine., built astronomical ob_servatories, deve loped_algebra, inlproved the astro labe, and preserve d Greek .and Roman texts. The government practiced a degree of religious tol eration. Non-Muslims cou ld keep their faith by pay:ing an.additional tax call ed theji zya . The Aobasids ended female infanticide and .strengthen ed the maniage and property rights of won1en. The Abbas ids continued to support the veiling of women and the light of a man to take up to four wives. The Spread of Islam , 622-750 Territo r.y controlled under Muhammad , 622-632 Territ ory added under the fl~st caliphs , 6~2-l,/i1 Territory added l,lnder _ the Umayyads , 661-750 EUROPE ~ l ~~ "f !==:;---' 0 SOOMll~s 5,00'Kilomoto,s PROLOGUE Iv China After the Han Dynasty decline d in the 3rd century, China suff ered three centuries of turmoil and disunity. I-Iowever , after that, China experienced several centuries of growth. S.ui Dyna sty China's period of troubles was ende d by the short-lived S ui Dynasty (58 1-6 18). By recons tituting a centralized government, the Sui provided the foundation on which China again became prosperous. The dynasty's 1nost dramatic accornp.lislunent was the constn1ction of the Grand Canal. Stretching over 1,000 miles, it connecte d the agricultural south to the population centers in the north. Besides fostering economic growth, the Grand Canal helped unify the varied ethnic and cultu ral groups of China. Tang Dynasty Buildin g on the accomplishments of the Sui, the Tang Dynasty ( 618-907) extended China's boundar ies north into Mongo lia, west into Central Asia, and south into Vietnam. China's population grew significantly under the Tang. Lea1ning to grow a fast-ripening variety of r ice allowed peasants to produce more calories per acre, so the land could suppo rt 1nore people. The Tang expan ded the civil service exam and the en1pire's bureaucracy , which developed into an ongoing feature of the Chines.e government. Under the Tang , the Chinese invented gunpowder and developed paper money, which facilitated trade. Politic al stability and steady dema nd for China 's silk, porcelain, and other goods ushered in a second gold en .age of the Silk Roads. Sui and Tang China iii Sul Dynasty ------ Grand Canal D tIVUVV Tang Dyna.sty O 500 Miles Groat wa n of China O 500 KIiometers =====-~ Mi\N CRURJ'A ., E IIJ I c1,.·,,,, I .. SOUTJ:I;BAs:r ASIA Guangzhou Sou ti , C II I 110 Stn lvi WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP"' EDITION ~ Seo , The Chinese had long viewed thei r country as the "Middle Kingdon1 ," possibly be.cause they believed they were .at the center of cultw·al adyances in the wor ld. Based on this viewpoint , they developed the tributary system , the idea that SULToundingkingdonis s.hould make payment , or tribute , to the Chinese and officially submit to their rule in exchange for trading privileges. The strength of the Tang eventually declined. A combination of inten1al peasant uprisings a,nd invasions from the west (!Jld north Led to the downfall of the dynasty. Song Dynasty After the Tang collapsed, a new dynasty , the Song D ynasty (960- 1279), was able to restore order. Under the Song, China contin11ed its golden age. Chinese n1eritocracy allowed for 1nore upward mobility than any other hiring systen1 of its time. China became the leading manufachtrer in the world , producing iron , stee·J, si lk, and porcelain , and it bad the large·st citie·s in the wor ld. Neo-Confucian ism, a melding of Confucian , Buddhist, and Daoist philosophies that had begun under the ·Tang, became popular. It was during this time that paper m.oney and the 1nagnetic co.mpass was expo rted fron1 East Asia to other parts of the world. Japan Between about 800 and 1200 , Japan had its own golden . age of achievements in painting and literature. Though influenced by China , Japan always had a separate and distinctive culture . However, by the end of this period, powerful clans of land-owningnob les were eroding the emperor 's power. As government became more decentralized, warfare between these clans increased. A strong political and social hierarchy developed over the contro l of Landand included hierarchical obligations. At the top was the shogun , a mi litary genera l, followed by powerful landlords called daimy os. Each daimyo had .a force of warriors called samurais who pledged loyalty to serve him'.Below the samurai were the peasants , followed by merchants. Culturally, Japan 's official religion was Shinto , a set of beliefs centered 011 the veneration of ancesto rs and nature spirits. Howe ver, missionaries fron1 China and Korea brought Buddhism to the country, .and it became popular at this time. Many Japanese adopted Buddhism yet keep their Shinto beliefs. Africa ln most of sub-Saharan Africa between 600 and 1200, peop le often lived in small se lf-governing chiefdoms in which m(!Jlypeople w ere related. These kinbased co1nn1unities often cooperated with one another and sometimes formed larger political units. While cultures were as diverse as the geography of the continent , similarities existed. Some similarities resulted from the migrations of Bantu-speaking people out of a region in west central Africa between c. 1000 B.C.E. and c. 1500 C .E. These migrating peop le spread a language , farming techniques , and knowledge of l1ovvto work with iron. PROLOGUE IVii By l 000 C.E. , complex agricultural practices such as 1rngation and the allocation of land for peop le to cultivate demanded the development of more complex forn1s of government. With a stronger govemn1ent ca1ne n1ore control over production and distribution of sm-ph1s products. This government l'egulatiob , combined with the introduction of the caniel and use of the came l saddle , led to long-distance trad,e across 'the Sahara. Muslim merchants greatly increased trade, which benefited the kingdom of Ghana (c. 700-(: . 1240). The trans-Saharan trade route allowed Ghana to bec61ne very wea lthy. The rulers of Ghana protected these trade routes and taxed the gold and salt that continua lly entered or exited their trading centers . The development of trade also affected the religion of the people of West Africa. As Muslim merchruits fron1 North Africa traded in the region , they spread Islam . The region became part of D ar al-Islam. The legacy of this period can be s.een today in the large number of Muslims in some countries. In Nigeria, about 50 pe rcent of the population identifies as Muslim. In Mali , over 90 percent do. On the east coast ofAfrica , merchants linked into the Indian Ocean trading network . Through it, Africans and people from the Middle East, South Asia, and SoutheastAsia were all connected. African merchants expo1ied gold, ivoty, and enslaved people. They imported porcelain, silk, and spices. While govenunents were gene rally small and local in 1nost of Africa , outside of West Africa, one large kingdom aros.e in the southeast part of the continen t, Great Zimbabwe. It dominated the region between the 12th ru1d 15th centmies. The reasons Great Zimbabwe declined are not clear, though one reason was probably the reduced output of gold mines in the region. South Asia and Southeast Asia After the fall of the Gupta empire in 550, South Asia was riddle d by disunity and fighting, Despite this d,ecentralization, Hinduism and the caste system kept southern .Indi a unified and relatively stable . Northern .India , however, suffered a series of invasions and weak confederations . One of those invasions brought Islam to the region in 711. Despite a period of divisions and conflict, SoLithAsian trade flourished. As people better understood the patten1 of the monsoon winds , India's location 1nade it the hub of h1dian Ocean trade . Silks and porcelain from East Asia, spices froth southeast Asia, horses fro1n the Middle East, and ens laved peop le and ivo1y from Africa were all traded in India. . Religion .and trade dominated South Asia 's .influence on Southeast Asia. Buddhists and 1-Iindus used trade networks tospread their religions ' teachings . Islam also significant ly influen.<,ed Southeast Asia at this time. Muslim merchants , though often not consciously missionaries, spread thefr faith by settling in new regions with their fami lies. !slain soon becan1e the dominant religion in the Spice Islands and the Malay peninsula. lviii WORLD HISTORY MODERN:AP"'EDITION Souree: Gcny Images. The Temple ofBorobudur was built ,around 800 C.E. on the island of Java in Indon esia. With i'ts statue of Buddha and its Hi11du-style·tcmplcs , it shows t.hcfotcraction of the two rcligio11s. Europe The Postclassical per iod saw a dra.tnatic shift in Europe. Tue Eastern Roman Empire , based in Constantinople, flourished . In contrast, the decline of the Western .Roman Empire Jeft a power v.acuum in the rest of the continent. h1vasions of people from Northern Europ e, known as the Vikings , brought another group of people into the cultural exchanges . Central and western Europe devolved into thousands of duchies and fiefdoms ..As a result of the lack of strong central .govenm1ents, Europe could not pro vide the protection and stability merchants desired. It did not benefit from long distanc e AfroEurasian trade as much as other l'egions did. Just as Hinduism provided cultural unity to a politically divided South Asia, Christianity became the one unifying force in cenn:al and western Europe. h1 800, the pop.e de1nonstrated his power and authority by bestowing on the French king, Charlemagne, the title of "Emperor of the Romans ." However, European Christian unity would not endure. In 1054, it split into two brancJ1es, the Roman Catholic Church in the west and the Orthodox Church in the east. In 1095, the Roman Catholic pope called for a tioly Crusade to free Jerusa l_em and the lands around it from Islamic control The early crusaders had some limited success . But after tvvocenturies of trying, the c1usades failed to seize power. However, they had a large in1pact culturally. The Crusades made Europeans more a\vare of the achievements of the Middle East and tl1e rest of Asia. This awareness was one factor in stimulating Europe to becom e more interested in intellectual and techno logical advances . PROLOGUE Iix The Americas By the year 900, the Mayan golden age in Mesoamerica was ending. A combination of environmenta l degradation, drought, and warf are caused Mayans to abandon many of their cities. However, some Mayan cities, such as Chichen ltza, continued to be inhabited. Two other large civ ilizations develope d in the Western Heurisphere during this tim e. One was the Mississippian civilization , near present-day St. Louis . It flolu-ished between the 8th century and the 16th century. Its city. of Cahokia was a major trade bub with a pop-ulation larger than that of London . The other was the Toltecs civilization, which emerged in the 10th c·e ntury in Mesoamerica. The Toltecs adopted many Mayan practices 1 including a religion . that was both polytheistic and an imistic. The Toltecs had a .major influence 011a later e11 1pi:rein the region, the Aztecs. Soure~: Herb Roe,.www.d1ro111csun.com A diorama at tl1e Gahokia Historic S ite n Collinsvill e, Illinois. shows~ 11ttmb _er of sce nes from the Mississippian c ulture, including this figure of a tlintknapper -so mconc who -shapes the sharp edges of a flint tool. Ix WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP"' EDITION The World in 1200 By 1200, much of the world had recovered from the decline of the classical civilizations. fn many regions, new states were e1nerging that vvere promoting trade and the transfer of ideas an1ong regions: • Africa , Europe , and Asia were connected through Indian Ocean trade, the Silk Roads , and trans-Saharan trade routes. • The Byzantin e Empire and various Islamic empires provided som e stability in the region fro1n Easte1n Europe through the Middle East to South Asia. • China and Dar al-Islam continued to be leading centers of learning and innovation. • Western Europe and Japan had decentralized systems of gove1runent that featured po\verful land-owning nobJes. • Africa largely remained stateless , except for some regions in West Africa and East Africa that were part of Dar al-I.slam. • Afro-Eurasia , Ameiica , and Oceania were developing in isolation fro1n each other. In 1200, people in Africa and Eurasia might have predicted that in the next three centuries , the regions of the world \vould remain on their paths. China would grow wealthier , Islamic states would become stronger , a.nd ELrrope would continue to learn from other regions. However , few could have guessed that in the 13th century a little-known group of nomads from Central Asia would upend life in Eurasia. Then , in 1492, a voyage by a Eru·opean_would reshap e the lives of peop le around the world. S ource: Libmry o f € ongrcss Pripts and Pbotugrnpbs Di vlsm11 Colwnbu s arri ves in the Americas. L. Prang and Co., 1893 PROLOGUE lxi KEY TERMS BY THEME CULTURE: Religion Hinduism Judaism Buddhism Confucius Daoism Christianity Islam Dar al-Islam Shinto Roman Catholic · Church Orthodox Church SOCIETY: Patterns patriarchy civil service exam diaspora entrepot shc°gun daimyos ENVIRONMENT : Food and Trade Agricu ltural Revolut ion monsoon winds CULTURE : Americas Teotihaucan Mayans Mississipp ian Toltecs ECONOMY: Trade Silk Roads Indian Ocean trade routes trans -Saharan t rade routes GOVERNMENT: Classica l city-state Maur:yan Empire Gupta Empire Mandate of Heaven Qin Han Persian Empire Greece Roman Empire Byzanti_ne Empire GOVERNMENT: Posfolassical Abl:>c!-~id Caliphate Sui Dynasty Tang Dynasty Song Dynasty Ghanc1 Great Zimbabwe REFLECT ON THE PROLOGUE 1. Comparison In what ways are Judajsm, Islam, and Christianity alike? 2. Comparison Describe the differenc e between centralized and decentralized civilizations and give an example of each. 3. Causation Name at least three causes for the decline of ClassicaJ civilizations . 4. Causation Explain how trade networks caused Islam and Buddhism to spread. 5. Continuity Identify a continuity that kept southem fudia unified despite disruptions after the fall of the Gupta Empire. 6. Change Identify one new historical developmen t after 600 C.E. lxii WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP"' EDITION UNIT I: The Global Tapestry from c. 1200 t0 c. 1450 Understand the Context Between 1200 and 1450, seve ral large empi res eme rged around the world. So1ne were modified revivals of earlier empires in their r_egion. Oth ers represented new developme1it s. All we re shape d by the context of regiona l trade, which bad been increasing since aroun d 600. The R evival otLarge Empires Between 1200 and 1450, the wealthiest and n1ost innovative empire in the world was the Song Dynasty in China. It \Vasthe latest in a secies of states that had rul ed a unified and prosperous China . Similarly , in Mesoamerica, the 1ise of the Aztec was influenced by an earlier empir e under the M ayans . Two other centers of great intellectua l achie ven1ent~ Baghdad and Spain, reflected the emphas is on Learning in the Islami c world. tioweve r, in parts of Africa and Southeast Asia , the growth of regional trade produced Larger and more comp l.ex states than had previously existed in those regions . T.i:adeacross the Sahara resulte d in the West African empires of Ghana and Mali . Trade in the Indi an Ocean prov ided the context for Largestates in Zimbabwe in East Africa and various states in India and Southeast Asia . Unity in Central Eurasia Shaping the context for events throughout Eur asia between 1200 and 1450 \Vasthe remarkable emergence of the Mongo ls. A gro up of nomads from Central Asia , the Mongols conq11ered lands fro1n cen tral Europ e to the Pacific Ocea n, creating th e largest land en1pire in human history . The conquest carne with great devastation. Howe ver , the unity of so much territory m1der the rule of one group allowed trade to flourish once ag~ across Eur asia, with new ideas and technology spreading easily . These deve lopm ents set the stage for the int ensifying global interactions that helped define the period afte r 1450 . Dante, a leader in the European Renalssance , die.s. King John of England s igns the,Magna Carta 1100 1215 1200 Mongols conquer the Abbasid Empire. Aztecs found Tenocht itlan. 132.5 1258 1400 1300 1192 1279 Jaj)an insta!Js·a shogun. China·s Song Dynasty falis . 1206 TheDelhi Sul,tai,;ile 1321 1324 Mansa Musa of Mali makes his pHgrimage to Mecca takes pp_wer in India. UNIT I: THE GLOBAL TAPESTRY FROM C. 1200 TO C. 1450 1 ·Topics and Learning Objectives Topic 1. 1: Developments in East Asia pages 3-14 A: Explain the systen1s of government en1ployed by Chinese dynasties and how they developed over time. B: Explain the ~ffects of Chinese culhlral traditions on East Asia over time. C: Explain the effects of innovation on the Chinese economy over time. Topic 1.2: Developments in Dar al-Islam pages 1 s-22 D : Explain how systems of belief and their practices affected society in the period from c. 1200 to c. 1450 . E: Explain the causes and effects of the rise of Islamic states over ti1ne. F: Explain the effects of intellectual innovation in Dar al-Islam. Topic 1.3: Developments in South and Southeast Asia pages 23-32 G: Explain how the various belief systems and practices of South and Southeast Asia affected society over time. H: Explain how and why vaiious states of South and Southeast Asia developed and maintained power over time. Topic 1.4: Developments in the Americas pages 33-42 I: Explain how and why states in the Ameri _cas developed .and.changed over ti1ne. Topic 1.5: Developments in Africa pages 43-52 J: Exp lain how and \vhy states in Africa developed and changed over time. Topic 1.6: Developments in Europe pages 53- 64 K: Explain how the beliefs and practices of the predominant religions in Europe affected European society. L : Explain the causes and consequences of politica l decentralization in Europe from c. 1200 to c. 1450. M : Explain the effects of agriculture on social organjzation in Europ .e from c. 1200 toe. 1450. Topic 1. 7: Comparison in the Period from c. 1200 to c. 1450 pages 65-68 N: Explain the simi lariti es and differences in the processes of sta te formation from c. 1200 to c. 1450. 2 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 1.1 Developments in Ea.st Asia From now on, our ordinances will pe properly enforced and the morality of our people wilf be restored . -M ing Dynasty "Prohibition Ordinance;, (1368- 1644) Essentia l Question: How did developments in China and the rest of East Asia between c. 1200 and c. 1450 reflect continuity, innovat ion , and diversity? · The Song Dynasty in China (960-1279) was the leading example of diversity and innovation in Afro-Euras ia and the Americas. during the 13th centw-y. China enjoyed great wealth, political stabiljty, and fine artistic and intellectual achieve1nents. Neo-Confucian teachings, illustrated in the above quotation , supported the government and shaped social classes and the f8)}1ilysystem. In addition, China developed the greatest manufacturing capability in the wor ld. However , the spread of Confucianism and Buddhism tnight be the most enduring testin1ony to Chinese influence. Government Developments in the Song Dynasty The Song Dynasty repla_ced the Tang in 960 and ntled for more than three centuries. They lost control of no1thern lands to invading pastoralists from Manchuria who set up the Jin Empire. Although the Song ruled a s1nallerregion than the Tang, their reign was prosperous and under them the arts flourished. Bureaucracy China's strength was pa 1tially the result of its imperial bureaucracy , a vast organization in which appointed officials carried out the empire's policies. The bureaucracy had been a feature of Chinese government since the Qin dynasty (22 1 B.C.E.-207 B.C.E.). It represented a continuity across centuries and dynasties. Under the Song, China's btu-eaucracy expanded. Early in the dynasty, this strengthened the dynasty. 1'{eritocracy and the Civil Service Exam One of Emperor So11gTaizu 's great achievements was that he expanded the educationa l opportunities to y oung 1nen of the lower econo1nic classes so they could score well on the civil service exams. By scoring well , a young man could obtain a hlghly desired job in the bureaucracy . These exams were based on knowledge of Confucian texts. Because officials obtained their positions by demonstrating their merit on these exams, China's bureaucratic system was known as ·a meritocracy. Though DEVELOPMENTS IN EAST ASIA 3 Song and Jin Empires ,\JONGOU, J •P•" (E,ut Sta) ;} .U;1~A '.:Jr ·' 'IlIBET •• Jin Dynasty , [ ~1 - Song Dynasty ~'"- 0 -'500 """"" 500 Kllomoters !===0 Ea JI South Cl11'ua s,. C J,i " ·" Sta the poor were vastly underrepresented in the bureaucracy , the Chinese system alJowed for more upward mobility than any other hiring system of its time. However , by the end of the Song, the bureaucracy had grown so large that it contributed to_the empire's weakness . By creating so 1nany jobs and by paying these officials so handsomely , the Song inct'eased the costs of governm ent to ·the point that they began drying up China 's surplus wealth. Economic Developments in Postclassical China The flourishing Tang Dyn asty had successfully pron1oted agricultural development , improved roads and canals , encouraged foreign trade , and spread technology . These accomplishments led to rapid prosperity and population growt h during the Song Dynas ty. The Gra nd Can al was an inexpensive and efficient internal waterway transportation systen1 that extended over 30,0 00 miles. Expanding the canal enabled China , under the Song D ynasty, to becom e the 1nost populous trading area in the worl d. Gunpowde r Although gunpowder had been .invented in China in previous dynasties, innovators in the Song Dynasty 111ad e the first guns. Over centu ries, the technology of making gunpowder and guns spread fro1n China to alJ paits of Eurasia via traders ob the Silk Road s. Agricultural Productivity Some ti1ne before the 11th century, Champa ri ce, a fast-ripening and drougbt-resistent strain of rice from the Champa 4 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Kingdomin .present-dayVie.tna1n , greatly expanded agricultural produ .ctionin China. This rice and other strains developed through experimentation allowed farming to sprea d to land s where once 1jce could not grow, s_uch as lo,v lands , riverbanks , and hills. In some areas, itals .o allowed farmers to grow two crops of rice per year, a Slnnmer crop and a winter crop. Innovative methods of production contributed to agricultura l success. For examp le, Chinese fam1ers put manure (both human and animal) on the-fields to enr ich the soil . They bui lt elaborate irrigation systems using ditches, \Vater wheels , pumps , and terraces to increase productivity . Ne'vvheavy plows pu lled by water buffalo or oxen allowed previous ly unus able land to be cultivated. The combination of th.ese changes in agriculture produced .an abundance of food. As a result, China 's population grew quickly. In the three centuries of Song Dyn asty rul e, China 's population increased fro1n around 25 percent of the tota l world popu lation to nearly 40 percent. Man ufacturin g and Trade Industrial production soared, as did China's population. China's discovery of r<black earth"-coal-in the 4th cent ury B.C.E . enab led it to produce greate r amounts of cast iroil goods. Though massive use of coa l to power machines wo uldn 't happened until the 18th century, China did have the greatest manufacturing capability in the world. The Chinese later learned how to take the carbon out of cast iron and began to manufacture s_tee l. They used stee l to make or reinforce bridges, gates, and ship ancl1ors. They also used steel to make religiou s items , such as pagodas and Buddhi st figurines. Stee l also strengthened the agricultura l equipment , contributing to the abtu1dance of food production as well. Under the Song-and earlier than in Western Europe-China experienced proto-industrialization , a set of economic changes in \Vhich people in rw·al areas 1nade more goods tba:n.they could sell . Unlike later industrialization, which fean 1red large-scale production in factories using c61nplex 1nachinery 1 proto-industrialization relied more on home-based or community-based production using simp le equipment. For examp le, artisans , or skil led craftworkers , produced stee l and other products in widely dispersed sn1elting facilities 1u1der the supervis ion of the imperial government. Artisans also_ manufactured porcelain and silk that reached consun1ers through expanding trade networks, especially by sea . Porc elain was highly desire d because it was .light-weight yet strong . Further, it was.light-co lored, so it could be easily painted with elaborate designs. The Chinese used the compass in maritime navigation, and they redesigned their ships to car1y n1ore cargo . China 's ability to print paper navigation charts made seafa ring possible in open waters, out of sight of land , and sailors became less reliant on the sky for dir ection. China became the world's niost commercia lized society . Its economy changed frotn loca l consumption to market production, with porce lains, textiles , and tea the chief exports. The Grand Canal .supported a vibrant internal trade whi le advances in naval technology allowed China to control trade in the South China Sea. DEVELOPMENTS IN EAST ASIA 5 Taxes The Song also promoted the growth of a cotrunercial economy by changing how they built public projects , such as roads and irrigation cana ls. Instead ·of requiring that people labor on these projects, the governm_ent paid people to work on them. This change increased the amount of money in circulati6n ,promoting economic growth. Tributes Another source of inco1ne for the government can1e from the tributary syste1n , au arrange1nent in which other states had to pay money or prov ide goods to honor the Chinese emperor. This system cemented China's economic -and political power over several foreign count1ies, but it also created stability and stinntlatedt rade for all parties involved. The origins of the syste1n existed in the Han Dynasty . By the time of the Song Dynasty, Japan , Korea, and kingdoms throughout southeast Asia wete tributary states. The emperor expected representatives from tributary states to demonstrate their respect by perfoan ing .a kowtoV11,a ritual in which anyone greeting the Chinese emperor 1nust bow h is or her head until it reached the floor. The Chinese sent out tre1nendous fleets led by Zheng He to demonstrate the power of the emperor and to receive tribute. (Zheng He's voyages are described in n1ore detail in Topic 2.3.) Social Structures in China Through .most of Chinese history, the majority of people live:d in rura l areas. I-Iowever, urban areas grew in pro1nineiice in this productive period. At the height of the Song Dynasty, China was the most urbanized land in the world, boasting several cities containingmore than l 00,000 people . The largest cities, Chang 'an (an ancient capital), Hangzhou (at the southe1n end of the Grand Canal), and the port city of Guangzhou were cosmopo litan metropolisesactive centers of commerce with many entertainment options to offer. China ;s Class Structure Though tu·banizat_ion represented a significant development in China, life in ruJaJ areas gtew more complex. as well. The bureaucratic expansion created an entire ly new s.ocial class, the scholar gentry . They soon outnumbe red the aristocracy, which was comprised of landowners who inherited their wealth. The scholar gentry were educated in Confucian philosophy and became the most influential social clas.s in China. Three other classes ranked below the scholar gentry: farmers, artisans, and merchants. The low status of n1erchants reflected Confucian respect for hard work and creating-value . The tasks of merchants did not require phys ical strength or endurance , and they simply exchanged goods without growing or tnaking anything new. Lower rungs of Chinese society inc luded peasants who worked for 'vvealthy landowners , often to pay off debts, and the urban poor. The Song g6ve1runent prov ided aid to the poor and established :public hospitals where people could receive free care. Rol e of Women Confucian traditions included both respect for women and the expectation that they would defer to men. This patriarchal patte rn 6 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION strengthened dtu-ing the Tang a,nd Song dynasties . One cUstinctive constraint on women's activities in China was the practice of foot bindin g, which became common among aristocratic families during the Song Dynasty. From a very young a.ge, girls had their feet wrapped so tightly that the bones did not grow naturally. A bound foot signified social status, something suitors particu larly desired. It also restricted women's ability to move and hence to participate in the public sphere . Foot binding was :finally banned in 1912. Intellectual and Cultural Developments During the Tang and Song eras, China enjoyed affluence, a well-educated populace, and extensive contact with foreign .nations . As a result, intellectua l pursuits (technology , literature , and visual arts) thrived. Paper and Printing The Chinese had invente:d paper as early as the 2nd century C.E., and they developed a system of printing in the 7th century. They ~rere the first culture to use woodblock printing. A Buddhist s<,1i pture produced in the 7th century is thought to be the world 's first woodb lock printed work. (For irtfonnation on the Gutenberg press, a related technology, see Topic 1.6.) In the Song era, printed bo.oklets on how to fann efficiently were distribut ed throughout rice-growin g regions. CHINESE WOODBLOCK PRINTING Sourro; Thin~stock Withthe development of woodblock printing in China, peop·le could make multiple copies of art or written texts without laboriously copying eac h by hand. DEVELOPMENTS IN EAST ASIA 7 Readin g and Poetry The development ofpaper and printing expanded the availability of books. Though most peasants vvere illiterate , China's privileged classes had increased access to literature. Confucian scholars not only consu1ned literature at a tremendous rate , they were also the major producers of literatm 'e throughout the era. The Tang and Song dynasti es' emphasis on schooling created generations of weU-round _ed scholar-bureau _crats . Later, Europeans with .such diverse skills would be caUed "Renaissance 1nen.., Religious Diversity in China Buddhi sm had come to China from its birthplace in India via the Silk Roads. Its prese nce is evident during the .anarchic peliod between the later Han and the Stti dynasties. I-Iowever , its popularity beca1ne widespread du1ing the Tang Dyna sty. Th e 7th century Buddhis.t monk Xuanzang helped build Buddhism 's popularity in China. Buddhi s m and Daoism Three forms of Buddhism from India came to shape Asia , eac h develop ing a different emphasis: • Theravada Buddhism focused on persona l spiritual growth through silent meditation and self-discipline . It became strongest in Southeast Asia . • Mahaya na Buddhism focused on spiiin1al growth for all beings .and on service . It beca1ne strongest in China and Korea . • Tibetan Buddhi ~m foc:use:d on chanting. l t becan1e strongest in Tib et All three include a belief in the Fo1u-Noble Truths , which stress the idea that personal suffering can be alleviated by el io1ioating cravings or desires and by following Buddhist precept_s. All three also embrace the Eight-Fold Path, the precepts (including i-ight speech , right livelihood , righl effort , and right mindfulness) that can lead to enlightenment or nirvana . Monks introduced Buddhism to the Chin ese by relating its beliefs to Daoist p1inciples. For exam ple, Buddhls 1n 's idea of dharma became tran.slated as dao ("the way ") . Eve ntuall y, Buddhist doctrines combined with elements ofDaoist tradit_ion s to create the syncretic, or fused, faith Chan Buddhism, also known as Zen Buddhism. L ike Daois~ Zen Buddh ism emphasized direct experience and meditation as opposed to fo1mal lean, ing based on studying scripnu-e. B ecause of its fusion 'vvith. Chinese beli efs, Buddhi sm became very popular in China. Monasteries-buildings where 1nonks lived togeth er-appeared in most majoi- cities. Th e presenc e of thes e monasteri es became a problem for the Tang bureaucracy . Many leaders of the Tang Dynasty , which considered itse lf the "Middle Kingdom .," had tro·uble accepting that a foreign religion would have such promin ence in society . Buddhism 's popularity, which drew individuals away frotn China's native religions , made Daoists and Confucians jea lous. Despite monast eries' closures and land seizures , however , Chan Buddhism rema ined popular a1nong ordinary Chinese citizens. 8 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Buddhism and Neo-Conf ucianis1n The Song Dynasty was somewhat more friendly towards Buddhism, but it did not go out of its way to promote the religion . It preferred to emphasize China's native tra_ditions, such as Confucianism. However, Buddhism had a strong presence and 1nany Confucians began to adopt its ideals into their daily lives. The develop1nent of printing had made Buddhist scriptures \videly available to the Confucian scholar gentry . The Song Dynasty benefited from the Confucian idea of filial piety, the duty offan1ily me1nbers to subordinate their desires to those of the male head of the farnily and to the ruler. The emphasis on respect for one 's elders helped the Song maintain their rule in China . Neo-Confucianism evolved in China between 770 and 840. It was a .syncretic syste1n, combining .rational thought with the 1nore.abst:ract ideas of Daoism and Buddhis1n. This new incarnation of Confucianism e1nphasized ethics rather than the n1ysteries of God and nature . It became inlmensely popular in the countries in China 's orbit, including Japan, Korea, ·and Vietnam . Comparing . Japan, Korea, and Vietnam An ilnportant dynanuc in tl1e histories of Japan, Korea , and Vietnan1 \.Vas each country 's relationship with China. When China was unified , its politica l strength , economic wea lth, religious traditions , intellectual advances , and technological innovations tnade the world 's most powerful realm. Its smaller ne ighbors benefited from being so close to China but faced a challenge of maintaining their own distinctive cultures. Each had to confront the issue of sinification, or the assimilation of Chinese traditions and practices. Japan Since Japat1 was separated froin China by a sea rather than land , it had more ability to control its interactions with China than Kore.a or Vietnam could. The impact of Chinese culture appeared in many aspeet:s of life : • Japan's Prince Shotoku Taishi (574-622 ) promoted Buddhism .and Confuc.iat1ismalong with Japan 's traditional Shinto religion. During this era, Japan learned how to do woodblock printing from China. • During the Heian period (794-1185) Japan emulated Chinese traditions in polit:icsJ art, and literature . • However, Japanese writers .also moved in new directions . FoTexample, in the 11th century, a Japanese writeT co1nposed the world's first novel, The Tale of Genji . It is the story of a Japanese prince and his life at cou1t, part icularly his many romances. Feudalism For hundreds of years, Japan bad been a feudal society without a centralized gove 1nn1ent. Landowning aristocrats , the dairnyo , battled for control of land, while the majority of people worked .as rice farmers. DEVELOPMENTS IN EAST ASIA 9 Japanese feudalisn1 was similar to European feudalism, which is des.cribed in Topic 1.6. Both fe·atttred very little social mobility, and both systems were built upon hereditary hierarchies. In Japan , peasants, known as serfs , were born into lives of economic dependency, while samtu-ai were born into their roles as protectors and dain1yo were bon1 into lives of privilege. In Europe , the three groups were serfs, knights, and nobles. What distinguishes Japanese feudalism from that of Europe was that the daimyo enj oyed 1nbch n1ore power than the nobility in Europe did. The daimyo ntled over yast stretches of land and, in reality, were more powerful than either the emperor or the shogun. By contrast , Europe 's hierarchy placed the monarch above the nobility. Though there were periods when authority of the 1nonarch waned and power was distributed an1ong nobility, the main centralized power structure of Eu ropean feudalism would not change until the Modern Industrial Era. In Europe , the idea l knight held to the code of chivalry , with duty to countrymen , duty to God , and duty to women, the last expressed through courtly love and the virtues of gerttJene:ss and graciousness . In Japan , the code was known as bushido and stressed frugality , loyalty , the martia l arts , and honor unto death. Japai1also differed from China in how it was governed. China was ruled by an emperor who oversaw a large civilian bureaucracy. For 1nuch of its history ; China had a central government strong enough to promote trade and peace. In contrast, when the Heian cou11 declined , a powerfu l land-owning family , the Minamoto clan, took charge . In 1192, the Minamoto installed a shogun, or military ruler, to reign . Though Japan still had an emperor, he had littl.e power . For the following four centuries , Japan suffered from regional rivabies a1nong aristocrats. Not until the 17th century would shoguns create a strong central gove1nment that could unify the countiy . (Co.nnect: In:, a pa:i;agraph, explain ho:w Buddhis 1n and Gonfucianism influenced the deve lopm ent of ehinese gevernments in tb.e perio ·d fron'l 1200 t©' 145.0. See PsQlogue.) Korea Korea 's location gave it a very direct relationship with China. The countries shared .a land boundmy, .and China extended both the north and south ofKorea . Similarity to China Through its tributary relationsh ip , Korea and China were in close contact. Thus, Korea emulated many aspects of China 's politics and culture. It centralized its governnient:in the sty le of the Chirte·se . Cu lturally , Koreans adopted both Confucian and Buddhist beliefs. The educated elite studied Confucian classics, while Buddhist doctrine attracted the peasant masses. Koreans adopted the Chinese writing systen1, which proved to be very awkward . The Chinese and Korean languages re111ainedstructurally very different. In the 15th century, Korea developed .its 0\:1/11 writing system. Powerful Aristocracy One important difference between Korea and China was that the landed aristocracy were more powerful in Korea than in . 1Q WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION China. As a result, the Korean elite were able to prevent certain Chinese reforms from ever being iinplen1ented. For example , tl1ough there \.Vasa Korean civil service examination , it was not open to peasants. Thus, there was no truly 1nerit-based syste1n for ente ring the bureaucracy. Vietnam Lik e Japan and Korea, Vietnam traded with and learned from China. For examp le, Vietnam adapted the Chinese wri ting system and architectura l sty les. However, Vietnam had a more adversarial relationship \Vith China. At times , the Vietnamese launched violent rebellions against Chinese influence. Gender and Social Structure Vietnamese culture differed from Chinese c:ulture in severa l ways , which explains the strong resistance to Chinese power. For exrunple , Vietnamese wo1nen enjoyed greater independence in their 1nan·ied lives. than did Chines.e women in the Confucian tradition. While the Chinese lived in extended fa 1nilies , the Vietnamese preferred nuclear families (just a wife, husb and, and their child ren). Vietnamese villag es operated independently of a nationa] government; political centralization was nonexistent. Although Vietnam adopted a 1nerit-based bureaucracy of educat ed 1nen, the Vietnamese system did not function like the Chinese schola r-bureaucracy. Instead of loyalty to the emperor , scholar-officials in Vi.etnam owed more allegiance to the village peasants. In fact , Vietnames e scholar-officia ls often l.ed revolts .against the gove1nment if they deemed it too oppressive . Vietnamese women resented their inferior status under the Chinese. In particularly , they rejected the customs of foot binding and polygyny, the practice of having more than one wife at the srune tiine. ln spite of Vietnamese efforts to 1na,intain the pw·ity of their own culture , sinification did occur. Military Conflict with China As the Tang Dyna sty began to crumble in the 8th century, Vietnamese rebels pushed out China's occupying army. In their battles against the Chinese , they showed a strong capacity for guerilla warfar _e, perhaps due to their deep knowledge of their own land . KEY TERMS BY THEME - . ECONOMICS : China Champ·a rice proto-ir,dustrialization artisans GOVERNMENT: China Song Dynasty imperial bureaucracy meritocracy Tibetan Buddh ism syncretic Chan {Zen) Buddhism Neo-Con fucianism SOCI.ETY: China schO"largentry filial piety TECHNOLOGY : China woodblock printing GOVERNMENT: Japan Heian period CULTURE: Chi na foot bind ing Buddh ism Theravada Buddh.ism Mahayana Buddhism CULTURE: Vietnam nucle-ar families polygyny ENVIRONMENT: Chi na Grand Canal DEVELOPMENTS IN EAST ASIA 11 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 ref er to the passage below. " [Hangzhou , China, has] ten principal markets .... [They] are all squares of ha lf a 1nile to the side, and along their front passes the main street , 'vvhich.is 40 paces in width , and nms straight from end to end of the city, crossing 1nany bridges of easy and commoclious [convenient] approach .. . . So also parallel to this great street , but at the back of the market places , there runs a very larg e cana l, on the bank of which towards the squares are built great hou ses of stone , in which the merchants fro1n Indi a and .other foreign pa1ts store their wares, to be handy for the markets. In each of the squares is held a market three days in the week, frequented by 40 ,000 or 50,000 persons." Marco Polo. The Travels o_fMarco Polo , c. L300 1. Bas ed on the passage , which of the state1nents concerning the trading city of Hangzhou is. most aecura te? (A) Foreigners were .not welcome -inChinese trading cities, because they were consider ed barbarians and had nothin g of va lue to trade. (B) Many of the peopl e conling to trade in cities in China were Europeans trave ling along the Silk Road s . (C) Hangzhou was a vital trading city because it bad foreign merchants and was also accessib le by the Grand Canal for internal trade. (D) Ch inese impe ri al govem1nents limited the nun1ber of n1arkets in Hangzhou to just a few centrally-located areas of tb.e city . 2. What developme nt , wb.ich began before the passage above was written , aUowed Europeans to obtain the products of East Asia ? (A) Ch inese dy nastie s, such as the Tang and the Song , grew stronger, so long-distanc e trade cou ld be conducted with less risk . (B) New maritim e techno logy allowed for ocean-going ships to establish trade Joutes fro1n Asia to Europe via Southern Africa. (C) The Tang Dyna sty expande d into the Middle Ea st, so the trade routes between Europe and Africa were und er one ruler. (D) With the defeat oJ the Islam ic caliphates, European s 'vvereable to estab lish dir ect contact with the Tang and the Song dyna sties . 3. What products would Ind ians and other non-Chinese merchants be niost likely to purchase in a market such as the one describ ed in the passage? (A) silk , p.orcelain, and tea (B) p epp-er, nutmeg , and cinnamon (C) cows , pigs , and oxen (D) rugs, parchment , and horses 12 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to answer all parts of the question that follows. "The Moral Nature Being up1:ightand modest·, reserved and quiet, correct and dignified , sincere and honest: these cpnstitute the mot:al nature of a woman. Being filial and respectful , humane and perspicacious [shrewd, wise], loving and warm. 1neek and gentle: these represent the complete developn1ent of the 1noral nature. The 1noral nature of being .innate in our endowment , it becomes transfotn1ed and fulfilled through practice. It is not something that comes from the outside but is actually rooted in our very s·elves. Cultivation of the Self .. . Now if tbe self is not cultivated , then vi1tue will not be established. lf one's virtue is not establ ished , rarely can one be an influence for good in the family - bow much less in. the w ider world. Therefore , the wife is one who follows her husband. The y.:ay of husband and wife is the principle of the strong and the weak. ln the past , the reason why enli.ghtened n1onarchs were careful about establishing marria ge ,,vas that they valued the way of procreation and perpetuation .. [The rise a_nd fa U of the state is intimately linked to the pr.osperity or decline of the fa_tni ly.] " Empress Xu , Instructions jor ·the hw er Quorrers. c. J420 (A) Describ e ONE way in whichXu's argument was influenced by long-standing Asian cultural traditions . (B) Explain ONE examp le of Xu 's recomm endations to Chinese women that cross boundaries of gender in the period between c. 1200 and C. 1450. (C) Explain ONE histor ical situation fTom c. 1200-c. 1450 in which states in Asia attempted to limit Chinese political power or cultural influ ence. 2. Answer all parts of tl1e question that follow s. (A) Desc ribe ONE way the spread ofBuddhisn1 led Chinese culture to change during the period c. 1200-c. 1450. (B) Describe ONE exan1ple of Chinese culture tradition that withstood the spread of Buddhisn1 durin g·the period c. 1200-c. 1450. (C) Explain ONE examp le of how the spread of Buddhi s1n influenced Confucianism durin g the period c. 1200-c . 1450. DEVELOPMENTS IN EAST ASIA 13 THIN K_AS~ HtSTORIAN ; CONTEXTUALfZE HISTORfGAL DEVELOPMENTS To confesxtaalize is to lo ok at ·an event , deve lopm ent , 'O'fprocess in history within th _e situation, or c9ntext , in wlricmit occurs. After you plac.e events in e0ntex:t, yeu begin to s.ee themes anti pa:t:te1nsemerge in history. Historians use the se them es and patterns to understand the· interactions Qflaw s; institutiQns, c.ultui:e; events, and people. Fer example, one wayto understalid tbe Song Dy.nasty 's success from 9(50 to 1279 is to place its political, social ~ ~d economic dev ~lopment in fue c·onte;~ of what cam ,e befoi:e aft-er it. In ~ ci,nte;~ of what came before , the iritperia'lbureauGra1)y represents ·a pnlitical 'Contiuuify, since th_e bur.eaucra~c system had h>eenm.place in earlier dynasties ~ well. However, Jts rno:di:fica:ti.on under th:eSong to allow more up:ward mobili ty represents a change . 'Similarly, consideringihe Song imperial bureaucr~py · in ihe ec'Onomic.eontext o,f,what eame aftet, you iµigh:t gain : the bureautraey in:sights int@causation. Tha-t is, the oost of s1;1:pp0rting drained Chin"a of its wealth, whic h in turn b~lped criaJe probl~_ms that le,d to tlie decline of the Seng Dynasty, Contextualizing also _promote.<;understandiug of comparis :ons an1ong different cu lttrres a nd tilrie peri9ds. ane Explain ho·w the passage beldi 'Vprovid'e8 c011textfor the spread of Quddhism in Ct,,inain light.9J other developnie, .its. o_f'the•tfm-e: In 629 , a Chinese Buddhist mc'.fnknan1ed X:uanzarigleft .China to go on a pilgrimage to India , the hirtbplaoe GfBudclhism . He ttaveled west on the Silk :Reads te ©entraLAsia, :then south and east te fu_dla, which he reached in 6:7 3"0. Along the ,way and in India he met man y Buddhist mo~ and -V•isite d Buddh ist shr ine s. 1n 0rd er tQ gain m<:Re insight into Buddbistn ; he studie d for ye·ats in Buddh:ist 1n@n :a:steries and at Nalanda U~vei:sity in Bil~, India-a t.unous cente.r 9:( Buddhist knowledge. .After 17 year~aw.a:y, Xuanzang finally , retllrfied to China, Wher-epeople greete d liim as a celebrit y. H e broiLglit back many Buddhist texts , which he,512~ntthe rest Qf_his life translaµng int9 Chinese, These writings were highly insttumental in the growth of Buddhis t scho larship in China . REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. [non e to three paragraphs, exp lain how developments in China and other parts of East Asia between c. 1200 and c. 1450 reflect continuity, innovation , and divers ity. 14 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 1.2 Developments in Dar al-Islam Allah will admit those who embrace the trµe faith and do good works to gardens watered by running strea,ns. - The Ql:lran, Chapter 47 Essential Question: In the per iod from c. 1200 to c. 1450 , how did Islam ic .states c3rise,and how did major religious systems shape society? Arter the death of Muhammad in 632, Islam spread rapidly outward from Arabia. Through militaiy .actions and the .activiti .e·s of merchants and 1nissionari es , Islam 's reach extended frotn India to Spain . As the quotation suggests ; many Islamic leaders . showed tolerance to Christians, Jews, and others who believed in a single god and did good works . Under the Abbasid Empire , scho lar s traveled fro1n far a\.\ray to Baghdad to study at a renowned center of learning known as the House of Wisdom. The I slamic community helped transfer know ledge throughout Afro-Eurasia. When the Abbasids declined , they were replaced by other I slamic states. Invasions and Shifts in Trade Routes In the 1100s and 1200s, the Abbasid Empire confronted many cha llenges . Like the Chinese , they had conflicts with non1adic groups in Centra l Asia . Unlike the Chinese, they also con :fronted European invaders. Egyptian Mamloks Arabs often pu rchased enslaved people , or Mamloks , who were frequently ethnic Turks from Central Asia , to serve as so ldiers and later as bureaucrats. Because of their ro les, Mamluks had 1nore opportunities for advancem .ent than did most ens laved people. 1n Egypt, Mamluks seized contro l of the government , estab lishing the Ma:mlok Sultanate ( 1250- 15 l 7). Th ey prospered by facilitat ing trade in cotton and sugar between the Isla1nic world and Europe. However, when the Portuguese and other Europeans developed new sea routes for trade , the Mamluks declined in power. Sel:juk T01·ks Anot her eballenge to the Abbasids came from the Centra l Asian Se~juk Turks, who vvere also Muslims. Starting in the 11th century, they began conqu ering parts of the Middl e East , eve 1itua lly exten din g their power .almost as far east as Western China . The Se ljuk leader cal led himself sultan, thereby !'educing the role of the highest ~rankingAbbasid _from ca liph to chief Sunni religious authority. DEVELOPMENTS IN DAR AL - ISLAM 15 Crus.aders The Abbasids allowed Christians to travel easily to and fi·61n their holy sites in and around Jerusa lem . However , the Seljuk Ttu-ks limited this trave l. Etu-opean Christians organized groups of soldiers, called Crusad ers, to reopen access. (See Topic 1.6.) Mongols The fourth group to attack theAbbasid Empire \Vere amo11gthe mostfainous conque rors in history: the Mongols . (See Topic 2.2.) Like many Mamluks and the Seljuk Turks , they came from Central Asia. The Mongols conquered the remaining ·Abbasid Empire in 1258 and ended the Seljuk rule . They continued to push westward but were stopped in Egypt by the Mamluks . Economic Comp etition Since the 8th centu 1y, theAbbasids had been '-1fi important link connecting Asia , Europe, and North Africa . Goods and ideas flowed frotn one region to another on trade routes controlled by theAbbasids . Many went through Baghdad . 1-lowever, trade paitems slowly shifted to routes farther north. As Baghdad lost its traditional place at the center oftra de, it lost wealth and population . It could not afford to keep its cana ls. repaired . Farmers could not provide enough food for the urban population. Slowly , the infrastructu re that had made Baghdad a great city fell into decay. Cultural and Social Life Over time, thels lainic world frag1nented politically . Many of these new states adopted Abbasid practices , but they were distinct ethrtically. The ~4.hbasid Caliphat e was led by Arabs and Persians, but the later Islam ic states were shaped by Turkic peop le·s who descended froni peop le in Central Asia . For examp l.e , the Mamluks in North Africa, the Seljuks in the M.iddle East , and the Delhi Sultanate in South Asia \.Vereall at least partially Turkic . By the 16th century , three large Is lrunic states bad their roo ts in Turkic cultures: the Ottoman Empire in Turkey, the Safavid Empire in Persia, and the MughaJ E1npirej11lndia. (See Topic 3.1) However, these Isla1nic states continued to fonn a cultural region. Trade spread new goods and ·fresh ideas. The common use of sbai·iah created silnilar legal systems. Great universities in Baghdad , Iraq ; Cordoba, Spain ; Cairo , Egypt ; and Bukhara in Central Asia created centers for sharing intellectual innovations . Cultural Continuities Islam ic scholars followed the advice of the prophet Muhammad : " Go in quest of knowledge even unto China ." By leanling fron1 n1any cultures, they carried on the work of earlier thinkers: • They trans lated Greek literary class ics into Arabic, sav ing the works of Aristotle and other Greek thinkers from ob livion. • They studied mathematics texts :from India and transferred the know ledge to Europeans . • They adopted techniques for paper-making from China. Through them , Europeans learned to n1ake paper. 16 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION CuJturaJ. Innovation s In addition to buildin g on the intellecn 1al achieve1nents of other cultures , scholars during the "golden age" in Baghdad made their own ach:ieve1nents: Nasir al-Din al-Tosi (120 1- 1274) was one of the most celebrated Islmnic .scho lars. He contributed to astronomy , law, logic, ethics, 1nathen1atics, philosophy, and medicine. An observato ry built under his direction was the most advanced in the wor ld and produced the most accurate ·astronomica l charts. He studied the relationship between the lengths of the sides of a triangle and the angles. This laid the groundwork for making n:igonometiy a separate subjec t. Medical.advances and hospital care improved in cities such as Cairo , wh ile doctors and pharmacists studied for examinations for licenses that would .allow them to practice. lbn Khaldun ( 1332-1406) was well known for his historica l ac·counts and is w idely acknow ledged as a founder of the fields of historiography .(the study of the methods of historians) and sociology. Sufi poet and mystic 'A'ishall al-Ba.'uniyyah (1460-1507) may be the most prolific female Muslim writer before the 20th century. Her best-known work, a long poem honoring Muham1nad called "Clear Inspiration, on Praise of the Trusted One," refers to many previous poets, reflecting her broad leaining. Many of her works describe her journ ey toward mystical illumination. 'A' ishah 's poetry reflects a contrast b etween most Mu slims and Sufis. Unlike Muslims who focused on intellectual pursuits 1 such as the study of the Quran , Sofis em phasized introspection to grasp truths that they believed could not be understood through leanung. Sufisn1 1nay have begun as a mystica l response to the perceived love of luxury by the early Qmayyad Caliphate . Sufi missionaries played an important role in the spread of Islam. They tended to adapt to local cultures and traditions , son1etin1es interweaving local religious ele1nents into.Islam, and in this way they won many converts. Commerce, Class, and Diversity Helping to power the go lden age of natural and moral philosophy .and the arts was commerce. Islamic society viewed merchants as n1ore presti gious than did other societies in Europe and Asia at the time . Muhan11nad hi1nself bad been a merchant, as had his first wife . With the revival of trade on Silk Roads, merchants could grow rich from their dealings across the Indian Ocean and Centra l Asia. They were esteen1ed as long as they maintain ed fair dealings and gave to charity in accord with the p illars of the Islamic.faith . Somemercl1ants were even sent out as missionaries . In the non-Arab areas ofislanu c expansion , control by Islanli c caliphs led to discrunination against non-Arabs, though rare ly to open persecution. This discrimination gradually faded in the 9th century. The caliph 's soldiers were forbidden to own ten·itory they had conquered. The presence of a permanent militm-y force that kept order but did not ovvn property allovved life for most of the inhabitants of the countryside to remain virtually unchang ed. However , peop le paid tribut e to Islamic caliphs rather than to Byzantine rulers.: Slavery Although Islam all owed slave ry, Muslim s could not enslave other Muslims . Also exetnpt frotn slavery were Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians. (See Prologu e.) Slaves were often imported fromAfuca , Kievan DEVELOPMENTS IN DAR AL-ISLAM 17 Rus (present-day Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine), and CentraJ Asia, but the institution of hereditary slave1y had not developed. Many slaves conve1ted to Islaui, after which their owners freed then1. Slave women might find the1nselves serving as concubines to Islarnic men who already had wed their allotment of four wive·s. Slave wo1nen were allowed tnor_e independence-for example , to go to markets and to run eITandsthan the legal wives. Only slave women were pennitted to dance or perform 1nusically before u1u-elated 1nen. This opportunity to earn 1noney sometilnes enabled fema le slaves to accumulate enough to buy their freedom. Free Women in Islam Some practices now associated with Islam were co1nmon cultura l customs in Centra l Asia and the Byzantine Empise before the titne of Muhammad. For example, women often covered their heads .and faces. This practice .solidified under Isla m, with most women observing h(iab, a term that can refer either to the practice of dressing modestly or to a specific type of covering . Men often vvore head coverings , fron1 turbans to skull caps. While women cou ld study and read, they were not to do so in the company of men not related to then1. Muhamma d's Po licies Muhrurunad raised the status of womenin several ways. I-le treated his wives with love and devot ion. He insisted that dowiies, the payments prospective husbands made to secure brides, be paid to the future wife rather than to her father . He forbade female infanticide , the killing of newborn girls. Muhammad 's first wife was educated and owned her own business, which set a pattern for the recognition of women '.s .abilities. The Status of Women Overall , Islamic women enjoyed a higher status than Christian or Jewish women. Islanlic 'vvomen were .allowed to inherit property and retain ownership after marriage. They could renui1Tyif widowed , and they could receive a cash settlement if divorced. Under some conditions, a wife could initiate divorce. Moreover, women could practice biith control. Islanlic wo1nen who testified in a court nnder shariah (see Top ic 3.3) were to be protected fro1n retaliation, but their testimony was worth only half that of a man. One gap in the historical l'ecord is written evidence of how won1en viewed the ir position in society: most of the records created before 1450 were 'vvrittenby men. The rise of towns and cities in Islamic-ruled areas resulted in new limitations on \Vomen's rights, just as it did in other cultures . The new s.tatus of women might best be symbolized by the veil and the harem, a dwelling set aside for wives , concubines , and the children of these won1en. Islamic Rule in Spain While the Umayyads ruled only briefly in the Middle East , they kept povver longer in Spain. 1n 711, after Muslin1 forces had defeated Byzantine annies across North Africa, they successfully invaded Spain :from the south. They designated Cordoba as their capita l for Spain . 18 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Battle of Tours The Islamie military was tmned back in 732 when it lost tbe Battle of Tours against Frankish forces. This defeat , rare for Islamic armies during tbe 700s , marked the lin1it of rapid Islamic expansion into Weste1n Europe. Most of tbe continent remained Christian , but Muslims ruled Spain for the nex't seven centurie•s . (€@1inect:In a paragrap~ c(jmpare ··the sta.tus of wo_menin Chinese_society to fhe status Qf w9men in Islaµiic SQGietyin the p.ecioe1200 te 1450.) Prosperity ·under Islam Like the Abbasids in Baghdad, the Umayyad rulers in Cordoba created a clin1ate of toleraiion , with Muslims, Christians , and Jews coexisting peacefully. They also pr61noted h·ade, allowing Chinese and Southeast Asian products to enter into Spain and thus into the rest of Europe. Many of the goods in this trade traveled aboard ships called dhows . These ships , first developed in India or China, had long, thin hulls that made tbem excellent for carrying goods, though less useful for conducting warfare . Cultural and Scholarly Transfers The Islamic state in Spain , known as al-AndaJus , be.came a center of leaining . Cordoba bad the largest Library in tbe world at the time. Anioi1g the fa1nous scho lars from Spain was Ibn Rushd , known in Europe as Averroes (12th century). I-fe \Vrote influentia l works on la,;,v,secular philosophy , and the .nattu-al sciences . The Musli1ns, Christians , and Jews living in al~Andalus-a ll "people of tbe bool2' as Muslinis rega rded them-not only tolerated one another but.also intluenced one ·another. For examp le, Ibn Rusbd's commentaries on Aristotle influenced the Jewish philosopher Maimonides (c. 1135-c. 1204) . Maimonides developed a synthesis of Aristotle 's reasoning and biblical inte1pretation . E-Ie, in turn, influenced Christian philosophers , including St. Tho1nas Aquinas (1225-1274). I_slamic scholarship and scientific innovations , along \Vith the knowledge transfen-e:d from India and China, laid tbe groundwork for the Renaissance and Scientific Revo lution in Europ.e . For e-~amp le, 1naking paper , a tecbnology developed in China and taught to Europeans by Muslims , was vital to spreading ideas in Europe. KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNMENT: Emp ires Mamluk S\Jltanate Seljuk Turks sultan Mongo ls Abbasid Caliphate .__ . CULTURE: Religion Mamluk-s Muhamma _d Crusaders Sutis CULTURE: Golden Age House ·of Wisdom Baghdad Nasir al-Din al-Tusi 'A'ishah al-Ba ' uniyyah ___________________________ ...., ,, ___,._ DEVELOPMENTS IN DAR AL-ISLAM 19 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below. ''In the name of God the Merciful and the Compassionate: This is tbe safeconduct accor ded by the servant of God Omar, the Commander of the Faithful , to the people of [Je1usalen1]. He accords the1n safe-co nduct for their persons , their property, their churches, their crosses, their sound and their sick, and the rest of their worship .... No constraint sha ll be exercised against them in religion nor shall any harm be don e to any among them .... The people of [Jerusalem] must pay the jizya [req uired tax on non-Mus lims] in the san1e way as the people of other cities . Th ey must expe l the Ro1nans [Byzantine soldiers and officials] .and the brigands from the city. Those who leave shall have safe-conduct for their persons and property until they reach safety. Those of the people of [Jerusalem] who wish to remove their persons and effects and depart with the Romans [Byzantines] and abandon their churches and their crosses shall have safe-conduct for their persons , their churches , and their crosses, until they reach safety:' Muhammad ibn .Jarir al-Tabarj , His101J1of the Prophet~ G.Jld Kings. ''Peac e Terms_with Jemsalem , 636 C.E.; · l 0th century 1. Which trait of Islamic rule described in this passage \Vas also evi dent in Islamic ru le in .al-Andalus? (A) the persecution of other religions by Isla1nic leade rs (B) tbe toleration of other religions by Muslims in conquered territory (C) the conflict between Romans and Byzantines over territory (D) the cooperation between Jewish and Muslim leaders in Jerusalem 2. Wbat viewpoint led CT mar to this trait of Is larni.c rule? (A) He did not actively seek converts to his faith. (B) He believed Christians and Jews were only a sma ll a threat to bis . faith. (C) I-le was n1ore concerned with political than religious issues. (D) }le considere d Christians and Jews to. be "People of the Bo ok." 3. Which development resulted from a change in Umar's policy toward Je1usalem by the Seljuks? (A) The beginning of the Crusades by European Christians (B) A shift iil trade patterns (C) An increase in the power of the Byzantine Empire (D) A decrease .in taxes paid by Jerusa le1n residents 20 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION S 1. Use the passage below to answer aU parts of the question that follows. "I paid a visit to the tomb of John the soi1of Zechariah [a figure in the Clu·istian Bible)--God's blessing on both ofthem! - in the villa-ge of Sebastea in the province ofNablus [a region in the Middle Eastnear the Jordan River]. After saying my prayers, l catne out into the square that was bollllded on one side by the Holy Precinct [a place of worship]. I found a half-closed gate, bpened it and entered a chw·ch. lnside were about ten old men, their bare heads.as white as co1nbed cotton. They were facing east, and wore on their chests [wooden sticks] ending in crossbars tur-nedl!P like the rear of a saddle . They took their oath on_this sign and gave hospitality to those who needed it. The sight of their piety touched 1ny heart, but at the same tune it displeased and saddened n1e, for I had never seen such zeal and devotion among the Muslin1S. For some time I brooded on this experience , until one day, as Mu ' in ad-Din and I were pa'ssing ... he said to 1ne: ' l want to dismount here and visit the Old Men [people who practice severe self-discipline] .' 'Certa inly,' I replied , and we dismollllted and went into a long building set at an angle to the road. For the moment 1 thought there was no one there. Then 1 saw about a hundred prayer mats, and 011 each a sn:6, .his face expressing peaceful serenity, and his body humble devotion. This was a re,1$suringsight, ·and I gave than.ks to Almighty God that there were ainong the Muslims nlen bf even more zealous devotion fhan those Ch1.-istiai1 priests. Before this lhad never seen sufis in their monastery , and was ignorant of the way they lived. " A Muslim describing Christians in the 12th century, quoted i11 Francesco Gabrieli. Arab flistorians of lhe Cru"~ades, l 969 (A) Describ e ONE way that religious sync retis111appeared in Da:r al-Islam in the period c. 1200-c. 1450. (B) Explain ONE way in \Vhichthe behavior of the Sufis demonstrates a diff erence within the practice of Islam in the period c. 1200-c. 1450. (C) Explain ONE possible outcome of Christians and Muslims living in close proximity in the period c. 1200-c. 1450. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Describe ONE way the status ·of women under Islam differed f rom the status of wo.men in China during the period c. 1200-c. 1450. (B) Explain ONE way in which the Umayyad rulers in Cordoba were successfuJ during the period c. 1200- c. 1450. (C) Explain ONE way Istamic culture blended with other cu ltures in al-Andalus during the period c. 1200-c. 1450. DEVELOPMENTS IN DAR AL-ISLAM 21 THINK AS A HISTORIAN : IDENTIFY HISTOR ICAL CC>NCEPTS; DEVEL.OPMENTS,AND PROC.ESS_ES Unit I. is calletl "The Glo·bal Tapestry ' to suggest thal wcirld history is a complex . interweavmg of different threp.d~from differ.entp~s of the world at di:l!etent times . However:, :to fully appreciate the whole, histoiianstry to unravel the1~pestrythr.ead by thread to see just how -each fitsin.As they qo,theyusesl:lchhi.storicalcortoe_ats as ehange, continuity, perspective , cause and effect, significance, ·and empathy. Applying thes~ concepts, . they come to under:">tand hisl0rjc;al dev~lop,nentspattemS'of changes 0r growth over tim:e.l'o see these pattern~, ·th:eylook at subj ects in historica l contexf-· how d id they start out , and what did th.eybecome over time? ·Histo.ria~ also tty to un.derstand the histori;eal pr0cesse-sthat made ·certain develo-pments pes-sible, such as.1-ni gr.ati0n, mdustrialization , conquest ) and state 15uilding. P1::c,cti ce idenfifj 1ing hi-stor'iccdconee_pts,devel0y,ments,and proeesses. -by co,npleting the €lctivities belov.1. 1. Re.acltb.e paragraph labelecl.E~oD'omi .GCompetition . , on page 14. Explain the historical oonc ~pt of cause and effect and how it applies to the d~cline 0f Baghdad. 2. Explain the historica l concept of ,crontini,i:tie-sand how Wubammap •~ advjce to ' 1g.o in quest pf'Jmowled.geeven1.mto .China" .resulted inJristorical eontinuities. (See page j 6.) 3. Explain the historica J proce~s pf kn0wledge transfers that p~gan with. the Jews, Muslims, an.d Christians living_in al-Andalus and laid the groundwork for the· Scientific Revoh ition and Renaissanee in Europe. {See page 19..) REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESS ENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs, explain hovv Islamic states aros e and how majo r rel igiou s systems shaped so.ciety in the per iods between c. 1200 and c . 1450. 22 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 1.3 Developments in South and Southeast Asia What the books taught me, I've practised. What they didn 't teach me, I've taught'myselt. I 've gone into the forest and wrestled wn:h the lio_n. I didn 't get this tar by teaching one thing and doing another. - Lal D.ed {13:20- 1 392) Essential Questio n: How did various beliefs and pract ices in South and Southeast Asia affect society and the development of states? l:epoetry of Lal Ded, known as Mother Lalla , illustrates a major crossinteraction between religious traditions that shaped the history of South .and Southern Asia. She was born in Kashmir, a region of northern India. While ·a Hindn , her emphasis on experience appea led to 1nany Musl in1s, particularly Sufis. The interaction of }lindus and Muslims , though sometimes violent , created dynamic developments in religious thought , politics, econo 1nics, art, and architecture. Despite the strong I_slamic presence in the region , local Hindu kingdoms continued to play .a 1najor role in India 's dece1itralized political landscape. A third religion , Buddhi s1n, also had a strong presence in the area, particularly in the Sinhala dynasties in present-day Sri Lanka and the great kingdoms of Southeast Asia. Political Structures in South Asia South-Asia was only occasional ly united .as a single s_tate in its history. Afte r the Gupta Dynasty that had dominated South Asia collapse d in 550, ending the so-called Golden Age or Classical Era of Indian history, disunity returned to the region for most of the next 1,000 years . Northern and southern India developed separate politica l structures. I-Iowever, I-Iinduism provided some cultural unity througho ut the region. Many people combfued their own loca l faith tradition with adherence to the same scripmres and core beliefs respected throughout the region. Politi caJ Str.uctures in South ern India Southern Indi a was more stable than northern India. The first kingdom , the Chola Dynasty, reigne d over southe1n India for more than 400 years (850-1267). Durin g the 11th century, DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA 23 the dynasty exten ded its rule to Cey lon , the large is land just south of lndia . (Today it is known as Sri Lanka .) The second kingdom , the Vijayanagara Empir e ( 1336-1646 ) took its name from the word for "the victorious city." It began with the arrival of two brothers , Harihara and Bukka , from the D elh i Sultanate in north-centra l India. They were sent to the area because the Delbj Sultanate wished to extend its ru le to southern India. These brothers had been bo1n as Hindus and converted to Islam for the sake of upward mobility. When they left the region controlled by the Delhi Sultanate, they once again embraced the religion of their birth . and established their own Hindu kingdom . The Vijayanagar Emp .ire existed from the mid- 1300s until the mid-1500s; when.a group ofMuslimkingdoms overthrew it. Political Str11ctures in North ern India Northern India experienced a great deal more upheava l than_did southern India . After the fall of the Gupta Empire (see Pi-ologue), the Rajput kingdoms gradually formed in no11hem India and present-day PakistatL These were Hindu kingdoms Jed by leadeJs of numerous clans who were often at war with one another. Because of the co1npetition among clans, no centralized governmen t arose , once again de1nonstrating the diversjty and th.e regionalism of South Asia . The lack of a centralized po\ver left the kingdoms vulnerable to Muslim attacks. While the Himalayas protected Inrua from invasions from the north and east , mountain passes in the northwest allowed invasions by Muslim armies . Each attack disrupted a region that had been most ly Hindu and13uddhist. Over time, the Islamic presence in the region grew: • In the 8th centtrry, Islamic armies invaded what is today Pakistan. 1-Iowever, they bi-ought little change to eve1yday life. Located on the eastern fiinges of the Dar al-Islam, the region was isola ted fro1n the center of the cu lture . In addition, the Rajput princes skillful ly wielded their power to limit the Mus lim conquerors ' influence. • In the 11th century, Islamic forces phmdered northern India's I-lindu temp les and Buddhist shrines for their 1iches. In addition, they erected mosques on Hindu and Buddhist ho ly sites-much to the angerof followers of those faiths. In the ear ly 13th centwy, Islanuc forces managed to conque r the city of Delhi and much of the northern po11jon of South Asia . B1inging Islam into India , the Delhi Sultanate reigned for 300 years , from the 13th through the 16th cenniries. The interaction of Islam and Hinduism in no1them India do111inated the political history of the era. While some Hindus converte:d to Islan1, others resented Mus li.tns and considered the1n foreigners. One factor contributing to this resentment was that the De1hi Sultanate imposed a tax, called the jizya , on ·all non-Muslim subjects of the empire. Throughout its reign, the De lhi Sultanate never orgarnzed an efficient bureaucracy in the style oftbe Crunese. For this reason , su ltans had diffic ulty imposing their po licies in a land as vast and diverse as India . Despite the 24 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION strong Islamic presence in the region, local kingdoms continued to play a major role in Indi a's decent ralized political landscape. The sultan s wanted to exten d their rule southwar d. Befo re they succee ded, though , they became focused on defen ding the1nselves from an onslaught by the Mongol army fro1n the northwest . The Delhi Sultanate prevented the Mongols themselves from conquering South. Asia. Ho\vever , in 1526, the sultans lost power to a new empire, the M ughals, whose leaders did trace their ancestry to the Mongols. Religion in South Asia Religion .always held a do1ninant place in South Asian history . Before the arr ival of lsla1n, most South Asians practiced Hinduis1n, while a smaller number identified themselves as Buddhi sts. South Asians encountere d a starkly different religion when Islam arrived. • 1Iindus pray to many gods, while Islam is strictly monotheistic . • I-Iindu temples and artwork are replete with pictures of deities , while Muslhns disapprove of any visual representation of Allah. • I-Iinduisth was associated with a hierarchical caste system , wh ile Islam bas ahvays called for the equality of all believers . • I-Iindus recognize seve ral sacre d texts, while Muslim s look to on ly th.e Quran for spiritual guidance. The ~-Urival of Islam The relationship between Hindu s and Muslims shaped the hi story of South Asia beginning in the 7th century and it contin ues to shap e regiona l culture and politics today. Isl ani initially ente red India forcefully yet eventually took on a more peacefu l approa_ch. Bu t while Islam was a unive rsalizing religion, one that wante d to proselytize , or actively seek conve rts, Musli1n rulers found early in their reign that forcing their Hi11duand B.u ddhist subjects to convert was not successful. Thus , most converts came to Islam voluntarily. Many Muslim merchants in_the Indian Ocean trade moved to Indi an port cities and married. Their wives often ended up converting to their hu sband's religion . With its emphasis on the equa lity of aU believers , Islam also attracted low-caste Ifu dus who hoped that conve rsion would improve their social status. In this sense , Isla1nin india was like Christianity -inthe Roma:n.Empire. Both appea led to the people who suffere d the most under the existing socia l structure . The largest numbers of con:ve1ts to Islam. however , were Buddhi sts. Corruption among the n1onks and raid s on n1onasteries by ear1y Muslim conquerors left the Buddhist religion disorg(lillZed. The spread of Islrun helpe d make Buddhism a minority religion in its place of bitth . (06nnect: spre.adof Islam in S9uth ~i,:a to the spreaa of Make ~p.outlilie ~omp¥ilig tl.i~ B_ucldhi~m in China. See Topic 1.l. ) 0 DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA 25 Social Structures in South Asia The <_1rr ival of Ishun did little to alter the basic struchtre of society in South Asia . India 's caste system is its strongest historical continuity. While obviously inequitable , it 1. ent stability to a politically decentralized land. The caste system was flexib le and able to accommodate newcome rs. Muslim merchants and migrants , even though they were not I-Iindu, found a p.lace for themse lves within the caste hierarchy based on their occupation . These subcastes . bas.ed on occupation operated like workers' guilds , soon becoming absorbed into the socia l fabr ic of Indian society. Connect: Write a para'gr~p.h compar ing the caste system in ~outhAsia to the ·social structures in China-inthe period frQm 1200: t0 1450. See Top ic 1. 1:) At the same tim e., tnost of those who tried to escape the .grip of the caste system failed. The low-caste Hindus who converted to Islam as a way to impro ve their socia l status usuall y did not achieve that goa l. Individua ls required tnor e education and opportunities for better jobs , not just a new religion, to help them escape their low status in life . As Islam spread , Mu slims v•aried how - they applied its core teachings , depending on their culture before converting . For example , lsla)TIdid not alter gender t'elatioils greatly. In South Asia , women in the I-Iilidu tradition were confined to a separate social sphere, and Islamic women received similar trea:tmenl. In .Southeast Asia , women enjoy e:d 1nore independenc e before the arrival of Islrun . Thi s pattern continued as p eop le beca111eMus lilns. Thus , converts in South .and SoutheastAsia found ways to accommodate a new faith , but most people did not reject th eir traditions in the process. Cultural Interactions in South Asia People in South Asia and the Midd.le East shared their intellectual and cultural achievements with each other. For examp le, Arab astronomers and 111athen1at icians added to the body of knowled ge begun by their Indian counte rpart s. Indian developm ents in algebra _and geo1netry were trru1slated into Arabic , and spread throughout Dar al-Islam . One re·sult of this movem ent of ideas was that the numeral system r~ferred to in the West as "Arabic num era ls," acn1ally originated in fudia. In India itself, sultans erected buildings melding the intricate artistic details ofHindu art with the geometric patte1us preferred by Is lamic architeeture. The city of Delhi is filled with examp les of lsJarnic architecture built during the Delhi Sultanate. One frunous examp le, the Qutub M inar, stands in the southe1n part of the city. R11lers from the De lhi Sultanate built an elaborate mosque on top of a Hindu templ e and us ed materials for the mo sque fro1n neru·by Hindu and other religious shrines. Towering over ·the mosque is the Quh 1b Minar itse lf, a gigantic .le~g tower , the tallest structur e in India today. Historians debare the reason for its construction; one obvious function is its presence as a symbol of Islamic influence and , at one tim e, dominance of northern India . 26 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION An entirely new language developed among Muslims of South Asia: Urdu . Urdu melded the gra1n1natical pattern of Hindi (the language of Northern Indians) , and with the vocabulary of Arab ic and son1e elements of Farsi (the language of Persians). Today, Urdu is the official language of Pakistan. The Bhakti Movement Beginning in the 12th centtu-y, some Hindus began to draw upoil traditional teachings about the importance of emotion in their spiritual life. Rather than emphasize studying texts or perfo rming rituals, they focused on developing a strong attachment to a particular deity. This deve lopment , known as the Bhakti Mov ement, started in southern India. It \Vas especially appea ling to many believers because it did not diseriminate against women or people of low .social status. For exainp le, one of the most famous figures of the Bhakt i Movement would be a fema le, the poet Mira Bai, who.lived in the 16th century. Though the bhaktis wete Hindus , they wete similar in son1e ways to Sufi Muslims. Both groups were mystical movements, ones that emphas ized .inner reflection in order to achieve .a direct personal relationship with a deity. Because they placed less emphasis on strict adherence to traditional ritua ls and beliefs ; bhaktis and Sufis each appealed to people outside their traditions. Just as the Sufis l1elped spreadlslain, the Bhaktis helped spread Hinduism. Source: U tinkstottk R9ligjous s_trµctw:esin India oll:en de monstrate syncretis m i11ard1itecturc. Qutub Minar combines towers c-00101011 in Hindu temples with donws common ir11shuhic mosques . DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA 27 Southeast Asia Like China , South Asia strongly influenced its .neighbors, particularly the lands of Southeast Asia-today 's Indones ia, Malaysia, Ca1nbodia , Thailand , Laos, and Vjetnam . Indian merchants had contact with these Southeast Asian lands as early as 500 B.C.E . The merchants sold gold, silver, metal goods , and textiles in the r egion and brought back its fine spices. Trade voyages introduced the Indian religions of I-lindui.sm and Buddhi sm to Southeast Asia . Much of the region became and remains today mostly Buddhist. The region , like Southwest Asia, was strateg ically significant. Whoever controlled this region cou ld influence the valuab le trade between South.Asia and East Asia . Sea-Based Kingdoms Because SoutheastAsia was so in1portant, several kingdoms emerged there. Two were pai1icularly long-lasting: • The Srivijaya Empire (670--1025) was a Hindu kingdom based on Sumatra . It built up its navy _and prospered by charging fees for ships traveling between India and China . • The Majapa,bit Kingdom (1293-1520) based on Java bad 98 tributaries at its height. Like Srivijaya , Majapahit sustained its power by controlling sea routes. Unlike Srivijaya, Majapahit \Vas Buddhist. Land -Bas.ed Kingdoms Other kingdoms in Southeast Asia drew power from their control over land . The Sinha la dynasties in Sri Lanka bad their roots in the .arrival of early immigrants , most likely merchants , fron1 north India. Buddhists atTived in the 3rd century B .C.E . and the island became a center of Buddhist study . Mon aste ries and nunneries flourished. Both men and vvomen found a life of contemp lation and simple living attractive. Buddhism was so deeply embedded that Buddhis t priests often served as advisors to the monarchs . The goven1ment of one of the kingdoms oversaw the construction of a network of reservo irs and canals to create an excellent irrigation system, which contributed to economic growth. However, attacks by invaders fi·om India and conflicts be.tween the n1ona:rchy and the pLiests nlti1nately weakened the kingdoms. The Khmer Empire, also .known.as the Angkor Kingdom (802-1431) , W<°\S. situated near the Mekong River and also did .not depend on maritime prowess for its power. The kingdom's comp lex irrigation and drainage syste n1s led to eeonO"mic prospe1ity , making it one of the most prosperous kingdo1ns in Southeast Asia. Irrigation allowed farmers to harvest rice crops severa l fime·s a year, and drainage systems reduced the impact of the heavy monsoon rains. The Khmer capital was at Angkor Thom . The temples there showed the variety of Indian cultural influences on Southeast Asia. Hindu artwo rk and sculptures of deities .abounded. But at some point the Kluner ntlers becan1e Buddhist. Starting in the 12th and 13th centuries, they added Buddhist sculptu res and artwo rk to the temples without destroying any of the Hindu artwork . 28 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION During the same period and only one-ha lf mile from__AngkorThom, ntlers constructed the ornate and majestic Buddhist temple complex of Angkor Wat In 1431 , the Thais of the Sukbothai Kingdom invaded the area, forcing the Khmers out. N evertbeless, ruins of the magnificent stn1ctures in Angkor Thom and Angkor Wat still stan d, testifying not only to the sophistication of Southeast Asian culture but also to the powerful influence of Indian culture on tl1e region. Source: RajoS1 hu11fl'niming of Mccrnbal. hllps:/!cn.w1kiquo1c.orgiwlki/Mccra_ Uait1/111cu i11/Filo: MccmbaiJpg. TI1e great temple complex a t Angkor Wat. iJ1 both its ·archit ectur e and it s use.. reflects the .interac tion betw een H.indui~m and Buddhi sm.in Soutlwa st Asia. Islam Islan1's m6ve1nent into the Indian Ocean reg ion paralleled its expansion elsewhere . The first Southeast Asian Mus.lims were local merchants , who conve 1ted in the 700s , hoping to have better trading !'elations with the Islami c merchants who an·ive d on their shores. Islam \Vas most popular in urbanareas at the tin1e.Is lam spread to Sumatra , Java , andthe Malay Peninsula. Today , Indon esia includes more Musli1.ns than any other country . Sufis Sufis also did missionary work in Southeast Asia . (See Topic 1.2.) Because of their tolerance for local faiths , people felt comfortable converting to Islan1. They could be Mus lin1s and sti ll honor loca l deities. KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNMENT : South Asia Vijayanagara Empire (Southern India) Rajput kingdoms (North India) Delhi Sultanate - GOVERNMENT : Southeast Asia Srivijaya Empire (Sumatra) Majahapit Kingdom (Java) Sinhala dynasties .(Sri Lanka) Khmer Empire (Cambodia) Sukhothai Kingdom (Thailand) - CULTURE: Religion proselyt ize Bhakti Movement CULTURE: Blending Qutub Min•ar Urdu DEVELOPMENTS IN SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA 29 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the excel])t below. "The }lindus believe that there is no _counh-y but theirs, no nation like theirs, no kings like theirs , no religion like theirs , no science like theirs. They are haughty , foolishly vain, self-conceited , and sto lid. They are by nature [reluctant] in communicating that 'vvhich they know, and they take the greatest possib le care to withhold it from men of another caste among their own peop le , stilJ mu.ch more , of course, from any foreigner .... Their haughtiness is such that, if you tell them of any science or scholar inK.horasan [a regionin southwest Asia] and Per sia, they wi ll think yo u to be both an ignoramus and a liar. If they trave led and mixed with other nations, they wou ld soon change their mind, f.or their ancesto rs were not as natTow-minded as the pre·sent generation is." Al-Beruni, .Muslim scholar at the court ofMahmud of Ghazni , e_arly l lth century 1. Which element of Al-Beruni 's point of view does he exp ress 1uost clearly in this passage? (A) I-le was a monotheist writing about peop le he cons ider ed polytheists . (B) li e was a Muslim who was writ ing about I-Iindus. (C) I-le belonged to the group that had conquered the people he was writing about. (D) I-le gr_ew up in a reg ion to the west of the region he was desc ribing. 2 . Which historical develop1nent most directly supports al-Benmi 1s interpretation of earl ier fud ian cu lture? (A) the developme nt of the caste system (B) the policies on religion of Ashoka (C) the expansion of the Umayyads in the Sind (D) the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni 3. The intended audience of this excerpt most lik ely consisted of (A) young l-Iindus in Khorasan _and Persia (B) the older gene ration of Vaishyas in So nth Asia (C) Buddhists who might not be familiar w ith Hindus (D) Mus .lims who li ved in South Asia 30 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passag e below to answer all p~rts of the question that follows. ·' 'Moreover, you should not say this , since even fools know that wives should follow their husbands . Foi: thus it is said: • Moonlight goes with the moon , the lightning clings to the cloud , and women follow their husbands .... • A woman who foHows after her husband shall surely purify three families : her mother 's, her father's, and that into which she was give n in marriage . ... • Wh~tprofi t is there in the life of a wretched woman who has Losther husband ? Her bod y is as usele ss as a banyan tree in a cemetery .... ' Thus speaking she fell at the king 's feet , begging that a fire be pro vided for her. And when the king heard her words ... he caused a pyre to be e.rect~d ... ·and gav.e her Leave .... and in his pre sence [she] entered the fire toge ther with her husband 's body." Anonymous collection of stories about a semi-legendary king in South Asia named Viknuna, assembled between the 11th and 13th centuries (A) Describe ONE way in which the status of wotnen in South Asia was similar to the status of men in the same region in the 12th or 13th centur y. (B) Describ e ONE way in which the status of \vomen in South Asia changed betwee n 1200 and 1450. (C) Explain ONE way iil. which Islam in India betwe en 1200 and 1450 was lik e Christianity in the Roman Empir e. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Describ e ONE way in which politica l structures were sitnilar betw een South ern Indi a and North ern Indi a in the period c. 1200c. 1450. (B) Describ e ONE way in which two kingdoms in South east Asia differed in the period c. 1200-c. 1450. (C) Explain ONE exan1ple of Isla1nic influenc e in South and Southeast Asia during the period c. 1200-c. 1450. DEVELOPMEN TS IN SOUTH AND SOUTHEAST ASIA 31 THINK AS A HISTORIAN : IDENTIFY CLAIMS A plaim is a statement asse.1te.d t@lDetrue. It differs fr@mprovab le fact; such as ' 'Baghda:clwas the Jai;gest city in the Abhasid Empire ' 1 or, simple preference , such as "Wotld history is more interestin}f tban a:lgebra ." 1nstea~ in mod~rn schotarship, .a cl,aim expr_esses a viewpo ,int with. which ihQugQ,tfulpeople can reas0nably disagree. lt f0m1Sthe b~sis Qf an cli"g ument-reasoning- backetl .up with evidenc.e. A claim is often so mewhat general state n1ent that reflects a judgm ent shaped by the pqint of yiew of the writer. fu some historieal texts with a clear bias~ the claim. may si1nply be 'the aiuthor's main idea , and it m~y pe based more on opmion or :ovei;g~ne.ral:ization th&n rigorous reasoning . In 1nodem:scholatship, however, clainls should be a gronnde ·a in facts and infonn :etl opinions. While claim s are general , the evidence used to support them sJ;rou1dbe specific. ·· Reread the excetpt by .the Muslini scholar A l-Ben ,id, on pag e 30. D etennin e whic h senlenee below ·best expres.ses l1is clai,,n ~P /'09kf.ng for the ,nosl genm·cdstate ment. Then e.t-plaih,whet her the c:hiitnis based on frzjonneil 0pini0ns 0r overg_eneraTizat ions : 1. [Hindu s] are ha'.IJglity , foolishly vain, s elf-c@neeited , and stolid. 2. Tbe 'ftindus believe that there is iio c.ou:ntry but their ~, no nation like theirs~n0 kingslike theii:s, no religion like theii:s, no .sc:ienc;e lik e theirs . l. The prese.nt gen·e ration ()fHindus iS'narrow-:min,_ded. 4. If you tell them of any scieno~ or scholar in Khorasan and Rersia, they will think you t~ be botli ao.ign pranrus a1id a lia:t. REFLECT ON THE CHAPTER ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , explain how various beliefs and practices in South .and Southeast Asia .affected society and the dev elopment of states. 32 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 1.4 Developments in the America .s I love the song of the mocklngbird, Bird of four hundred voices, I love the color .of jade And the intoxica'ting scent of flowers , But more than all I love my brother, ,nan! -Nezahua lc0y0t l (1402-1 472) , Azte.c poet Essential O.uestion: What states developed in the An1erica~. and how did they change over tin1e? Fonowing the decline of the Olmecs in Mesoamerica and the Chavin in the Andes , new civilizations , such as the Mayans, the Aztecs , and the Incas rose in the same regions. In addition , the first large-scale civilization in NorthAmerica dev eloped . As inAfro .-Euras ia, severaLofthese civilizations developed strong states, large urban centers , and complex belief syste1ns. Current knowledge about these civilizations combines archaeological evidence , oral traditions, and writings by Europeans who crune to the An1ericas after 1492. One poen1 recorded by the Spanish was the one above from au Aztec writer. The Mississippian Culture The first large-scale civilization in North America emerged in the 700s or 800s in what is now the eastern United States. Since .it started in the Mississippi River Valley, it is known as the Mississippian culture. While other cultures built 1nonumental buildings , Mississippians built eno1mous earthen n1ounds, some of which were as tall as 100 feet and covered an area the size of 12 football field.s. The largest of these mounds is Cahokia , located in southe1n fllinoi s. Government and Society The Mississippian society had a rigid elass structure. A chief called the Great Stu1ruled each lar ge town. B.elow the Great Sun was an upper class of priests and nobles and a lower class of fa1n1ers, hunt ers, merchants , and .artisans. At the botto ·m were slaves, who usually were prisoners of war . In general, wo1nen famied and m en hllllted . The Mississippians had a matrilineal society, which means that social standing was determined by the woman 's side of the family. For example , when the Great Sta1 died, the title passed not to his own son , but to a sister's son. DEVELOPMENTS IN THE AMERICAS 33 The Decline of Mis-sissippian Civilization People abandoned Cahokia around 1450 , and other large Mi ssissipp ian cities by 1600. I-Iisto1ians disagree on why the Mississippian people moved . One theory posits that flooding or other weather extremes caused crop failures and the collapse of the agticuJturaL economy needed to sustain the populations of the large cities. Another theory . suggests that diseases introduced by the Europeans decimated the population. Chaco and Mesa Verde Soon after the rise of the Missis sippia n Civilization , various cultures emerged in what is now the southweste1n United States. Livin g :in a dry region , people developed ways to collect , transport , and store water efficiently. 1n addition , because of the climate , trees were small and scarce, so peopl.e had little wood to use to build homes. Two cultures became well-kno wn for their innovations: • The Chaco built large housing structur es u_s:ing stones and clay, some of which included hundreds of rooms. • The people of Mesa Verde built multi-story hom _es into the sides of cliffs using bricks made of sandstone. Both groups declined in the late 13th century as the clin1ate became drier. The Maya City-States Mayan civilization reached its height between 250 and 900 C.E. Mayans stretched over the southern part of Mexico and much of what is now Belize, I-londur-as, and Guatemala. Most lived in or near one of the approximate ly 40 cities that ranged in size fi:0m 5,000 to 50,000 people. At its peak, as many as 2 million Mayans populated the region. Mayan Gover nme nt The main form of Mayan governm ent was the city-state. each rnled by a king and consisting of a city and its surrounding te1Titory.Most rulers were 1nen. However , when no male heir was available or old enoug h to govern , Mayan women ruled. Wars between city-states were common. At times, city-states were overthrown. However , M.ayans rarely fought to control territory. More often they fought to gain n:ibute-payme1its fro1n the conquered to the couq11eror-an d captives to be used as huma n sacrifices during religious ceremonies. Each Mayan king claimed to be descended fron1 a god . The Mayans believed that when the king died, he would become one with his ancestorgod . The king directed the activities of the elite scribes and priests who_ administered the affairs of the state. Royal rule nsua lly passed fro1n father to son, but .kings who lost the suppo1i of the people were sometimes overthrown. The co1nmon people were r equired to pay taxes, nsually in .the fonn of crops, and toprovide labor to the governtnent City-states had no standing armies, so when war erupted, governments required citizens to prov ide military service. No centra l government ntled all Mayan lands, although often one city-state \Vas the strongest in a region and would dominate its neighbors. 34 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION M ayan Religion, Science , and Technology The M ayans we re innovative thinkers and inventors. For exainp le, they incorporated the concept of zero.into their nun1ber syste1n, developed a co1nplex writing system , an d learne d to make 1ubber out of liquid collecte d from rubb er plants. Mayan scienc e and religion were linked thr ough .astronomy . Based on the calendar, priests decide d when to celeb rate religious cere 1nonies and whethe r to go to war . As a result , keeping .an accur ate calendar was very important. Althou gh the Mayans bad no telescopes , they made ve1y precise obser vatoties atop pyramids such as the one at Chichen Itza . Their observat ions enabl ed priests to design a calen dar more acc1u-ate than any used in Etu-ope at the time. One task of pr iests , who coul d be eithe r n1ale or female , was to conduct ceremonies hon oring many deities. Among the most important deities were those of the sun, rain , and corn . Mayans 1nade offerin gs to the gods so praye rs 1night be answere d. War captives were sometimes killed as offerings. (Connect Com1)are 1he politica l structures of the M a3/ans·with the paliti._ealstruct ures of SoutTuAsia. SeeTopic 1.3.) Source_:Thiolc.«l.o\ik l\ifaya11pyramids . wit h steps goillg up the s.idc. we re similar to Mesopotamian zigg urats. Similarl y shaped archite crure cau be folllld from Spaiu and Algeria China and lndou esia. . to The Aztecs The Aztecs , .also known as the Mexicas, we re origina lly hunt er-ga therers who 1nigrate d to centr al M exico from the north in the 1200s. In 1325, they found ed their capital Tenoc htitl an on the site of what is now Mexico City. Over the next 100 years , they conquered the sUrroun ding peoples .and creat e:d an empire that stretche d from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Ocean. Capital City The Aztecs locate d Tenochtitlan on .an island in the middle of a swampy lak e in order to protect it fro 1n attacks. Tenochtitlan grew t6 ahn ost 200,000 people, making it one of the largest cities in the world . To provide water for the city, they built a .network of aqueducts. At the cente r of the city, theAztecs built a pyrrunid that ro se 150 feet into the air. This Great Pyran1id and other pyrainids , temples , and pa.laces were made of stone. On Lake Texcoco , the Aztecs built floating gardens ca lled china,npas to increase the amount of space for food production. The Aztecs dug ditches to us.e .lake water to irrig~te their fields and to drain parts of th e Lakefor more land . DEVELOPMENTS INTHE AMERICAS 35 Sourte: DBQ/G DAGUORTI/ GrLµ1gcr , NYC: The construction of chinampas in Mesoame rica w·asone way people expanded the land on which to grow crops. Government, Economy, and Society As the Aztecs conquered much of Mesorun erica , they developed a tribute system that insured their don1inance. Conquered peopl e were forced to pay tribute, surrender lands, and perform 1nilitary service. Tribut e included practica l goo ds such as food, cloth , and firewood, as well as Luxury items such as feathe rs, beads , and je welry . The Aztecs allowed Ioca LruJersto stay in their positions to serve as nibu te collectors. Thi s allowed Azt ec political do1ninance without direct administrative control. In exchange, the conquered people were extended Aztec protection. To admini~ter the e1npire, the Aztecs grouped city-states into provinc es. They 1noved wa1Tiors and their families to each province's capital to make sure the provinc e remain ed under Aztec control. In addition , an Aztec official was stationed in each capital to collect tribute from loca l officials. --ule by relig ious .leaders. At Aztec government was a theocracy, which is 1. the top was the emperor, known as the Great Speaker, who was the political ruler as well as a divine representative of the go ds. Next in the social hi erarchy were land-owning nobles , who also formed the majority of Aztec military l eadership . Next in rank were scribes ru1dhealers , followed by craftspeople and traders . A special n1erchant class called pochte ca traded in luxury goods. Below the traders were the peasants and s.oldiers. Aztec people could be ens laved as well, usually because they did not pay their debts or were being punished for crimes. Besides being used for labor, enslaved peop le were also offered up .as sacrifices in religious ceremoni _e·s. R eligion The intrica te and complex religion of the Aztecs was central to their society. They worshipped an ever-evo lving pantheon of hundreds of deiti es, many of whom were consid ered to have both mal e and fe1nale aspects. 36 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Worship among the Aztecs invo lved a great many rituals and feast days as we.ll as hum an sacrifices. Tl1e Aztecs believe d that the gods bad sacrificed then1selves in order to create the world-thus human sacrifice and bloodletting -was a so1tof repayment and atonement for human sin. I-Iuman sacrifice probabl y ha d a politicaJ compon ent, in the sense that it den1onstrated the great mi ght of the Aztec Empire in dramat ic fas hion . The number of human sacrifices may never be known. Mu ch of the information a bout Aztec society co1nes from Spanish invade rs, who 1nay hav e exagge rated the extent ofh u1nan sacrifice i.norder to make the Aztecs seem more deserv ing of conquest. Rol e of Wo.men Women played an ilnp ortant role in the Azt ec· tribnte system since they wove the valuabl e cloth that local rulers. demand ed as part of the regular tribute . As the demand for cloth tribLite increased, art Aztec husband nu ght obta in n1ore than one wife in orde r to be able to pay the hibute. Whi le most Aztec women work ed in their hom es, so me beca.me priestesses, midwi ves , healers, or merchant s. A few nob lewo 1nen worked as scribes to female members of royal families. Therefore , at least these few women knew how to rea d and write. The D ecline of the Az tecs By the late 15th century , the Aztec Empire was -in declin e. The Aztecs ' compar atively low Jeve l of technology-such as the lack of whee led vehicles and pack ani1nals-1neant that agriculture was arduous and inefficient. The Aztecs ' commitm ent to nulitary victory and the cons tant desire for more human sacrifices induced the leadership to expan d th e empir e beyo nd what it could reasonably gove 1u . Finall y, the extrac tion from conqu ered people of tribute and sacr ifice victims inspired niore resentmen t than loyalty. Because of this rese ntm ent ,.man y tribes ru led by the Aztecs were ready to rebel if they thou ght they had an opportunity to succeed . This opportunity would come later, wh en Spaniards arrived in 1519. The Inca In 1438 , a triba l Jeader who ca lled hims elf Pachacuti, which me.ans "transforme r" or "shake r'' of the earth, began conquering the tribes living near what is now Cuzco , Peru. His 1nilitary victories , fo llowed by those of his son, combined the small tiibes into .a full-fledged state, the Incan Empir e. It exten ded -from p1·esent-day Ecuador in the north to .Chile in the south. By 1493, Pa chacut i's gran dson , Huayna Capac , ruled the emp ire. I-le focused on consolidating and managing the many land s conquered by his pred ecessors. Gove rnment, Economy, and Society In order to rule the exte nsive te1rito1y efficie ntly, the Incan Empire was. split into four provinces , each with its o~r.n govern or ·and bur eauc racy. Conquered leaders who de1nonstrated loyalty to the emp ire were rewarded. In contrast to the peopl e Living under the Aztecs, conqu ered people under the Inca did not have to pay tribute . RatheT, they were subject to the .mit' a syste m, n1andato1y public servi ce. Men between the ages of 15 and 50 provided agric ultural and other fonns of labor, including the cons tru ction of roads. DEVELOPMENTS INTHE AMERICAS 37 Religion The nan1e Inca means "peop.le of the sun," and Inti, the sun god, \Vas the most important of the Incan gods. Inca ruJers were considered to be lnti 's representative on the earth.. As the center of two critical elements in Incan religion-honoring of the sun and royal ancestor veneration-the Temple of the Sun in Cuzco formed the core ofh1can religion. Royal ancestor veneration was a practice intended to extend the rule of a leader. Dead rulers were mun1mi:6ed and continued to "rule " as they had in Weand were thoughl to retain ownership of their servants , possessions, and property . Thus , Incan rulers could not expect to inherit land or property upon assunung power . This practice was .a partial motivator for the constant expansion of the empire. Priests were consulted before ilnportant actions. To the Inca , the gods controlled all things, and priests could determine the gods ' will by studying the arrange1nent of coca leaves in a dish or by watching the movement of a spider. Priests diagnosed illnesses, predicted the outcome of battles , solved crimes , and detennined what sacrifices should be made to which god. Serious events such as famines , plagues , and defeat in war called for human sacrificesalthough scholars do not believe that human sac1ifice was practiced with the sanie frequency as it probab ly was with the Aztecs. Inca religion included sotne animism-the belief that elements of the physical world could have supernatural powers . Called huaca, they could be large geographical features such as a river or a 1nountain peak. Or, they could be very small objeets such as a sto11e, a plant, or a built object, such as a bridge . Achievements In mathematics , the Inca developed the quipu, a system of knotted strings used to record num _erical information for tra_de and engineering and for recording n1e·ssages to be carried throughout the empire. In agriculture , the Inca developed sophisticated terrace systems for the ctLltivation of crops such as potatoes and maize . The terraces utilized a technique called waru war1J, raised beds wj-th cha1111els that captured and redirected rain to avoid erosion during floods and that stored water to be used during dry periods. The Inca were especially good builders of b1idges '-11ld i:oads. Using captive labor, they constructed a massive roadway system called the Carp a Na n, with some 25,000 miles of roads used main ly by the government and military. In a n1otmtainous region , bridges \.Vereparticularly important. Declin e Upon the an·ival of Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro in 1532, the Incan Empire was in ,the midst of ,a civil war of succession after the death of emperor 1-Iuayna Capac. Some scho lars believe that the civil war weakened the Inean arn1y, making it easier for Pizarro 's forees to prevail . Others believe that other factors such as diseases introduced by the Europeans led to the decline. In 1533, the Spanish conque red the core of the empire , a.Ithough outposts held out until 1572 . Today, the Inca 1uins at Machu Picchu are one of the n1ost-visited site's in the world . 38 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Continuities and Diversity Historians have debated how closely Mesoamerican cultures are related to one another. Many argue that most are based on the Olme.c civilization , since many later cultures adopted so1ne of its features. For example, the Olmecs' feathered snake-god becam_e fundamental in both the Mayan and Aztec religion . The subjects depicted on .Olmec pottery have been .found in .pottery in other civilizations. The Ohnecs ' ritual sacrifices, pyran1ids , and ban courts were als.o continued in other cultures . Other historians_argue that different cultures developed co1nplex civilizations more or less independently. Comparing Three American Civilizations Maya Aztec Inca Region Mexico/Central America Central Mexico Andes 1nSouth Amer ica Period 400-1517 1200-1521 1200-1533 Crops • Corn • Beans • Squash • Corn · Beans • Squash • Tomatoes • Corn • Cotton Potatoes Trade • Moderate · Extensive Religion • Polythe istic • Some human sacr ifice • Polytheist ic • Some human sacrifice Government • Organized city -states . each with a king • Wars for tr ibute • Powerful king • Wars for captives · System of tribute • Powerful king • Wars for conquest • Mit 'a system Technology and Thought • Writing • Step pyramids • Accura te calendar • Step pyramids • Chinampas · Accurate _calendar • Waru waru Roads Ma~;onry Reasons for Decline • Drought" • Deforestatron • European d iseases • Subjec ts rebelled • Span ish attacks • European diseases KEY TERMS BY THEME CULTURE: No rth Amer ica Mississipp ian matr ilineal society GOVERNMENT: Az tec Mexica theocracy TECHNOLOGY: Mound- Build ing Cahokia RELIGION : Aztec human sacrifice CULTURE: May an city-states . . Limited . Polythe.istlc • Some human sacrifice . . • Civil war • Spanish attacks ·-GOVERNMENT: Inc a - Pachacuti lncan Empire mit' a system TECHNOLOGY : Inca Carpa Nan RELIGION : Inc a Temp le of the Sun animism DEVELOPMENTS INTHE AMERICAS 39 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTION S Questions 1 to 3 refer to the pas sage below. "The Ink:a [Inca] ruled the greatest empire on earth. Bigger than Ming Dynasty China, bigger than Ivan the Great 's expanding Russia , bigger than Songhay [Songhai] in the Sahel or powerful Great Zin1babwe in the East Afiica tablelands , bigger than the cresting Ottoman Empire, bigger than the Triple Alliance (as the Aztec Empire is 1nore precisely kilo~vn), bigger by far than any European state, the Inka dominion extended over a staggering thirty-two degrees of latitude-as if a single power held sway from St. Petersburg to Cairo. The empire encompassed every imaginab le type of terrain, fron1 the rainforest of upper Amazonia to the deserts of the Peruvian coast and the twenty-thousand-foot peaks of the Andes in between. '1f imperial potential is judged in tem1s of envirorunental adaptability ;' wrote the Oxford historian Felipe Fernandez-A1mesto, 'the hlka [Inca] were the most impressive empire bujlders of their day. ' " Charles Mann, 1491: New Re vela.tions of the Am ericas Before ColuJ/'1bu s, 2.005 1. Why were the Inca able to achieve the acco1nplishment described in the passage? (A) They divided the ir empire into four provinces, so it would be easier to govern. (B) They den1anded heavy tribute fron1 conquered groups living on the edges of their e1npfre. (C) They routinely sent armies through tbe empire to collect tribute . .CD)They allowed conquered people to retain their own customs, language, and religion . 2. The Carpa Nan demonstrates the main point expressed by the writer in the excerpt because (A) it made living in the rainfo rest possib le (B) it provided a common system of written communication (C) it provided irrigat ion for terraced farnilands (D) it connected the parts of the e1npi re 3. When the author of the passage desctibes the Incan civilization as the "greatest e1npire on earth, " he means that they (A) constructed great bui lctings .and otber structures (B) conquered other empires , including the Aztecs .(C) adapted successfully to diverse environments (D) were the wealthiest civilization in the world in 1491 40 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to ans\ver all parts of the question that follows. "U nluckily, the accounts of Spanish authors concerning Maya mythology do not agree with the representations of the gods delineated [described precisely J in the c.odices. That the three codices have a n1ythology in common is certain. Again, great difficulty is found in comparing the deities of the codices with those 1·epresented by the carved and stucco bas-reliefs of the Maya region .. lt will thus be s·een that very considerable difficulties be-set the student in this mythological sphere, So few data have yet been collected regarding the Maya mythology that to dogmatize [represent as absolute truth] upon any subject connected with it would indeed be rash [impulsive]. But much bas been accomplished in the past few decades, and evidence is slowly but surely accumu lating fron1 which sow1d conclusions can be drav1n.., Lewis Spence , The Lvlyths ofAtlexico and Peru, 1913 (A) Describe Spence 's clait11in the passage above . (B) Describe ONE piece of evidence from an outside source that supports Spence's claim. (C) Exp lain how Spence ~s argument affects understand~g Mayan histo ry. 2. Answer aU:parts of the question that follows . (A) Describe ONE way in which cul ture from the Incan civi lization is similar to the culture of the Aztec civilization. (B) Explain ONE difference in how the Incas and the Aztecs maintained their empires. (C) Explain ONE reason why the peop le living under Aztec rule \1/anted a change in ru lers at the tilne the Eu1:opea11sarrived. DEVELOPMENTS INTHE AMERICAS 41 Tf11NKAS A HISTORIAN: IDl;NT IFY EVIDENCE So.urce:_Libraryof C0111asbJn_gt9n. ~'.y\ q ;C. Cn.<g. no, L€'-l!ISZC4-743) 1'.; trc i:ruagew,the left i~ m llJ_Ustl'.fttion fr',01n a repri')dtiction of the· 16th eenru:ry Codex Ma.gJ.ia~c·<b.i i, a ·primary source. The artist is dc_p.icti:Q g an A'Zteoan saorificeritual a t1~m~ th.al_offers Ilea.itro the .,,.,;u: god l:Iuitzilopoch!li. P1imary sources arc thos e created durin g the bistqric period to which they refec. They .rr~the fustreeords Qfthe ,subjeet being desei:ibed and Secondary source ·s ~in contrast, inehide first-hand or eyewJtness:_r:epoits. ar thos e, that anal~e prunai,y sour~es oi: otbei; secondary sources to dra w eonclasions on a subje·ct. Historians u.$eboth kind~ of sourqes as evidence fo support their arguments . ~ 0 Th~ Code-~Maghabe cchi_ft,0111whiah the above illusttatio :n ls taken .i-s'cu1 aneient. n-1c£nus erJpt .that o,ffers histo1:ian& a p ri111a ,y source ,viih pqssible evidence -~bQut Aztec SQciety.JJ.,y ou were cwveloping ctn ar-gt(,1ne'fj,'t qbout the.A ztec pop·ula,tio11 atiit:u.de towatd h'1,ana11 sacrifice, what evidence tnight y 0u use.f;.•oflr this illustl :ation, m1d what argument n.1 ,ig,ht it support? s REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three parag raphs , identify the state s thaJ develo ped in the Americas and explain how they chan ged over ti1ne. 42 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION 1.5 Developments In Africa After that the chief of the poets mounts the steps of the pempi_[a raised platform on which the ruler sits] and lays his head on the sultan's lap, then climbs to the top of the pempi and lays his head first on the sultan 's right shoulder and then on his left, speaking all the while in their tongue, and finally he comes down again. I was told that this practice is a very old custom an1ongst them, prior to the introduction of Islam, and that they /,ave kept it up. - lbn Battuja , c. 1352 Essential Questi on: How and why did states develop in Airica .and change over"time? Ibn Battuta •s commentary on Mali society sheds light on the cultural forces at work in Sub-Saharan Africa during the 14th century. A scho lar from Morocco on the uorthv.1est coas.t of Africa , he \Vas well versed in Islamic law, also known as shariah. Islamic gove1nments in Mogadishu (east Africa) and Delhi (India) sought his advice and we lcomed him to their lands . Ton Battuta's travelogue demonstrate d how Isl~ 's phe1101nenalgro,vth :increased c.0n11ectionsamong culture ·s of Asia , Africa ; and southern Europe . As Ibn Battuta 's account 1nake·s clear , African societies that had adopted Islam kept many of the ir traditions. Some parts of Africa resisted Islam . To better defend themselves against attacks by Islamic forces , they built chm·ches with labyr inths , reservo irs , and tunne ls. Other parts of the continent , especially in the south, had little contaGt with Islam until later in.history. Political Structures in Inland Africa The deve lopment ofSub-SaharanA:frica was heavily shaped by the mig rations of Bantu-speaking people outward from west-centra l Africa . By the year l 000, 1nost of the r~gion ha d adopted ag ricultur e. With the sedenta 1y nature of agriculture, peop le needed more comp lex political relationships to govern themselves. In contrast to 1nost Asian or Eui-opean societies , those in SubSaharanAfrica di<lnot centra lize power under one leader or central government. Instead , communities formed .kin-b ased nehvorks , where families governed themse lves. A ma le bead of the network , a chief, mediated conflicts and dealt \Vith neighboring groups . Groups of villages became districts , and a group of chiefs decided among themselves 110wto solve the district's problems . DEVELOPMENTS IN AFRICA 43 Early State-Building and Trade in Africa ATL.4NT IC O CBA.N Representative Trade Routes ◄···· ······ ► Coastal ---► Indian Ocean ◄- - - ► Tran_s•Saharan o 500 Miles ,---, O 500 Kilometers As populations grew, kin-based networks beca1ne more difficult to govern. Competition among neighbors increased , which in tum increased fighting ·a1nong villages and districts. SutVival fo r small kin-based comm w1ities became more challenging. Though many such conm1unities continued to exist il1 Sub-Saharan Africa un til the 19th cenhtry, larger kingdo1ns grew in prominence, particularly after l 000. The Hausa Kingdoms Sometime before l 000 , in \Vhat is now Nigeria, people of the Hausa ethnic group formed seven states , the Hausa Kingdoms . The states were loosely connected tlu·ough kinship ties, though they too had no central authority. People establi shed prospering city-states , each with a speciality . For examp le, several were situated in plains where cotton grew well. Though the region lacked access to the sea, contact with people from outs ide the region was in1portant. Many Haus a benefited fi·om the thriving trans-Saharan trade , a network of trading routes a<,ross the great dese11. A state on the western edge of the region .specia lized in military matters and defended the states against attack. Because the states lacked a central .authority, however, they were frequently subject to domination fro1n outside. 44 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION In the 14th century, missionar ies introduc ed Islam to the region . ~Connett: Wrir e a par~gr,aph contn _1_sti:hg the decentralized ~oliticzj syste1ns,of the peoples in.rinla;n,. dAfri ca wilh th@se0fthe In~a. See Topic l.4.) Political Structures of West and East Africa Kingdo111Son both the western and eastern sides of Africa benefited from increased trade . The exchange of goods brought then1 wealth, political po_wer, and cultural dive rsity. The spread of Islam added to the religious divers ity of the continent, where animism and Christianit y were already practice d. Four of these .kingdoms were Ghana , Mali , Zimbab we, and Ethiopia . Ghana Nestled between the Sahara and the tropical rain forests of the We st African coast, th e kin gdom of Gh.ana was not in the same location as the 1nodern nation of Ghana. Histo rians believe ·that the kingdom had been founded during the 5th century, at least two centuries before the time ofMuhainmad , but Ghana reached its peak of influence from the 8th to the 11th centuries. Ghana 's rulers sold gold and ivory .to Muslirn ti-aders in exchan ge for salt~ copper, cloth , .and tools. From Ghana's capita l city, Koumbi Saleh, the kin grul ed a centralized governm ent aided by Iioble·s and an army equipp ed with iron wea pons. Source: Dadcrot / Wikimcd1a Comnmns T he gold artifacts (upper ) wero pan of the valuab le trans -Saharan trade in West Africa . Tb_e modem photo of foods .µid spices (lower ) shows the typ~s of goods tl1at bave been popu lar .in the Indian Ocean trade in East A.fric;asince !he 8th oe11turyC.E . DEVELOPMENTS IN AFRICA 45 Mali By the 12th century, wars withneighbo1ing socie tie s had permanently vveakened the Ghanaian .state. In its place arose seve ralnew trading soc ieties, the most powerful of which was Mali. You will read n1ore about Mali in Topic 2.4. Most scholars believe that Ma li's founding ntler , Sundiata , was a Muslim and used hi s connections with others of his faith to esta blish trade relationships with North African and Arab merchants . Sundiata cultivated a tbiivin g gold trade in Mali. Onder his stea dy Jeadership, Mali 's wealth grew tremendously. His nephew, Mansa Musa , made a pilgri1nage t6 Mec ca where his lavish displays of gold left a lasting impr essi on . (See Tqpic 2 .4 for the later developm ents in West Africa , such as the growth 0f the city of Timbuktu and the Songhai Empire.) Zimbabwe In East Africa, tbe architecture demonstrated the growing vvealth of onekingdom. Though mosthouses bad traditionally been constructed fron1 wood , by the 9th century chiefs had begu n to construct their "zhnbabwes ," the Bantt1 word for "dw ellings, " with stone. This word becrune the name of one of the most pow erful of aJl the East African kingdoms betwee n the 12th and 15th centUiies- Zimb~bwe. It was situate d betwee n the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers in 1nodern-day Zi1nbabwe and Mozambiq ue . Ziinbabwe built its prosperity on a mixture of agricu lture , grazing , trade , and, above all, go ld. Like Ghana .and Mali on tbe other side of the continent, Zimbabw e had rich gold fields , and ta,"<e s on the transport of gold made the k:ingdo1n wealthy ; While Ghana and M ali relied on land-based trade across the Sahara , Zimbab we traded with the coastal city-states such as Mffmbasa , Kilwa, and Mogadishu. Through these por ts, Zin1babwe was tied into the Indian Ocean trade , which co1111ectedEast Africa, the Midd le East , Sout h As ia , and East Asia . In East A:fi-ica, traders blended Bantu and Arabic to develop a .new language , Swahili . Today , Swahili is spoken by various groups in the African Great L.akes region as well as other parts of Southeast Africa. The 1ise and decline of Zm1babw e wasreflected in the defensive walls used to protect cities . By the end ofthe 13th century, a n1ass ive wall of stone, 30 feet tal l by 15 feet thick, stuTounded the cap ital city , which became known as the Great Zimbabwe. Th e stone wa ll was the-first larg e one on the continent ·that people built without mortar. Inside the wall , most of the roya l city's buildings \.Veremade of stone. 1n the late 15th century, nearly 20,000 peop Je resided within the Great Zimbabw e. How eve r, overgrazing so dam age d the surrounding environn1 ent that residents of the bustling capita l city abandoned it by the end of the 140 0s . The wall still stan ds in the modem country of Zin1babw e. Ethiopia Chris t ianity had spread from its origins along the east coast of the M editerranean Sea south into Egypt and beyo nd. In what is today Ethiopia , the kingdom of Axum developed . It prospered by trading goods obtaine d fro1n India , Arabia , the Ro1nan Empire , and the inte rior of Africa . Beginnin g in the 7th centu 1y , the spread of Islam made the reg ion more diverse religious ly. In the 12th centllly , a new Christian-J ed kingdom in .Ethiopia emerge:d. Its nLiers , like those of other countries , exp ressed the ir power throu gh architecture. They ordered the creation of 11 massive churches made entirely of rock. 46 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Source: Think srock This is one of the 11 Christj_anc_burchcs in Ethiopia built out of rock. Carved rock structu res had been a feature of Ethiopian religious architecture since the 2nd millenniUJ11B.C.E . .From the 12th through the 16th centuries, Ethiopia vvas an island of Christianity on the continent of Africa. Sepa rated from both tl1e Roman Catholic Church of western Europe .and the Or thodox Church of eastern Europ ·e , Ethiop ian Christianity developed indep endently. People combined their traditional fa ith traditions, su ch as ancestor veneration and beliefs in spi1its, with Christianity to create a distinct form of faith . Social Structures of Sub-Saharan Africa In Sub-Saharan Africa., strong central governments 1. -uling over large territories were uncommon. I nstead, Sub-Saharan Africa 's small communities were organized around severa l st:rucn 1res: kinship , age, and gender . Kinship connect ions allowe d people to identify first as memb ers. of a clan or family . .Age vvas another significant social marker. An 18-year-old could do more bard labor than a 60-year-old, but yo-llllger peopl e often relied on the advice of thei r elders. Thus, co1nn1unities divided work according to age, creating age grades or age sets . Finally , gender had an influentia l ro le in socia l organization.. • Men dominated most activities that required a specialized skill. For examp le, leather tanners and blacksmiths were typical ly m en. DEVELOPMENTS IN AFRICA 47 • Women generally engaged in agriculture and food gathering. They also took the primaiy responsibilities for carrying out domestic chores and raising their fa1nily's children. Slavery in Sub-Saharan Africa and South~vest Asia Slave1y had a Jong histo ry in Afiica . P1isoners of war, debtors, and criminals were often enslaved. Most men '111ds.ome women did agricultural wo1:k . Most women and some 1nen served :inhouseho lds. In many kin-based societies , people could not own land privately , but they could own other peop le. Owning a large number of enslaved people increased one 's social status . Slavery exist e:d in many fo1ms. Comparing Three Forms of Slavery Chattel D.omestic Debt Bonda .ge Des cription Slaves we re the legal property of the owner. Slaves served as cooks , cleaners , or 0th.er househo ld workers. Peop le became slaves, sometimes through mutua l agreement, to repay a debt. Example s Common in the Americas , 16th century to 19th century ·Common in C lassica l Greece and Rome, and in the Middle East Common in East Africa before the 15th century and In European colonies In the Amer icas Was enslavement permanent ? Yes Often Not in theory , although many slaves never regained freedom Were the children of slaves automatic ally slaves? Yes Often Ch lldr.en often inherited the debts ot their parents Did slaves have any rights? No Some: laws or .customs might prevent a master from se lling a slave Some: laws or customs might limit how severely .a master cou ld punish a slave A strong demand in the Middle East for ens laved workers resulted in an Indian Ocean slave trade between East Afiica .and the Middle East. ·This trade sta11:edsevera l centuries before the Atlant ic Ocean slave trade between West Africa and the Americas. In some places,it lasted into the 20th century . The enslaved East Africans, known in Arabic as zat,j, provided valuab le labor on sugar p lantations in Mesopotrunia. However , between 869 and 883, they and man.y Arab workers mounted a series of revolts known as the Zanj Rebellion. About 15,000 enslaved peopl e successfully captured the city of Basra and held it for ten years before being defeated. The large size and long length of time before it \.v.asdefeated n1ake the Zanj Rebellion one of the most success:fi1l slave revo lts in history . 48 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Cultural Life in Sub-Saharan Africa Playing music , creating visual arts, and telling stories were and conti nu e to be .important aspects of cultures eve rywhere because they provided enjoyment and mark rituals such as weddings and funera ls. In Africa , these activities carried additional significance . Because traditional Afrfcanreligions included ancestor venerat ion, song lyrics provided a means of con1municating with the spirit world. African music usually had a distinctive rhythmic pattern, and vocals were interspersed -.vith percussive elements such as handclaps , be.Us, pots , or ·gourds. Visual aits also common ly served a religious purpose. For exarnple, metalworkers created busts of past rulers so that ruling roya lty could look to them for guidance . Artists in Benin , West Africa, were famous for their intricate sculptures -in iron and bronze . In the late 19th centmy, the sophistication of these pieces of art would cause some Europeans to increase their respect for West African eultures . Griots and Griottes Literature , as it existed in Sub-Saharan Africa , was oral. Griot s, or storyte llers, ~rere the conduit s of history for .a community. Gtiots possessed encyc lopedic.know ledge of family lineages and the lives and deeds of great lead ers. In gene ral, griots were also adept at mus ic, singing their stories and accompanying t hemselves on instnunents , such as the drwns and a 12-string harp called the kora . The griots we re both venerated and feared as they held both the power of .languag e and of story . People .said that .a griot could sing your success or sing your downfal l. By telling and retell ing their stories and h istori es, the griots preserved .a peop le's histo1y and passed that histo1y on from generation to generation. Kings often sought their counselregardingpoliticaJ matters. When a griot died , it was as though a libra ry had burned. Just as men served as griots, women served as griottes. They wou ld sing at spec ial occasions, such as before a wed ding. For example , the griotte would counse l the bride to not talk back if her mother-in- law abused her or reassure the bride that if things got too bad, .she could return home . Griottes provided women with a sense of en1powennent in a patriarchal society. KEY TERMS BY THEME SOCIETY : Sub-Saharan kin-based networks Swahili Zanj Rebellion ECONOMY : Trade trans-Saharan trade Indian-Ocean 'trade Indian-Ocean ·slave trade TECHNOLOGY : Buildi ng Great Zimbc1owe GOVERNMENT: Ki nship chief Haui;a Kingdoms GOVERNMENT: West Africa Ghana Mali GOVERNMENT : East Africa Zimbabwe Ethiopia DEVELOPMENTSIN AFRICA 49 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the image below. Source: 2630bcii / TI;inkstock The ruins of-the wa ll at Orear Zimbabwe. 1. One achievement represented by the structure in the image \1/aSthat it was built (A) with techniques used by Arabs and the Portuguese (B) without mortar (C} without slave labor (D) away from any large settle1n ent of people 2. What trend among cities around the world of that era is reflected in this image? (A) Cities relied on walls for protection against attackers . (B} Cities were being founded in increasingly dry regions. (C) Cities were becoming less dependent on trade. (D) Cities were founded in open areas that were easier to defend. 3. One factor that contributed to the declines of both Great Zimbabwe and of the Mayans was (A) invasions by neighbors with iron weapons (B) contact w ith Europeans (C} environmenta l damage (D) ethnic conflicts within the comn1u11i ty 50 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the image below to answer all parts of the question that follows. Source: P,,inting nttributodlO Abrabum Cre-, qu"' . 1375. Gallien Oigit:tl Library. Th.ispaintin g ofMansa Musa shows him holding a gold coin aod wearing a gold crown . Sonw of thi; buildin gs in th<; paintin s ha v c dome s that were char:ictCJ:istic of Middle E.as_tem architecture . (A) Describe ONE way in which the painting shows a continuity in the sources of wealth of the kingdoms of Ghana and Mali . (B) Describe ONE way in which the pa i1it ing shows a connection between the Midd le East and West Africa. (C) Describe ONE way in which the painting shows the importance of Mansa Musa . 2. Answ er all parts of the q·uestion that follows. (A) Describe ONE w_ayin which the po litical structures in inland Africa diffe red from those in East Afr ica in the per iod c: 1200-c. 14,50. (B) Describe ONE way in which the political structures in West Anica we1·esimilar to those in East Africa in the period c. 1200-c . 1450. (C) Explain ONE way in which slavery affected relations among Afr ican states in the period c. 1200-c . 1450. DEVELOPMENTS IN AFRICA 51 THINK AS A HISTORIAN: EXPLAIN THE HISTG>RICAL CONCEPT 0F 'CONTINl:JITY One 0f the hist0rical concepts hister-ians us.e to Lm.derstand the- past is continuity ;Lookingthrougp the lens of continuity 1historians can identify .md expiain:-o r make logicaJly. underst:mdaple-devel0pments l'l.lld processes that show endurance er eontinuatien over time and spac ·e . Fer ex-ample, tJie influenc~ of .Islam ~a,s h ~d an enduring eff~ct on politics ) eeen<:unics, .and cultui;e withiriAfrican "soc.ie.ties. E~plain hQw thej'oll.qw.in.gstat:enient,s apply the coneep ! ef<;ozztinttity pto ee-sses. to histoticql d.eveloprnefztsc,;rr_d I. For more than 7()0 y~ars~trans-'Sahai;an trade brought considerab .le wealth to the societies of-West Africa, particularly the · kingdoms of Ghana 'tlnd Mali. 2. Mansa Musa d.e~eued ._fyiali tg con:n·ection to. Isla:m after bis 1324. pilgrin1ag e to Mecca. 1fliougb many WcfstAmcans held onto their .traditional belie~ , today Q5 percent ofpeqp1e in Mali tlT.e Muslim. 3. 1:3etweenthe l2th. and l5,th centuries , Z.unbabwe was the m0~f powerful of all th.e EcrstAfriC<J.llkingdoms. 4. Sub-Sal:laran societies that had c;o11.vertedto Isl~ ofj ts 11Qtms ~·oncemin& g¢nder. didnot adopt ,ali 5. Slavery w~ .a long--st~ding traditi0nin Africa before .Eur,opeans arri-ved. REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESS ENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , explain how and why states developed in Africa (IJ)dchanged over time. 52 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Developments in Europe I should not wish to be Aristotle if this were to separate mefron1 Christ. -Pete r Abelard, L,etter , 7 to Heloise (1141) Essential Quest ion How did the beliefs and practices of the predo rninan-t religions, agricultural practices , and p0litical decentra lizat ion affect European society from C. 1200 to C. 1450? Asthe Ro1nan Empire declined in power in the 5th and 6th centuries , Western Europe entered the M.iddle Ages , sometim _es called the tnedieval period . Throughout Europe , trade declined, intellectual life receded , and the united Ro1nan state was replaced by smaller kingdon1s that frequ ently fought one another for control of territory . ln response , European kings , lords, and peasants worked out agre e1nents to provide for comnioil defense. Only the Roman Catholio Church remained powerful in most of Europe frotn Roman times to the 16th century . I-Iowever , between 1000 to 1450, learning and trade began to revive in Europe. This era is called the High Middle Ages . Like many scholars of this period , PeterAbelard studied classical thinkers such as Aristotle and sometimes criticized the Church , but he ren1ained a faithful throughout his life. Feudalism: Political and Social Systems European civi lization in the Middle Ages was characterized by a decentralized political organization based on a systein of exchanges of land for loyalty known as feudali s1n. Lacking a strong government , people needed son1e protection from bandits , rival lords , and invaders such as the Vikings fro1n northen1 Europe. The core of feudalis1n was a system of mutual obligat ions: • A monarch, usually a king , granted tracts of land, cal led fie;fs, to lords. In return , a lord became a king 's vassal, a person who owed service to another person of higher status. • Lord s then provided land to knights. In return, knights became vassa ls of the lord , and pledged to ·fight for the lord or king. • Lord s also provided land and protection to peasants . In return , peasants were obligated to fann the lord 's hmd (!Jldprovide the lord with crops and livestock , and to obey the lord 's orders. DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE 53 Feudalism provided some secw·ity for peasants, equipment for warriors, and land to those who served a lord. Since the entire syste1n was based 611 agriculture, wealth was measured in land rather than in cash . The feudal system incorporated a code of chivalry-an unwritten set of rules for conduct focusing on honor, courtesy, and bravery-as a way to resolve disputes. Since wo1nen were to be protected, the code put them on a pedestal while not investing thetn with.any significant additional importance. [n practice , women did not have many rights.(Connect: C·Qmp?te·European fetrdalism-ant;!Ja:pane~efe.udalism. See Topic l . l.) Manorial System Large fiefs or estates were also referred to as m_anors. The manor ial system provided economic self-sufficiency and defense . The manor produced everything that people living on it requ ired, limiting the need for trade or contact with outsiders . Many serts spent their entire li ves on a single manor , little aware of events in the rest of Europe. Manor grounds were small villages that often included a church, a blacksmith shop, a 1nill, and wine presses. They included the homes of peasants known as serfs. Serfs, while not slaves, were tied to the land. This meant they could not travel w ithout permission frotn their lords. Nor could they marry without their lord 's approval In exchange for protection provided by the lord of the manor, they paid tribute in the form of crops , Labor, or, in rare cases, co.ins. Children born to serfs also became serfs. As both climate and technology slowly impi-oved, the amount of arable or farn1able land gradually increased. Agriculture became n1ore efficient near the end of the Middle Ages. The tluee -field system , in which crops were rotated through three fields , came into use. • One field was planted with wheat or rye, crops that provided food. • A second field was planted with legun1es such as peas, lentils , or beans. These 1nade the soil more fertile by adding nitrogen to it. • A third field was allowed to re1nain fallow , or unused , each year. Technological developments included windmills and new types of plows. Heavier plows with whee ls worked well in the dense soil north of the Alps, while Lighter plows worked better in southern Europe. These changes promoted population growth. Political Trends in the Later Middl e Ages [n the later Middle Ages , monarchies . gre\v more powerful at the expense of.feudal lords by employing their own bureaucracy and a military. These employees worked directly for the king or q11een.(In contrast, in n1odern c.ountries such as the United States, bureaucnits .and soldiers work for the country, not the chief e~ecutive.) The lands these 1nonarchs collected under their control, particularly in England and France , were beginning to look like the 1nodem countri .e·s of Europe. 54 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Europe in the Middle Ages D ·••• • •• 0 500 MIies Vik1ng ~reas Viking 0 500 Kilomete rs lnvasion ~outes e::;;;::,:, France King Philip II (ruled 1180-1223) , was the first to deve lop a real bureaucracy. Yet it was not until Philip N (ru led 1285- 13 14) that the first Estates-General met. The Estates-Ge neral was a body to advise the Icing that includ ed repr esen tativ es from each of the three leg al classes , or estates, in .France: the clergy, nobi lity , and coID1noners. Although the FTench kings consu lted this E states-G eneral when necessa 1y, th ey did not exact regu lar taxes from the upper two .estates, the clergy and nobility . Consequently , the EstatesGeneral had little powe r. The clergy and nobility felt little responsibility to protect a .government that they we re not financing-, a problem that only continued to increa se in France up to the eve ofthef renchRe vo lutionof 1789. Holy Roman Empire The German king Otto I was crowned Holy Roman Emp eror in 962 , hearkeni ng back to Charlemagne 's de signat ion as Emperor of the Ro.mans . Otto's successors survive d the power strugg le with the papa cy over the Jay inv estit ure controversy of the 11th an d 12th centuries . This dispute was over whether a secular (non-relig ious) leader , rather than the pop e, could invest bishop s with the syn1bols of offic e. It was finally reso lved in the Concordat of Worm s of 1122., when the Church achieved autonomy from secu lar authorities . The Holy Roman Empire remained vibrant until it was vutually destro ye d during the Thirty Years' War ( J 618-1648). [t Lingered on, but 'vvithlittle power . Th e Empire came to a formal end when the French leader Napo leon invade d cen tral Europ e in 1806. DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE 55 No rman England The Normans were descendents ofV ikings who s.ettled in northwestern France , ·a region known as Normandy. In 1066, ·a Norman king, Willia1n the Conqueror , successful ly invaded England. This gave hiln kingdoms on both sides of the English Channel. He presided over a tightly organized feudal system , using royal sheriffs as his administrative officials. The fus ion of Normans and Anglo-Saxons created the modem English people. Many English noble·s objected to the power of William and the succeeding Nonnan monarchs . These nobles forced limits on that power. In 1215, they forced King John to sign the 1'{agna Carta , \Vbichrequired tbeking to respect certain rights , such as the right to aj ury trial before a noble could .be sentenced to prison. They also won the 1ight to be consulted on the issue of scutage (a tax paid on.aknightwho \.v.antedto pay money instead of provide military service). Finally, the first English Parliam ent was fanned in 1265. These developments increased the rights of the English nobility, but not of the general population . In the :first full parliamentary meeting in 1265, the House of Lords represented the nobles and Chur ch hierarchy, while the Flouse of Commons was made up of elected representat ives of wealthy townspeople. Eventually, the power of these two legislative bodies in England became stronger than that of similar bodies on the European continent. TheHo:ndredYears ' War Between . 1337 and 1453, the1i.vaJ monarchies of England and France fought a series of battles known as the IIundred Years' War. English archers anned with longbows (about six feet long) helped win several early victories. 1-Iowever, by the end of the coi1fl'ict, the English retained only the port of Calais in France. Two other important results of the war were on bow people saw themselves and how they fought . • On each side, serving under a monarch fostered a sense of unity among soldiers who often spoke distinct languages or dialects. The war tnarked another step towards people identifying theinselves as "English'' or "French" rather than from a particular region. • The war also de1nonstrated the spreading11se of gunpowder weapons. Gunpowder bad been invented by the Chinese and spread \vest by Mongols . Christians versus Muslims In addition to conquering England, the Nonnans also conquered Sicily, taking control of that Medite rranean island from Muslims. Mu slims had conquered Spain in the 8th century. From that time, Christians had wanted to reconquer it. This effort, called the ree.onq1,Jistct, occurred over n1any centuries. It was finally completed in 1492. Roman Catholic Church during the Middle Ages In 1054, the Christian Church in Europe divided into two branches, a split called the Great Schism . The Ro.man Catholic Church continued to dominat e most of Europe for another five centuries , while the Orthodox Church was povverful farther east , from Greece to Russia. 56 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION The Roman Catholic Church was the mostpowerfulinstitution in a Europe divided into hundreds of s.mall political states. Often Church staff were the only people in a co1nmunity who knew how to read and write. If conm1on people needed s01nething written or read , they asked a Chw·ch official to do .it. Most manors bad a small church and a priest on the grounds. Christianity provided people a shared identity even .as vernacular languages, ones spoken by the peopJe in .a region, emerged to rep lace Latin. Edµcation and Art The Church established the first universities in Europe . Because the Church led in the .area of education , most philosophers , writers , and other thinkers of the Middle Ages were religious leaders . All artists worked for the Church . Most .artwork focused on religious themes, which provided iinages to help ilJjterate se1fs understand the Bible. Church and State The Church held great power in the feudal system. If a lord displeased the Church, it couJd pressure the lord in various ways. For exa1nple, a local bishop nugbt cancel religious serv ices for his serfs . This (IJ)gere.dthe serfs, who would demand that the lord give in to the bishop. Like the Roman Empire , the Roinan Catholic Church had an extensive hierarchy of regional leaders. The regional religious leaders , called bishops, owed allegiance to the pope , the supreme bishop in Rome. The bishops also selected and supervised local priests. Monas.ticism Although some Christian clergy withdrew to monasteries to meditate and pray, they remained part of the economies of Western Europe . The monasteries had the san1e econonlic functions of agricnilture and protectio11as other manors. Women were permitted to become nuns and exerted their influence in the n1onasteries of the Catholic Church. Reform Although clergy took vows of poverty and supported charities ii1thefr conm1unities, the clergy also wielded considerable political influence , (IJ)dsome monasteries became quite wealthy. Wealth and politicaJ power Jed to corruption d1:u-ingthe 13th and 14th centuries. Eventually , corruption , as well as theological disagreements, drove reformers such as Martin Luther to take stands that vvould shatter the unity of the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th century. Christian Crusades Just as Europeans fought to drive Musli1ns out of Sicily and Spain , they also sought to reclain1 contro l of the Holy Land , the region of Palestine in the Middle East that contains sites. of spiritual significance to Jews ; Cbiistians, and Muslin1s. European Christians bad enjoyed access to these lands for centw·ies, even after they came under the control ofMuslin1S. Social and econo-mic trends of the 11th century added to the pressure among Europeans to invade the Middle East. Rules of primogeniture , under which the eld_est son in a family inherited the entire estate , left a generation of younger sons with .little access to wealth and land. The landed nobles saw DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE 57 a nulitary campaign as a way to divert the ambitions of thes.e rest less nobles as well as unemployed peasants , who often pillaged the lands of neighboring lords. Furthennore , n1erchants desired unfettered access to trade routes tlu·ough tlle Middle East. The co1nbination of these religious, socia~ (IJ}deco1101nic pressures resulted in the Crusades- a series of European military campaigns in the Midd le East between I 095 and the 1200s. Politics shaped the conduct of Crusades. Tensions between popes and kings strengthened the intent ion of the Roman Catholic Church to take contro l. The .Church also used its spiritual authority to recruit believers. It granted relieffrom required acts of atone111entand penance and even promised people tlley would reach heaven sooner if they joined a Cn1sade. Support can1e for the Orthodox branch of Christianity .as well.Alarmed by news oJthe persecution of Christian pilgrilns by Seljuk Turks, the Orthodox patriarch at Constantinople appealed to Pope Urban II to help retake the Roly Land fromJslamic control. The First Crusade Of the four .major Crusade·s , only the first was a clear victoty for Christendom. The European army conquered Jerusalem in July 1099 . 1-Iowever, Muslin1 forces under Saladin regained control of Jerusalem in 1187. The Crusades did protnote cultural exchange between Europe and the Middle East. The Middle East had a higher standard of living, and Em·opean Crusaders increased the demand for Middle Eastern goods. (Connect: 8r-ea:te atimeline tracing the spread of Is tam up through theCrusades ,. See Topic 1.2.) The Fourth Crusade Dming tlle fourth and last major Crusade ( 12021204), Venice, a wealthy city-state in nortl1em Italy, had a contract to transport Crusaders to the Midd le East , an area known as the Levant. However , Venice was not pa:id all of what was due, so the Venetians persuaded the Crusader debtors first to sack Zara, an [talian city, and then Constantinople, a major trade competitor of Venice. The Fourth . Crusade never made it to the Holy Land. Eventually , Islamic ' forces prevailed in the Levant. Economic and Social Change The Crusades were just part of the changes occurring in Europe in ilie late Middle Ages. Loc al economic self-sufficiency in Europe gradually gave way to an interest in goods fron1 other European areas and from far-flung ports. Marco Polo In the late 13th century Marco Polo, an Italian native fron1 Venice , visited tl1e court of Kublai Khan in Dadu, moden1-day Beijing. Polo 's captivating descriptions of the customs of the peop le he met intrigued Europeans. For examp le, he described how Mongols had 1nultiple 1narriages, drank mare 's milk , burned bla.ck stones (coa l) to heat ·their homes , and bailied frequently-often three times per week. Curiosity about Asia skyrocketed , stimulating interest in cartography , or mapnuikiug. Social Change Growth in lo11g-distauce commerce changed the social pyramid of Western Europe. Economic success started to rival religious vocation or military service in winning status. This middle class, between the 58 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION elite nob les and clergy and the mass of peasants , began to grow. Known as the bour geoisie, or bm·ghers, it included shopkeepers , merchants , craftspeople , and sn1all landholders . Urban Growth With renewed commerce came larger cities. The change to the three-field syste1n and other advances in agricuitw·e led to population growth in the late Middle Ages . This agricultural surplus enco 1u-age.dthe growth of towns and of markets that cou ld operate more frequ ently than just on holidays. As the demand for more labor on the manor s increased, the supply decreased. A series of severe plagues swept through Eurasia in the 14th centtu-y. In Europe , an outbreak of bubonic plague known as the Black Death killed as 111anyas one-third of the population . The growing demand for labor and the death s of so many people gave serfs more bargaining power with lords . Urban growth was han1pered after about 1300 by a :five-centttry cooling of the cli mate known as the Little Ice Age. Lower temper-atures reduced agricultural producti vity, so peop le had less to trade and cities grew more slow ly. The Little Ic e Age i_ed to an incr_ease in disease and an in.crease in unempl oyn1ent. The se, in turn , created social unrest. Th e crime rate increa sed, and Jews, and other groups that already faced dis crimination , were the victims of scapeg oating-b eing blamed for son1ething over which they had no eontrol. Jews During the Midd le Ages , the small Jewish population in Christian Europ e began to gro\V. Many Jews. lived in Muslim areas in the Iberian Peninsu la (present-day Spain and Portugal ) and around the Mediterranean Sea when these areas were overtaken by. European Christians . In time , Jews who could affo rd to 1noved northward in Europe. Some po litical leaders , particular ly in Amsterdam and other commercial cities , welcomed the1n, since they brought valuab le experience in business and tra_de. -Th e Rotnan Catholic ChuJ"cb.also bad .a policy that Christians could not charge int erest on loans to other Christians. I-Iow eve r, Jews were not bound by this. restriction. With fe\v other eeonomic oppo1tunities , many north ern European Jews becam e mone ylen ders. The resu lting ·increa se in the flow of mon ey contributed to the econonuc growth of Europe. However , anti-Jewish senti1nent, or antisemitism, was widespread arnong Christians. They thought of Jews as outsiders and untrustworthy. Jews were expelled from England in 1290, France in 1394, Spain in 1492, and Portugal in l 497, as weU as from various independent kingdoms and cities in north ern and centra l En rope. Jews expelled fro1n western and cen tral Europ .e often moved to eastern Europe . While Jews had lived in this.region since the 1st century, their numbers jucreased greatly ·becaus e of the expulsions . Muslim s Like Jews , Muslinls faced discrimination in Europe . In 1492 , the Spanish king expe lled the remaining Muslims in the kingdom who would not convert to Cluistianity. Many Muslims 1noved to southeaste1n Europ e. In the 13th centu1y, the Mu s lim Ottoman Empire expanded its reach fi·om Turk ey into the Balkan countries of pres ent-day Albania , Kosovo , and Bosnia and Herzego vina_.These countries developed large Muslim popu lations. DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE 59 While Europe \.v.aspredotninatitly Christian, and despite their persec:ution, both Jews and Muslin1Shelped shape society. Unlike most people in Europe in theMidltieAges , Jews lived-in urban areas , and they served as a bridge between Christians and the Muslims whose goods they de·sired in trade. Contacts with traders in Muslim caliphates opened up a world of trade and a world of ideas for Europeans who had long been self-sufficient and isolated under feudalism. Gender Roles Won1en found their rights eroding as a wave of patriarchal thinking and writing accompatlied the 1noveme11tfrom an agricu ltural society to a more trrban one . Even fewer women than men received an education , although women often managed manor accounts. One place wher_e women had greater opportunities to display their skills in ado, in istration .and leadership was in religious orders. S01ne wo1nen became artisans and members of guildsassociations of craftspeop le and merchants _-although not all had property rights. Women in Islamic societies tended to enjoy higher levels of equality, particularly in pa.its of Afr ica and Southeast Asia. Renaissance The expru1sion of trade, the growth of an ag,icultural surplus, and the rise of a middle class able to patronize artists sparked great creativity in Europe . The Renaissance was a period characterized qy a revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman literature, art, cultttre, and civic vi.t1t1e.Scholars recovered and studied decaying manuscripts that had been written many centuries earlier. Deve loped m 1439, Johannes Gutenberg 's movable-typeprintmgpress initiated a revolution irt print technology. The printing press allowed manuscripts to be mass-produced at relatively .affordable costs.: lt fQstered a growth in literacy and the rapid .spread of ideas. One characte ristic of the Renaissance was the interest in humanism , the focus .on individuals rather than .. God. Humanists sought education and reform. They began to write secu lar literattu-e. Olltural changes in the Renaissance , such as the increased use of the vernacular language., prope lled the rise of powerful monarchies , the centralization . of governments, at1d the birth of nationalism. (€onrte-ct: List th.Fee eletnents of elassrcal. Greece and Rome revived by the Renaissance. See Prologue .) ~ South ern Renaissance In the regions of Italy and Spain, church patronage suppo1ted tbe Renaissance. For examp le, the writer Dante Alighie1i (12651321) used a religious framework for The Divin e C0rnedy. which features hell, pw·gatory, and heaven . Neverthe less, his fearlessness in criticizing corrupt religious officials and his willingness to use Italian vernacular instead of Latin reflected his mdependenc ·e froin the Ro1nan Catho lic Church. Wealthy families, such as the Medicis of Florence, used their money to support painters , sculptors, at1d ru·chitects. North ern R enaissan ce By 1400, the Renaissance spirit spread to northern Europe. Wbilemany Renaissance artists emphasized piety in their work, others 60 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION emphasized human concerns . Geoffrey Chaucer, writing in The Canterbl,J_ry Tales in the late 1300s, portrayed a nucrocosm of nuddle-class occupat ions in Eng land, including several Church positions. E-Iissatirica] writings portrayed 1no1lkswho loved hunting and overly sentimental nuns . Like Dante a century earlier , Chaucer chose a vernacular , Middle English, for this work, although n1any of his other writings were in Latin . Leadin g Citi es During t he Renaissance in Europ e ' 0 1,000 MIies 0 1,000 Kilometers EUROPE I \ I ' I ,' A .TL. -lNTJC OCEAN KINGDOM OiSICfLY • Meditrrra11,1111 S,11~ The Origins of Russia During the late Middle Ages in Eastern Europe , extensive trade in furs , -fish, and grain connected peopl e fi·om Scandinavia to the Mediterranean to Central Asia . The city-state at the center of this trade was Kievan Rus, based in what is today Kiev , Ukraine. Because it adopted the O1ibodox Christianity, it maintained closer cultt.u·alrelationships with Byzantium than .with Roman Catha-lie Europe. In the 13th centtu)' , the Mo-ngols overtook this region , so it developed even more separately from of the rest of Europe. (See Topic 2 .2.) The Mongols required loca l nobles to coUect tax.es for them. As these noble s grew wealthy in their role, they began to resist Mongol rule. In the late 15th century , under the leadership of a Moscow-based ruler known _as Iv:an the Great , the region became indepen dent of the Mongols. This marked the beginning of the modem stat_e of Russia. DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE 61 KEY TERMS BY THEME SOCIETY: Hierarc:::hies feudal ism serfs primogeniture bourgeoisie burghers GOVERNMENT: England Magna Carta English Parliament ECONOMY : Self- sufficiency manors manoria l system GOVERNMENT : France Estates-General estates TECHNOLOGY : England three-field system GOVERNMENT : Holy Roma n Empire Otto I CULTURE : Idea s Crusades Marco Polo Renaissance humanism CULTURE : Religion lay investiture controversy Great Schism antisemitism ENVIRONMENT: Climate Little Ice Age MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1-3 Tefer to the chart below. Average Air Temperatures In Eastern Europe, 850-1950 Mild +0.75 ' C -e-----------,--------,-- .,,_ 8, Ill i> ::, l!! I I 1+-- -=i I ct 1G C 00 E ;: Cl> Ill 1- Uttle Ice Age- l I Midpoint of An'nual Temper11 1ure 'i: Ill > -o.1s •c------------+----------+-900 1100 Cold 1500 1300 1700 1900 Year Sourc•: Adnplod lroin H,H, Lamb , •c 111natlc Fluclu ari011 °' • H, ~lohn. od, WorldSutv•Y of Climatology.. vol. 2. Generol Climatology . (New ~o,lc Eloevior. 1969). p. 236 . 1. Which trend followed the te1nperature patten1 shown in the graph? (A) The centra lization of political power (B) The rate of growth in the urban population (C) The use of syste1ns of coerced labor (D) The spread of Christianity in Europe 62 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP®EDITION 2. Which statement acc urate ly reflects an effect of the temperature pattern shown in .the grap h ? (A) The Littl e Ice Age caused shortages of food and reduce d the amount of agric ultur al surp lus avai lable for trade. (B) On e result of the Litt le Ic·e Age was that Vikings from Scandinavia began raiding eoasts along Eng land and "Franee. (C) As climates in Spain cooled, Ferdin and and Isahella financed the voyages of Christopher Colutnbus in search of land for cash crops . (D) As a result of the pollution from the growth of indu stry in Western Eu rope, temperatures began to rise as the ozone became depleted. 3. A historian would 1nost like ly use the chait to research which of the follo wing deve lopn1ents in the period 1450- 1750? (A) The decline of Norse colonies in Greenland (B) Native American transfer from depende nce on agriculture to hunting (C) European civil unrest .and weakene d e·conotnies (D) A su rge in w itch trials on both sides of the Atl ant ic SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to answer all ·parts of the question that follo,vs. "With these pieces of paper they can buy anything and pay for anything. And I can tell you that the papers that reckon as ten bezants [a quantity of 1noney] do not weigh one .. . .There is no one who does not visit a bath-house at least three times a· week and take a bath- in winter every day, ifhe can 111anageit. Every rnan of rank or n1eans has his own bathroom in his house . .. . Here too the inhabitants worship Mahomet [Muhaminad] and are subject to the Great Khan. lt has villages ai1d towns in plenty . ... There are rive rs here .in which are found stones called jasper and chakedony [quartz crysta ls] in plenty. There is no lack of the means of life. Cotton is p lentiful. The inhabitants live by trade and industry. " Marco Polo , The Travels of Mar co Polo , c. 1300 (A) Explain how the passage by Marco Polo illu strates the limitations of intercultural know ledge .and understanding. (B) Explain ONE way in which M arco Polo's poin t of view fits into the context of intercu ltu ral int eractions in the period c. 1000-c . 1450. (C) Exp lain ONE way in which the wri tings of Marco Polo affecte d European relationships with other regions. DEVELOPMENTS IN EUROPE 63 2. Ans"'Ter all parts of the question that follows. {A) D escr ibe ONE way in which technological deve lopments affected European manorial systems in the period c. 1200-c . 1450. (B) Explain ONE historica l s ih tation in the period c. 1200-c . 1450 that influenced tbe development of the Christian crusades. (C) Explain .ONE way in which Russia vvas linked to Europe in the period c. 1200-c. 1450. THINK AS A HISTORIAN: IDENTIFY HIST0H ICA L ElEVELOPM ENTS EmoJl~ in c. 1200' was.anarea of deQentrfilized feuda l kingdoms w.ith little contact with the world beyc'.f nd the 1nanor. Europ e in •c'. 1450 1 in contr~sf, .was a Teg.i0nof agricultural al;,uru:jance, gr9.wing towns and cities, itrcreasipg trade with othei paits .ofth:eworld, gr0wingcommerce , and ·centralizing ·states. For ea.t h oj'the_foll<nvi.ng (J.Sp_eGls oj'life•i-nEurl'>pe,w,'ite a,.s·entence identifying a ,development-an .event or series. oj'•events that.fit into a./)roa:der p-ctlt'et·1i-tha1 ao;htributed t.otli-e,eha11:g ~s between c. 1.200 ancl t . 14§0. R-evier,v /:heehapte;r ti& needei:l. 1. Agrieultl)re 2. Growth of towns and cities J. Ccntaet with ether pruts.-of the w.0 .dd 4. Soqial structures 5. Shift fnun deo.entralized toward centra l governments REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIA .L QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs, explain hovv the beliefs and practices of the predo n1inant religions, agr icultural pract ices , and politica l decentralization affected European soci ety fro1n c. 1200 to c. 1450. 64 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Comparison in the Period from c. 1200 to c. 1450 The world is divided Into men who have wit and no religion and men who have religion and no wit. - lbn Sina (Avicenna) (980- i 037), Persian philosopher and physician Essential Question: In what ways was the process of state-build ing in various parts of the world between c . 1200 and c. 1450 simiJar and different? B etween c. 120 0 and c. 1450, states in core areas of civilization grew larger while smaller states declined In this way, much of the wo rld followed the same trend of building n1ore centralized , 1nore powerful states . 1-Iowever, the process varied from place to place. In most of Asia , the tnilitary strength of the Mongols created the largest Land-based empire in world history . In West Africa , the Middle East , and South Asia , the religion of Isla1n was a key part of state-bui lding. In Europe, trade, both internal and with the more advanced civilizations of the Middle East , had greater impact. State"'. Building and New Empires As stronger , more centralized states rose , the influence of nomadic societies began to wane by the 15th century . Durin g this period, new empires emerged and states around the world expanded. • The Song Dynasty in China continued a Jong period of technological and cultu ral progress. • The Abbasid Caliphate in the Middle East was fragmented by invaders and shifts in trade. Following it, new Musliln states arose in Africa, the Middle East , and Spain. • In South and Southeast Asia , the Cho la Kingdom and Vijayanagar Empire used trade to build strong states, while the Delhi Sultanate in northern India was more land-based. • In Africa , the rulers of Mali created an empire that was bigger and more centrally ad 1ninistered than the Empire of Ghana that preceded .it. • In the Americas , the Aztecs form ed a tributary empire in Mes.oamerica that relied 011a strong military. The fnca Empire in the Anderu1region COMPARISON IN THE PERIOD FROM C. 1200 TO C. 1450 65 used the elaborate .mit 'a system as a way to support state-building. In contrast , 1nost of the Americas lacked centra lized states. • In Europe , feudal ties declined .in importance as centralized states developed. This development was clearer in the Western Ernopean kingdoms of England and France than in Eastern Europe. • Japan , unJike n1ost states , became 1nore decentralized and feudal. The Role of Religion in State-Building On e simi larit y in much of the world was that religion was a vita l part of statebuilding. To help unit e a diverse population , empires and states often turned to relig ion to strengthen political contro l over their territory. On e exce llent examp le of how religion worked w ith.state-building was in the Islam ic wor ld. Throu gh the uni fying pow er of shared beliefs and a use of the co1n1non Langt1ageof Arabic , Islam provided the basis for the legitimacy of rulers from we ·stAfrica to Southeast Asia . China and East Asia Oth er states .also were stre ngth ened by religion . In China , the Confucian belief system was closely tied to civil serv ice. The Song Dyna sty reli ed on Confucian schola rs to run a powe rful, enduring bureaucracy ; No other state had such a we ll-established and extensive syste1n for conducting govermnent affairs across such a Jatge territory. The ability to itnp lement law s and carry out imperial ed icts was a key part of state-building in China. Neo-Confuc iani sn1 (see Topic L 1) spread to Korea and Japan , allowing nLlers in these Ea st Asian regions to ju stify and consol idat e their politica l power as well . Similarly , rulers in South and Southeast Asia relied onHinduis .m and BuddJ1ism to aid them in strengthening their states . Europe In Europe, the relationship between Roman Catholic Church and state-building was somewhat different than in most of Eurasia . At times, the Church was part of the state-build ing process . 11owever , because European states were so weak for most of the Middle Ages , the Church had provided an alternative structutefor organizing society . Then , between 1200 and 1450 , as more powerfuJ states emerged in France and the Holy Roman Empire , the Church som etimes became a tiva l povver. Diffusion of Religion The spread of major re ligions during this time period resulte d in the influence of religion over 'vvideareas. I slam, 13uddhi sn1, and Christianity au encouraged the ir followers to convert non-believers. Therefore , missionary activi ty \Vas .an important factor in the decline in the practice of Jocal religions in p laces suc h as Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and East Asia. In South Asia , converts to Is1an1 increase d part ly as a result of military invasions by Islam ic armies from Centra l Asia. I-Iowever, I-Iinduism remained the predominant religion in South Asia, setting the stage for intermittent periods of conflict and tol erance between follower s of Islam and Hinduism on the s.ub-continen1. Trade networks .in the Indian Ocea.n, 6.6 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION South China Sea, East and CentralAsia, and across the Sahara Desert helped to spread religions as co1mnercial activity increased. State-Building Through Trade Fue led by increased trade , cross-culturaJ exchanges of technology and innovation increased. Innovations in crop production, such as Champa rice that spread fron1 Vietnan1 to China , helped the Song Dynasty feed and sustain a growing population. The resulting effect, a lru·ger and more urban citizenry , supported the development of China 's 1nanufacturing capabilitythe largest in the \Vorld at the tin1e. Porcelain, silk, steel, and iron production all increased during this time. Together, these change ·s built the Song ilito the strongest state in China since the time of the Han a millennium earlier. Paper manufacturing, invented in China in the 2nd centw-y B.C.E ., made its way across Eurasia, reaching Europe arolllld the 13th century . The resulting printed material led to incTeased literacy rates ac ross Europe , the Middle East , and North Africa. The focus on intellectual thought and learning led to advances in math.ematics and medicine , especially in Islamic centers of le.arn:ingsuch as the }louse of Wisdom in Bagdad. Europe benefited :Ii-omexchanges with .the Middle East , and through it with the rest of Asia . Not all contact between Europe and Asia was peaceful . Muslims bad conquered Spain by force in the 8th century and Christian crusaders attempted to seize lands they considered holy in the Middle East beginning around 1100. The Mongols fostered the transfer of know ledge , but only after they catTied out bnltal conquests . All of these contacts with Asia contributed to state-building in Eui-ope. Between 1200 and 1450, the process was stnall and slow, held back by the manorial system and serfdom , but it was noticeable . After 1450, state-building would increase in speed and significance in Europe. The Impact of Nomadic Peoples Nomadic peoples played a key i-ole in the process of state bui lding bet\.veen.c. 1200 and 1450. The Mongols , a pastoral people from the steppes of Centra l Asia, ruled over significant areas of Asia .and Easte1n Europe during the 13th century. (For 1nore on the Mongols , see Topic 2.2.) The political stability resulting from Mongol don1inance allowed trade across Eurasia to greatly expand . Cross-cultural interactions and transfers intensified and some of the first direct contacts between Europe and China since the classical period occurred, also facilitated by Mongol rule . Sinlilar to the Mongols , Turkish peoples , also frotn the Central Asian steppes , increased their dotninance over large land-based en1pires in the eastern Mediterranean, 'Persia, and South Asia that lasted well past 1450. However, unlike the Mongols , who built their e1npire initially as a coordinated campaign by unified Mongol clans , different 1\1rkish groups built separate empires. The Seljuk and Ottoman Turks became dominant COMPARISON IN THE PERIOD FROM C. 1200 TO C. 1450 67 forces in the Mediterranean region while another Turkish group established an empire located in Persia and the surroundingterritories . The creation of these empires would be among the last major in1pacts of the inter-action between settled and nomadi c peoples. The role of nomads in conirnerce and cross-cultural exchange diminished as they were replaced by organized groups of m _erchants and tra_ding companies . Patriarchy and Religion Social organization in 1nost cultures remained patriarcha l. However, cultures varied. While religion often reinforced the po\ver of men,, its record was mixed. For example, convent life for Christians in Europe andinJainist and Buddhist religious cotnmtu1ities in South Asia provided women with opportunities for learning and leadership. l n contrast, in China, women lost some independence as the custom of foot binding became n1ore comn1on. Four Types of State-Bu ilding, c. 1200-c. 1450 Processes Description ' Emergen ce of .Stat.es arise in land once controlled by New States another emp ire Examples , , • Mamluk Empire (former ly Abbasid terri tory) • Seljuk Empire (formerly Abbasid territory) • Delhi Sultanat,e (former ly Gupta territory) Revival of Former Empires New leadership continues or rebu ilds a previous empi're with some innovations Synthesis of Different Traditions A state adapts foreign ideas to loca l cond itions • Japan (Chinese and Japan ~se). Expansion in Scope An existing state expands its influence through conquest, trade, or other means • Aztecs In Mesoamerlca • Song Dynasty (based on the Han Dynasty) • Mali Empire (based on the Ghana Kingdom) • Holy Roman Empire (based on the Roman Empire) • Delhi Sultanate (Islamic and Hindu) • Nee-Confucianism • Incas in South America • City -states In East Africa • City-states In Southeast Asia REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. Comparison Create a chart con1paring cont inuit ies, innovations, and divers ity in six regions covered in Unit 1. 2. In one to three paragraphs, exp lain the sin1ilarities and differences in the proc ess of state-building in vari.ous part s of the world between c. 1200 and c. 1450. 68 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION UNIT 1 REVIEW KIST-ORIC.~L PE:RSPECT;IVES:-_ WHO .DEVELOPED Gl,JN.S? The-,development of g\l.npowder and its use in gtµis revo lutionized world history. B,owever; historians presented vai:ro,us ai=guments to· e~pJain who was responsible for startfug tliis r.evolutio.li. Chln.esC"Claim s and Ellrqpean Doubts While the Chinese Ieng took eteili.t for developing- both ·g1IDpo'w0erand guns, European bistotians wer~ fr~ditipnal ly s"keptica l b~oa:qse they doubted the Chinese had the teG,haologicaJ ability te make sticJ:iadvane;es. Eor example , Henry Hinie , ·a British military officer , argued in h is 1904 popk , G~n;powder qnd A1nntwiitio11: 'I'h~ir Origin and P.rqgress, tha:t the G.hines,e-··•po.ssess·eo little genius f@rmechanical or chemical inventions " so they had probably ' 'obtained their first gunpowd .er and fu~ .nns 'fi:om the West." Fi:reworkis Europ.eiin sch@lars gradtially recognized Chrnese contributions to the technologjes that Ledto the clevelopment of guns . They fust :recognized that tb.e Chinese :had invented gunpowder and th.atknowledge · of the explosive substance bad been can·ied by traders a1id 1he.M0ng0ls t0 ,Eur0pe in fue 13:tboenttn:y. Howevei;, Emo1lea11 historians continued to argue that the Chinese had usea g unpowder 9nly for fireworks,not {OE weapomy . Historian JackX.elly , in arece_µt book about th:eJristor,y of gunpowder, .rroted that histoi:ians had not moved 1nuth beyond ffime >s argument in their v1e·ws of Chinese ~jllties . "The noti0n of China's ·benign r~lationsh:i:p with gunpowqer , sprang in part fr<jm·Western prejudices ·about the Chinese 'thatacter . Some .viewed the €binese as amateurs who stumbled onto the secret of gµnpowder but coulcl.Q. ' t see its peterttial. Others- saw tlie;m a~ pacifist sages wh@wisely turned a:wayfron1 its destn.rctivepns -sibi lities. " ' • • - + • • + Ag ree;me~t The next step wast'0r Europ~ans to aq~ow.ledgethat tbe Cbin .ese hist0rians were correct , and 'that the Gliinese had begun usJ~g gunpowder to make e~y fonns of ,guns sine~ the l Ot:Qcentury. British scholar Joseph Needliani ,revolutioni:z~d. -Western attitqd.es · towara China with his mnltivolume work Sc.ieJzoeand Civilization f.n China. B~gt.m in 19.54, it continue .cl after Needham's death uncler @ther selrolai;s .and now .includes 1n0re than Q.5volumes. Neec;lham c~ed the d~yelopment 0( gunpowder "no doybt the .greafest of all Chinese military;Jll).ventions .,, And. he c0nc.iu€1ed that the Chme~e had deve loped the first gun "before @thetpeoples knew of the inventi@n at aLL" D ev..elop an Argum ent: Evaluate the extent to mhieh histori aal evid ~n(}e·suppons oiie .of the per;;pectives .on the historicaldey~lopm ~nf a1id u$e of g\ID_powd .er. (R~view otrtsi<ile~0urc·es a:5,ueoessary.) UNIT 1 REVIEW 69 WRITE A,S,A .HJSTOBIAN: CHECC KLl~T FOR A t-.ONG ESSAYANWER The k5ng essayguestion will require you to deve lop an ctrgurnent.,whic'b i:equires ass.erring a ~lef(}11J:ihle 9/'f[ini and hac1ci.ngit up with .evid~ncf? . (For more Qn argumentS', claim:s, and evidence, 'See page xxxvili .) The _p,J .t>ees~ for-de~e loping yout ·argtunent'i"6 des·crihed in the checkhst below. (See also pa,ges,.xx:x:iii-xxx:viii .) 'E;ach~ta:geofthe ·pr.oces~will be the focus of a writing activity at the ,errd 0fcunits 3-8. These ·activ:ities w-illhelp yo:i.1apply t@eaeb stage the·bistqrica l thinking skills you must demonstrate in yout e.cisay. 1. Caire.fully r ead a•n.da"Dal yze the task. Read the question carefully . Within your argnment, . you will be asked to evaluate the extent to which Sl!.bjeets shew simil_aTity or difference ~ c·qutinuitLes Qr changes, Qr eausation . (Se-e page 'mii.) Le-o.k ft>r.ke:)iwQrds ·,d efining the. task. Nofe the geogr~.Phic;·iir~aC~)and time period(s) fra:mi.t},g the . task . ?. Gather and organiz ~ the eviden ce y ou will pe ed to copipl ete the h}sk:.Write d.0.wn every.,th:ingyQ:Uknow that is diir.ectlyr~Jated ta tb:e' t<>'pic.Include both broad idea:s and specific incidents or events . '(hen review your . inf0m1ati9n l9dking for patte~ . and c:onnectiens . Also d.etermin~ a:way te .organi£e the evidence to fulfill the task . 3. Develop a thesis-a defensibl e cl:aim-that lays out a lin e Qf te asoni:ng. (See page xxxlv.) You sh@uld be "able to def ~.nd your claim using the · evide n c'e you collected and express your thes,is in one ·or m0re sentenees in the same location in y0u 1: essay, typiea ll y in the introduction. 4. Write an introduc tory paragr~ph,. Ose the intrQ_ducti:Qn.t0relate yout thesis statem .ent te-a broader ltis·to:riea l context . Explain how it fifs ihto bµ:ger or dive !ge nt hist_ori<::lal trends. 5. Wri te. the s:uppo t ting pa,ragra plis. Use infonnati/i1n. y0u gatheTed in step 2 to ,supp.orttlie.argument e~pressed in yo111·thesis statement with c-01Tobo_rati.Qn. (support), rn0di:fic~tion (.slight change), ox q_ualifieation (limitation) . Use transitional woJids to tie ide:as together. 6. Write the CQJJclusiqn. To unify y,eur essay, ret11rt1to th.e ideas in y0t1r introdtictiQn. Instead of restating your ·1hesis statement, howe y.er~extend (t to di;aw a nuanced conc lµsion that fo ll_ows from ym.:i.r ·~vid ~nee,. 7. Reread and evaluate your e~say. BeQqpie f~miliat with the scoring rubric '(se~ page ;xxxix) . Checkyeur ~~sayto ma:k.e sure ,yo 'u have inc ·luded everything needed to earn the m:m<.in1u 1n nun1ber of pnints:. App,Jicati))n: Follow the ·steps a.beve as ynu develoJ!l .a long essay in :fe$ponse to a·pr6rnpt on page 71. F'or cu,,•re,;l fre-e-r~ponse qi:,estion'fiCliny1es,visit:· nttps:1/apce,ilral.co.llegefjoar d. orglco:urses/ap-,v.011/d-li:i ,t'forJl/eiam 70 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION LONG ESSAY QUESTIONS Directions : Write essay responses to 1, 2, and EITHER 3 or 4. The suggested writing time for each essay is 40 minutes. 1. By the 14th century, Islam, Hinduisn1, and Corifucianis1n each included movements within t:he1nthat placed greater emphasis on either emotion or reason . Develop an argmnent that evalu~tes the extent to which two r_eligious or ethical systems of thought were similar or different up th.rough the 15th century. 2. Because of its size, wealth, and cultural innovations , China had a significant influence on its East Asian neighbors in the years 1200 to 1450- ·whether those neighbors were friendly or hostile . Develop ·an argument that evaluates the extent to which Chinese cultural traditions led to politica l or social change in other East Asian societies in tha t time period. 3. Abundant natural resources and the rise of powerful centra lized governments affected African states between the 12th and the 15th centuries . Develop an argmnent that evalu~tes the extent to which change or continuity over time occ-urredin the economics and politics during that time petiod in one Aflican state. 4. Ab'Ulldantnatural resources and the rise of powerfu Lcentralized governn1ents affected American states between the 12th and the 15th centuries . D evelop ·an argument that evaluates the extent to which change or continuity over ti1ne occurred in the economics and politics du1ing that time period in .one American state. In each response you should do the following: • Respond to the prompt wi\h a historically defensible thesis or claim that establi~hes a line of reasoning . • Describe a broader historical context relevant to the prompt. • Support an argument in response to the prompt using specific and relevant examples of evidenc~. • Use historical reasoning (e.g., comparison , causation , continuity or change) to frame or structure an argument that addresses the prompt. • Use evidence to corroborate ; qualify , or modify an argument that addresses the prompt. Source: AP'· J-l i>rid flis rmy Course and Exam Dcrcriplion. Effocti1•c Fall 2(119, UNIT 1 REVIEW 71 DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTION Directions: Question 1 is based on the accompanying documents . The documents have been edited for the purpose of this exercise. You are advised to spend 15 minutes planning and 45 minutes writing your answer. l. Develop an argument evaluating the extent to which the kingdoms and empires of the Sub-Saharan region succeeded in making achievements between c. 1200 and c. 1450. In your response you should do the following: • Respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning. • Describe a broade r historical context relevant to the prompt. • Support an argument in response to the prompt using at least six .documents. • Use at least one additional piece of specific historical evidence (beyond that found in the documents) relevant to·an .argument about the prompt. • For at least three documents, explain how or why the document's point of view, purpose , historical situation , and/or audience is relevant to an argument. • Use evidence to corroborate, qualify, or modify an argument that addresses the prompt. Documentl Source: Egyptian official on Mansa Musa (ruler from Mali) during his royal visit in .Cairo during the 14th century This 111an , Mansa Musa, spread upon Cairo the flood of his generosity: there was no person, officer of the court, or holder of any office of the Sultanate who did not receive a sum of gold from him. Document 2 Source: Description of Timbuktu by Leo Africanus, a traveler and writer born in Granada, al~AndaJus, in the I.6th century Here are many doctors, judges , priests, and other learned Lnenthat are weU maintained at the king's costs. Various manuscripts and w1itten books are brought here . . . and sold for more money than other n1erchandise, 72 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Do cument3 Source: Travels to the Kingdom of Mali , by Ibn Battuta (mid-14th century) Among their good qualities is the small amount of injustice amongst them , for of all people they are the furthest from it T_heirsultan does not forgive anyone in any matter to do with justice. Among these qualities, Lhei:eis also the prevalence of peace in their country , the tra .veler is not afraid init nor is he who lives there in fear of the thlefor of the robber by violence . Do cument4 So urce: Desctiption of wax proeess used in.making bronze scul pture in Benin by a Hausa ruiisan , 15tncenhiry fn the name of Allah the Compassionate , the Merciful. Tms account will show how th~ [Benin 1 figures ru·e n1a:de.This work is one to cause wonder. No w this kind bf work is done with clay, and wax , and red metal , and sofder and lead , and fire .... Next it is set aside to cool , then [the outside cover of clay] is broken off. Then you see beautiful figure. Document 5 Source: Ubaydallah al-Bak.ti, resident of al-Andalus (Cor doba , Spain ), who never travelled to Af1ica but based these observations on interviews with. traveler s, 1068 The city of Ghana consists of two towns situated on a plain. One of these towns , which is inhabited by Muslitns , is large and p ossesses twelve 1nosques . ... In the environs are we lls with sweet water , from whlch they drink and with which they grow veget ables. The king 's town is six miles di stant fr01nthis one and bear s the nam .e of Al-Ghaba. Between these two towns there are continuous habitations. The houses of the inhabitants are of stone and acacia wood. UNIT 1 REVIEW 73 Docum ent 6 So urce: Bronze head fo r a staffin.tbe shape of a coiled snake , from the lgbo-Ukwu people in Nigeria (9th century) Document? So nrce: Benin bronze head , (West Africa) 16th century 74 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION UNIT 2: Networks of Exchange from c. 1200 to c. 1450 Understand the Context Between 1200 and 1450, economic activity along existing trade routes increased in volume and scope. Technological .and commercia l innovations , in1pecial expansion , and de1nand for luxury goods were key factors in the ongoing expansion of trade . Growing trade networks acce lerated cultural , biologica~ and technologica l diffusion across Afro-Eurasia . Factors that Expanded Trade Between 1200 and 1450, the ris.e of powerful states and empires played a critica l role in increasing the voilnne and geograp hical reach of existing trade networks. The Mongol Empire promoted trade along the Silk Roads, creating a vast commercial network across Eurasia . Trade routes across the Sahara and in the Indian Ocean added both West Africa and East Africa to this network. lmprovements to previo usly existing commercia l practices, including fonns of credit, facilitated larger net\.vorks of exchange . Driving this growth in trade was a growing demand for luxury goods , such as silk and poree lain from China and gold from Africa . Consequences of Trade In the context of this growing trade , powe rful ne\v trading cities emerged scattered acros.s Africa an.dEurasia . Trade provided the setting for significant cross-cultural exchanges. As mercl1ants and other travelers moved fro1n place to place, they introduced religious beliefs such as Islam and developments in techno logy such as paper making and gunpowder to new communities . Against the back drop of this transfer of ideas and things , came also the rapid spread of deadly diseases, most notab ly the bubonic p lague . Mongo ls conquer the Abbasid Caliplfate and begin improving the Silk Road. Muslim scholar lbn Batluta starts his travels to Asia, Europe, and Africa 1258 1325 1200 I i 1235 Sundfat:restabll~hes · the Mall Empire In West Afrioa. ~ 1300 I f A plague Known as the Black Death begins ravaging Europe. Margery Kempe, author of one of.the lir,;fautobiographles In Englisb. dies. 1440 134 7 l 14ro l 1324 West African ruler Mensa· Musa begin s a lavish pilgrimage to Mecca 1405 Chinese admiral Zheng He begins seven great voyages througho.ut the Indian ·Ocean. 1417 The Central Asian trading city oi Samarl<and b!!glns build ing a,:,fmpressive Islamic school. UNIT 2: NETWORKS OF EXCHANGE FROM C. 1200 TO C. 1450 75 Topic and Learning Objectives Topic 2.1: The Silk Roads pages 77-84 A: Explain the cause·s and effects of growth of networks of exchange after 1200. Topic 2.2 : The Mongol Empire and the Modern World pages 85-94 B: Explain the process of state building and decline in Etu·asia over time. C: Explain bow the expansion of empires infhienced trad e and communication over time . D: Explain the significanc e of the Mongol Empire in larger patterns of continuity and cl1ange. Topic 2.3: Exchange in the Indian Ocean pages 95-102 E: Explain the cause·s of the growth of networks of exchange after 1200. F: Explain the effects of the growth of networks of exchange a:fter 1200. G: Explain the role of environmental factors in the deve lopment of networks of exchange in the period from c. 1200 to c. 1450. Topic 2.4: Trans-Saharan Trade Route pages 103-11 o I-I: Explain the causes and effects of the growth of Trans-Saharan trade. [: Explain how the expansion of empires influenced trade and communicatio n over time. Topic 2.5 : Cultural Consequences of Connectivity pages 111-120 J: Explain the intellectua l and cultural effects of the various networks of exchange inAfro-Eurasia from c. 1200 to c. 1450. Topic 2.6: Environmental Consequences of Connectivity pages 121-126 K: Explain the environmental effects of the various networks of exchange in Afro-Eurasia fron1 c. 1200 to c. 1450 . .Topic 2.7: Comparison of Economic Exchange pages 127-133 L.: Explain the sinli.ladties .and differences among the various networks of exchange in the period from c. 1200 to c. 1450 . 76 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 2.1 The Silk Roads And don't fo_rgetthat if you treat the custom-house officers with respect, and make .them son1ethfng of a present in goods or money. as well as their clerks and dragomen 1 they will behave with great civl/ity, and always be ready to appraise your wares b_elow their real value. - Italian merchant Francesco Balduc.ci Peglotti (1471) Esse ntial Questio n: What were the caus·es and effects of the growth of networks of exchahge after 1200? More than 1,300 years after the first ·accounts of travel on the Silk Roads, these fabled routes that had fallen into disuse had revived by the 8th and 9th centuries. As described by merchant Peglotti, the land route of the Silk Roads was vibrant and essential to interregional trade in the 14th and 15th centuries. Demand for luxury goods increased inEurope andAfrica . Chinese, Persian, and Indian artisans and merchants expanded their p1·oductionoJ textiles and porcelains for export. Caravans made travel safer and more practical, and the Chinese developed a system using paper money to manage increasing trade. Interregional trade on the Silk Roads flourished. Causes of the Growth of Exchange Networks The Cn1sades helped pave the way to expanding networks of exchange, as. lords and their armies of knights brought back fabrics and spices from the East. Despite the inroads on the Byzantine Empire by the Ottoman Turks, the Silk Roads trade routes remained in operation, as did sea Joutes across the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean. China was still eager for Europe's gold and silver, and Europe \Vas growing more eager 'than ever for silk, tea, and rhubarb. Global trade increased. Although Europeans had.not yet found a route around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa, they had been making overland trips across Europe for many <,enturies. Rise of New Empires After the collapse of classical civilizations such as the Roman and Han empires, the first golden age of the Silk Roads can1e to an end, and activity declined dramatica□y. HoweveJ, by the 8tl1 and 9th centw·ies, Arab n1erchants from the Abbasid En1pire revived the land route of the Silk Roads as well as sea routes in the Indian Ocean. Tang China bad mucb to offer the newly revived global trade network, including the compass, THE SILK ROADS 77 paper, and gunpowder . China exported porce lain , tea, and silk. From other parts of Asia , China imported cotton, precious stones , pon1egranates , dates , horses, .and grapes . These luxury goods appealed to the upper class of Chinese society , whose men1bers reve'led in their country 's newfound affluence. This :period marked the second golden age of the Silk Roads .. No other cause, however , had as significant an impact on the expansion of trade as did the rise of the Mongol Empire. Mongols conquered the Abbas id Caliphate in 1258, and in the l 4th century China came under their contr.0l as well. Parts of the Silk Roads that were under the authority of different rulers were , for the first time , unified in a system under the control of an authority that respected 1nercha.nts a.nd enforced laws. The Mongols improve:d roads and punished bandits , both of which increased the safety of travel 011 the Silk Roads. New trade channels v.1ere also established betweenAsia , the M iddle East, Africa , and Europe. Those who survived the conquests by the Mongols and their descendants benefited from the reinvigoration of trade routes tliat had not been heavily used since the days of the Ro1nan and I-Ian E1npires . (You will read more about the Mongols in Topic 2.2 .) Impr ove1nents in Transportation Technologies Another cause for the expansion of exchange networks was the improvement of transportation . Travelers on the overland Silk Roads lea 1ued that traveling with othe rs in caravans was safer than traveling alone. They also leruned how to design saddles for camels that greatly increased the weight of the load the ani1nals could carry . Centuries earlier , China had made advances in naval technology that allowed it to control sea-based trade routes in the South China Sea. Dwing the I-Ian Dynasty, Chinese scientists developed the magnetic compass a,nd improved the rudder, both of which he·lped aid navigation and ship control along the seas . The Chinese _junk, also developed in the }Ian Dynasty, \Vas .a boat silni lar to the Southwest Asian dhow. It bad 1nultiple sails and \.v.as as long as 400 feet-at least trip le the size of the typical \Vestern European ship of its time . The hull of a junk was divided into compartments. The walls making these divisions strengthened the ship for rough voyages at sea and n1ade sinking less likely. Effects of the Growth of Exchange Networks Two significant effects of the expansion and stability of the Silk Roads were the series of oases that developed along the routes, including thriving cities , and corrunercia l innovations that greatly helped to manage the increasing trade. Cities and Oases Long stretches of the overland Silk Roads passed through inhospitab le te1Tain-hot arid lands where water was scarce . Cities along the routes that w.ere watered by rivers becanie tlmving centers of trade. For example , the city of Kash gar is located at the western edge of China where northern and southern routes of the Silk Roads crossed , leading to destinations 78 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION inCentraLAsia, India , Pakistan , and Pers ia. It sits vvhere the Taklamakan Dese1t meeto:;the Tian Shan Moun tains and is watered by the Kashgar River , which has made the Lands.along it fertile for c1:ops such as wheat, rice , fru its , and cotton. Travel ers oil the Silk Roads depended on Kashgar for its abundance of water and food. Artisans in Kashgar produced textiles , rugs , Leather goods , and potte ry. Its food and handicrafts were sold in a bustling market. At the crossroads of both ideas and goods, the once prin1arily Buddh ist city also became a center of Islamic scho larship. Similarly , Samarkand , :in present-day Uzbekistan in the Zeravshan River vaUey, was a stopping point on the Silk Roads between China and the Mediterranean . Samarkand was a center of cultural exchange as much as it was a center for trad ing goods. Archaeo logica l renuiins show the presence of diverse re ligions, inc luding Christianity , Buddhism, Zoroastrianism , .and Is lam . Like Kashgar, Samarkand was kno·wn for its artisans as well as its centers of Islamic lea1uing and n1agni:ficently decorated mosques . Silk Roads, c. 1200 (?_a 0 .,~ fud INDJAN OCEAN O 1 1000 k0ometers Caravanserai Large flolll·ishing trading cities such as Kashgar and Samarkand, however , were not the only oases along the arid Silk Roads . Once the routes of the Silk Roads became stabilized, inns known as caravans .erai sprang up, often about 100 miles apart. That distance is how far camels could travel before they needed \Vater. At the caravanserai , travelers could rest both themselves and their aninlals ·and sometimes trade their animals for fresh ones . The word caravanserai derives from the Persian words for caravan and palace. Comm ercial Inno vations. To 1nanage the increasing trade, China deve loped new :financial systems. China had long been a .money econom yusing money rather than bartering with sueh commodities as cowrie shells or salt. l-Iowever, the copper coins they used became too unwieldy to transport THE SILK ROADS 79 Suurre: Wikimedia Commons C rc.dil! !'bolo by Bab~k.GhoLiw dcb T he entrance s .to caravanserais were large enough to a llow animals as well as people to emcr. Inside the enc losure , there were stalls for animals as well as cham!,crs for people . This caravansen _ti is in Iran. for everyday transactions, so the government developed a system of credit kno wn as flying cash. This allow ed am ercbant to deposit paper money und er his nam e in one location and withdraw the same amount at another location. Locations for exchanging flying cash became the mode l for the banks of the modern era , inc ludin g the banking hou ses establ ished in European cities in the 1300s. At a banking hous e, a person could pr esent a bill of exchange-a docum en t statin g the bo lder was legally promi sed payn1ent of a set amount on a set date-and receive that amoun t of mon ey in exchange. Each of the se innovations eneotu-aged and supported trad e by pro vidin g convenience and the stability of institutions. Th e Crusades awaken ed Europ eans' intere st in luxury goods from As ia. To acquire the1n, th ey organized the trade of European resourc es. In the 13th century , cities in northern Gennany and Scandina via for n1ed a conm1ercial allianc e called the Han seatic League. Controlling trad e in the Nor th Sea and the Baltic Sea ; m ember cities of the leag ue, such as Lubec k, Ham burg , and Riga , \Vere able to drive out pirates and monopo lize trade in goods such as timb er, grain , leather , .and .salted fish. L eague ships wou ld leav e the Balti c and North Seas . They would round the Atlantic Coast of Western Europ e, proceeding to the port s of the M editerran ean . Ther e, th ey mi ght pick up valuable goods from Arab caravan s . The league lasted until the mid-17th centw·y, when national govermnents beca1ne strong enou gh to protect their mercbants. (€o nn ect: Write a par.agraph anal yzing the effects in ·A-sia 0£ European in teres.t in.Asian goods. SeeTopic 1.1.) 80 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Innovations in Commerce, 500 B.C.E. to 1603 C.E. Fin~cial Instrument P~scripti9 n Qrigill Date . Early Location Coin Minted precious metals (silver, bronze, go ld} with own Inherent value c. 500 B.C.E. Lydia, Turkey Ca ravanserai Inns along trade routes where trave lers cou ld trade , rest, and replen ish c. 500 B.C.E. Persian Empire Paper Money Currency in paper fo rm c. 800 C.E. China Hanseatic League First common market and confederation of merchant guJlps 1296 C.E. Germany Banking House Precursor to modern banking c. 200 B .C.E. China Bill of Exchange A written order without Interest that binds one party to pay a f ixed sum to another party .at a prede.termihed date in the future c. 700 C.E, China Increase in Demand The growing demand for luxury goods from Afro-Eurasia , China, Persia, and India led to a corresponding increase in the supp ly of those good.s through expanded production. Craftworkers expanded their production of such goods as silk ·and other textiles and porcelains for export. Increased demand also led to the expansion of iron and steel manufactured in China , motivating its proto- industrialization. (See Topic I. 1.) KEY TERMS BY THEME TECHNOLOGY: Sea Trade magnetic comp·ass rudder junk GOVERNMENT: New Empires M9ngo l Empire CULTURE : Trade Cities Kashgar Samarkand ECONOMICS : lnn0vat ions caravanseral money economy flying cash paper money banking houses bi ll of exchange Hanseatic League THE SILK ROADS 81 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passag e below. "The road you travel frotn Tana to Cathay [China] is perfectly safe , whether by day or by night, .according to what the merchants . say who have used it . .. Cathay is a province which contained a multitude of cities and towns. Among others there is one in particula r, tliat is to say the capita l city; to which is great reso1t of merchants , a:nd in which there is a vast amount of trade; and this city is called Ca1nbalec. A.lid the said city hath a circuit of one hundred 1nil es , and is all full of people and houses and of dwe llers in the said city." Francesco Pegolotti , The !vferc/um1s Handbook, c. 1471 1. Which statement about China and trade does this passage best support? (A) Trade between Europe and Cathay was greatly enhanced by the security established by the MongolEmpire . (B) Merchants rarely frave led between Tana and Sara because the road was more dangerous than the route between Tana and Cathay. (C) Camba lec was an important trading hub , but it was not a large city. (D) The au th.or felt the risks of trade \Vith China outwe ighed the rewards . 2. Which development was the turning point that led to the expansion of trade between Asia and Europe? (A) The formation of the Silk Roads by Marco Polo allowed goods from Asia to be .imported into Europe for the fust time. (B) The conquests by Mongols , wh ich l.ed to improved trade routes and reduced trading costs. (C) The invention of silk cloth during the early Mongo l ru le allowed the Mongols to trade for pottery , wool , and other European goods . (D) The invention of paper money by Venetian bankers helped to faci litate trade between Europe and As ia. 3. Which objects or ideas was the author most likely writing about that represented continuity or change -in Chinese tTade? (A) silver , ge1ns, and gold went from Europe to China; woo l, horses , a,nd the ideas of Islam went from China to E111 :ope (B) silk , paper , and Christianity went from Europe to China; gunpowder, silver, and Buddhism went from China to Europe (C) silver, gen1s, .and gold wen1 from Europe to China ; silk , paper , and gunpowder went from China to Eu1·ope (D) paper and Christia,nity went from Europe to China; silk, gunpowder , horses , and wool went from China to Europe 82 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passag e below to answer all parts of the q·uestion that follows. "Throughout the city there are fine roadways with open spaces well laid out: and round these are seen many great bui ldings and houses , each with its main doorway facing the squa1:e. Such are the carav.anserais [inns]: and within are constructed separate apartments and shops with offices that .are planned for various uses. Le aving these caravansera is you pass into the n1arket streets where goods of a LIkinds are sold: such as silk stuffs and cotton cloths , crapes [crepes , a type of silk or wool fabric] , taffetas [a fine silk fabric], raw silk and jewelry: for in these shops wares 6fevery kind may be found. There is indeed an in101ense concourse of mercha nt s and n1erchandise here . . .. Now the dress the women wear in the streets is that the)' go covered in a white sheet , and they wear over their faces a black mask of horse-hair, and thus they are concealed con1pletely so that none rnay know them . Throughout Tabriz [a city in what is now northwestern Jran] many fine buildings may be seen , the Mosques more espec ially these being most beautifully adorned with tiles in blue and gold .... " E~ce:rpt from Ruy Gonzalez de Clavijo's account of his Silk Road s tra vels as an ambassador to Tamerlane by King Henry III in Spain between 1402 and J406 (A) Explain Clavijo's attitude toward the society and cultur e at Tabriz. (B) Explain ONE aspect of social str ueture in Tabriz that demonstrate d continuity with earlier p·e riods in histol'y. (C) Explain bow caravansera is affected inter regiona l trade iii luxury goods durin g the period c. 1200- c, 1450. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Descr ibe ONE example of money economies that affecte d Silk Roads trade durin g the period c. 1200-c. 1450. (B) D escribe ONE example of commercial practices that affecte d Silk Roads trade durin g the pe riod c. 1200-c . 1450. (C) Exp lain ONE example of cultures spreadi ng between the East and West. THES ILKROADS 83 iHINK AS A HIST0RIAN : ID.ENr l FY AND DESCRIBE CONTEXT When y0u c6nfe;xtaa lize a histori cal developme nt -orprocess , y@tiplace it · w.ithina larger historic al pei;:snective-a "bigger _P,ictu,re."Somel ime s to get fui-s perspeetiv e you loQk at th:eC'aus.es of a development or proc.ess. For ekamp le) the historical development of int ercultural cfonnections w~s pos sible in the. Cla:ssical Era, because of the inte1Tegional trad e alo.ng , the Silk R oa:d s. In the "t>igger pict ure,'' these inte rculnu:al c0nn ections brid ged the East and ·the West and bega11 the _foundations of a global communit y. Identijj, and describe a conte~t, or ''bigger picture, " by .looki'7! g fo r a tu1use of e-a.c h of thej qll0v.rin.gdevelopments 4wrirJgthe,$0,ng Dynll&ty . l. China developed new financial systems in resp0ns-e io increasing trade with Arab merc'b.ants from the Abbasid Empir e . 2. Russ ia was ' able to exchan ge -goods and s.ervie:es·with. @the.r cu ltur es fart berwe .st . 3. Th e deman d fQr ·ex-port ed silks anc;IChines .e po.rc.el,ainin Europe and India grew as the ln:dian Ocean tca:i;legrew , 4. Thriving citie1;dev elope d in Asia . s. Gun s and gunp owder spread fiom China to~11parls , of Eur asia. R.EFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to thr ee paragraphs , exp lain the causes an.d effects of the grovvth of networks of exchange after 1200 . 84 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION 2.2 The Mongol Empire and the Modern World Swarming like locusts over the face of the earth, they [the Mongols] have broughfterrible devastation to the eastern parts [of Europe], laying it waste with tire and carnage. After having passed through the land of the Saracens [Muslims], they have razed cities, cvt down forests, overthrown fortresses , pulled up vines, destroyed gardens , kl/led townspeople and peasants. -Matthew Paris, from the Chronica Majora ( 12 40) Essential Question: How did Eurasian emp ires grow overt ime, and how d id their expansion influence trade and comn1unication? TheMongols of Centra l Asia marched across much of Eurasia throughout the 13th centm-y, leaving destruction and chaos in their wake . The reputation of the Mongols for slaughter spread even .farther than their actual conquest. Matthew Paris had no firsthand knowledge of the M ongols as he wrote fron1 the safe vantage point of a Benedict _ine abbey in England. Lik e Paris , most writers of the time focused on Mongol atrocit i_es. However , in their quest for blood and treasure, the Mongols also sparked a period of-interregiona l connection .and exchange .at a level that the worl d had not experienced in a thousand years. The Mongols and Their Surroundings Iu 1he 12th centtu-y, the Mongols were multiple clans of pastora l nomads who herded goats and sheep and who were also hunter-foragers , north of the Gobi D esert in E~st Asia. Life on the arid Asian steppes was harsh., and it shaped the MongoJ culture . The Mongols expected everyone , 1nale and fe1nale, to becon1e skilled horserideTs , and they highly valued courage in hunting and warfare. They were surrounded by oth er tribes-the Tatars, the Naiman.s, the Merkits, and the powerful Jurchen in northe1u Chin a. The Mongols coveted the re lative wealth of tribes and kingdoms that were located closer to the Silk Roads and had easier access to luxury goods such as silk clothing and gold jewelry . THE MONGOL EMPIRE AND THE MODER N WORLD. 85 Genghis Khan The Mongol leader Temujin, born in 1162, spent the early decades of his life er.eating a series of tribal alliances and defeating neighboring groups one by one. He formed key friendships and .man·ied bis oldest son to the daughter of a neighboring khan. or king. Temujin was intensely focused on building power. With this focus, he sometimes appointed talented nonfamily n1embers to positions over family 111e1nbers. He was often also ruthless : For examp le, he killed his own stepbrother. He considered Tcmuji.n, bette .t known as Gcn.ghis Khan. 14th ce11tury. personal loyalty the best way National Pa.lace Museum to run his growing kingdotu. In 1206 , Te1nujin gathered the Mongol chieftains .ata n1eeting calJed a kuriltai where be was elected khan of the Mongolian Kingdom. He took the name Genghis Khan, or "ruler of all." The Beginning of Conquest In 1210 , Genghis Khan and his troops headed east and attacked the powerful Jin Empire , which had been established by the Jurchens a century earlier and now ruJed Manchuria , lllll er Mongolia , and northem China. Its capital was the city of Zhongdu , present-day Beijing. Genghis Khan earned his reputation as a terrifying wanior during this campaign; .anyone who resisted him was brutally killed in retribution. Sometimes the Mongols wiped out the civilian populations of entire towns after defeating their armies. Stories of Khan's b1utality spread in advance of his new west\.vard campaigns, inducing some leaders to sUrrender before an attack. In 1219, Khan conquered both the Centra l Asian Kara Khitai Empire and the l sl~ic Khwarazm Empire farther west By 1227 , Genghis Khan's kbanate , or kingdo~ reached from the North China Sea to eastern Persia. (Conn ~ct: Wrjt~ a p~agi:aph. comparing the r~ign ,QI µenghis Kh~ tp the reign Qf Sttndiata . See T0pi~ 1. 5.) Genghis Khan at War Khan 's empire wou ld not have been possible without the ski lled (IJ)d fearso1ne soldiers under his command. Mongolian so ldiers were strong riders and proficient with the short bow. They were also highly disciplined, and Khan developed an efficient cotnmand structure. To help with corrimunication between units, a messenger force was created whose 1ue1nbers rode for days without stopping , even sleeping on their horses while continuing to ride. With the help of Genghis Khan, the Mongolian armies developed special units that mapped the terrain so that they were 8.6 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION prepared against attacks and knevv which way to go to .attack their enemies. Their military strategies extended to surprise and craft. For instance , Mongo l forces frequently deployed a band of warriors smaller than that of their enemy, retreating in feigned defeat ; usually , enemy forces pursued the retreating Mongols , who then a111assedlarger forces to confi.1se and outflank the enemy. When coming upon an enemy sett le1nent, Genghis Khan sent a smal l group ahead to ask for surrender. If the ene1ny refused , he killed all the aristocrats . Craftworkers, miners , and others with skills, such as the ability to read and write, were recruit e:d for the Mongol Empire . Others were used as.laborers for tasks such as carrying looted goods back to the M ongol capita l or as fodder in the front lines of battles . Mongo ls quickly incorporated into their 1nilitruy the weapons and techno logy of the peoples they conquered. For exa1nple, when they conquered parts of China and Persia, they exp loited the expe1iise of captured engineers who knew how to produce impro ve d sieg e weapons, such as portable towers used to attack wa Ued fortifications and catapults that hurled stones or other objects. To keep contact with the far reache ·s of the empire, Genghis Khan . created a type of pony express, except instead of carrying written letters riders carried oral messages. Genghis Khan at Peace Those who expected Genghis Khan to govern the way he made \var were surprised . The pe1iod of Eurasian history between the 13th ru1d 14th centuries is often called the Pax Mongolica , or Mongolian peace. Genghis Khan estab lished the capital of his en1pire at Karakorun1, near the center of what is now the modem country of Mongo lia. In constructing the city and e·stablis hing his gove1nment, he consulted with scho lars and engineers of Chinese and Islam ic traditions. Genghis Khan may have been responsib le for 1nore new bridges than any other 1uler.in history. Th e social policies of Genghis Khan were libera l for the day. For examp le , he instituted a policy of religious tolerance throughout the en1pire, vvhich vvas unusual in the 13th century. Freed from years of warfare, Genghis Khan 's soldiers took charge of protecting the .Silk Roads, 111akingthem safe for tTade and ushering in the third go lden age of the Silk Roads. New trade channels were a_lso established between Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe. Those who survived the conquests by the Mongols and their descendants benefited fro111the reinvigoration of trade routes · that had not be en heavily use d since the days of the Roman .and Han Empires . (Ce.tine-ct:List the sirtill.arities and diffete nc·e:s i:n .1ce ligioi:Js policies b,etweenlli.e P-~ .Mongol i<ra ·and ~e .llom~_ns. See Pro lp_gue.) Genghis Khan 's effort to unify his empire included directing a scribe captured in 1204 to adapt the Uy ghor alphabet t6 represent Mongol. Although the effort to establish one system thToughout the empire failed , the alphabet is stil l used in Mongolia today. Mongolian Empire Expands Three of Genghis Khan's grandsons setup theirownkhanates, further expanding the e1npire into As ia and Europe. With each conquest, the e1npire expanded, with new people absorbed into its economy and netwo rks of exchange. THE MO NGOL EMPIRE AND THE MODERN WORLD. 87 Batu and the Golden Horde _In 1236, Batu, the son of Khan's oldest son , led a Mongolian army of 100,000 soldiers into Russia , which at the time was a loose netwo rk of city-states and principalities. Batu 's arn1y, wh ich came to be known as the Golden Horde , marched westward, conquering the small Russiankingdo .ms a1id forcing them to pay tributes. In 1240, the capital city of Kiev was looted and destroyed. Mongol Empir es in the 13th Century HMPllB OE THE GABA'I~NS GOlll .L"1HSJHI.T EMPIRE OP-THE CRAGmT.A.f KHAN.MllJ fl/AN PYNASTY • .zh~du D Einplreof \J:,eChaghalBI Khalla.te □ . Empire of lhe - Greal Khans/ Vuan Dynasty Batu Kipet\ak Empire (Golden Horde ) B 11y ,,J B er,ga l Arrrf ,; n n Sto PllCLFJC OCEAN f llkhan Empire o. 1 .000 MIies· o. 11000 Kilometers LND l AN OCEAN The Golden I-Iorde continued pushing westward . An initial period of sympathy for the Mongols , based on religiou s toleration and promotion of trade, evaporated 'vvhenWestern Europe saw the Golden Horde conquer a Christian .region, Russia. In 1241, Batu led the Golden I-Iorde into a succe ssfitl 1nilitaiy encounter with Polish., German, md French.knights under the leadership of.King Remy of Silesia. Soon afterward, Batu defeated a force ofHungarian knights. He next set his sights on Italy and Austtia , but fate interven ed. Back in Karakonun, Ogod ei Khan , the Great Khan's successor, had died. Batu called off the attacks and returned home to attend the funeral and to see to issues of succes.sion. By the time Batu rettnned to Europe, he bad apparently lost interest:in conquering Western Europe . The Mongols 1uled northe1nRussia by 'vvorkingthrough existing Russian ntlers, who sent regular tributes. The Mongols chose this fonn of indirect n:1lebecause they did not want to live in the forests. The rulers of the city-state of Moscow begm collecting additional tnbutes, which they set aside to develop an army to resist the Mongols, and began building an anti-Mongol coalition among the Russian city-states. This coalition, under Moscow's leadership, rose up against the Golden Horde and defeated it in 1380 at the Battle ofKulikovo. After thisbattle, Mongol influence began to declin~. By the mid-16th centwy, Russia had defeated all of the descendant .khans 88 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION of the Mongols except the Crimean Tatars, who were not defeated until the late 18th century. (Connect; Create aftve-ev;enttimelinetracing.lhehistQryC>fRussia :fi:0Illthe See Topics l.6 and 2.1.) Mongols toi°hedevelopment of the ·modem stare. The Mongols had long-lasting impact on Russia. As elsewhere, Russia suffered widespread devastation and death froni the Mongol attacks. But once 'the destruction by the Golden I-Iorde was over, Russia began to recover. The invasions prompted Russian princes to improve their militaiy organization and to accept the value of more centralized leadership of the region. In addition, three centuries of Mongol rule severed Russia's ties withmuch of Western Europe. As a result, Russia developed an1ore distinctly Russian culture than it had befoTe,and resistance to the Mongols created the foundation for the modem Russian state. Hul egu and the Islamic Heartlands While Batu led the westem ·armies , Hulegu , another grandson of Genghis Khan, took charge of the southwest r~gion . h1 1258, Hu legu led the Mongo ls into the Abbasid ten·itories, where they destroyed the city of Baghdad and killed the caliph , along with perhaps 200,000 residents of the city. HuJegu 's Mongolian armies continued to push \.vest, threatening more of the Middle East. [n 1260, .however, they were defeated as a resu lt of a tempora1y alliance between the· Muslim Mam lu.ks, under their military leader Baibars, and Christian Crusaders in Pa lestine. Both religiollS groups viewed the Mongols as a sedous threat. At the tin1e of this defeat , Hulegu 's kingdom , called the 11-khanate) in Centra l Asia stretched from Byzantium to the Oxus River, which is now called the An1u Darya . Mongols ruled this kingdom , but Persians served as ministers and provincial and local officia ls. The Mongols found that this arrangement resulted in 1naxiinum tax collection . Eventually , Hulegu and 1nost of the other Mongols living in the Il-khanate conve11ed to Is lam . Before this conversion, the Mongols had tolerated all re.Ligions in Persia . After the conversion, l1owever, Mongo ls supported massacTes of Jews and Christians . Kublai Khan and the Yuan D ynasty Meanwhile , in the eastern part of the Mongolian En1pire, a grandson of Genghis Khan , Kublai Khan , set his sights on China, which was then ruled by the Song Dynasty . China was a more formidab le opponent than those faced by the other khans , and Kublai 's annie ·s spent the years from 1235 to 127 1 attempting to conquer China. In 1260, Kublai assume:d the titl.e of Great Khan , and eleven years later finally defeated the Chinese . Adhering closer to Chinese tradition , rather than enforc ing Mongolian practices of leadership .and control , Kub lai Khan estab lished the Yuan Dynasty . He rebuilt the capital at Zhongdu, which had been destroyed by the Mongo ls in 12 15, calling it Dadu. K11blai Khan proved to be skilled at gove rning a large, diverse territory. Like bis grandfather , he instituted a policy of religious tolerance , which inspired l.oyalty in formerly oppressed groups such as Buddhists and Daoists , who were out of favor in China at the time . Flis policies were also tolerant toward Musfuns, Jews, and Christians . With these and other reforms and the protection of the Mongolian arm ies, most Chinese initially enjoyed the n 1le of the Great Khan; he brought pTosperity to China THE MO NGOL EMPIRE AND THE MODERN WORLD. 89 because of cultura l exchanges .and unproved trade with other countries, i11clucting European ones . Mongol women led 1nore mdep endent lives than won1en in other societies of the time . In their nO"madicculture, women tended flocks of sheep and goats in addition to raising chi ldl'en and providing meals for the family. Since they rode horses as Mongol men did , the women wore the same kind of leat her trousers. Mongo l women could rema.r1y after being widowed and cou ld initiate divorce s. Mongols Lose P o,ver Despit e Kublai Khan 's adoptio11 of many Chinese customs, Mo11golian leaders eventual ly alienated many Chinese. They hired foreigners for the goven1ment rath er than nati ve-born Chines e. By promoting Buddhist s and Daoist s and dismantling the civil service exam system, the Mongol s distres sed the Chin.ese scholar-gentry class who were often Confucians. Although the officia l policy was one of tolerance , the Mongo lians tended to remain .separate from the Chinese .and prohibited nonM ongo ls from speaking Mon golian. Just as Batu had reached the limit of Mongol expansion to the west, the Mongolian rulers of China failed to expand beyond China. Starting in 1274, the Yuan Dyna sty tried and failed to conquer Japan , fndochina , Burma , and the island of Java. Thes e defeats sugg ested to the already cUsenchanted Chme ·se population that the Mongol s were not as fearsome as th.ey once had been. In the 1350s , the secret White Lotus Society began quietly organizing to put an end to th e Yuan Dynasty . In 1368 , Zhu Yuanzhan g, a Buddhi st monk from a poor pea sant fan1ily, led a revolt that overthrew the Yuan Dynasty _aod founded the Ming Dynasty (136-8-1644) . The Mon go ls ' defeat in China paralleled a general dec line in their power elsewhere, and the empire began to shrink. The Golden Horde had lost its territory by about 1369 , whi le Central A sian territories were conqu ered by Ta1nerlane, also known as Tunur the Lame , at aro1u1dthe sa1ne tin1e. (Connect:Dt:scribew.hatthe fy19-ng0ls oeS,ir.ed ill each.<;>fth~n •COllA_UeStS,. See Topic 2.-1.) The Long-Term Impact of the Mongolian Invasions The Mongolian invasions played a key role in history in many ways, positive and negative. • Mongols conquered a larger area than the Romans , and their bloody reputation was usuaUy well- earned .Th eir empire was the larg est continuous land empi re in histor y. • Duringth e period known as the Pax.Mongolica (c. 1250-c. 1350), Mongol s rev italized interregional trade between Asia, the Midd le East, Africa , and Europe . The Mongols ·built a system of roads and continued to maintain and guard the trad e rout es . 90 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION • Intenegiona1 cultural exchange occurred as weU. Islamic scientific k11ovvl edge mad e its way to Chin.a, and paper frotn China n1ade possible the revo lution in c61nn1unication powered by the Gutenberg printing press (see Topic 1.6). The Mongols transfen·ed Greco-Islamic 1nedical knowledge and the Arabic nu1nbering .system to Western Europe. • The Mongol conquests be.Iped to transmit the fleas that carried the buboni c plague, termed the Black Death , from southe1u China to Central Asia, and fron1 there to Southeast Asia (IJ)dEw·ope. It followed familiar paths of trade and military conquest. • The Mongol s ruled success:fi.1llydue to their 1u1derst:anding of centralized power , a capacity that would transfer in many cases to the occupied civilizations. The Mongols devised and us ed a single intem .ational Jaw tbr all their conquered territorie s. Thus , after the M ongols declined in power , the kingdoms and states of Europ e, Asia , and Southeast Asia continued or copied the process of centralizing power. • Mongol fighting techniques led to the end of Western Europe 's use of knights in armor. The heavily clad knights could not react in .time to the M ongols ' use of speed and surprise . • The era of the waUed city in Europ e also came to an end, as walls prove d useless against the Mongols' siege technology. Some consider the cannon a Mongol invention, cobbled together using Chinese gunpovvder, Muslim flamethrowers , and European bell-casting techniques . KEYTERMSBY THEME GOVERNMENT: Nort hern China and Centra l Asia Mongo ls khan kuriltai Gengh is Khan khanates Pax Mongollca GOVERNMENT: Russia and Western Europe Batu Golden Horde Moscow GOVERNMENT : lslar:nic Heart lands Hulegu 11-khanate TE CHNOLOGY : Warfare siege weapons eannon GOVERNMENT : China Kub lai Khan Yuan Dynasty Zhu Yuanzhang Ming Dynasty CULTURE : Writing Uyghut alphabet ENVIRONMENT : Asia Gobi Desert SOCIETY: Revolt White Lotus Society SOCIETY: Disease bubonic plague THE MONGOL EMPIRE AND THE MODERN WORLD. 91 MULTIPLE- CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below. ''The [Russian] Duke who had spoken before gave .a short account of all that had taken place since the death of [Genghis Khan] , and the partition of his vast donunions. And then the yotmger Duke , Wsewo lodovics , took up the tale. 'Lord King -!' he began, 'these Mongols don 't ca□-y on warfare in an honorable , chivalrou _s way. They fight oniy to destroy, they are bloodthirsty, 1nerciless; their only object is to plunder, slay, murder, and burn, not even to 1nake any use of what lands they conquer. They are like a swa1m of locusts. They stay till everything is eaten up , till all are plundered, .and what they can 't carry off, that they kill , or reduce to ashes. They are utterly faithless; their wo rds and pron1ises are not in the least to be trusted , and those who do 1nake friends with them are the first upon who1n they wreak their vengeance if anythin g goes wrong. We are telling you no fai ry tales! We know to our own cost what 'they are, we tell you what we have seen with our O\Vn eyes. And let 1ne tell you this, my lord king, their hls t of conquest.and devastation knows 1io bounds! If it is Ollr tan1 today , it will be yours ton1orrow! And , therefore , while we seek a refuge in your land , we .at the same time \Varn you to be prepared! For the storm is coming , and may sweep across your frontiers sooner than you think .,,, Baron Nicholas J6sika· ( 1796- 1865), ?1/eaththe Hoof of the Tarta,; or The Scourge of God, a novel abontthe Mongols 1. What did the Russian duk e think motivated the Mongols? {A) T he Mongols were interested primar ily in seizing wealth rather than in controlling Russian ten·itory. (B) The Mongols choose their tactics in warfare because those tacitc .es were used in fairy tales . (C) The Mongols believ ed they cou ld fool foes with run1ors of .atrocities . (D) Th.e Mongols \.v.anted to be thought of as honorable warriors. 2. The most valid counterargument to the description of the MongClls by the Russian duk e wasthat the Mongols {A) took on ly what they needed to surv ive from peop le they conquered (B) .appreciated architectur e .and art and, hen<,e, rare ly destroyed cities (C) had no reason to invade other areas west ofRttssia (D) established politica l inst itutions in the terr itor ies they conquered 92 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 3. How would the Mongol s use the Rus sian duke's description to their advantage if they chose to invade Flun gary? (A) to frighten the 1lungarians into surre ndering (B) to persuade Hungarians to fight against other Christi-ail kingdoms (C) to cause the I-Inngatians toconve rt to Islam (D) to .attract Hungarian knights who admire d their style of warfare SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage belc;rwto answer all parts of the question that follows. '"And the Monarch of the World, theHatim eftheAge , [Mengii] Qa ' an [Khan] passed away , Guyuk , his elde st son bad not returned fro111the cainpaign against the Qifchaq , and therefore in accordance with preeedent the dispatch of orders and the assemb ling of the -people took place at the door of the .. . palace of h:is wife, Moge Kha.tun .... But since Torengene Kbatun was the mother bf his eldest sons and was moreover shrewder and more sagacious than Moge Khan.in, she (Torengene .Khatnn] sent messages to the pri nces , i.e. the brothers and nephews of the Qa ' an ... and said that until a Khan was appointed by agreement someone wou ld have to be nLler and leader in order that the bus iness of the state m:ight not be neglected 11or the affairs of the commonwea lth thrown into confusion ; in orde r, too , that the army and the court 1night be kept under control and the interests of the pe.op le protected . . . . therefore , until a quriltai [an assemb ly of Mongol nobles] was held , it was she (Toren gene Khatun] that shou ld direct the affairs of ilie state , and fhe old ministers shou ld remain in the service of the Cou 1i , so that the old and new yasas [poli tical structure or order] might not be changed fro 1n what was the law." Ala -ad Din Ata-Malik Juvain ~ a Persian scholar from the 13th century, The l'li.st01y of the Conqueror (A) D escribe ONE.reason Mongol nobles accepted .a woman 's leadership. (B) D escri be ONE way in w.hichMongol .leadership continued under Torengene Khahm and previous khans . (C) Explain ONE way in which the status of women in Islam ic society in the 13th century differed from the status of women in Mongol culture dming the 13th century. THE MONGO L EM PIRE AND THE MODERN WORLD. 93 2. Answer an parts of the question that follows. (A) Describe ONE example of a pattern of Mongolian expans ion in the period c. 1200-c . 1450. '(B) Describe ONE way in which Mongol political structures changed when they ruled China. (C) Explain ONE examp le of a connection between Mongolian and Chinese politica l structu1·es in the period c. 1200-c. 1450. THINJ<;ASA HJSTORIAN:. IDENTIFY 90NNECTION$ ' BETWEEN Hl~TO~ICAL DEVE_LQPM,ENTS M aking ·co11QectiQnshelps historians see developments not as isglat~d happenings- .b'tltrath~r as pie"GesQf aJarger pattern .Fos e~ple, exam ining the exchange of goods betwe ·en c. 1200 and c. 14§0 takes ·on n1uch n10re meaning wbea it is connec.ted with the ~xehange of ideas , knpw,ledge, technology, and religion . The impact of ttade an states that parfrcipaterl in the Silk Roa<ls exchanges from c._ 1200 to c. 145·0-w.ent far beyond just the goods that ehan,ged hands. Explain the connection be'/:Weenthe d'evelop1nentdescribed in .ec1eh statezn.entand t'/ie:overall developtneni of the MongQt Ernpirefeo.m .1210 to 1169 . 1. The Mopgols ' bl:oody reputation spre!:!d farther than their e.onquest. 2. The Mongols incorporated the wea_pons and technology people tb~y, conqu ·e.red into their military. of the ·· 3. Kublai Khan instituted a policy of .religious tolerance . 4. The Mo11gols restor:ed inter.region·al trade among Asia, the Mid~e East , Africa , ancl Europe. 5. The Bla ck-J)eath mov~d threugho 'ut Southeast Asia and. E·uroJ:>e with the M0tigol conquests. REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , explain how Eurasian empires grew over time and how their expansion influenced trade and communication. 94 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 2.3 Exchange in the Indian Ocean Seek ye knowledge , even to China. - Hadith (9th century) Essent ial Quest ion: What were the causes and effects ofthe growth of networks of exchange after 1200, ancj how did environmenta l know ledge support ihat expansion? Tbe saying froni the I-Iadith , traditionally attributed to the prophet Muh amma d, provides guidance to Muslims , encouraging them to trav el and learn . Following this advice, it is understandable that Dar al- lsla:m-litera lly the House of lslam , or Musli1n world-· .might be called the world's first global empi re. It connected societies from N ortb Afiica to South Asia. Even befor e mis.sionaries and imperiaJ armies spread Islam around tb.e wor ld, Mu slim merchants traveling to non-Muslim lands in search of trading partners were paving the way. In fact, Arab merchants had been traveling to South Asia for centuries before Islam began expanding. Mus li1n merchants ' connections to Dar .al-Islam interact ed wi th develop111entsin sailing technology and environmenta l.know ledge to transforn1 the Indian Ocean into an economic ho t spot durin g the Postcla ssical Era . Causes of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean South Asia, with its location in the center of the Indian Ocean , benefited enormously from the trade in the Indian Ocean Basin. (Gonnect : Write a Qaragrapb c9mparing th~ [slamic gl0bal empire , wifh the M0ngolian Iim:pire. See To:pi'c 2.2.) Although some of the causes of expanded trade in the Indian Ocean Basin were the same as those of expande d overland rou tes, son1e related specifically to ocean trave l and knowledge . Spread of Islam Although the Indian Ocean trade had existed as early as 200 B.C .E. , the expansion of Islam connected more citi es than ever before. Trading pai1ners existed in East Africa , E.ast and Southeast Asia , and South.Asia. Muslim Persians and Arabs were the dominant seafare rs and were instnunental in transporting goods to port cities across the Indian Ocean . Cities on the w est coast of India , such as Calicut and Cambay , became thriving centers of trad e due to interaction s with 111erchantsfroin East Africa and Southwest Asia . Calicut , especially , became a bu_stling port city for merc.hants in search of spices from southe1n India. Foreign merchants from Arabia and China met in EXCHANGE IN THE INDLAN OCEAN 95 Calicut to exchange goods fron1 the West and the East, respective ly. Local rulers welcomed the presence ofMus li1n and Chinese 1nerchants, as it brought the city wealth.and :prominence in the Indian Ocean Basin. Increas ed Demand for Specializ ed Products As the Indian Ocean trade grew , so did the den1and for specialized products . Every region invo lved in trade had something special to offer its trading partners . • India became known for th e high quality of its fabrics, particu larly cotton. In addition , merchants traveled to India in search of meticulously woven carpets .as well as high-carbon steel (used for knives and swords) , tanned leather , and art isan-crafted stonework. Merchants . also sought pepper from India 's southern coastal cities . • Moden1-day Malaysia and Indonesia beca1ne known as the Spice islands because of the fragrant nutmeg, cinnamon, eloves, and cardam.01n they exported . • Slaves , ivory, and gold came from the Swalrili coastal cities of Mombasa, Mogadishu , and Sofala. • China exported silks, and Chinese porce lain became coveted worldwide , which is why people in the West still refer to their fanci.er dishes as "fine china. 1' • From Southwest Asia came horses , figs, and dates. Trade in enslaved people also p layed a role in exchanges in the Indian Ocean. While most Aflicans who were enslaved and transpo1ted to the Americas after 1500 came from west and centra l Africa, there had been a longrunning slave trade in the eastern part of the continent. By routes over land or in the Indian Ocean , slaves from eastern.A.:fricawer e s0ld to buyers in northern Afri·ca, the Middle East, and India. Many were transported to the islands off the· southeast eoast of Africa , such as Madagascar. The trade reached its peak in the 18th and 19th centuries. Enslaved people taken in the Indian Ocean trade suffered fates different from those who were taken across the Atlantic . Slaves in the Indian Ocean trade were more likelyto provide forced labor in seaports in the shipping industry and as househo ld servants. Some worke d as sailors or even soldie rs. Living-in towns or cities, they had more opportunity to develop communities and to work alongside free laborers than did enslaved peop le taken to the Alnericas . Slaves who ended up in Islamic commllllities had certain rights, such as the right to many . As a resu lt oJ the Indian Ocean slave trade, African words, musical styles , and customs can be found in O1nan, India , and elsewhere. Envir onmental Knowl edge Knowledge of monsoon winds was essential for h·ading in the Indian Ocean . In the winter 1nonths, winds originated from the northeast , while in the spring .and s1nnmer, they blew from the south\vest. Thus, me rchants had to time their voyages carefully , often remaining in port cities for n1onths at a time , depending on when favorable winds would come their way. 9_6 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Advanc.es in Maritim e Technology Travelers needed ships capable of navigating the Indian Ocean's winds . Arab sailors used sailing techno logy to aid their travel. It is debatable whether Arab sailors invented the triangular lateen sails that they used, ·but the sails were popular because sailors found that the triangular shape could easily catch winds coming fro1n n1any different directions. Chinese sailors during the classical per iod bad invented the stern rudde .r, which gave their ships niote stability and made the1n easier to maneuver. The small wooden dhows used by Arab and Indian sailors dominated the seas during the Postclassical Era . Trade facilitated the rapid spread of sailing technology across thetnany lauds bordering the Indian Ocean in this period. (See Topic 4.1 for later Chinese maritime technology, such as the magnetic compass and improved rudder.) The astrolabe , improved by Muslim navigators in the 12th century, allowed sailors to determine how far north or south they vvere from the equator. Growth of States The trading networks in the Indian Ocean fostered the growth of states to he lp institutionalize the revenue from trade. One Muslitn city-state , Malacca , also spe lled Melaka , became wealthy by building a navy and by imposing fees on ships that passed through the Strait of Malacca, a narrovv inlet that 1nany.ship captains used to travel between po1ts in India and ports in China. The Sultan of Ma lacca becrune so powerfu l in the 1400s that he expanded tbe state into Sumatra and the southern Malay Peninsula . As in city-states in East Africa , Italy, ·and the Americas , Malacca's prosperity vvas based on trade rather than agricul ture or mining or 1nanufacturing. The sultanate ended 'vVhenthe Portuguese invaded the city in 15 11. The Portuguese hoped that by conquering the key city on the Strait of Malacca, tbey could control the trade that flowed through it between Europe., India, and China. They were successfu l enough to generate great wealth for their empire . However, they were less successful than they had hoped . Their conquest touched off conflicts among the other states in the region and caused traders to divers ify tbeirroutes and the po11sthey used . Effects of Expanded Exchange in the Indian Ocean Some of the -very factors that caused expansion of exchange networks in the Indian Ocean also, in time , became effects. Diaspori c Communities Without the arriva l of merchants in distant hmds, trade could not have expanded. As a natura l result of wa iting for favorable winds for trave~ these merchants interacted with the SUIToundingcultures and peoples of the region. In fact, many Arab and East African merchants stayed in western Indian port cities pe1manently because they 1narrie d wo1ne n tbey met there . Arab and Persian merchants settled in EastA.frica. Thus, these merchants from Dar al-Islain were the first to bring Islam to s0Lithe1n.Asia, not throug h nussionary work or conquest , but through intermarriage . Their children would generally be raised within Muslim h·aditions. EXCHANGE IN THE INDLAN OCEAN 97 Settleinents of people away from their homeland are known as a diaspora . In these communities, settlers introduced their own cultural traditions into the indigenous cultures . Those cultures, in turn, influenced the culture of the merchants . Diasporas arose through trade in 1nanyparts of the world. Merchants in Diasporic Communities Me rchaot Community Region(s) Products Mu slim China , Indian O0ean Basin, Europe Silk, paper , por0ela in, spices , gems, woods, gold , salt. amber, furs Chinese Sou.theast Asia, Africa Cotton , tea , silk, metals, opium , salt Sogdian (in Samarkand) Main caravan merchants alpng Silk Roads , China Silk, gold, wine, linens Jewi sh China, India, Europe Glass beads , linens, dyes, spices M alay Sri Lanka Nutmeg, pepper, cloves Snurcc:. lranic:i 0n lino. "Sogl.lian 'rr-. do," hnp://ww,v.iratticaonlino.ttrgfarticles/sogdian•tr.adc Response to Increased Demand In a similar way, increased demand for products caused trade to expand. At the san1e tilne, however, it resulted in several effects with long-lasting impact. For exarnple, to meet 1ising de1nand, producers needed to find ways to become more efficient-to grow more crops, to make more textiles, to manufacture more iron. In some p laces, the role of the state increased even .more to oversee these effo1ts.at efficiency and to raise 1nouey through customs-taxes on impo11ed goods-and fees for the use of seaports . The westemlndianRajputkingdom of Gujarat, for exa1nple, became the go..:between for trade between the East and West. The revenue from customs in Gujarat was many times n1ore than the entire worth of some European states. Sw ~hili City-States The Jndja:nOcean trade also created thriving city-states along the east coast of Africa, .sometimes known ·as the Swahili city-stat es. "Swahili," which literally means "coasters," refe1Ted to the inhabitants of bustling commercial centers, such as Kilwa; Mombasa (in modern Kenya), and Zanzibar (in n1odern Tanzania). The traders of the Zanj Coast, as it was known in Arabic, sold ivory, gold, and slaves to their Arab trading paitners , as well as n1ore exo6c goods .such as tortoise shells, peacock feathers, and rhinoceros ho1ns. In exchange , the ''Za:nj" cities acquired Chinese porcelain , Indian cotton, and manufactured iTonwork.Trade \Vasso vigorous with East Asia that Chinese porcelain remains a common find among the ruins of Swahili cities. Trade brought considerable wealth to the cities on the East Africai1 coast. Architectural ruins in Kilwa suggest the wealth and grandeur that once existed there. For example, most buildings had traditionally been constructed of mud and clay. Howeve r, at the Indian Ocean trade 's height, n1a.ny n1osques and wealthy 1nerchants1 homes were made of stone or coral. 98 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Signific.ant Cultur al Tran sfers The transfer of kno\vledge, culture, technology, comm erce, and religion intensified as a result of thri ving trade in the Indian Oc ean Basin. The voyages of the Muslim admiral Zheng He ( 1371-1433) reflect this transfer , as weD as the conflict s it sometimes generat e:d. [n 1405, the Ming emp eror Yongle sent Zh eng I-le on the first of seven great voyages. Zheng traveled to Indonesia , Ceylon , and other coastal areas on the Indian Ocea n, to Arabia , and to tbe east coast of Africa as vvell as to the Cape of Good I-lope. The main purposes of the voyages were to display the might of the Min g Dyna sty, to the rest of the wor ld and to rece ive tTibute fr om the people he encoun tered. Zh eng's fleet was impr essive: At its height , his ·fleet included more than 300 sh ips that carr ied 28,000 peop le. The Voyages of Zheng He, 1405-14 33 ~ MING TI11£T DYNAffY lNDIA INDIAN OCEAN _____ ... Travel route of Zheng ·He The expeditio ns won prestige for the Chinese governm ent and opened up new markets for Chinese goods. Zheng I-le and his crevv returned to Chin a with exotic treast u·es, such as the first giraffe the Chinese had ever seen. They also brou ght back a new understanding of the world beyond China's bord ers. The voyages inspired some to immigrate to port s _inSoutheast Asia and elsewher e. Zh eng He's voyages st irred controversy , though. Con:fi.1.cianisn1 pro1noted a s.table, agraria n lifesty le, .and sGholar s worried that greater _interaction and trade with foreign cultures threat ened Chin a's socia l ord er. S01ne c1itics sin1ply look ed down upon othe r cultures, deeming them barb aric and vastly inf erior to Chinese culture. Some thought the voyages were too expens ive . E1nperor Yongle's success or, bis son Zhu Gaozhi , ended Zh eng t le's travels, and he also di sco urag ed all Chinese from sailing away from China . To emphasize his poin t, he mad e buildin g a ship with 1nore than EXCHANGE IN THE INDLAN OCEAN 99 two masts a punishable offense . 2,heng 's voyages did have one pos1t1ve short-te1m result: They put a stop to pirate activities off the coast of China and in Southeast Asia. Floweve r, after China stopped sending armed 1nerchant ships into the ocean, the pirate activities resumed, especially on the China Sea. KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNMENT: States Malacca (Melaka) Gujarat Swahi li city-states ECONOMY : Trade Calicut Spice Island ENVIRONMENT: Ocean Indian Ocean Basin monsoon winds TE CHNOLOGY: Sailing lateen sail.s stern rudder ·astrolabe CULTURE: Disrupt ions and Transfe rs Indian Ocean slave trade diaspora ; Zheng He MULTIPLE -C HOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 r efer to the map below. Wint er Wind Patterns wind currents O 1,000 MIies 0 11000 Kilometers · I N D IAN OCEAN 1. The map helps explain why South Asian merchants prefe1Ted to travel (A) to Africa in the winter tnonths (B) to Southeast Asia in the winter months (C) to China -inthe summer months (D) to the Middle East in the summer n1onths 2. Si.nee merchants were often delayed in foreign ports foT lengthy periods of tune , they frequently (A) became involved miocal political affairs (B) married wives who often converted to their religion (C) lost their connection to the culture of their homeland (D) sett led in the foreign poTt and converted to the local faith 100 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 3. The eoastaJ cities of Mombas a , Sofala, .and M oga dishu often exported (A) silks and porcelain. (B) cotton and steel. (C) horses, figs , and dates . (D) slaves, .ivor y, and gold . SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to ans\-ver all parts of the g11estion that follo ws. ·'Merchants boast thatthei.r w isdo1n and abi lity are such as to give the1n a free hand in affairs. They believe that they know aJJ the possible transfonnat ions in the universe and therefore can calcu late all the changes in the hwnan world , and that the rise and fall of _prices are under their command . These merc hants do not know how insignificant their wisdom and ability really are . . . . If fanners do not work, there wil l be an insufficiency of food; if crafts men do not work , there will be an insufficiency of tools ; ifmercha nt s do not work, circulation of the three necessities will be cut off, which will cause food and 1na.teriaJs to be insufficient .. .. As to the foreigners in the Southeast , their goods are usefu l to us just as ours are to them; To use what one has to exc hange for what one does not have is what trade is all about .... Foreigners are reoalcitrant[uncoope rative] an.d their greed knows no bounds. " Chang Han, Ming official , the 15th century (A) E xplain ONE way the ideas of Chang Han pro vided the po litical con text for Zhu Gaozhi 's dec isio n on Zh eng H e's voyages. (B) Exp lain ONE way th.e ideas of Chan g Han pro vide:d the economic context for Zhu Gaozhi 's decision on Zh eng H e's voyages. (C) Exp lain ONE way the ideas of Chang I-Ian refleet a traditional Chinese view of China's relationship wi th other cultur es. 2. Ans\-ve r all parts of the g11e-stion tha t foll ows. (A) Explain ONE cause of exp and ed trade in the Ind ian Ocean B asin in the period c. 1200-c. 1450. (B) Exp lain ONE effect of expa nd ed tTade in the Indian Ocea n 13asin in the period c. 1200-c . 1450 . (C) Explain the relationship between the expans ion of maritime trade in the Indian Oc ean Basin c. 1200-c. 1450 and the expa:nsion of tTade over the land rout es of the Silk Roads. EXCHANGE IN THE I NOLAN OCEAN 101 THINK AS A HISTORIAN: APPRQACHESTO MAK IN{; HlSTOFllCAL CONNECT IONS Making historical ~onne.eti0ns requires the use ·of tlu:ee reasoning ' pr©'cesses:c(;)"mparison , ca:usation, anru'or c0ntinu.ityand'change. F9 Uowmg are CJ11estions you can_a&kyourself t0 make historica l eonne ·c tions using these ptoc~~es, The ans"vers-t.olh:ese questions will reveal connections. • €om.paris0n: What topic, idea , or event in history is lik'e another topic , idea, or eve_µt1Hpw is one topic , i9ea, 9r event like and/or unlike ano.ther? Possible answer and CQntt,ecti0n: The expansion Silk of sea toutes for trade is like the expansion of the· land-ba:::r.;ed Roads ,for trade . They are alike in that they both ex;ten:d~ globa l 'interoo-nneetions and de:pended on new techno logies. • Causation: What caused s0metbing to happen? Possible answer and eonne'CtiOii!:China's withdrawal from:sailing to distant lands caused a return of piracy in the China Se~. • Coptinuity , and change: In wha.t·way.sis soineJhing a c0ntinuation of what came before it? In w hat ways ·did something differ fram a1'!Sl4 1e1·a.nq connection: Tr,ade in the what precedecl it? Possible:,, Indian Ocean bad periods m whic.lHt ftomished before the.s_pread ofisJ.an1, and 'flourishing trade continued after the spr.ead of Islam . S0me changes after the spreac;I.o:fJslamwere the high regard a:ffot.ded Muslim merchants and the expansion of -tratle routes . Make three historical conne c tionJi' betv.1een ·what yo u read about u-z 1wV this topi & a1id what y ou, I-earned in pre -vi0ti~ top.Jes,or eveJ1 hat y(Ju know 'abo·iu olher ti:m,es in,.hi'stofJ ', ineludi11gthe pre-sent. Aslcyoto:-se~f the ab9ve questio ns tq fliscvve r the connections. Write them down and sh.ate di.eh?with yo ur cJqssJnates. · REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , explain the causes and effects of the growth of networks of exchange after 1200 .and the way environmental knowledge supported that expansion . 102 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 2.4 Trans-Saharan Trade Routes From Timbuktu I sailed down the Nile [Niger] on a small boat, hollowed ·out of a single piece of wood . .. / went on ... to Gawgaw [Gaogao], which is a large city on the Nile [Niger]. .. The buying and selling of its !nhabnants is done with cowry-she!!s, and the same Is the case at Ma/Ii [the city of Mall}. I stayed there about a month, _ and then set ou,t in the direction of Tagadda by land with a large caravan of merchants from Ghadamas . - lbn Battuta (1304- 1353) Esse ntial Question: What were the caus·es and effects of Trans-Saharan trade, and how did the growth of emp ires ihfluence trade and .commun ic.atiori? W bile the East African Coast had been fairly well populated fo r 1nany centuries befor e the airival of Islam, few societies had inhabited the Sahara Desert becaus e its atid cli1nate made .it nearly impossible to farm. Though nomad ic communities did condu _ct som_e trade across the Sahara, the vo lume of trade increased with the arrival of Muslim merchruits in the 7th and 8th cennir ies. When e1npires such as Mali took over the area in the early 1200s , con1D1erceexpanded dramatically. As illustrated in the eommentaries of lbn Battuta , a Muslim scho lar and eXplorer of the 14th century , merchants and traders used caravans to facilitate comme rce. Afiicans traded gold , ivory, hides, and slaves for Arab and Berber salt , cloth, papei:, and horses . Trans-Saharan Trade The Sahara Desert is im1nense, occupying 3.6 1nillion squar e miles-about the same size as China . Of that vast expanse of san d .and rock, only about 800 square mi les are oas es-places where humru1 settlement is possible because water fron1 deep underground is brought to the surface , 1naking lru1dfertile . In some oases , the water comes f:i-omunderground naturally. In others, humru1s have dug wells to access the water . Camels, Saddles, and Trade Muslim merchant s from Southwest Asia traveled across the Sahara on carnets. Native to the Islamic heartland (Arabia) , came ls began to apperu· in North Africa in the 3rd century B.C.E . Accu stome d to the harsh , dry climate of theAr abianDes ·ert, camels .adapted well to living TRANS~$AHARAN TRADE ROUTES 103 in the Sahara . Compared to horses, camels can consume a large quantity of water at one time (over 50 gallons in three tninutes) and not need more water foT.a long time. They began to rep Lace horses and donkeys .after 3 00 C.E . As use of the can1el spread , peop le deve loped as many as 15 types of camel saddles for diffe rent purposes . South Arab ians developed a saddle in which the rider sits in back of the hump , which 1nakes riding easier because the r ider can hold onto the hair of the hmnp. Northern Arabians deve loped a saddle for sitting on top of the hump, putting then1 high in the air, which gave the1n greater vis ibi lity in batt les . Being near the bead gave the rider the best possi ble control over the ca1nel. However, the sadd le that had the greatest impact on trade was one the Somalis in Easte n1 Afiica deve loped . They we re sen1i-nomadic and neede d to carry their possessions with them, so they designe d a sadd le for can·y ing l.oads up to 600 pou1ids. Without the deve lopment of this type of saddle , came ls cou ld not have been used to carry heavy loads of goods in trade . Comparing Pack Animals Anim.al Location - ,- . . Benefit .s Drawbacks Camel Northern Af rica and SubSaharan West Africa • Aq le to travel long dis tances • Can eat thorny plants and drink salty water found in deserts • Has long eyelashes that protect against de.sert winds · • Only anima l that can cross deserts • Does not spo.ok easi_ly • Can carry up to 600 pounds • Requires high level of salt to stay healthy • Can be very aggressive and even vengeful • Cannot be ·controlled with a bit • Cannot be boarded in a stall Ox Euras'ia and the Americas • Has high . level of ·stamina. • Can pu ll heaviest loads • Unlike ly to slnw or be stolen • Can survive on local graz ing • Tolerates various climate .sand diets • Moves slow ly c·9mpared to other pack ariimals • Requires more water and food than other p~ack anima ls Horse Worldw ide • Can run at high sp·eeds • Can be controlled with a bit • Requires grain to keep fit • Spooks easi ly • Can be ·us.ed In batt le· • Can ac;laptto mbst •ciimates and terrains • Can be .stolen easily • Strays easily • Less sure- footed than other pack animals • Cannot to lerate high heat • Maintains tra ction in mountains • Has calm disposition • Requires litt le water • Adapts well to cold and mountainous climates • Cannot pull heavy loads • Can carry less than other pack ·anlmals • Cannot to lerate high h.ear Uama 104 Americas WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION The caravans that crossed the Sahara oft en had thousands of came ls laden not only with goods to trade but also with enough provis ions , including fresh vvater, to last until the travelers could reach the next oasis. The people leading the caravans generally walke d the entire way. The map on page 44 show ,s some of the main trade routes across the Sahara . There were seven north-south trade routes and two east-west routes . These put the people in Sub-Saharan Africa in touch with an expanding number of cultt:u-esand trading partners . By the end of the 8th century C.E ., the trans-Saharan trade had become famous throughout Europe and As ia. Gold was the most precious co1nmodity traded. West African merchants acquired the metal from the waters of the Senegal River , near modem-day Senegal and Mauritania.Foreign traders came to West Africa seeking not only gold but also ivory and slaves . 1n exchange, they brought salt , textiles, and horses. For more than 700 years , trans-Saharan trade brought consi derab le wealth to the societies of West Africa , particularly the kingdoms of Ghana and Mali. They also brought Islam , which spread into Sub-Saha ran Afr ica as a resu lt. (Conneet: Compare the in1pact of trade actoss fue Sallar-a anc;I.through Qut the Andes; ,&ee Top~<S I .4,) Sou.rte: Wikimodia•Commons.(NASA) Satellite image of the expansive Sahara WestAfrican Empire Expansion By the 12th century , wars with neighboring societies had perman ently weakened the Ghanaian state. (See Topic 1.5.) In its p lace arose several new trading societi .e·s, the most powerful of which was M ali. North Afi·ican traders had introduced Islam to Mali in the 9th century. Mali 's Riches The govenm1ent of Mali profited from the gold trade , but it also taxed nearly all other trade entering West Africa. In that way , it became eve n more prosperous than Ghana had been , Most of Ma li's residents . were farmers who cultivated soi:ghun1 and rice. However , the great cities of Timbuktu and Gao accu n1ulated the n1ost wea lth and dev eloped into centers of Muslim life-in the region. Timbuktu in particular becaine .a world-renowned center of Islamic learning . By the 1500s , books created and sold in Timbuktu brought prices higher than most other goods . TRANS~$AHARAN TRADE ROUTES 105 Expanding Role of States The growth in trade and wealth gave ris.e to the need to administer and maintain it. For examp le, rulers needed to establish a c111Tencywhose value was wide ly understood. In Mali ~ the currency was cowrie shells, cotton cloth , gold, glass beads , and salt. Rulers also needed to protect both the trade routes and the areas where their cun'encies were tna.de or harvested or their other trade resources were produced. Sometimes empi res expanded theiL reach to take over resource-rich ai-eas. They did so with military forces well provisioned with horses and iron weapons bought with the tax revenue. With each expansion, more people \Vere drawn into the empire's economy and trade networks , bringing more people in touch with distant cultures. Mali 's founding ruler, Sundiata , became the subject of legend. His father bad ruled over a snuill society in West Africa in what today is Guin ea. When his father died , rival groups invaded , killing most of the royal family and captm·ing the throne . Th ey did not ·bother to kill Sundiata because the young prince was crippled and was not considered a threat. In spite of his injur y, he Learned to fight and became so feared as a watTior that his enemies forced him into exi le. His tin1e in exile only strengthened him and bis allies. In 123§ , Sundiata, ''' the Lion Prince ," returned to ·the kingdom of his birth , defeated his enemies, .and reclaim e:d the throne for hi1nself. Sundiata 's story tnade him beloved within his kingdom , but he was also ru1 astute and capable ruler. Most scholars believe be was a Muslim and used hls connections with others of his faith to establish trade relationships with North Afr ican and Arab 1nercha nts. Sundiata cultivated a thri ving gold trade in Mali. Under his steady leadership, Mali's wealth grew tremendously . Mansa Musa In the 14th centw·y, Sundiata 's grand-nephew, Mansa Musa , brought 1nore fame to the region . However , Mansa Musa was better known for his religious Leadership th.an for hls political or economic acu1nen. A devout Muslim, Mansa Musa began a p.ilgrimage in 1324 to Mecca , Islam's holi est city. His journey ; how eve r, was unlike that of any ordinary pilgrim. Mali 's prosperity allowed him to take an extraordinarily extravagant caravan to Arabia , consisting of 100 camels , thousands of slaves and soldiers , and go ld to distribute to all of the people who hosted him along his journey. I-Iispi lgrimage displayed Mali's wealth to the outside world. Mansa Musa's visit to Mecca deepened his devotion to Islam. Upon his return , he establis hed religious s.chools in Tinlbuktu , built mosques in Muslim trading cities, and sponsored those who wanted to continue their religious studies elsewhere. Tho'ugh 1nost West Africans continued to hold onto their traditional beliefs, Mansa Musa 's reign deepened the support for Islan1 in Mali. However, in fewer than 100 years after Mansa Musa's death, the Mali kingdo111was declining. By the late 1400s, the Songhai Kingdom had taken its place .as the powerhouse in West Africa . Followi ng processes lik e those Mali had gone through , Songhai became larger and richer than Mali . In spite of Mali 's fall , Mansa Musa 's efforts to strengthen Islam in West Africa succeeded: The religion has a prominent place in the region today. 106 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Empires in Western Eurasia and Africa in the 13th Century M ali AbAnda lus ~YZ,a l'!tinE! Ei'npire KJE!vanR_us Location West Africa Spain Midd le East Russia M ajor City Timbuktu Cordoba Constantinople Kiev Peak Yea rs 1200s to 1400s 711 to 1492 330 to 1453 900s to 1200s Key Figure ·s • Sundiata : founder who built a strong trade network • lbn Rushd: Islamic legal scholar and philosopher • Vladimir l: converted to Christianity In 989 • Mans!:i Musa: political and religious leader • Maimonides: Jewish scholar of ethics • Justinian: ruler responsib le, for the Body of CJ/ vii La.w • Connected West an·d North Africa through t rade • Created vibra nt, tolerant society • Fostered trade between Asia, Europe, and Africa • Developed first large civ ilization in Russia • Spread Islam in West Africa • Preserved classical Gree.k learning • Carried on Roman legacy • Spread Christian ity eastward Legacy • Heraclius: shift ed focus to the East • Yaroslav I: codi fied the legal system KEYTERMS BY THEME • GOVERNMENT : Sub-S ahar an Mali Sund lata Mansa Musa Songha i King dom CULTURE: Isla m Timbuk tu Mecca ENVIRONMENT : Afr ica Sahara Desert oases ENVIRONMENT : Southwe st Asia Arab ian Desert TECHNOLOGY: Pack ani mals .camel saddle ECON OMI CS: Trade trans-Saharan trade TRANS~SAHARAN TRADE ROUTES 107 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the chart below. Camel Saddles Region Location of Rider Advantage- South Arabia Behind the hump Makes riding easiest North Arabia On top of the hump Gives the ri.der the best visibi lity North Africa In front of the hump Provides the rider the best control East Africa Not designe.d for a rider Carries the largest load 1. Which was the most important impac t of the improve1nents in saddles in assisting the s_preadof Islam in Africa? (A) Th.ey .allowed younger peop le to ride camels . (B) They inc rease d the demand for camels. (C) They contributed to increased trans-Saharan trade. (D) They strengthe ned Islam ic .armies. 2. The information on camel saddle s is an ex.ample of how (A) people adapted tech.nology based on their needs (B) differences in camels suited them for different tasks (C) innovation results from outside influences (D) climate variations influenc .e d th e relationship be.tween people and an i1nals 3. Where was the saddle develope d that had the greatest impact on trade throu ghout the Middle Ea st and Africa? (A) South Arab ia (B) North Arabia (C) No rth Africa (D) East Africa 108 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Us e the passag es below to answer an parts of the question that follo,vs. "Between the 11th and the 17th centuries ·west Afrjca was tlie leading suppJjer of gold to the ii1temat'ional economy. African gold contributed to the functioning of the doU'1esticeconomy in Ew·ope .... And it c.ontributed to the wealth of the great states of the \1/estent Sudan." Anthony G. Ropkins , An Economic Histo1J' ~(West Afri ca, 1973 "Copper mined in Mali catne to be a cruci.al element in trade patterns. It could be exchanged with the peoples to the south who controlled the sources of gold. Kola nuts , animal skins , slaves, grain, meat·, and even <laityproducts were also transported by trading networks. " J. Rotondo -M cCord, 1998 (A) Exp lain ONE way in which a resource fi-om Mal i was used in SubSaharan trade during the period c. U00-c. 1450. (B) Explain ONE way in vvhich Ma li 's wealth con.tributed to the expansion of its government during the period c. 1200-c. 1450. (C) Exp lain ONE example of transportation .technology that led to growth in interregiona l tra de du ring the period c. 1200-c. 1450. 2. Answer aU:parts of the question that follows. (A) Identify ONE econom ic impact Mu.slim trad_ers had on SubSaharan Africa. (B) f dentify ONE culh1ral influence Muslin1 fraders had on SnbSaharan Africa. (C) Explain ·ONE si1nilarity between trans-Saharan ti"ade and trade on the Silk Roa ds in Asia . TRANS~$AHARAN TRADE ROUTES 109 THINK AS A f1ISTORIAN ; IDENTIFY HISTCR ICAL PRcJCESSES· BY ASK ING "HOW" One 1vvayto identify historical processes is to asK.the quest ion, "How? " H,ow dld [sla;iµ spre~d? How 'did trade gi,-owbetween S0uth:we_st Asia and Sul,,-SaharanAfrica? How did s1nall clan-based kingdoms become empires? fu eaQh of these questions, you can substitute the.words ''By what pr0Gess'1 in the ptac·e of "\How." Identifying proc~ss,es·-how thrngs can1e to be what they are'-Can give you a basis f@runderstanding different times and different -places b:istorr. F~r example, if you :ustna:llzation, you •can kno:w the proc.ess China f0l10wed in its proto -;:incl determine what st~ges of the· process in other industria l~ing regions ID!\Y be the same Qrdiffei:ept. m ,Which of the following identiflru' a histori cal process? Explain your answer:s..Thurexplanation·is as in'Lpor,tanras y0,ur a1'1swe,: 1. The government of Mali 's power gr.e\v as it taxe·a nearly. all trade entering WestAicica. 2. Trans-Saharan trade followed seven north-south and two eas,f- west rQutes. 3. In East Africa , ·a large vadety of imports and exp@rts6verlappe·d. 4. Mansa Musa 's reign de¢pen·ed the support f©r Islam in Mali. REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraph s, exp lain the causes and effects of transSaharan trade and how the gro\vth of empires influenced tra_de and communication . 11Q WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 2.5 Cultural Consequences of Connectivity I have not told half of what I saw, tori knew I would not be believed. - Marco Polo (1245- 1324 ) Essential Question: What .were the intellectual and cultural effects of the trade networks fron1 c. 1200 to c . 1450? Whether by caravan through the Sahara or Gobi deserts or by junk or dhow on the China Sea or Indian Ocean, goods, peop le, and ideas trave.led with relative freedom through the networks of exchange in AfroEurasia in the years between c. 1200 and c. 1450 . One reason for this free exchange was the stability of the Mongol Empire and the protection it offered n1erchants and trave lers. The e1npire reached weU pa.st forn1er boundaries , incorporating new peop le, goods , and ideas within its autho1ity . Technological developments , such as gunpowder and paper from Ch ina, were diffused by trade . Literary and artistic interactions and cultural exchanges were docwnented by travelers such as Marco Polo and lbnBattuta , who told of the wonde rs th ey saw and the extraordinary people they met. The known world becrune a larger place. Religious, Cultural, and Technological Effects of Interaction The diffi.Li;ionof different religions between c. 1200 ru1d c. 1450 bad vru·ying· effects. 1n some cases , the anival of a new religion served to unify people and provide justificat ion for a kingdom 's Leadership. It often also influenced the Literary and artistic culture of areas to which it spread , where themes, subjects, a.nd styles were inspired by the spreading religion. In other places , it either fused or coexisted with the native religions. The interactions res.ulting from increased trade als.o led to technological innovations that helped shap e the era . CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECT IVITY 111 Influence of Buddhi sm on East Asian Culture Buddhism came to China fro1n its birthp lace in India via the Silk Roads, and the 7th-century Buddhist monk Xuanzang he lped make it popular. Monks related Buddbis1n to familiar Daoist principles , and in time Buddhist doctrines fused with elements of Dao ist traditions to create the syncretic faith Chan Buddhism , also known as Zen Buddhism. Although some leaders in China did not want China 's native l'eligions diminished as a result of the spread of Buddhism , Chan Buddhism remained popular among ordinary Chinese citizens. Under the Song Dynasty (960-1279) , many Confucians among the scholar gentry began to adopt its ideals into their daily lives . The developn1ent of printing had 111adeBuddhist scriptures widely available to the Confucian scholar gentry. Buddhist writers also influenced Chinese literature by writing in the ve1uacular rather than the formal language of Confucian scholars, a practice that became widespread . Sourc e: Nezu.An Museum. Tokyo Derail of dusk over fisher 's village , from tire handscroll "E ig ht Views of Xiaoxiang · by Chan Buddhist painter Mu-ch'L c. 1250, Nezu .A.rt Muse.um. Mu-ch . iis credited with star.ting the ''sketch style" of painting that uses the fewest lines possib le to suggest a subject. His work was very Juflue_ntialin East Asia11art. Japan and Korea, countries in China's orbit, also adopted Buddhism, along with Confucianism. In Korea, the educated elite studied Confucian classics, while Buddhist doctrine attracted the peasants . Neo-Confucia,nism was another syncretic faith that originated in China, first appearing in the Tang Dynasty but developing further mthe Song Dynasty. Neo-Confucianism fused _rational thought vvith the abstract ideas of Daoism and Buddhism and became widespread in Japan and Vietnam. It also became Korea 's official state ideology . 112 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Spread ofHinduism andBoddhism Through trade, the lndi anreligions of Hinduis1n and Buddhism made their way to Southeast Asia as well. The sea-based Srivijaya Empire on Sumatra was a E-Iindukingdom , while the later MaJapahitIGngdom onJava was Budd.hist. The SouthAsian land-based Sinhala dynasties in Sri Lanka becan1e centers of Buddhist study with 1nany monasteries. Buddhism 's influence was so strong Lmder the Sinhala dynasties that Buddhi st priests often advised monarchs on matters of government. (See Topic 1.3.) The Khmer Empire in present-day Cambodia , also known as the Angkor Kingdom , was the most successful kingdom in Southeast Asia. The royal n1onuments at Angkor Thom are evidence of both Hindu and Buddhist cultural influences on Southeast Asia. Hindu artwork and sculptures of Hindu gods adorned the city. Later, when Khn1er rulers had become Buddhist, they added Buddhist sculptures and artwolk onto_buildings while keeping the Hindu artwork. Spread of Islam Through merchants , missionaries , and conquests, Islam spread over a. wide swath of Africa , South Asia, and Southeast Asia . The chart below summarizes some of the cultural influences of that expansion. Cultural Influences of Islam in Afro-Eurasia lnfluenc.es Africa · Swa hili language is a blend of Bantu and Arabic and is .still wide ly spoken today. • Timbuktu pecame a center of Islamic learning. • Leaders of African states deepened Islamic ties through pilgrimages to Mecca. South Asfa • Sefore Islam, Hindui.sm and Buddhism were popu lar. • After Islam arrived, Buddhists converted more readily than Hihdus because they were disillusioned by the corruption amon·g Buddhist priests. • With its emphas is on equal ity, Islam also attracted lower-caste Hindus. • Architecture blended Hindu de.signs with Islamic patterns . · Ucdu language had lnfluenoes from Sanskrit-based Hindi, as well as from Arabi c and Farsi, a Persian language. • Bhakti poets.-and missionaries sought links between Hinduism and Islam. Southeast Asia • Muslim rulers on Java combined Mughal Indian features, loca l traditions , and Chinese-Bucldhist and Confucian traits. • Traditiona l Javanese stories , puppetry , and poetry absorbed Muslim characters and techniques. Scientific and Technological Innovations Along with religion , science and technology traveled the trade routes. Islamic schol'ars translated Greek literary classics into Arabic, saving the works of Aristotle and other Greek CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECT IVITY 113 th.inkers from oblivion . Scho lars also brought back mathematics texts from India and techniques for papennaking from China. They studied medicine fr.O"mancient Gre.eks, Mesopotamians , .and Egyptians , making adyances in hospital care, including surgery . (See Topic 1.2.) Improvements in agricultural eflicieney , such as tbe use of Champa rice, spread from India to Vietnam and China . With a reliab le food supply, the popu lation grew, as did cities and industiies , such as the production of porcelain, silk, steel , and iron. Papermaking reached Europe from China in the 13th century and along with printing techno logy helped lead to a rise in literacy. Seafaring techno logy improved witb lateen sails, the stern rudd er, the astrolab e, and the magnetic compass as Chinese , Indian , and Southwest Asians expanded their know ledge ofastro11omy and other aspects of the natural vvorld. Productio11 of gunpowder and guns Spread from .China and influenced warfare as well. Thanks , in part, to the wr iting of Marco Po lo, historians have a good pichtre of the city of Hangzhou in China. It shows how trade supported urbanizat ion. I-1:angzhouwas large- it was home to about one million peop le-but other Chinese cities were larger . Chang ' an had about two million people. However , 1-iangzhou was the center of cul ture in southern China , the ho1ne of poets such as Lu Yu and Xin Qiji , and other w1iters and artists . L ocated at the southern end of the Grand Canal, it was also a center of trade. Lik e other important cities of the era, such as Novgorod in Russia , T imbuk~ in Africa , and Calicut in h1dia, the city grew a,nd prospered as its merchants exchanged goods . This trade brought diversity to tlangzhou , including a thriving community of Arabs. Other cities on the trade1·outes that gr_ew and thrived included Samarkand and Kashgar. (See Topic 2.1.) They were both .known as centers of Isla1nic scholarship, bust ling n1arkets, and sources for fresh water and plentifill food for 111erchantstraveling the Silk Roads .. Factors Contributing to Growth of Cities • Politica l stability and decline of invasions • Safe and reliable transportat ion • Hise of commerce • Plentiful labor supply • Increased agricultural output Declining Cities Kashgar, however , declined after a series of conq11ests qy nomadic invaders and in 1389-90 was ravaged by Tamerlane. (See Topic 2.2.) Another oilce~thrivi11gcity, the hea vily walled Constantinopl e in presentday Turkey, also suffered a series of traumatic setbacks. Mutinous C1usa.der armies weakened Constantinople after an attack.in the Fom1h Crusade -in 1204 (see Topic 1.6) , and in 1346 and 1349 , the bubonic p lague killed about half of the peop le in Constantinop le. After .a 53-day seige, the city finally fell to the Ottomans in 1453, an event some historians believe marks the end of the 1-Iigh 114 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Middle Ages. (Cqnneer DesGtlhe the relationship beiween urt,an growth in Europ,eand later urban::de.eline. (See Topic J.6.) Factors Contributing to Decline of Cities • Political instabil ity and invasions • Disease • Decline of agricultura l productivity Effects of the Crusades Knowledge of the world beyond Western Europe increased as Crusaders encotmtered both the Byzantine and Islamic cultures. The encow1ters~so increased den1and in Europe for newfound wares from the East In opening up to global trade, however, Western Europeans also opened themselves to diseas.e. The pla_gue, referred to as the Black Death, was introduced to Europe by way of trading routes. Amajor epide1nic broke out between 1347 and 1351. Additional outbreaks occurred over the succeeding decades. As many as 25 million people in Europe may have died from the plague .With drastically reduced populations, economic activity declined in Europe. Io particular, a shortage of people to work on the land had lasting effects on the feudal systen1.Also, exposure to new ideas fro1nByzantium and the Muslim world would contribute to the Renajssance and the subsequent rise of secula rism. Snurre: Haagzhou City Oruc. China ( 1906). Public Domain TJ1epagoda )lchincl·the gate. is a common Buddhis.tbuilding dcs.ig11in China. Travelers ' Tales As exchange new.1orks intensified and literacy spread as a result of paper and printing techno logy, an increasing number of travelers within Afro-E1u-asia wrote about their joun1eys for eager readers. CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECT IVITY 115 Marco Polo In the late 13th century , Marco Polo, an Italian native from Venice, visited the eourt of Kublai Khan (see Topic 2 .2). Chinese cities impressed Po lo. After Polo returned to Italy in 1295, he wrote a book about his travels. However , many Europeans refused to believe his descr iptions of China 's size, wealth, and wonders . Only when other Europeans followed Polo's route to China did people widely acc·ept that China was prosperous and innovative . Polo 's capt ivating descriptions of ·the customs of the peop le he met intrigu ed Europ eans . -Polo wrote extensive ly about the high levels of urbanization he saw in the 13th centw-y. Polo 's point of view as a n1erchant kept him focused on trade-related matte rs. They use paper money as currency. The men as well as the women are fairskilu1ed and handsome. Most of then1 always dress themselves in silk, as a result of the vast qqantities of that material produced in I-langzhou, exclusive of what the merchants i.tuportfrom other provinces. Ibo B-attuta I-le was just 21 years old, Ibo Battuta ( 1304-1353 ), a Muslim scholar from Morocco , set out to see the world he read about. I set out alone; having neither fellow-traveller in whose con1panionship 1 might find cheer, nor caravan whose part I might join , bt1t swaye-0 by ru.1 overmastering impulse with.in me and a desire long-cherished in n1y bosom to visit these illustrious sanctuaries . Over 30 years, Ibn Battt 1ta trave led throug h Central Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, China , Spain, North Africa, and Mali., mainly to Muslim lands . After telling his tale·s to the Sultan of Morocco, Battnta was to ld to "dictate an account of the cities which he had seen in his travel, and of the interesting events which .had clung to his men1ory, and that he should .speak of those whom he had 1n et of the rulers of countr ies, of their distingu ished n1en of lea.rning,,and of their pious saints.'' His book A G(ft to Those Who Con/em.plate the Wondet:sof Cities and the Marvel s of Traveling provi des a wea lth of detail about the p laces he visited and their cul tur_es. Unlike Polo, Battuta had the point of view of a Muslim devoted to his faith. His journey was in large part to learn as 1nuch as be could about Islam and its people and accomplishments . Margery Kempe English mystic Marger y Kemp e (c. 1373-c. 1440), whose The Book of Ma,-ge:1j 1.Kempe was one of the earliest autob iograph ies in Eng lish, if not the first , could neither rea_d nor write. She dictated her book to .scribes who wrote down her descriptions of her pilgrimages to Jerusalen1, Rome , Gennany , and Spain. She does relate details of her travel experiences J such as. being so overcome by the sight of Jerusa lem as she approached it that .she near ly fell off her donkey . However, her book is also significant because it is a firstha nd account of a midd le-class n1edieval woman's life. Kempe conveys both the intense spiritua l visions and feelings of her mystical experiences and the trials of everyday life for a woman with 14 children. 116 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION KEY TERMS BY THEME ENVIRONMENT : Disease Black Death CULTURE : Travel Writers Marco Polo lbn Battuta Margery Kempe C ULTURE : Language Swahili Urdu TECHNOLO GY: Nautical Imp rovements lateen sail stern rudder astro labe magnetic compass SOC IET Y: Cities Hangzhou Samarkand Kashga r Constantinople MULTIPLE- CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the p assage below. 'TbnBattuta traveled primaril y inMuslim-ruled land s, the Dar al-Islam [House or Abode of Islan1], while the Christian Polo , son of a European merchant , lived '-1Ildwo1:ked in countries whose cultures and relig ions were foreign to him. This differenc e makes a comparison of their works n1ost interesting. Marco Polo 's knowledge of four Asian languag es as well as rtalian allowed him to communicate with foreigners and even work as an administrator for the Chinese e1nperor. Yet, in alJ his travels, he remained culturalJy an "outsider '' to the peoples be met , and this fact enhanced his pov.1er of observation and stimulat ed his natural curiosity. By contrast, Ibn Battuta usua lly traveled as an '•insider" and his hosts accepted hiin as a respected Mus fun jurist [qadi] and student of Isl~ic 1nysticism [Su.:fis1n].Traveling to more than sixty Muslim courts , where he 1net nLlers and their officials , Ibn Battuta was able to judge the behavior of his hosts in light of the Mu slim scripture, the Koran, and the precepts of Isla:mie law. For him, tbe differenc e between their native c:ultures and his own North Arabic culture was a secondary i1nportance." Marco Polo and lbn Bauuw: The Merchant and the Pilgrim 1 . Which of the following woul d have been 1nost likely to "set the stage" for Mar<,o Polo to have been able to travel to th e land s that be did ? (A) the Pax Mongolica (B) the voyages ofVasco da Gama (C) tbe conquests of the Umayyad Dynasty (D) the development of the printing press CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECT IVITY 117 2. Which of the following were most responsible for iilfl.uencing the point of view of the travelers mentioned -in the passage? (A) religion and econom ics (B) milita1y and technology (C) soc ial hierarchy .and governance (D) religion and philosophy 3. Which of the following statements most accurately describes the difference in the worlds in which Polo and lbn Battuta traveled? (A) Polo traveled to areas that sha red his language and religion while lbn Battuta traveled to areas that did not. (B) Polo traveled pri1narily to areas that were less prosperous than where be grew up while lbn Battuta traveled primarily to .areas that were more prosperous than wher_e he grew up. (C) Polo traveled to regions very di-fferent fr.o-mEurope wh ile lbn Battuta traveled mostly within the I sla1nic world. (D) Polo traveled to regions that Europe was closely connected to while lbn Battuta traveled to regions that were not closely connected to his. home region. Source: \1/ikimcd,s Commons Place w here Battuta visited 118 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passag e belo, v to answer all part s of the qllestion that follows. "The borrowing and lending necessary for most of the cn1saders stimulated credit fo1n1ation and the development of credit institutions and instruments. Indeed , rhe money economy as a whole must have been stimulated by these great enterprises which took so much money. The transformation of gold and silver altar ornaments into coin for crusaders 1nay have helped to heighten the inflation that occw-red dw-ing the Crusades , especially in the later 12th ce1111uy. The sale of land to finance most assuredly helped to make the market in rea l estate which was bringing about a new social order in .the age of the Crusades. The principal beneficiaries of aU these finaricial transactions were the bourgeoisie , who l.oaned the money, bought the land , sold the provisions , furnished the transportation , and gene_raUy benefite.d from the financia l activity of the c1;1.1sa:ders .'· Fred Cazel, ''Financing the Crus:,:tdes;· 1989 . (A) Describe Ca:zel's point of view of the Crusades from the passage. (B) Explain CazeFs argument about the econon1ic situation that resulted from the Crusades. (C) Explain ONE way in which the 12th-century economy affected the development of the Crusades. 2. Answer all parts oJ' the question that follo,vs . (A) Explain ONE way.in wh1ch the diffusion ofBuddhism to Southeast Asia was evident during the period c. 1200-c. 1450. (B) Explain ONE way in which the arr ival of Islam influenced African cul ture during the period c. 1200-c. 1450. (C) Explain the perspect ive of ONE travel \Vriter in the period C. 1200-C . 1450. CULTURAL CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECT IVITY 119 Tf11NKAS A HISTORIAN: S0URCIN~ AND SITUATION IN PRIMARY ·s.o_uRCES Historical evidence conies from many sources, including such _primary som.ces as ruins and eyewitness acaounts in diaries and letters ~ well as secon dary .sources create d later based on info1mati.on from primary sources and other secondary sources. While-they all mig ht be· ,ittuthful,'' eaeh has ·~ perspeGtive, _or point of vi~w, that might eolor the inte rpretation 0£ everits and. ex_periences. To ·evaluate hi storieal evidence, ,identify a s01} .rce 's point ,o ~ view,.purpose, historicaJ situ~tion, an,_d/o r a_ud:i:enc e. ~skthe foll<:lWing questions: • Who c;reatee this· eviderrqe? • What might be unique abo1ithis or her point of view,? • :FQrwhat pllq)oSewasthe source created? • 'For whom &nd in what situati.011 was it ci:e.ated? • Row did people· use it at the time? The answers .to :thes e questions w,ill help you determin e what strengths and limitatio ns a source may ha\(e in interpreting history. R()read the -e.xte1pt:frq1,n Marc@P0l0 : and Ton Battqta: The Merchant and the Pilgrim onpage 117. The11ans11>ereach 0j'the q-µest,ions abovej'or both 'Marco P0.lo ~ reports .and tho~e oj1bh Battut-a as described by the write,~ lden#h 1a p9s .s/bl~ strength a11ilpossible Ii,1niia1i o!1 ln each r<J.pQ1;tfo,r rep'l:-e.s~nti:ng an acr,; urate picr.ure of fiistorieal c0nditi0 iis. REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , exp lain the intellectual and cultura l effects of the trade networks from c. 1200 to c. 1450. 120 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 2.6 Environmental Consequences of Connectivity Dead bodies filled every corner. -G i0vanni Boccaccio (1313- 1375) Essential Question: What were some of the environmenta l effects of trade in Afro -Eurasia from c. 1200 to c. 1450 ? A }though trad_e networks enabled the spread of novel agricultural produ _cts, such as the ititroduction of certain citrus fruits to the Mediterranean basin, the most dni1natic environmental consequence of increased cotnmerce was not food , but rather disease . Buboni c :plague or "Black Death" swept from Central -Asia; struck in C-hina , India, Persia ,·and Egypt; and arrived in Europe in 1347 . The epiden1ic is estin1ated to have killed from 75 to 200 million people in Etu·asia .and peaked in E1u-ope :from 134 7 to 13 51. Boccaccio , whose famous work The Decameron was inspired by living through the plague , described the horrors he saw. Agricultural Effects of Exchange Networks Along :with luxury goods, s11ices, text iles , and religions, merchants in some places introduced crops where they had not grown before. The new crops often had an impact on land use and population growth and distribution. 1n some areas , people found ways to sustain abundant production; in others , overuse of the land led to environmental degra _dation. Migration of Crops Few crops had ·as s ignificant an impact as the quickripening Champa rice , which \Vasintroduced to the Champa states byVietnam , a Hindu state , and then offered to the Chinese as tribute. Because of the Hindu influence on Champa in present-day central Vietna1n, some scholars believe Chan1pa rice may have originated in India. It wa s drought-resistant , floodresistant , and capable of yielding two crops a year. ft was w idely distributed in China to n1eet the needs of the growing population and in twn contribut ed to the population gro\vth. It also had an impact on land use. Through terraced fanning in the uplands and paddies in the low land s, Champa rice was grown in many patts of China where once land was thought unusab le foT growing rice. Nonethe less , as the ENVIRONME NTAL CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECT IVITY 121 :population of China grew, :people tended to migrate s_outhwa rd to the original rice growing reg ion, contributing to the growth of cities. Indonesian seafarers trave ling across the Indian Ocean had introduced bananas to Sub-Saharan Africa. The nutrition-rich food led to a spike in popu lation. Many Indonesians sett led on the island of Madagascar. Bananas allowed the Bantu-speaking peop les (see Pro logue ) wi th their metaUurgy skills and farming techniques to.migrate to places where yams- .a tradition .al food source-did not easi ly grow. To grow bananas, tanners increased land for cultivation, \Vhich eruicbed diets and led to population growth . As caliphs conquered lands beyond the Arabian Peninsula , they spread Islan1, the Arabic language , and the cult ivation of cotton, sugar , and citrus crops. New foods were also avai lable at the markets along the trade routes . The markets of Sa1narkand , for example , introduced new fruits and vegetab les, .as well as rice .and citrus products from Sout ll\vest Asia, to Europe. Europeans ' demand for .sugar would become so high that it became a .key factor in the n1assive use of enslaved peop le in theAn1ericas in the 1500s and after. (Connect: C0l1lpar-ethe teGbniqaes l:l)ledby Chines .e farn1e11S to raise l0od pr0,ducts -with the teehniques of !Jtc:louesianor Vietnamese fatmers . See Topie 1.1) Source: Library of Congress. PrinL~ and Photogrnplts Division This photo was taken in 1911 o f a vendor in the central Asian city of Samarkand . ln thc ·valleys in this region, peop le bave J01\g grnwn melons , grape s. apples , citrl1$ fruits, pomegranates. apricots , peaches , and other fruits. T hese products ·were then wide ly distributed by merchant s who traveled on the Silk Roads . 122 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION E nvironmentaJ Degradation Increases in population put pressure 011 resources. For example; overgrazing outside of Great Zimbabvve was so severe that people had to abandon the city in the late 1400s. (See Topic 1.5.) In feudal Europe, overuse of farm land '-1Ilddeforestation led to soil erosion , reducing agricultural production . The Little Ic e Age (c. 1300-c . 1800) also contributed to a decrease in agricultura l products . Environmental degradation was a factor in the decline of the Mayans in the Americas .as well. Spread of Epidemics through Exchange Networks Whil e scholars in Dar al-lslam and [ndia were developing advances in medical understanding and treatment , no kuovvledge at the time could have prevente d the spread of deadly infectious diseas es that accompanied trade. The Mon gol conquests he lped to trans1nit the fleas that carried the bubonic plague, termed the Black Death , from southern China to Central Asia, and from there to Southeast Asia and Europe . S01ne historians believe the caravanserai that hous ed people and anin1als together may have contributed to the spread of the disease, since the animals likely carried infected fleas. The Black Death ha_d a tremendous impact on Europe, killing one-third of the population there in a few years. With fewer 'vvorkers, agiicultural production continued its decline . However , the reduced number of workers led to .a new relationship between workers and those they worked for : eaGh person's labor became more valuable, s.o workers could demand higher wages. This shift helped lay the grolllldwo rk for the economic changes that developed .as feudalism declined. The Black Death led to similar loss of life in othe r areas, including North Africa, China., and Central Asia_.About 25 1ni)Jion Chinese and o·ther Asians died between 1332 and 1347 . SouthAsia .and Sub-Saharan Afi·ica were spared because there were few trading ports in those regions . KEY TERMS BY THE.ME ENVIRONMENT : Crop Diffus ion Champa ric.e bananas sugar citrus crops ENVIRONMENT: Deg rad ation overgrazing deforestation soil erosion ENVIRONMENT : Disease bubon ic plague ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECT IVITY 123 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the map below; Spread of the Black Death in Europe 1346-1353 ----+ ~~rJtime trade routes --- ► Land trade ro_ut_es 500 Miles ,~. !f~r't ... . e '\tlijiijl-W e xscv .~ lli 1. Which exp lanat ion for the cause of the rapid spread of the Black Death is best supported by this 1nap? ? (A) the migrations of Centra l Asians into eastern Europe (B) the spread of rodents through trad e (C) pollution caused by growing concentrations of people in cities (D) poverty among Europeans resulting from feudalism 2. One significa nt long-term impact of tl1e Blac k D eath was (A) the end of the Indian Ocean as a viabl e trade network (B) the decline of the feudal syste 1n in Europe (C) the increased use of camels in tl1e Silk Roads trade (D) the rise of the Ottoman Turks 124 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 3. Whi.ch of the fo.Uowing staten1ents does the 1nap support most clearly? (A) Muscovy traded extensjvely with Western Eu.rope. (B) Africa never experienced the Black Death . (C) The Black Death entered Western Eu rope thi:ough the Mediterranea n Sea . (D) The strain of the B lack Death that moved .along the lndian Ocean was not fatal . SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. ·use the ·passages below to answ er all parts of the question tha t follows . • Moroccan historian Ibn Khaldun wrote about the black plague outbreak. this way: "Civilization both in the East and the West was visited by a destructive plague which qevastated nations and caused populations to vanish. It swallowed up many of the goo d things of civilization and wiped them out. ... Civilization deereased with the decrease of mankind. Cities and building s were laid waste , roads and way signs were obliterated, settlements and mansions becatne empty , dynasties and tribes grew weak. The entire inbabited world changed. " • In The Travels C?llbnBattuta , the great traveler noted that as of 1345, "the number that died daily in Damascus [Syria] had been two thousand ,'' but the people were able to defeat the plague through prayer. • An ftalian lawyer, Gabriele de Mussis , recorded: "The whole army was affected by a disease which overran the Tartars [Mongols] and killed thousands upon thousands eve_ryday," He [charges] that the Mongol leader "o rdered corpses to be placed in catapults and lobbed into the city in hopes that the intolerable stench would kil l everyone inside.' ' • A French clnirchman, Gilles Ii Muisis, notes that a ''calamitous disease befell the Tartar arn1y. and the mortality was so great and widespread that scarcely one in twenty ofthe1n remained alive. " However , he depicts the Mongol survivors as sw·prised when the Christians inKaffa also came do~rn with the disease. Excerpts fro1n https ://wv.w. thoughtco.com/ blacl:c-death-i11-asia-bubonic-plague- I95 l44 1 (A) Explain ONE pattern the excerpts show about the Black Death . (B) Explain ONE way the Black Death spread during the period C. 1200-C . 1450. (C) Compa_re ONE report of the plague 's impact on the environment during the period c. U00-c. 1450 from an oLits ide source to one of the reports in the above pass<,1.ge . ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF CONNECT IVITY 1.25 2. Ans.w er all parts of the question that follows. (A) D escribe ONE exa1nple of an agticu ltura l advancement that deve lope d during the period c. 1200-c . 1450. (B) Explain .ONE way in which exchange netvvorks affected agriculture during the period c. 1200-c . 1450. (C) Explain ONE way in which trade .affected the environment during the per iod c. 1200-c. 1450. THINK AS~ HISTORIAN: MAKIN.G CONNECTIONS BY ANALYZ1NG Q.A:US_AT ION Oneway tomake ,c'onnections across cultlires and eras is toanalyze ·«yc les of cause and effect. ~o r example, improvecl a:griculturaj pro duction often leads to .increased population . Increased pop ulation, in tum, r equir es even more agricultural productio n. Efforts to fulfill agriculttn·al and Qth ef needs a:ssociatecl w.i:th inereased popu lat iQn, in tum, may le:a d to. pressme oh resources-, including environmental degraclatio-n, ·and the popu lation m~y declili~ as a result Q!'.pe vtllnei:.~bl~ to disease , or conquest. However, ·with the next impr0vem:eJ)t in agriculture or IDJother economic · advancement, the po1?ulati on n1ay grow aga in, IDid so the eyc le eontinues . Recognizing this som~what pre;dictable cycde of cause and effect can help youmake ,oonnectio.ns by seein:git.macti .on.in differe nt geqgrap hic areas at different times in histo ry. /)escribe a si1riilar cycle o./ea·t(S'ea,td ~[feet ,r:elate.tltp mcreased de,nandjor goods rather than /01:.food. Then, analyze,.causeaJid-ejfe< :t CQ1tnee.tiQns./)etvveencultyres t}1at·wePeinvqlved in tr.ansfegionctl ,exchange netwc:J rk~.freJ1n. e. 1200 ttJ c. 145.0. REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , explain some of the environmental effects of trade in Afro-Eurasia fro1n c. 1200 to c. 14 5 0. 126 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 2.7 Comparison of Economic Exchange 'Wealthy merchants bring in big cargoes , which they unload and unhesitatingly send into the markets without thinking in .the meantime of any security, or chocking the account, or keeping watch over the goods. " -A bdu Razzal<, "Description 0f Calicllt " (1442) Essential Question: What were the .sin1ilarities and differences among the various networks of exchange in the period from c. 1200 to C. 1450? Calicut was known as the "City of Spices," a market city where merchants traded their goods for pepper and cinnan1on froni lndja and a variety of goods from other areas as well. In some ways, such as its ability to provide security and the diversity of people who patronized the markets , Calicut was like other big trading cities along the well-trave led trade routes. In other ways , such as the type of currency it used and how the polity, or gove1nmental unit, made money on trade; it differed from trading cities elsewhere. The sirrularities and rufferences runong trading cities were also reflected in tl1e larger trading networks. Similarities Among Networks of Exchange Several n1ajor trading networks connected people in Africa, Europe , and Asia in the years between c. 1200 .and c. 1450: • the Silk Roads through the Gobi Desert and 1nountain passes in China and Central Asia to Southv.1est Asia and Europe, on which merchants tended to specialize in luxury goods • the monsoon-dependent trade routes in the Inman Ocean linking East Asia with Southeast Asia , South Asia, and Southwest Asia , 011 which n1erchants exchanged goods too heavy to transport by land • the trans-Saharan trade routes fromNorthAfrica and the Medite1Tanean Basin across the desert to West and East Africa , on which merchants traded salt from North Afr ica with gold :from the kingdoms south of the desert COMPARISON OF ECONOMIC EXCHAN(,3E 127 While each exchange network had its unique characteristics , all were similar in their origins, purpose, and effects. Origins Interregional trade began well before the common era as agrarian cultures consolidated into stable settlements. The trade that flourished between c. 1200 and c. 1450 built on the routes these early traders-and conquerorsfust traced. As kingdoms and empires expanded, so did the trade routes they controlled and traveled. The Postdassica l trading networks also ne.eded the stability of established states to grow and expand. Stable kingdon1s, caliphates, city-states, or en1pires assured merchants that the routes .and t11e merchants themselves would be protected-which is why the wealthy mercl1ants in Calicut could walk away fro1n their cargoes knowing they would not be stolen. Stable polities also supported the technol.agical upgrades that made trade more profitablenautical equipment such as the magnetic compass and lateen sail, high-yielding strains of crops, and saddles to allow for ·the carriage of heavy loads of goods. Purpose The trading networks shared an overall economic purpose: to exchange what people were able to grow or produce for what they wanted, needed, or could use to trade for other items. In other words, their purpose was primarily econo1nic. However, as you have read, people exchanged much more than just products. Diplomats and missionaries also traveled ·the trade routes, negotiating .alliances and proselytizing for converts. Together, merchants , diplo.mat,;;, and missionaries exchanged ways of life as well as economic goods. Effects All the exchange networks also experienced similar effects. Beeause of the very nature of a network-which can be described .as a fabric of cords crossing at regular distances, knotted for strength at the crossingsthe trade routes all gave rise to trading cities, the "knots" that held the network together. 128 Routes Trading Cities Silk Roads Chang'an (present - day China), Samarkahd (present-day Uzbek istan), A leppo (present-day Syria), Mosu l (present-day Iraq) ln.dian Ocean Malacca (present-day Malaysia), Calicut (presentday India), Hormuz (pres.ent-day Iran), Mombasa (present - day Kenya), Alexandria (present - pay Egypt) Trans-Saharan Gao,.Timbuktu (both present-day Mall),. Marrakesh (pre.sent-day Morocco), Cairo (present-day Egypt) WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Strait of Malacca INDIA · A sRr \.) LANKA I N DI AN OCE A N 0 0 1,000 M iles 1,000 Kilomet ers The shortest route from EastA sfa to Southwest Asia on tbe lnruan OeeE)u trade route was through the St:!'ait of Malacca . The growth of trading c1ttes gave rise to (.lllother effe.ct of the trade networks: centralization . Malacca , fo r example, grew wealthy from the fee·s levied on ships and cargoes passing through the Strait of Malacca. To prevent piracy, Malacca used its wealth in part to develop a strong navy-an endeavor that required centraliz ed plannin g. Trading cities along each of the trade routes tmde1"\vent similar develop111ents ; using their wealth to keep the routes .and the cities safe. Anoth er aspect of trade in the cities that encouraged centralization \.Vas the desire for a stand ardized currency. Widely accepted currencies sped up transact ions and enabled merchants to meas1u-ethe value of products. Many trading cities •also became known as c.cnters of le arning. T his is the Ulugh Beg Madmsa (Is lamic religious school f tliat was bui lt in Sarnlirkand be twcei1 141 7 and 1422. Sou1·re:• Lo msclm~ao ,~ough B<:ghdu R~ista rt \Samartandc . Ow.Mkist an) Author: Jcan-P,ortc Dall>er& from Paris, EranGt· COMPARISON O.F ECONGMIC EXCHANGE 129 Differences Among Networks of Exchange Despite their similarities , the networks of exchange were different in s.ome \.v.ays, especially in the goods they exchanged , the nature of the routes and transportation , the technologies they inspired , and the religions they spread . Routes Goods Transportation Religions Silk Roads East to West: • horses • camels • Buddhism from South Asia to East and Southeast Asia • NeoConfucianism from China to Korea, Japan , and Vietna.m • Islam from Southwes t Asia to South Asia • silk • tea • spices • dyes • porcelain • rice • paper • gunpowder Technologies • saddles • caravanserai West to East: • horses • saddles • fruit • domestic animals • honey • textiles Indian Ocean (and Mediterranean Basin) From East Afr ica : • gold • ivory • quart:z • animal skins From Southwest Asia: • c itrus • fruits • dates • books • dhows • junks Technologies • stern rudder • lateen sail • astro labe • magnetie compass From Southern India: • textiles • peppers • pearls Trans-Saha ran North to South: • horses • books • salt South to North : • gold • ivory • c loth • slaves 130 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION • caravar,s of camels for carrying g.oods • peop le walked Technology • saddles.to Increase load bearing. • Buddhism from South Asia to East and Southeast Asia • NeoConfucianism from China to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam • Islam from South Asia to Southeast Asia • Christ(anity from Mediterranean Basin • Islam from Southwest .Asia and North Afri.ca to Sub- Saharan Africa The trading networks also had unique currencies and commercial practices. For example , at one time silk was not only a commodity but also a cun·ency . In places in Southeast Asia , tin ingots were used as a currency standard. West African states used cowrie shells .as currency. In time, however , states shifted to a money economy based on gold and other 1netal coins. To make collllnerce less bulky , the Chinese invented "flying cash '' (see Topic 2.1) .and established the precursors of banks , including the practice of extending credit. Fanam coins frC> rn the E astern Gupta Dynasty iu.Kaliuga (J.078·- 1434) Snurce : \Vikimcdia eo rnm,\tL Credit: Suji1Kumar Social lmpUcations ot Networks of Exchange The rising demand for luxury goods spurred efforts to 1nake production 111ore efficientthanithad been, China went through a period of proto-industrialization as it sought to meet the demand for iron, .stee l, ·and porcelain. (See Topic 1.1.) New business practices , such as partnerships for shar ing the risk of investment , began to emerge. The production of goods sucb as textile·s ·and porcelain in China and spices in South and Southeast Asia increased to meet demands. As the amount of goods increased , the volume of trade on maritime trade routes began . to supersede that of the overland trade routes . Larger ships were needed as well .as improved navigational knowledge and technology. Labor The demand for labor rose along with the growing demand for products. The forms of labor from earlier pe1iods continued-free peasant fanners , craft workers or artisans in cottage industries , people .forced to work to pay off debts , and people forced into labor through enslavement. Trade in slaves was common along the Indian Ocean and trans-Sahc.l,ranJoutes. Lar ge-scale projects-irrigation cana ls, 1nilitary defense ·s, great buildings-called for the work of thousands of organized laborers. Kinship ties often .played a role in coordinating these large-scale projects . An observer in the Vijayanagara Empire in South India in the 1300s describes the work of completing a giant reservoir: COMPARISON O.F ECONGMIC EXCHANGE 131 "In the tank 1saw so many people at work that the.re m.ust have been fifteen or twenty thousand men, Jobking like ants, so that you could not see the ground on which they walked , so many there were ; this tank the king -portioned out amongst bis captains , each of whom had the duty of seeing that the people plaeed wider hin1 did their work, and that the tank Wa$ :finished and brought to completion. " Nt11Tative o,f D omingo Paes (1520-22) Social and Gender Structures The typical social structures dtuing the period between 1200 and 1450 were still defined by class or caste , and societies , vvith rare exceptions, remained patriarchies. There were , however , areas where won1en exercised more power and influence. For exa n1ple, even though the vast Mongol Empire was a patriarchy ; Mongo l wo1nen had somewhat more freedom than women in most other parts of Afro-Eurasia. Mongol women tnoved about freely and refused the burka from the West and foot binding from the East. Women were also often top advisors to the great khan. In Europe , won1en worked as farmers and artisans , and they had their O\.\'ll guilds. 1n Southeast Asia , wo1nen were skille d in the practices of the marketplace, operating and controlling marketplaces as representatives of powerful fanulies. Outside of these linuted areas , ho weve r, won1en within .other major regions still experience d far fewer opportunities and freedo1ns than men in virtually all aspects of life. Environment~ Processes The interconnections that spurre d so much vibrant econonuc and cu ltural exchange also .led to a steep population decline as 1nerchants, diplo1nats, and 1nissionaries transferred the bubonic plague and other infectious diseases along the trade routes. The plague, uamed the Bla<,k D eath , contributed to the decline of once-great cities , such as Constantinople. Most believe that at least a third of Europe 's population died during this period. China experienced outbr eaks in the 1330s and 1350s , causing tens of 1nillions of deaths. Changes in trade networks led to cultural diffusion and the development of educational ce1ners in cities such as Canton, Samarkand, Timbuknt , Cairo , and Venice. Political instability and increased agriculture strained the environment. For examp le, soil erosion from deforestation , or overgrazing , forced gro,ving populations to migrate to other areas . 132 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. Comparison Prepare a graphic showing the si1nilarities and differences between interregiona l trade in 1200 and interregio nal trade in 1450. 2. 1n one to three paragraphs , explain the simi larities .and differences among the various networks of exchange in the p eriod from c. 1200 to C. 1450. Source; G&J licaJJ fgiJAILibrary Caravan Oil the Silk Road, pain ting by Abraham Cresques , 1375 COMPARISON O.F ECONG MIC EXCHANGE 133 UNIT 2 REVJEW HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES: HOW,BRUTAL WAS GENGHIS KHAN? . . Was Genghis Khan:a' brutal destroyer who mu:rder.ed1nillions, or·was Jie a great unifier who promoted prosperity by tmifymg n10st of Eurl:!-Sia? Tpe D•~stroyer Many historians emph~size t_hat K.b_anwas a bloodthitst y iyranl'. Military .hist0rian Steven -R Ward writes lha1 "0)veral11 the M@ugo1violence · and depredations killed up to threef~ur.ths pftbe p9pulation of the lraniau Plateau. '' Total deaths attribute d to the Monge-ls dur-mg his rule and the r,ule of hls desc.endants are in the tens of milli@us. St'ories of his massa:eres @fi1mocent people and of using unanned Giv~ns · to -protec~his own ·sold:i.ers.sh0w•him to have had little rega:rdfor .humanlife. Tbe Empire Build er Other hisf@riansfoc11s on Khan 's .role ·as a great leader, MJ~ng_olia:n .scholars, proud of their c0U11tzyman, argue that chru;geso:fbruta:li:tyhave bee n exaggerate d. As historjans from:Europe a1rd the United States focuse d rnore 0n trade and tole-ration, they saw benefits of the Mongolrule , Qftenreferring· to Fax Mangolica . GenghiS. Khan forged a, united Chinaand established a system: 0-fEurasian trade fuat r.enewedthe links between China and Europe that had lapsed. Furilier, the Mongol~ :wereopen to ideas <J-Bd tolerant 'Ofdifferent religion&. Kh_an belie ved in a meritocrac y,, and he established one writing system across his empu;e. His rule op~ned the.way for u~w systems of laws , for trade, and f@ren l.mralexpa.n&i@n . A Man of Enet'gy. Que Persian historian. takes a p@sitionbroad eno'u.gh that everyone ·can agree wii:h: «Genghis w-~s possessed of great energy, c,uscemme.,nt; g~nius.,and 1mdersfanding, awe-inspiring, a butcher, just, resolute , an over-thro.wer of enemies, intrepkl, sanguinary , and ctue l." DeYelop an Argµ:lilent: Evaluate the extenr to which histbl:icaJ eV-idence suppo:rtsone Qfthe perspectives of Genghis Khan. 134 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION W~ITE AS A HISTORl~N: HISTOR ICAL THIN.IZING SKILLS AND LONG ESSAYS Writing answers to 1,qng essay qJ1estipns· -requires using bistoripal thinking skills . Different 'stages ' .of tb.e process' call for using different bistorlcal thinking skills. Study the chart below. Stages in the Writing Process Historical Thinking Skills Ana lyze the question by identifying the exact task and the g_eographic and chronological framework. Identify, describe , and explain a historica l concept, development , or process. (See pages 22 and 64 .) Gather and organize the evidence you will need to comp lete the task. identify, ·describe , and explain patterns or connections amon·g hlstorical concepts, developments , and processes . (Se:e pages 94 and 102 .) The.se patterns and c.onnections provide the key to organizing your evidence. Make sure your organizat ion supports the task in the prompt. (See pages 183 and 2613:) Develop a t hesis that lays out a line of reason ing. Make a historiGally defensible Glaim related directly to the task and your evidence as the basis for your argument. Use historical reasoning (comparison , continuity and chan·ge , or causation) to frame your argument. (See pages 358 and 444 .) Write an introductory paragraph. identify and describe a'.bro·ader historical context for your argument. ·and explain h9w·the development or process y.ou are examining is situated within that context (See page 444.) Write the supporting paragraphs. Support an argument using specific and relevant evidence, explaining how ·the evidence ties to the argument. Explain relationships among various pieces . of evidence . (See page 537.) Write the conc lusion. Reinforce and exte.nd relevant and insightful connections within and -across periods as you t ie toge th er your complex argument. (Se·e page 624.) Reread arid evalua,te your essay. Be sure it demonstrates a comp lex understanding of the quest ion and uses historical evidence to corroborate, qualify , or modify an argument. (See pa~es 624 and 714.) Application_: Find tlie scoring rubric -and sampie ess·ays for Wor-ld .Hist~ry.on tile Coll~ge Bo~rd websiJe. Wo(kirr a smzjl gi;oup to prepare aJ>re.sentation explain1ng how tQ earn;tl1emost-pQssible p0inrs on along essayquestion. Share your presentation with the rest of the ,class. flor curr ent.f1·ee-r e_. ~ 'Of1se q,i esti afl sa,mpJ~, vi.sit: https;//ay central.coll.egeboaPd. orglcou rsesiap-w.<-Jr Id-histo,y!~ am UNIT 2 REVIEW 135 LONG ESSAY QUE STION S Directions: Write essay responses to 1, 2, and EITHER 3 or 4. The suggested writing time for each essay is 40 minutes. 1. Son1e historians consider the Mongols ' military success . and vast commercial empire in the 13th century as the begiiming of the early modem era. Develop an argument that evaluates the extent to which the Mongo l Empire was significant in larger patterns of continuity or change between 1200 and 1450. 2. Goods and ideas flowed through African and Eurasian trade networks in the period from 1200 to 1450 . Deve lop an argument that eval uates the extent to which the various networks of exchange in that time and place were si1nilar or different. 3. Weather patterns , foods , and disease affected exchange networks in Ew·asia and Africa in the period from 1200 to 1450. Develop au argument that evaluates the extent to which various networks of exchange in Afro-Eurasia du1ing that tune affected the environment. 4. Although the pri1nary purpose of most African and Eurasian trading networks between 1200 and 1450 was economic, ideas and art also trave led through them. Dev elop an argmnent that evaluates the extent to which trading netw.0rks in these regions between 1200 and 1450 affected the diffusion of cultural traditions. In each response you should do the following: • Respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning. • Describe a broader historical c9ntext relevant to the prompt. Support an argument in response to the prompt using specific and relevant examples of evidence . • Use historical reasoning (e.g., comparison , causation, continuity or change) to frame or structure an argument that addresses the prompt. • Use evidence to corroborate, qualify , or modify an argument that addresses the prompt. Sourc~: AP ' Worltl Hist,>/)'Cu11 r.vi, wu/ Exam DcscriptiotL Eff~ li-vc Fall 2019. 136 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTION Direction s: Question 1 is based on the accompanying documents. The documents have been editecj for the purpose of this exercise. You are advised to spend 15 minutes planning an.d 45 minutes writing your answer. 1. Evaluate the extent to which wo1nen exercised power and influence within various societies inAfro-Etu·asia during the period C. 1200-c. 1450. In your response you should do the following: Respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning. • Describe a broader historical context relevant to the prompt. • Support an argument in response to the prompt using at least six documents. • Use at least one additional piece of specific historical evidence (beyond that found in the documents) relevant to an argument about the prompt. • For at least three documents, explain how or why the document's point of view, purpose , historical situation , and/or audience is relevant to an argument. • Us_e evidence to corroborate , quatify, or modify ah argument that addresses the prompt. Document 1 Source: Selections from The Histoty of"the World Conquero1·by 'Ala ad-Din Juvaini. 1n this portion , Juvaini writes of Sorqotan.i Beki , daughter-in-law of Genghis Khan , 13th century After Ulugh-No yan's deatl1, [the Khan] con1n1anded that as long as be lived affairs of state should be admini stered in accordance to the council of his wife Sorq_uotan.iBeki .. . and [her] sons .. . [that] tbe anuy and tbe people , great ,-indsmall , should be under the control of her command and prohibition .. . . . .And her hand was ever . o-pen in munificence [great genero sity] and benefaction [gift]. .. although she was a follower. .. ofthe religion of Jesus she would bestow alius and presents upon iman1s and sbaikhs and strove also to revi ve the sacred observances oftbe faith of Mohammed . .. . And as the token and proof of this statement .. .she gave 1000 silver baJ.ish [a uni1 of money] ... that a madi:asa [college] m.ight be built in Bokhara ... UNIT 2 REVIEW 137 Document 2 Source: NorthAfricall traveler , Ibn Battuta , excerpt from bis memoirs , Rib/a ("My Travels-"), on his j9urney to the court of Mansa Musa , su ltan of Mali located in Sub-Sa.hara Africa , 1352 C.E; The condition of these people i.s strange and their manners outlandish [unfamiliar. bizarre]. .. And none of the1n derives his genea logy from his father but, on the contnuy . from his maternal uncle. A man does not pass on inhetitance except to the sons of his sister to the exclusion of his own sons ... With regard to their women , they are not modest in the presence of men, they do notveilthemsel ves inspite of their perseverance [persistence] in the prayers. He who wishes to 1narry among them can marry, but the women do not travel with the husband , and if one of the1n wanted to do that, she would be prevented by her family. The women there have-friends and companions amongst men outside the prohibited degrees of n1arriage (i.e. other than brothers , fathers , etc.]. L ikewise, for the men , there are c01npanions from amongst women outside the p rohibited degrees. One of them would enter his house to find his wife withhe r companion and would disapprove ofthat conduct. Document 3 Source: Empress Xu (d. 1407) , third wife of the Ming Emperor, Yongle .(r. 1402- 1424) , excerp t from Instru ctions.for rhe inner Qu,arters, early 15th century Being upright and 1nodest, reserved and quiet, correct and dignified, sincere and honest: these constitute the moral nanu-e of a woman , Being filial [of or due of a son .or.daughter] and respectful , human and perspicacious [insightful] , loving and warm, meek a:ild gentle: these represent the complete development of the moral nature ... Of old, up1ight women ordered their feelings and nature based on moral princip le, kept control over the workings of their mind, and honored the Way and its viltue. Therefore, they were able to complement their (husbands] in fulfilling the teachings of the Way, If one ·s v:utt1eis not established, rarely can one be an influence for good in the family- how much Less in the wider wor ld. Therefore , the wife is one who follows her husband. The ,,vay of husband and wife is the principle of the strong and the weak , ..The prosperity or decline of the fami ly, the r ise and fall of the state are intitnatel y Linkedto th.is.. . 138 WORLD HISTORY MO DERN: AP® EDITION Docu.ment4 Source: Drawing ofTomoe Gozen (c. 1157- 1247) , a late 12th-century , known for her brav ery, archery skills, female samurai 0r 011na-bugeishc1 and horsemanship during the Genpei War in Japan , by Shitomi Kangetsu (1747- 1797 C.E.) Docum ents Source: Zhou Daguan , aChinese diplomat serving the Yuan Emperor Chengzong , excerpt from Customs of Cambodia i an account of his travels to the Angkor temple complex and the Khmer Empire , 1296- 1297 C.E. The local people who know how to trade are all women. So, when a Chinese goes to this country , the first thing he must do is take in a woman , partly with a view to profiting from her trading abilities. UNIT 2 REVIEW 139 l)ocum ent 6 S,ourcc: Joan of Arc , Letter to the King of England. Joan , called "The Maid," was a young girl from the town of Domremy iit the French county of Lorraine , who felt herself to be called by God to help the French resist the English .in the Hundred Years War, 1429 C.E. King of England , render [give) account t0 the King of Heaven of yow· royal blood. Return the keys of all the good cities which you have seized, the Maid. She is sent by Goel to reclaitn the royal blood , and is fully prepared to make peace, if you will give her satisfaction ; that is, you must render justice , and pay back all you have taken. King of England, if you do not do thes.e things , l run the commander of the military; and in whatever place I shall find your n1en in Frattce, 1will make them flee the countL-y , whether they wish to or not; and if they will not obey, the Maid willhave them alLkilled. She eo1n.es·sent by the King of Heaven , body for body, to take you out of France , and the Maid promises and certifies to you that if you do not leave France, she and her troops will raise a Lnightyoutcry as has not been heard in France in a thousand years , Docum ent? S ou rce: Excerpt from the chronicles of Minhaji Siraj Ju~jani , on the reign of Sultan Raziyya hint lltutntish (r. 1236- 1240), the first woman to ascend t0 the thr0ne and lead the army of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern India Sultan Raziyya - 1nay she rest in peace-was a great sovereign , and wise , just , and beneficent , the patron of the learned , a dispenser of justice, the cherisher of her subjects , and of warlike skills , and was endowed with all the admirable attributes and qualities required of kings; but as she did not attain the dest iny; in her creatio.n, of being computed runong 1ne11 , of what advantage were all these excellent qualifications unto her ? 140 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION UNIT 3: Land-Based Empires Understand the Context Great land-b ase d empires exis ted before 1450 .and after 175 0. However, between these years , severa l of history's greatest land-based en1pires reached their peak of wea lth and influence . Among these were the Songhai in Wes.t Africa; the Safavids based in Persia; the Mu ghals in noi-thern India ; the Ottomans in the Middl e East , Ea stern Europe, and No rthern Africa ; and the Man chus in eastern Asia. They were multiethn.ic states that bad direct political contro l over large regions a.lid overland trade routes . Expa nsion Since these emp ires measured their power in land, they freq uently warre d against neighbors over territory. The Manchus , who established the Qing D ynasty in China in 1644, we re vety successfi,Il in this. By 19 11, they had tripled the amount of land they conttolled . Centralization Land -base d emp ires in this period prospered by consoli dat ing their power in a central gove rnm ent. ·They emplo yed bureaucratic elites to enfo rce laws and militar y professionals to provide defense. To pay for the bure aucrats and sol d.ie rs; they collecte d tributes from ~reaker states and taxes -fro 1n their citizens. To demonstrate their wea lth and power, they constructed great palaces, religious buildin gs, and shr ines. Belief Systems Land-based emp ires were often close ly tied with pai-ticular re ligious faiths . As a resu lt, politi cal and r eligiou s conflicts were intertw ined. In Europe , Roman Catholics and Pro testants fought wa:rs in which millions of people die d. InAs.ia , the Safavids , who were Shi 'a Mu slims , and theMugha ls, who we re Sunni Muslims, we re often at war. After 1750 Many land-ba sed empiTes began dee ! in iug in power in the 18th centw)'. Th e increas ing importan ce of ethnic identiti es for ind ividuals, ocean routes for trade , and economic i-elationships among businesses undermined the unity and influence that land -based empiTes initially deve loped . Pope Leo X excommunicates ·German religious ref0rme r, Mqrtl n Luther. James I, an advocate of the divine right of monarchs , takes ·the English throne. 1521 1603 1450 'i 1453 The Ottoman E;mpire conquers Constantinop le. l 1sso 1 it_; 1547 1556 Ivan IVof Russia, known as " Ivan the Terrible," becoml!s tsar. ! Akbar begins his sllcpessfu l ruie .of the Mughal Empire. Lollfs XIVof France takes power. Afghan forces rebel, weakening the Safavid Empire. ",¥0 1643 1122 1644 The Man chu invade China and establish u,e .Qfng. Dynasty. UNIT 3: LAND-BASED EMPIRES 141 Topics and Learning Objectives Topic 3. 1: European , East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand pages 143- 154 A: Explain how and why various land -based empires deve loped and expanded fro1n 1450 to 1750. Topic 3.2: Empires: Administration pages 155- 166 B: Explain how rulers used a variety of 1nethods to legiti1nize and consolidate their power in land-based empires from J 450 to l 150. Topic 3.3: Empires: Belief Systems pages 167- 176 C: Explain continuity and change within the var ious belief systems during the period froin 1450 to 1750. Topic 3.4: Comparison in Land-Based Empires pages 1n-1a1 D: Compare the methods by which var ious empires increased their influence from 1450 to 1750. 142 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand What men call sovereignty is a worldly strife and constant war; Worship of God is the highest throne, the happiest of all estates. - Suleiman the Magnificent (1494- 1566) Essential Questi.on: How did certain land-based emp ires develop and expand in the period fron1 1450- 1750? From its orig ins in China , gunpowde r spread via the trade routes and becan1e a po_werful source of change between L450 and L750. The term Gunpowd er Empir es refers to lru·ge, multiethnic states in Southwest , Central , and South Asia that relied on firearms to conquer and control territories. In addition to Russia, the Gunpowder Empires included three in .which Islam \.V.asstrong: the Ottoman , the Safavid , and the Mughal E1npires. Sulein1an the Magnificent , quoted above, ruled the Otton1an Empire at its height. Although he declared religious worship the happiest of all practices , he also personally led Ottoman armies in conq11ering Christ ian strongholds in Belgrade, Rhodes , and Hungary in Southeastern Europe. The Gunpowder En1pire societies tended to be 1nilitaristic, yet ·au three left splendid artistic and architectural legacies , cr,eated in part to reflect the Legitimacy of their 1ulers. The Qing Empire of China also expanded , and although it experienced several invasions , it also prospered during long periods of stability. Europe 's expansion involved an even wider exchange network than. that which spread gunpowder: transoceanic connections wjth the Americas. (You will read more about this path to e1npire expansion in Unit 4.) Armed trade was cotrunon in expanding e1npires dtu·ing this period. The different empires traded with one another. tlowe ver, they kept troops and armaments at the ready in case another e1npire questioned their right to trad,e. This type of exchange differed from the free markets of laier eras. Europe The year 1450 has traditionally signified the ending of the medieval period and the beginnlng of the early modem period . The inid-1400s saw the end of a wave of plagues , the conclusion of the Hundred Years' War between EUROPEAN , EAST ASIAN , AND GUNPOWDER EMPIRES EXPAND. 143 France and England (see Topic 1.6), and the invention of the Gute nberg printing press followed by an increas .e in literacy. After the slow polit ical and economic developn1ent of the M idd1e Ages , several countries in Europe we re beco1ning powerfu l, wealthy nations . New n1onarchies began to launch overseas exp lorations and estab lish colonies .around the wodd. The nature of the new monarch ies in Europe in the 1500s was the result of the desi re of certain leaders to centra lize powe r by controlling taxes, the army, and many aspects of religion. These new monarchs included the Tudors in England , the Valois in France , and Queen Isabe.lla and King Ferdinand in Spain. In each area, bureaucrac ies increased and the power of the tniddle class grew at the expense of lords and the chw·ches. For example , the new 1nonarchies moved to curb the private arm ies of the nobility. Russia Western Europeans were long unstu-e what to think of Russia : Was Russia 1nore Etu-opean in its outlook and character , or was it more Asian? Russia was in a pivotaJ positio11 for trade . rt was able to exchange goods and s.ervices with other cultures faitheJ east and west. However, Russia remained tight ly linked to Ew·ope. Its cap ital-whether Kiev , St. Petersburg , or Moscow-was located in Europe. Although a pro duct of Mongo l influence from Central Asia to the east , R ussia was also a :product of Eu rope as .aresult of Viking invas ions and trading . When Iv an N (ruled 1547-1584) , called Ivan the Terrib le, was crowned tsar in 1547, be immecUately set about to expand the Russ ian b.order eastward , first by taking contro l of the khanates of Kazan , Astrakhan , and Sibe1ia he ld by the descendants of the Go lden Horde , the Mongolian conquerors . This expansion came to rely more and more upon the use of gunpowder . Control of the Volga Wanting to expand east to contro l the fur tra_de, Ivan IV allowed the Stroganovs , 1najor Russian landowners, to hire hands of fierce peasant wa n·iors known as Cossacks to fight the loca l tribes and the Siberian khan. The Stroganovs ' forces were successfu l , gaining eantrol of the Volga Expansion of Russia SIS:111UA CHIN.A' 1:-:-:-::-:-1 0 I 150fH58'4 1462- 1505 t 1585-1725 144 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION ~~ ,~ 1726-1796 1,000 MIies r---, o 1 .ooo Kllomtlets River, which flows into the Caspian Sea . Possessing this outlet to the sea, Moscow cou ld trade direct ly with Persia and the Ottonuin Empire without having to deaJ with the strong forces of the Crimean Tartars ; To the Pacifi c Russia continued moving east into Siberia after the reign of Ivan IV. Fur traders .and militias defeated 011eindigenous tribe .after another . Missionariesfoilowed , converting many to the Easte1nOrthodox faith, although the local sha1nans, or religious leaders , continued to have influence. By 1639 , the Russians had advanced east as far as the Pacific Ocean. Explorations and fur trading expeditions continued across the Pacific to A laska (174 1) and down the coast of North America to California ( 1814). East Asia China's Yuan Dynasty , founded by Mongol it1vader Kublai Khan in 1271, was overthrown by the Ming Dyn asty in 1368 after less than a century in power. Ming nllers managed to stabilize the East Asian region for nearly 300 years . During the Ming era, the Portuguese and other Europeans arrived , aiming to encroach on the As ian trade network. Then , in 1644 , the powerful Manchu from neighboring Manchuria seized power and established the Qing Dynas ty, which nLled unti 1 1911. During both of these dynasties , Japan and Korea expe1ien<,edparallel developments but with unique aspects. The Ming Dynasty also expanded the size of China , conquering lands in Mongo lia and Central Asia. [t did not hold them for long, however. In the 144.0s, Mongol.annies defeated Ming forces and even took the Ming emperor prisoner. In reaction to renewed Mongol poweT, China's leaders looked to the Great Wall of China for protection . The Wall had not been maintained under Mongol rule, but under the Ming Dynasty it was restored and expanded to help keep out invade rs fron1 the north. (Com1eet: Create a chart co~paringihe Ming and YttanDy,nasties. See 'r,opic22.) Emperor Kangxi One of China's longest-reigning en1perorsJ Kan gxi (ruled 1661- 1722) presided over a period of stability and expansion during the Qing Dynasty in C-lrina. Kangxi sent forces into Taiwan, Mongolia, and Centra l Asia , incorporating those areas into the empire. China also imposed a protectorate over Tibet , the mountainous land north of India , a policy reflected .in China 's contro l of the reg ion today. Emp eror QianJong Another importan t Qing ruler was E mperor QianJong (ruled 1736-1796), a poet , who was also knowledgeable in art and ca lligraphy. At the beginning of his r_eign , the country \Vas well ad1ninistered and governmenl tax coll.ections were at a.n all-tin1e high. Qianlo11g initiated military campaigns in lands west of China, which led to the annexation of Xi:njiang accompanied by the mass killings of the local population. Even today , parts ofXinjiang re1nain troubled. The local Muslim population, called Uighurs , has never fully becom _e incorporated into 'the rest of Chinese cultur _e. EURO.PEAN, EAST ASIAN , AND GUNPOWDER EMPIRES EXPAND. 145 Qianlong .also sent armies into Tibet to install the Dalai Lama on the throne there. A ca1npaign against the Nepalese was successful , forcing the1n to submit to Chinese rule. However , campaigns against Burma and Vietnam were unsuccessfu l and costly , resulting in the emptying of the e1npire's treasury. Conflicts with the West Needing funds , the Qing Dynasty sold linnted ttading privileges to the European po·wers but confined them to Guangzhou (also known as Canton). The British were not satisfied with these litnited privi leges, so they asked for more trading ·r:ights in 1793 . Emperor Qianlong responded with a letter to King George ill stating that the Chirte·se had no need for British manufactured goods. During the later part of Qianlong's reign, the traditiona lly efficient Chinese bureaucracy becan1e corrupt, levying high taxes on the people. In response to these high taxes and a desire to restore the Ming Dynasty , a group of peasants organized the White Lotus Rebellion (1796-- 1804). The Qing government suppressed the uprising b1utally, .killing around 100,000 peasants. Rise of the Islamic Gunpowder Empires The vvan·ior leaders of the Ottoman, Safavid , and Mughal Empires shared n1any traits besides being Muslims: • They descended from Turkic nomads who once lived in Centra l Asia . • They spoke a Turkic language. • They took advantage of power vacuums left by the breakup of Mongo l khanates. • They relied on gunpowder weapons , sucb as artillery and cannons. The initial success of the Gunpowder Empires was a result of their own 1nilitary might along with the weakness and com1ption of the regimes that they rep laced. As European nations fought among themselves ra·ther than uniting to topple the new powers growing in the east, the Gunpowder Empires further expanded. The Rul e of Tamerlane The invasion of Central Asia and the Midd le East by Tamerlane (Timur the Lame , a Mongol-Turkic 1uler of the late 14th century) s.et the stage for the rise of the Turkic empires. Leading an army partly composed of nomadic invaders .from the broad steppes of ELu-asia, Tamerlane n1oved out fron1 the trading city of Samarkand (in n1oden1-day Uzbekistan) to make ruthless conquests in Persia (1nodern-day Iran) and India. The Eurasian steppes were also the birthplace of the ghazi ideal-a. model for warrior life that blended the cooperative values of nomadic culture with the willingness to serve .as a holy fighter for Islam . According to some historians, the ghazi ideal served as the model for warriors who participated in the rise of the Gunpowder 'Empires , and it was a model that fit Tamerlane well . Some historians believe that Tamerlane 's violent takeover of areas of Central Asia included the n1assacre of some 100,000 Hindus before the gates 146 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION of De lhi in.India. ·The pattern of conquest was marked by violenc .e that resulted in new dynasties: the Otto1nans, the Safavids ; and the Mughals. Nonetheless , Tamerlane 's rule in Sa1nark:andencouraged learning and the arts-a trend also typical of these later empires. For example, Tamerlane championed literature , and he hitnself corresponded with European rulers and wrote his own me1noirs. Buildings still standing in the city of Sa.markand are lasting ·reminders of his interest in architecture and decorative arts. While the empire he created largely fell apait (except for the area that his descendant Babur would take over to create lndia '.s Mughal Dynasty), Tan1erlane's invasions were a testa1nent to the significance of gunpowder. He used it to build a gove1ument dependent upon bis military and the use of heavy artillery. He also used jt to protect land routes on the Silk Roads . I-Iowever, he failed to leave an effective politica l stiucture in many of the areas be conquered. Without effective government, the expenses of the wars eventually ravaged the e1npire's economy. Tamerlane 's rule casts light on two major forces that had battled each other continually from the late 10th century to the 14th century-Mongols from the northeast ve rsus l'>lamic forces fro1n Arabia and the areas around the Mediterranean Sea. These forces would clash continuously with the rise and fall of the three Asian Gunpowder Empires that are the focus of the rest of this chapter. The Ottoman Empire By the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire was already becoming a major power. Extending into n1ode1n-day Turkey as well as to the Balkan areas of Europe and pa.its of North Africa and Southeast Asia , the Ottoman Empire was the largest and most enduring of the great Islamic e1npires of this period . Founded by the Osman Dynasty in the 1300s, the empire lasted unti l jts defeat in 1918 by the Allies in WorldWar I. Thus a single dynasty controlled the e1npire for more than 600 years. Mehmed II Called the Conqueror , -Mehme:d II (ruled 1451-1481) finnly established the e1npire's capital after bis forces besieged Constantinople (once the center of the Byzantine Empire) in 1453. Despjte its triple fortifieations, the city fell as its wails crumbled under the bombardment of Ottoman caimons . The Otton1ans used a 26-foot bronze cannon and several other cannons from 15 to 22 feet in length. Under Mehmed II's rule, the city-its name changed to lstanbuJ-prospered because of its location. A nexus for trade , the city controlled the Bosporus Strait, the only wat_erway linking the Aegean Sea with the Black Sea . The armies of Meh1ned II next seized lands around the western edge of the Black Sea. Then they moved into the Balkans in Southeast Europe . To counter the power of Venice; an expanding ·state on the Adriatic Sea with a robust n1aritime trade, Mehn1ed strengthened the otto1nan navy ai1d attacked various ai·eas of Italy. Although he did not conquer Venice , he forced the city EURO.PEAN, EAST ASIAN , AND GUNPOWDER EMPIRES EXPAND. 147 to pay him a yearly tax. In the early 16th century, the Otton1ans added to their empire lands in present-day Syria, Israe l, Egypt, and Algeria. When the M an-tluk Dynas ty's po.wer declined , Istanbul becrune a center of Islrun. '(For more on the Mamluk: Empire, see Topic 1.2.) Sule iman I The Ottoman En1pire reached its peak und er Suleiman I (ru led 1520-1566). His armies oven·an Hungary in 1526 and, by 1529 , were hainn1ering at the gates of Vienna , the 1nain city in Austria. Their attempt to take Vie1ma failed twice, but the ability of the Ottomans to send troops so fru· into Christian Europe caused great fear there. In 1522, Suleiman's navy captured the island of Rhodes (now part of Greec e) in the easte1n Mediterranean, which had long been a strongho ld of Christian knights. In the 1550s, the Ottoman navy took control of Tripoli in North Africa. Th e Ottomru1 En1pire would experience a transfom1ation as the state adapted to_new inten1al and external pressures. A period of reform w.0uld follow by the 18th century . Challenge ·s in defending Ottoman territory aga inst foreign invasion and occupation led to the Ottoman d~feat and dissolution by 1922. The Safavids The Safavid dynasty had its origin in the Safavid order of Sufism, established in th e northern Azerbaijan region .( Iran). An early Safavidmilitary hero named IsmaiJ conquered most of Persia and pushed into Iraq. Although only 14 or 15 years old, he soon conquered all of lr an and was proclaimed shah (equivalent t.oking or emperor) in 1501. The Safavid Empire had two probl ems. First , despit e being on the Arabian Sea (pru·t of the Indian Ocean ), the empire did not have a real navy . Second , the Safavids Jacked natural defenses. Neverth eless, the Safavids rose to pow er in the 1500s due to their land-based military might and strong !eadership. Called Abbas the Great, Shah Abbas I (ruled 1588-1629) presided over the Safavid Empir e at its height. His troops included soldiers-often Christ ian boys pressed into servic.e-from .as far northwest as Georgia .in Russia. Abbas i1nported weaponry from Em·ope and also relied on Europeans to advise his troops about this newly acquired military technology. Slowly, the shahs came to control religion as weU as politics. Using Shi'alsla1n as a unifying force, Shah Is1nail built a power base that supported his rllle and denied legitin1acy to any Sunni. This sttict adherence to Sbi'a Islam caused frequent hostilities with the Ottoman Empire , a stronghold of Sunni Islam. In 1541, Safavid forces were stopped by the Ottomans at Tabriz, a city in Persia ·that became prut of the border between Sunni and Shi 'a societies. The hostility between the two groups lives on in present-day Iraq and Iran. Conflicts between Ottomans and Safavids were not entirely religious , however . Anoth er conflict arose over control of overland trade .routes. The Otton18I1Sused trade en1bargoes , official bruis on trade, consistently aga inst the Safa vid silk traders _as a way to_ass ert domin<_lllceover their eastern rival. 148 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Women in the Safavid Empire Women are rarely mentio11edin local Safavid histories; however , Safavid women were permitted to participate in their societies. While Safavid women were still veiled and restricted in their 1novements, as \1/aStraditional in the region, they had access to lights provided by Islamic law for inheritance and, in extreme case·s, divorce . Mughal India In the 1520s, Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane (see Topic 2:2) , founded a 300-year dynasty during a time when llidia was in disarray . He comp leted conquests in northern India and, under 'the new Mughal name, formed a central gove1nme1it similar to that of Suleiman in Turkey. Akbar , Babur 's grandson , achieved grand relig ious and politica l goals. The 1'{ugha1 Empir e under Akbar was one of the richest and bestgoverned states in the world . Overseas trade :flourished during the relative ly peaceful period; Arab trade rs conducted most of the con1merce. Traded goods included textiles, tropical foods, spices, and precious stones , a.11 of which were often exchanged for gold and silver. Trade within the borders of the empi re was carried on by merchant castes. Members of the merchant castes \.Vere allovved to participate in banking and the production of handicrafts . Castes, orjatis , are st1ict social groupings designated at birth. The caste system divides Hindu peop le into four categories: Brabmins , Kshatriyas , Vaishyas, and the Shudras . Outside of the system are the achhoo ts, or the Dalits , the untouchables . The Indian caste syste1n is t he basis of educationa l and vocational oppo1tunities for Indian society: Mughal India flourished fro1n Babur 's time through the e.arly 18th century . Magnificent architectural accomplishments are remaining testaments to the \.vealth a.nd sophistication .of the Mughal empire. Decline of the Gunpowder Empires The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires decliiled as Western Europe grew in strength economically a.nd militari ly-particularly in te1ms of sea power . Unl ike these three Isla111 ic empiresJ Russia 1noderuized and reorgan ized its army, mode ling it .after the .armies of England , France, m1d the Nethe rlands. The Islamic empires did not modernize and, as ·a result, Russia remained powerfu l enough to survive as an independent nation-state , while the other Gunpowder Empires fell . Declin e of the Ottoman Empire In 1571, after Sulein1an's death, a European force made up mostly of Spaniards and Venetians defeated the Otton1ans in a great naval conflict known as the Battle of Lepanto . After the reign of Suleiman , the Ottomans fell victim to weak sultans and strong Etu-opean neighbors. [n time , the empire became known as the Sick Man of Europe. Successo rs to Suleiman were often held hostage to "hare1n politicsJ" the efforts of w ives and concubines of the sultan to promote their O\Vn children EURO.PEAN, EAST ASIAN , A ND GUNPOWDER EMPIRES EXPAND. 149 Three Islamic Empires in th e Sixtee nth Cent ury EUROP • vienna . enice Rome ASIA ~ };i,.,ff,~rrn,,, u,,S •. 1'ciP.cili ..,,. ~__.....,"'-" l!CGa ,IJUIBU AFRICA Ar'111la11 st rt D Ottom ·an ·empire - Safavid Empire ~ Mughal Empire Ba)' of Be11.e,1l 0 ;====, ~ 1,000 Mll,:S O 1,000 KHomcters TNDIAN OCE,1N as like ly heirs to the throne. In this way, some women became powerfu l behind the scene ·s . The failed Siege of Vienna in 1683 marked a turning point in Ottotnan domination in Eastern Ernope. British and French invo lve1nent in th.e Ottoman territories, Greece' s independence in 1821 , and th.e Russian expansion in the 19th century further weakened the Ottoman Empire. Safavid Decline The ineffectual lea_ders who foUowed Shah Abbas combined lavish lifestyles and military spending Withfalling revenues , re sulting in a weakened economy. In 1722 , Safavid forces were not able to quell a rebellio11 by tbe heavily oppressed Stmni Pashtuns in present-day Afghanistan. Th e Afghan forces went on to sack Isfahan, and their leader , Mahmud, declared hi1nself Shah of Pe rsia . While the Safavid Dynasty remained no1ninally in control, the resulting chaos was a:n impedim ent to centralization '-1lldtax collection. Taking advantage of the weakened Safavids , th.e Ottomans a.lid the Russians wer _e able to seize ten-ito1ies. The Safavid Dynasty declined rapid ly until it was replaced by the Zand Dynasty in 1760 . Mughal Decline Shah Jahan 's son and successor , Aurangze.b (ru led 16581707), .inherited an empire weakened by corruption and tbe failure to keep up with the military ini1ovations of exte1nal ene1nies. Neverth eless , Aurangzeb hoped to increase the size of tbe empire and br:ing.aUof India under Muslim rul e. Additionally , he wanted to rid the empire of its Hindu intlu ences . 150 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION In expanding the empire to the south, he drained the empire's t:reaswy and was unab l.e to put down peasant uprisings. Some of these uprisings were sparked by Aurangzeb 's insistence on an .auste re .and pious 1slamic lifestyle and an intolerance of minority religions-Sikh s, Hindus, and others. His policies led to frequent conflicts and rebe llions. There were revolts as well among the Hindu and Islarnic princes . The empire grew increasingly m1Stable after his death, which allowed the B1·itish and French to gain more and tnore economic power inlndia . The British wou ld take pol itica l power.away from the Mughals in the 19th century. KEYTERMSBY THEME GOVERNMENT: Chi na Ming Dynasty Manchu Qing Dynasty Kangxf Emperor Qian l.ong GOVERNMENT: Tur kic Gunpowder Emp ires Ottoman Emp ire shah Safav ld Erflpfre Mugtia l Empire TECHNOLOGY: Lit e rac y Gutenberg prfnting press SOCIETY: Turki c ghazi ideal castes GOVERNMENT: Le ade rs Ivan IV (Russia) Tamerlane Suleiman I (Ottoman Empire) Ismail (Safavid Empire) Shah Abbas I (Safavid Empire) Akbar (Mughal Erripire) Sou1:c:e .: Wikimc.d 1a Commons . AutJ1or: shllkko This s1an1e was made after Tame rlane was exhumed in 1941. It represents accurate facia l reconstruction based on his skull Examin ation of his skeleton also revealed that be was indeed "famc"- ho_kcpthis right.kne e bcntalJ tbc time. He also bad a withered dg ht arm. Tamerlane's inYasion ofCentral Asia and the Middle East set the stage for tbc rise of'tho Turkic em pires . EURO.PEAN, EAST AS IAN, A ND GUNPOWDER EMPIRES EXPAND. 151 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below. "Tlu:oughout the sixteenth century , the Safavi [Safavid] empire re1nained a profoundly disturbing force in the Moslem [Muslin1] world , dedicated to the defense and propagation of Shi 'a doctrines at ho1ne and abroad. This policy implied a norma l state of hostility with the Ottoman empire , punctuated only briefly by periods of peace. By the seventeenth century , however, when the Safavi empire reached its apogee [peak] under Shah Abbas the Great (15871629J, the fanaticis1n ·of the Shi' a revolution had faded, at least in court circles ; and a lasting peace with the Ottomans was conGluded in 1639." William H. McNeiil , The Ris e of the West , 1963 1. Which wou ld be the 1nost useful source of evidence to support McNeill 's contention that "the Safavi [Safavid] empire remained a profoundly disturbing force in the Mosle1n [Muslim] wocid' '? {A) writin gs by Safavids about Shi'a beliefs (B) writings by modern-day Mus litn historians (C) writings by Ottoman religious leaders of that tinie about the Safavids (D) writings by archaeologists about discoveries of Safavi.d and Ottoman religious relics 2. Today, Iran and Turkey are often political rivals. This passage suggests that this 1ivalry is based on historical conflicts over (A) de1nocracy a,nd political extremism (B) control of land arid natt1ral resources (C) the role of leaders such as th e shah and emperor (D) how to practice Islam correct ly 3. What brought an end to the '''nonnal state of hostility " between the Safavids and Ottomans mentioned in the passage? (A) Safavid fervor for its brand of Islam slowly declined until the two empires stopped fighting. (B) The constant fighting increased the respect of the empires for each other , which eventually led to peace between them. (C) Both sides united to fight against Eui-opean Christian forces that threatened then1. (D) The Ottomans slowly gained greater power .and were ableto stop the agitatton by the Safavids. 152 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to answe r all parts of the question that follows; ·TH]aving on one occasion asked my rather [Akbar] the reason why he had .torbidden any one to prevent or interfere with the building of these haunts of ido latry [Hindu te1nples], his reply was .. . : ' I find mysetf a powerful monarch , the shadow of God upon ea1th. I have seen that he bestows the blessings of his gracious providence upon aUhis creatures without distinction. Ill [badly] should I discharge the duties of my exalted station, were I to withhold my compassion and indulgence from any of those entrusted to 111ycharge. With aU of the human race ; with all of God's creatures , I an1 at peace; why then shou ld I permit myseU:: under any consideration , to be rhe cause of molestation or aggression to any o:ne? Besides , a1:e not me parts in six of .mankind either Hindus or aliens to the faith; and were 1 to be governed by motives of the kind suggested in your inqui1y, what alten1ative do l have but to put then1 all to death! l have thought it therefore my wisest plan to let these men alone. ' " Jahangir , Mughal emperor from 1605 to 1627, Memoirs (A) Describe ONE examp le of Akbar 's display of religious tolerance. (B) Describe ONE way in which Akbar 's response to religious diversity compa.red to the practices of the Mongols during the 13th cenhu-y. (C) Explain ONE way .in which Akbar 's practice of tolerance was different from the re ligious toleran<,e of the Safavids. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Explain ONE reason the Gunpowder Empires rose durin g the period 1450-1750. (B) Explain ONE way in wh.ichthe cultures . of the Gm1powder Empires differed from one another. (C) Explain ONE way in whic h techno logical advances affected the expans ion of the land-b ased empires. EURO.PEAN, EAST ASIAN , AND GUNPOWDER EMPIRES EXPAND. 153 THINK AS A HISTORlAN: EXPLAIN THE Hrs:rOR ICAL CONC.EPT OF EMPIRE ln this. t9pic, yeu read ah>outthe e}(pansion of e.mph"es. ~etween l45.0 .and 1750, esp,eciaJJy m:Russia, China,, and, Southw .est, Central, and 'South Asia . .Although it 1nay see m obvious \.Vhat'anempire is, historian s have thought G'arefuliy~bout the concept of an empire. Ae .oncept is~ general , abstract idea often for.riieflfr@'in specific instances ·. For example , Paul Jrunes and Tom Naiiu, editors of Gl0balizati.on and Violence; toncept:ualize "'empire" this way: "As a g.ener-al phen0menon , empires extend .relations 0f power across territori~ ~paees over which they ,li~ve no prior or gi.ve.nle.gal s·ov.ereignJy, and \Vnere, ih ·011eor n'l.oreof the d0n1aihs 0f e!,6nqmics , poJitics,an{! culture, they gain..s~nie measure~f extens.iv.ehegemony · 0ver th@sespaces fot the p11rpose6f ,.extracfi:ng 0r ac.cruing ~alue .'' Steven Bowe, in his bo,_okE,npire, argues that an empire typically also has tftve1'seethnic, national, cultura l, and religious elements under its power. 1fyol1eo;mbinethese cQnceptuali.zations .md tllen brea,ktbem down i.uto theil' .c01nponentparts, you would like ly come up with these features of .empt.res: • extension of power over .spaces in whic h they have no previous or lega l e011tr<i>J • exertion of major cfontrol of econo mfc 1 political, 01·cultural aspects of subjects • extraction or acc umul ation of value as a .result ofd0mination • cpntroJ ·Qtdiverse ethn1G,,pati9nal, eultfila l, and r~ligious :elements Ch0,osetwo of the _follow 'ing .efn.pires, a:f1d explaii1n<nvwell they_fit with ~he conc~pts of·.e,npire outlined above. 1. Qing Dynasty 3 . Safavid Empire 2. Qtt0map Bm:prr,e 4. Mughal Bmph:e REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , exp lain ho w c.ertain land-based empi res developed and expanded in the period from 1450-175 0. 154 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION 3.2 Empires: Administrations The state of monarchy is the supren1est thing upon earth: for kings are not only God 's lieutenants upon earth, and sit upon God's throne , but even by God himself they are c alled gods. - Ki17gJames I .(1566- 1025) Esse ntial Questi on: How did rulers in land-based en1pires legitimize anq cons01idatetheir pow.er fron1 1450 to 175-0? By the end of the 16th centtuy, centralization of power by cont rollin g taxes , the army , and some aspects of religion coa lesced into a system of government that led to a powe1ful monarch in England and abso lute monarchy in France. In other states, different methods were used to solidify .authority : building ten1ples, as with the Inca ; paying the 1nilitary elite a salary, as with the srunurai in Japrui; and fon,ibly establishing .a captive gove 1nmental bureaucracy, as. with the Ottoman devsh.irme system . Rulers of empires in the yeru·s 1450 to 17 50 developed methods for assu1ing they maintained contro l of all the regions of their empires . Some of the successful methods included using bureaucratic elites to oversee sections of the empire and developing a professiona l military. Centralizing Control in Europe England's King Jmnes I believed in the divine right of kings, a common claim from the Middle Ages that the right to rule was given to a king by God. Under this belief , a king was a political .and religious authority. As seen in the quote above, James believedhimse lJou tsid e of the law and any ea1thly authority and saw any challenge toward him as. a challenge to God. England 's Gentry Officials In England , the Tudors (ruled 1485-1603) relied on justices of the peace, officials selected by the landed gentry to " swear that as Justices of the Peace ... in all artic les in the King 's Commission to you directed , ye shall do equa l right to the poor and to the rich after your c111mingwit, ruid pov.1er, and after the laws and customs of the realm and statutes thereof made ," according to their oath of office. In other words, their job was to n1aintain peace in the counties of England , even settling some legal matte rs, and to carry out the monru·cb 's laws. The number and responsibilities EMPIRES: ADMIN ISTRATIONS 155 of the justices of the peace increased through the years of Tudor n1le, and they became among the m.ost i1nportant and powerful groups in the kingdom . Under Tudor rule , the po~rer of feudal lords weakened . Many seats in the House of Commons in Parliament were occupied by justices of the peace. The justices of tl1e peace as well as the Parliament , whic h had been estab lished in 1265, gave l~gititnacy to the monarch's clain1 to authority. Parliament also checked the monarch's powers. In 1689 , England 's rulers William and Mary signed the English Bill ofRights , which assured individ1,1al civil libertie ·s. For example , legal process was requir e:d before someone could be arreste d and detained. The Bill of Rights also guarantee d protection against tyranny of the monarchy by requiring the agree1nent of Parliament on matters . of taxation and raising an army. Absolutism in Fra nce In contrast to developments in England , the French govemment became more absolute-dir ected by one source of power , the king , with con1plete author ity-in the 17th and 18th centuries . Fleury IV (ruled 1589- 1610) of the House of Valois listened to his .advisor Jean Bodin , who advocated the divine right of the monarchy . Building on these ideas, Louis XIII (ru led 1610-16 43) and his minister Cardinal Richelieu moved to even greater centTalization of the government and developme1it of the system of intendants. These intendants were royal officia ls-bureaucratic ' elitessent out to the provinces to execute the orders of the eentra 1 government. The intendants themselves were sometimes called tax farmers because they oversaw the collection of va rious taxes in support of the royal gove111ments. The Sun King, Louis XIV (ruled 1643- 17 15), espoused a theory of divine right and was a virtual dictator . His aims were twofold, just ·as those of Richelieu had been: He wanted to hold abso lute power and expand French borders. Louis declared that be 'vvasthe.state: "L'etat, c'estmoi .'' R e combined the lawmaking and the j ustice systen1 in his ownperson-he was abso lute. He kept nobles . close to him in his palace at Versailles , making it difficult for them to act independent ly or plot against him. Louis and his successors ' refusal to share power eventually weakened the French government. Kangxi and Louis XIV Emper.or Kangxi Both King loui s XIV • Rulec! Qing Dynasty China for 61 years • Became ruler during chi ldhood • R.uled France for 72 years • Encouraged introduction of Western education • Qpened po.rts to foreign trade • sp ·oke multiple languages • Supported the arts • Known as the Sun King or Louis the Great • Promoted study of sciences • Built palace at Versailles • Loved landscape gardens • Ruled during golden age of their empire • Extended Fr.ance's eastern borders • Extended control over Tibet 156 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION • Known as a symbo l of absolute monarchy Source: G~lly Images Every aspect of the Palace at Versailles wasbuilr to glorify King Louis XlV, jududing.mor e than 700 rooms. 60 staircas es. and gardens that cover more than 30,000 acres and are decorated. with 40{) sculpturcs ·and 1.400 .fountains. The Sun King moved the Ftenclt government to Ve.rsaiIles in 1682. Reigning in Control of the Russian Empire Social hierarchy in Moscow was almost static-n1uch as it had been in.Kiev an Russia earlier. The noble landowning class , the boyars , stood at the top of the socia l pyra)llid. Be low them were the merchants. Last and most numerous were the peasants , who wou ld gradua lly sink more and more deeply :into debt and, as a result, into serfdom . Serfs were peasants who received a plot of land and protection from a noble . 1n return , the serfs were bound to that land and had little personal freedo1n. Transfers of land ownership to another noble inc lud ed contro l over the serfs on that land . The Efforts of Ivan IV The boyar class experienced tens ions with the rulers similar to the tensions between nobles .and rulers in Wes.te1nEurope . Boya:rs of Novgorod bad opposed the expansionist policies of Ivan IV, .so Ivan punished then1 after his forces defeated Novgorod. Iva n IV confiscated the laJ1dsof bis boyar opponents and forced them and the ir families to move to Moscow . Like Louis XIV, he wanted to keep an eye on the nobility. To further contro l the boyars , Ivan establ ished a paramilitary force loyal to him called the oprichnina . Dressed in black and traveling quickly on horseback , the 1nembers showed fierce loya lty to Ivan. They were drawn fron1 lower-leve l bureaucrats and merebants to assure theiT loya lty to Ivan rather than to the boyars . The oprichnina 's methods would be reflected later in the development of the Russian secret police. (Co nn ect: Create a table co m,garing Iran:IV and S:undi_at.a. See .Topie 2.4.) EMPIRES: ADM INISTRATIONS 157 Peter the Great The Romanov Dynasty took control of Russia in 1613 after a period of turmoil follo,ving ] van's death in 1584. Under the autocratic control of the Ron1anovs, three main groups in Russia had conflicting desires and agendas: the Church, bent on conserving traditional values and beliefs; the boyar.s, de•siring to gain a.lid hold power; and me1nbers of the tsar 's royal family. The rise to power of P eter I, also known as Peter the Great (ruled 168.2-1725), il lustrates these conflicting .ambitions. First , to gain full control of the throne, Peter had to defeat his half-sister Sophia and her supporters , a boyar- led elite military corps ealled the Streltsy. Re consolidated power by forcing Sophia into a convent. Later, the Streltsy rebelled against Peter 's reign, so he temporari ly disbanded the1n and then integrated then1 into Russia's regular .army. Peter the Great was known as the Defender of Orthodoxy , participating closely in ecclesiastical [church] affairs. Ho,vever, Peter would eventually Lose the support of the Russian clergy over his reforms. Later in his reign, P eter reorganized the Russian govemn1ent by creating provinces (first 8 and later 50 administrative divisions). Provincial officials received a salary, replacing the old systeni of local officials "feeding off the land" (getting money through bribes , fees , and taxes). Another government reform \Vas the creation of a senate, a council to advise govemmenl offieials when Peter was away. Centralizing Control in the Ottoman Empire To ensure their control over large areas, the Otto1nan sultans used a selection system called devshirm e to staff their military and their government. This system began in the late 14th century and expanded in the 15th and 16th centwies. Through this system , Christian boys who were subjects ofthe empire \.vererecruite:d by force to serve in the Ottoman government. Boys a.ges,8 to 20 were taken each year fi·61nconquered Christ ian lands in Europe. The system of devshinne developed from an earlier system of slavery in the Ottoman .Empire . In both systems, slaves were conside red t1ibute owed to tl1e en1pire after conquest , which was typically one-fifth of the conquered Land's wealth . Since Islamic Law prohibited enslavement of "people of the book "-Muslims and Jews-Christian boys were forcibly ren1oved fro1n their fami lies, especially from Balkan te1Titories. The Christian boys were taught various skills in politics, the arts, and the milita ry and received a very .high level of education. The n1ost famous group , ca.lied Janissaries, formed elite forces in the Ottoman anny . Other boys were groomed to become administrators of the newly conqueted territories ; sonie \Vere scribes, tax co llectors, and even diplomats. They were indoctrinated to be fiercely loya l to the sultan-some served as bodyguards. [n some ways, beco1ning a Janissary provided a path of upward mobility in the Ottoman Empire, even though the Janissades continued to be called "slaves of the state.' ' Some parents even wanted their sons to be recruited into the service . 158 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Centralizing Control in East and South Asia Following the coll apse of the Mongol- led Yuan Dynasty , the Ming ruled in China fi·61n 1368-1644. The Ming Dynasty in China wante d to erase the influence of Mongol ru lers of the Yuan Dynasty . To help accomp lish this goaJ, the Ming ·brought back the traditional civil service exa1n,jmproved education by establis hing a nationa l schoo l system, and reestab lished the bureauc racy, which bad fallen itito disuse under the Mongols. (See ·Topic 2.2.) D uring the Qing Dynasty, in the later part of Qianlong 's reign , the traditionally efficient Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt , levying high taxes on the people. The Qing government used harsh 1nilitruy contro l to put down a rebellion against these developments and maintain its author ity. Consolidating Pow er in Japan Military leaders called shoguns ruled Japan in the empe ror 's name ii-01n the 12th to the 15th centuries. Yet conflict between landholding aristocrats called daimyo left Japan in disa1Tay.Each daimyo had an a1my of warriors (known as samurai); ambition to conque r n1ore ter rito1y; and power to rule his fiefdo nis as he saw fit. The samurai were salaried , paid first in rice and later in gold , which gave them significant economic powe r. Fina lly, just as gunpowder weapons enable d the rise of new empires in Turkey, Persia, and [ndia, gunpowder weapons helped a series of three powerful daimyo to ¥1·adually unify Japan. (C.~nn;eet: Write a paraguapb couriecting shogttnru le with the rule of the daitnyb. See To]ic 1. L) The first of these powerf ul daimyo was Oda Nobunaga . Armed with muskets purchased fron1 Portuguese traders , Nobunaga and his samurai took over Kyoto in 1568. E-Iethen began to extend his power , forcing daimyo in the .lands around Kyoto to submit. Nobunaga had unifi.ed about one-third of what is today Japan when he was assass inated iu 1582. Nobunag;;i's successor , Toyotomi 1Iideyosh:i, continued expanding the tenito1y until most of what vve now know as Japan was under his contro l. Afte r his death it1 1598, the center of power shifted to the city of Edo (Tokyo) , controlled by the daimyo _Tokugawa Ieyasu (ruled 1600-1616) , who was declared shogun in 1603. His successors would continue to ru le Japan into the mid-19th cennuy, manera known as the Period of Great Peace. The Tokugawa shogunate set about reorganizing the governance of Japan in order to centralize control over what was essentia lly a feudal system. Japan was divided into 250 hans, or territories, each of which \Vas controlled by a daimyo who had his ovvn anny and vvas fairly independent. However , the Tokuga\.va govenunerit required that daitnyo n1aintain residences both in their home territory '111dalso in the capital ; if the dainlyo himse lf was visiting his home territo1y, his family bad to stay in Tokyo , essentially as hostages. This kept the daitnyo under the control of the shogunate _,redu cing them to landlords who 1nanaged the ha:ns, rather than independent leaders. Consolidating Mrrghal Power in Soqth Asia Ruling from 1556 to 1605, A kbar proved to be the most capab le of the Mughal rulers . For the first 40 years of his rule, he defeated Hindu arm ies and extended his e1npire EMPIRES: ADM INISTRATIONS 159 south\vard and west\vard . From his capital in Delhi , Akbar established an efficient government and a system of fairly administered laws. For example, all his people had the right to appeal to hin1 for finaljudgn1ent in any lawsuit. As Ak:bar'-sfame spread, capable 1nen from many parts of Central Asia came to serve him. They helped Akbar create a strong , centralized government and an effective civil service. Paid government officials called zamindars were in charge of specific duties, such as taxation, construction, and the water supply. Later, they were given grants of land rather than salaries but were permitted to keep a :po11ionof the taxes paid by loca l peasants, who contributed onethird of their produce to the government. The syste1n worked weU under Akbar. Under the rulers who came after hitn, though, the zamindars began to keep n1ore of the taxe·s that they collected. With this money, they built personal armies of soldiers and civilians loyal to them. Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art Etu:opean governments sought to l~gitimize the authority of the monarch through the .idea of the divine right of nioi:larchy. (For 1nore information about the divine right of monarchy, see Topic 3.3.) They also built impressive structures , .such as the Palace of Versailles -in France, to demonstrate their power and glory. Governments in other parts of the world followed similar patterns to consolidate and legitimize their authority. (See Topic l .4 for links an1ong re-ligion, grand temples and pyramids , human sacri:fice, and political power in the Mexica and Incan cultures.) Peter and St. Petersburg When Peter the Great seized lands on the Baltic Sea fron1 Sw.eden, the conquest gave Russia its own warm-water port on the Baltic-St. Petersburg. Peter moved the Russian capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg so he could keep watch on the boyars there , who were doing their required state service by working in his government. The new city became a testament to Peter's detern,ination to have his own capital. Architects laid out streets in a rectangular grid, unlike the irregular pattern of Moscow and other cities. 'Peasants and Swedish prisoners of war were forced to work, draining marshes and building streets and govemment structures. In the mid-18th century; workers built the famous Winter Palace. It was designed in a European rather than a Byzantine style to show Peter'-s admiration of Europe and its rulers. Askia the Great of Songhai Askia Moharrunad I, or Askia the Great, came to power in 1493. J:-Ieclaimed his predecessor , Sunni Ali, was not a faithful Muslim. Like Mansa Musa of Mali, Askia the Great promoted Islam throughout his kingdom and made an elaborate pilgrimage to Mecca. Under his leadership , Songhai became the largest kingdom in its day in West Africa. Askia made Islam Songhai 's official religion in an attempt to unite his. empire. In addition to legitimizing his rule through promoting I slam, he also supported an efficient bureaucracy. to bring the empire together. 160 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Shah J ahan Mughallndia produeed .a number of magnificent architectural accomplishments, including the Taj Mahal, built by Shah Jahan (ruled 16281658) as a tomb for his wife . Mugha l ru lers also beautified Delhi and had forts built. The craftspeople and builders ofMughal India combined the arts of Islam (calligraphy , illm.nination of n1anuscripts , and ceramics) with local arts to ere.ate magnificent, airy structures with decorative geometric designs . All these .accomplishments showed the power of the 1ulers. Ottoman Architectural and Ar tistic Achievements Tremendous changes in government and. religion took place in Ottoman territory . However , the arts , the culture , and the economy showed continuities , though they now legitimized the rule of the Ottomans . Constantinople, renamed [stanbul, remained the western end of the overland Silk Roads, and the Grand Bazaar there continued to be full of foreign nnports. Coffeehouses, althoug h banned by Islamic law, continued to.do a thriving business throughout the towns of the empire. Source: TbJokstock Source: 11unks1oc.k Suurtc : 1'binks1,ock The Tslaruic Gullpowdcr Empires built.moown·e11talarcliitec.tnre with spiritual sii,'llificance. The Otto1ilansbuilt th.e Sulcyma11iyeMosque in Istan&ul(top). Tbe Safavids built the Mosque of lsfahan (lower left). The Mughals built the Taj Mahal a mausoleum, in Agra. (lower rigbt). EMPIRES: ADM INISTRATIONS 161 Istanbul grew more beautifi,Iland expanded across both sides of the Strait of Bosporus . One famous landmark is the royal residence oftbe sultans, Topkc1,pi Palace. Mehmed II (lived 1432-1481) began construction on this lancln1ark. Suleiman J (lived 1494-15 66) ordered many mosques, forts, .and other great buildings constn.1ctedin the cities under his control. For example , be ordered the construction in Istanbul of the magnificent Suleymaniye Mosque. Istanbul remained a center of arts and learning. Poets and scho lars from across Asia n1et in coffeehouses and gardens. They discussed works by Aristotle and other Greek writers, as well as the works of many Arabic scholars . Cultural contributions of the Ottomans included the restoration of so.me of the glorious buildings of Constantinople , n1ost notably the cathedral of Saint Sophia (\vhich the Ottomans turned into a grand mo,sque). From the time of Mehmed JI , who established a workshop for their production, Ottoman miniature paintings and illuminated 1nanuscripts became fa1nous. French Architecture The spacious and elegant palace at Versailles becan1e a political instrument. Louis XIV entertained the nobles there and kept them from conducting business elsewhere, such as fO'mentingrebellion in their ho1ne provinces. Louis XIV's grand buildings at Versailles helped legitimize his power. The palace at Versailles, for example, could accommodate hundreds of guests. During the rule of Louis XIV, some 1,000 employees worke:d in the palace or on the grounds. Financing Empires As in other matters of building .and mailitaining empires, different methods of raising money worked-or fell short-in different en1pires. In all of the world''s en1pires; raising money to fund the goals of i1nperia.lexpansion and extend State power was a key endeavor. Taxation in Russia Peter estab lished new industries owned by the state, especially shipyards in St. Petersburg ·and iron mines in the Ura l Mountains. 11e also encouraged p1ivate industries such as 1netalhu:gy [technology of metal products], woodwork, g1u1powder, leather, paper, .and mining . He brought in Western European 11avalengineers to build ships according to Western tnodels. When indusuialization failed to bring in tbe revenue Peter needed for his 1nilitary ventures , he raised taxes and began to compel workers to work in the shipyards-a sort of urban extensio11of serfdom. In 1718, the tax on land inRussia vvas replaced by a tax on heads (individua ls), and peasants became more oppressed than ever. Ottoman and Mughal Taxation To finance fill economy backed by a powerful military, the Ottomans levied taxes on the peasants and used tax farming to collect it. The tax farmers-local officials and private tax collectors distant from the oentraJ government,-grew wealthy and comtpt from ski1nroingmoney from the taxes in their areas, as some of the zamindars did.in the Mughal Empire. Agricultural villages continued to be burdened with 162 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION the upkeep of officers and troops . This bw·den of taxes and the rnilitary woul d eventually contribute to the econo1nic decline of the empire. Tax Collection in the Ming Dynasty In Ming China as well as in the Otto1nan Empire , tax collection was the responsib ility of private citizens, in this case wealthy families , each seeing to the coll_ection of land taxes in their area of the countryside. Land tax.es made up the bulk of the taxes collected, and the rates tended to be low. Taxes were collected in the fonn of grains and, lat er, silver. Some grains were stored in local facilities . Others were s.ent on the Grand Canal to military locations. The state also collected ta,'<esOil salt , wine, and other goods. For many years, the vaults stored a surplus of gra.ins. However, after about 1580, wars , extravaga nt i1nperial spending , and the reptession of rebellion s left the dynasty in bankruptcy . Tributes Empires, including China, also collected tributes fro1n other states ·as a way to demand recognition of their power and authority . Typically as a form of weal th, tributes were given as a sign of respect , submiss ion, or allegiance . For example, Korea was a tdbutaiy state for China. The Mexica had extensive tributary arrange1nents from the people they conquered, although mostAztec citizens , merchants , and artisans paid taxes. AnAztec official was stationed in_each capital to collect tributes fromlocal officials. The Songhai Empire also had tributary states . Askia the Great ass igned governors (IJ)dofficials to preside over tributa1y states in the Niger Valley. As long as local officiaJs oheyed Songhai policies , they could rule their districts. KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNMENT:Europe GOVERNMENT:Ottoman ECONOMY: France d ivine right of Kings Emp ire devshirme Janissaries tax farmers GOVERNMENT:Engl and justices o.f the peace English Bill of Rights GOVERNMENT : France absolute Cardinal Richelieu intendants Lo.uis XIV GOVERNMENT:Russia Ivan IV Romanov Dynasty Peter I ECONOMY: Ottoman Empire tax farm ing GOVERNMENT:Japan daimyo Edo Tokugawa Ieyasu Peri9d of Great Peac~ Tokugawa shogunate zamindars GOVERNMENT:Songhai CULTURE:Mu ghal Empire Askia the Grea,t Taj Mahal GOVERNMENT:Mughal CULTURE:France Emp ire Akb~ar Delhi Sh.ah Jahan Versailles ECONOMY: China tribute .s ECONOMY: Mug hal Empire SOCIETY:Russia boyar-s serfdom EMPIRES: ADM INISTRATIONS 163 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Que stion s 1 to 3 refer to the ·passag e below. "Demonized as an enen1y of the faith by the Muslin1 narrative .sources , yet lionized as a wanior hero in the oral tradit ion, Sunni Ali , who reigned fron1 1464 to 1492, is one of the most controversial figures of the Afr ican Middle Ages .... Relying on a swift and mobile cavalry force as well as on nava l contro l of the Niger River, Sl111Ili Ali had conquered the agriculturally rich centra l Niger or '_in.landdelta,' _includingthe wealthy and.scho larly cities of Timbuktu and Jenne , by the 1470s. . .. I-le was well aware that a vast en1pire could not be he ld together by military conquests alone, but need[ ed) an effective .and efficient adn, ini~trative structure as well . Indeed , the organization of Songhay [Songhai] governn1ent which was developed to a great degree under Sunni A li differed substa,ntially from previous Sudanic patterns of emp ire. These had been based more on alliances and relationships with tributary states than on the high degree of centralization character istic of Songhay [Songhai). " J. Rotondo - McCord , "Kingdoms of the Medieva l Sudan ," Xa v ier University, http://wcbuscrs.xuJa.edu/jrotondo/ KingdomsiS ongha y/SunniAliO I .html 1. The Songhai En1pire was like the e1npire of Japan because the Songhai (A) created a strong centraL.governm _ent to rule the empire (B} expanded the territory under its control (C) was ru led by a Musl_in, (D) was the first empire to trade gold extensive ly 2. The Songhai En1pire under Sunni Ali was different from the empire under Askia the O-reat because (A) Sunni A li made a pilgrimage to Mecca (B) Askia used religion to legitimize his contr ol (C) Sunni Ali made Songhai the largest kingdom in West Africa (D) Askia used za 1uindars to collect taxes 3. How did Askia the G1·eateballenge Sunni Ali's legitimacy? (A) Be claimed St1nni Ali was .a weak military com1nander. (B) He questioned Sunn i Ali's firithfulness to the principles of Islam. (C) Be established strong tributary ties that had more allegiances to him than to Sunni Ali. (D) He refor1ned taxation policies throughout the kingdom. 164 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passag e belo,v to answer all .parts of the question that follows; ·'Fanners of aJ.1provinces are strictly forbidden to have in their possession any swords, short swords; bows, spears, firearms, or other types of weapons. If unnecessary implements of w,"irare kept , the coUection of annual rent (nengu) n1ay become n1ore difficult, and without provocation uprisings can [occw-J. ... The heads of the provinces, samurai who receive a grant of land, and deputies must coUect all the weapons described above and submif them to llideyoshi 's government ... If farmers possess only agricultura l implements and devote theniselves exclusively to cultivating the fields, they and their descendants will prosper. T.his con1passionate concen1 for the weU-being of the farms is the reason for the issuance of this edict, and such concern is the foundation for the peace and security of the country and the joy and happiness of all the people. " Toyotomi Hideyosbi, Imperial Regent otJapan, edicts issued in 1.588 (A) Desc r ibe ONE technologic~l advance that allowed Hideyoshi and other shoguns to enforce such edicts over farn1ers. (B) Desc rib e ONE way in which }lideyos hi's goals were simila r to those of Louis XIV. (C) Explain ONE interpretation historians could develop of Hideyoshi 's ideas about the Ja:pa,nese economy from th.is piece of evidence. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Describe ONE way in 'vvhichpolitical structures of Europeans differed fron1 those of the Ottorn·ans in the period 1450- 1750. (B) Desc rib e ONE way in which political structures . of the Aztecs ~rere sin1ilar to those in China in the period 1450-1750 . (C) Explain ONE rea son that the Mugha l leaders constructed impressive buildings for worship and as memorials during the period of 1450- 1750. EMPIRES: ADM INISTRATIONS 165 THINK AS A HISTORIAN: ·cpNTE)ffUAU .ZING ACROSS CULTURES One way historians contextaafue is by examining wliat came befo re .md :whatcame aftef an event or development within a.eultur~ (-seepag ~ 14). Gontex:tualizatio-n is also useful across eultures . To contextnalize a specific d~velopm ~nt flcross c.u:lture-s, ask: In what other cnlty.res w~1:e, there :sitnilar developments? fu Whal ·ways were those devek~pments sin1ilar to the sp.ecific deve lopnient in the cu lture 11.nd er study? In what ways werethpse developm ents, cliffe11 ~nt. from the specific development .in.the cult _ure l.lllder 'SUld1/'?As yeu answer the s,e-qu~stions, think about origins, purpo ses, and outco mes . C0nsi,dei· the developt1i-en.t &_{lhe devshcirrn ·e syste111.. Withinthe context of gl0bal slavery betwee n Jif5l) and 1750, 7iow was devshirnie like ot unlike slave1J1else-.vhe,;_ e, a1id why ? C0mplete a --c hart like the one /Jelbw to co11.te. -ic. tut1li--ze devshirm:e ih a br.@tider. sefri ng. Then ,draw fl eQnch.,1 1,)on µbout the devshirrnesJ1f;1te1n. Region/Culture Origins Purposes Outcomes Ottomans Tribute from conquered people Educated and trained for admin istrative and military service and paid a salary Became influential members of society and first standing army Amer icas China Afr ica REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , explain how rul ers. in land-based empires legitimized and conso lidated their power from 1450 to 1750 .. 166 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 3.3 Empires: Belief Systems Paris is well worth a Ma.ss. -Henry ot Navarre, Kingof France (ruled 1589- 161O) Essential Questio n: How did different belief systems. endure or change during the period from 1450-1750? Religion , a key factor in the expansion of emp ires, was a divisive force as much as it was a unifying one . Christianity rema ined a dominant force· in Europe, but its split into several factions during tbe 16th and 17th centuries led to significant historical changes. French King l:Iem-y rv,often known as I-Ienry of NavaiTe, converted to Catholicisn1 in 1593 for the sake of solidifying his power and ensu 1ingp eace, as thequoteabove suggest s. rlis action de1nonstrates the willingness of monarchs to approach nlling with practicality rather than theology. Henr y JV also sanctioned religious toleration of the Hugu enots (French Calvinists) . Islam , too , experienced a split , and political rivalLies betw een the Otton1an and Safavid empires deepened the breach betw een the Sunni and Shi ' a branches of the religion. At the same time, Sikhism provided .a way to con1bine Hindu and Sufi Muslim beliefs. Protestant Reformation The Roman Catho lic Church faced 1nany challenges in th e European shift fro1n feudalistn to centralized govenunents. Internationa l in organization and influence and boasting a large bureaucracy of its own , the Church was subject to con-u:ption.Efforts to curb corruption resulte d in .num erous ChLu-cbcouncils and refonn moven1ents . Ifow ever, efforts at reform were unsuccessful. Theological ilisagreements began to su1face as well. John Wycliffe and the Lollard s in England in the late 14th century argued that priests were unnecessary for salvation. Wyc liffe \Vas vilified for traI1Slating parts of th e Bibl e into the English ve1nacular to make.it available to the mass of believers , who neither read nor understood Latin. ln the early 14th century , Hussites , followers of Jan Rus in Boh emia, were declared heretics for beliefs simi lar to Wycliffe 's . Hus himself was burn ed at the stake. Huldrych Zwing li cainpaigned in Gen eva for a religion that would follow the exact teachings EMPIRES: BELIEF SYSTEMS 167 of the scriptures and discard custo1ns that had evolved later. For examp le, he opposed the requirement for celibacy of the clergy because he argued that the ru le was imposed long after the scriptures were written. The power of the Church suffered during the so-called Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377), v.rhen the papacy was located in France rather than in R61ne. The Captiv ity gave French ntlers greater influence over the Church, even the ability to decide who should be pope. Ne\vly centralizing rulers who coveted Church lands and authority began confiscating wealthy Catho lic 1nonasteries and sometiines established their own churches. In the eyes of believers, the Church suffered further when it failed to stop the Black Death. (G'obJiec;t:Write ·a paragraph connecting the Refenna-tio.Ji wJth ilie problems of lliemedi~.val Church. See T~pic i.6.) Lutheranism A n1onk named Martin Luthe.r in Wittenberg , a Gennan city in the Holy Roman Empire (800-1806), concluded that several traditional Church practices violated biblical teachings. He objected to the sale of indulg ences, which granted a person absolution from the punishments for sin, and to simony , the selling of church offices. As a result, Luther defiantly challenged the Church by nailing his charges, the 95 Theses, to a church door. Luth er advocated for the theological stance of "sola fide,' ' faith alone , for the basis of salvation for the Christian believer. The Church reacted harshly . It , and the local political ruler , needed the money these practices generated. Luther P.ersisted. In January 1521, Pope Leo X ex:eommunfcated Luther. Several German political leaders .saw an opportunity to free themselves fron1 the power of the pope. They sided with Luther. Soon, what bad begun as a minor academic debate became a major split in the Roman Catholic Church and the Holy Roman Empire. Luther was not a political or social revolutionary ; (When German peasants rebe lled, he did not suppor t them.) But his theological ideas had socia l impact on the clergy as well as on women. Luther taught that women could have dir_ect access to God just as men could. Luther's emphasis promote:d won1en's literacy. I-le believed tharwomenhad significanti-oles in the family , part ictLlarly teaching their chi ldren to read the Bible. However , Protestants generally did not organize convents. As a result, Protestant women did nothave the opportunity to become leaders in a vital institution the way Roman Catl1olic won1en did. Calvinism The French theologian John Calvin broke with the Catholic Church around 1530. In 1536, he authored The Institutes of the Christian Religion .and helped reform the religious community in Geneva, Switzerland . The elect, those predestined to go to heaven , rru1 the co1nmunity, which was based on plain living, simple church buildings, and governance by the elders of the church . Calvin's followers inFi-a:nee were called 1-luguenots. Other offshoots of Calvinis1n included the Refo1med Church of Scotland , led by John Knox , and the Puritans in England and later in Boston~ who wanted to purify the Church of England of Catholic remnru1ts. Historian and socio logist Max Weber pointed out that an important socioecono n1ic impact 168 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION of Ca lvinism is contained in the phrase "Protestan t work ethic." Calvinists \Vere encou raged to work hard and reinvest their profits; prosperity ostensibly showe d that God favor ed th eir obedienc .e .and hard work. Pr ospe rity also indicat ed their position among the elect. Calvinists viewed their wor k ethic as righteous living that elevate d tben1 to positions of secular leadership. Together , the various reform efforts are kr1ovvnas the Protestant Reformation . Dominant Faiths in W.ester n Europe in 1560 D 11111 D .. ~ Anglican Lutheran Calvinist Rc;>man , Cothollc ur_gh .......... R .r,;,//1//.n \ •, :r.,,S E I 0 • ' u~ €,I; ,, A TL A NTL C OCE A N 0 O IRE ~... ,.. VCIIU« • 500 Miles .-· -·--,/ }~~ ' At!JS'l'lUA ' I l .,__ HUN GAR¥ r --·-• D OTTOMAN EMPFK ii MEDJTE ~ lt R A N E A N S EA 500 Kllomelers Anglicanism Th e last of the three major figures of the Reformation was England's King Henry VIII (ruled 1509-15 47) . Henry wante d a male heir to succeed him. After his wife gave bitih to seve ral daughters, Henry ask~d the pope to annu l his man:iage so he could man-y another woma n, Anne Boleyn. But the pope refused out of worry over the reaction of Charles V. the powerfu l emperor of the Holy Roman Empire . Henry, with the approva l of the English Parliament , set himself up as l1ead of the new Chw·ch of Eng land, or Anglican Church-one that w ould be free of control by the pope -in Rom e. The Orthodox Church and Reforms in Russia Charles V bad revitalized the concept of the universal monarchy and spent 1nost of his reign defen din g the i1itegii ty of the Ilo iy Ron1an En1pire from the Prot estant Reformat ion . Lik e Charles V, Peter the Great of Russia asserted his authority as he nioved against the Ortho dox Church. The Church had long been the force unifying the Russian people and the tsars, who claimed to 1ule EMPIRES: BELIEF SYSTEMS 169 by djvine right. Peter confirmed his po,ver over the Church by abolishing the position _of patriarch, the head of the Church , and _incorporating the Church into the gove rnment. In place of the patria rch, he estab lished the Hol y Synod , composed of clergymen overseen by a secular official who answered to the tsar . Peter raised the niini1num age for 1nen to become elig ible to be monks to 50, prefer ring that the young serve first as soldiers . Peter 's r~forms were not 'vvek:omed by many peasants .and Old Believers, .a sect that opposed earlier reforms. Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation The Roman Catho lic Church, all-powerful in ELu-opesince the fall of Ron1e, did not sit quietly by and let the Refonnat ion groups take over. Instead , it embarked 011.avigorous Coun t.er-R eformation to fight agajnst the Protestant attacks . A three-pronged strategy yielded such gains for the Chw·ch that it ren1ains the largest Christian denomination in the world: • The Cbtu-ch increased the use of the Inquisition , which had ·been establis hed in the late 12th century to root out and punish nonbelievers. The Inquisition sometimes allowed the use of torture to achieve its ends . • The Jesuits , or Society of Jesus , a religious order founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyo la, also opposed the spread of Protestantism. The Jesuits undertook missionary activity throughout the Spanish Empire as well .as in Japan .and India . • The Council ofTr ent ( 1545- 1563) con-ected some of the worst of the Church's abuses '-1Ildconcentrated on reaffirming the rituals such as n1arriage and other sacraments improving the education of p1iests. The Counci l also published the Index of Prohibited Books , a list of writings that the Church banne:d, including Protestant copies of the Bib le .and the writings of Copernicus . The Counter-Refonnation . was successfu l in that Catholicism remained predominant in the areas of Western Europe near the Mediten·anean Sea. Moreover , later colonies of the European powe rs often follov.1ed the lead of the borne country in religion . Therefore, n1ost of the peop le in the Spanish, Portuguese , and French colonies became Cathol ic. Cha,rles V abdicated as tuler of the Ho ly Roman Empire in 1555, discouraged by his inability to stop the spread of Lutheranism. He left Spain to his son Philip 11 and the Ho ly Rom .an Empire to his brother Ferdinand. Philip II took . the Catholic crusade to the Netherlands and .ruled its 17 provinc .es from 1556 to 1581. He later tried to conq uer and convert Eng land. In L5 88., his Spanish Armada was ·defeated by English naval power. 170 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Wars of Religion Europe 's religious divisions led to frequent wars . In 1546 .and 1547, the forces of Char les V fought the German L utheran Schma lkaldic League . Conflict between L utherans and the E-IolyRoman Empire resulted in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, which allo·wed each German state to choose whether its ruler would be Catholic or Lutheran . As a result , churches and inhabitants were forced to practice the state religion . Peop le who refused cou ld move to another state where their preferred religion was practiced . France ln France , Catholics and Huguenots fought for nearly half a century. Then , in 1593, King Henry IV, who had been raised as a Protestant , tried to unify the country by becoming a Catho lic, reported ly saying that "Paris is well wo1th a Mass ." Five years later, in .another step to bring peace , Henry issued the Edict of Nantes , which allowed the 1-Iuguenots to pra.ctice their faith. The edict provided religious toleration in France for the next 87 years. In 1685, Louis XIV of France issued the Revocation of the Edict of Nan tes. As a resu lt, France experienced social and econonuc effects. For example , many skilled craftsmen left France , taking knowledge of important .industry techniques and styles with them. Thir ty Years 'War The fina l great religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants in Europe culminated in the Thir ty Year s' War (16181648) , which led to economic catastrophe for most of the continent. The Thirty Years ' War was initially the result of religious conflict within the Ho ly Roman E1npire ; it gradually deve loped into a more general conflict involving Etu-opean powers . Mi.1chof the destruction was caus .ed by troops who were allowed to loot as part of their compensation. The war resulted in widespread famine , starvation , and disease. The war cuhn inated in the Peace of Westphalia , which allowed each area of the 1-Ioly Roman Empire to select one of three religious options: Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism , or Calvinism. After this settlem _ent, France , Spain,, and Italy were predominant ly Catholic. Northern Europe was either Lutheran or Calvinist. Eng land was Protestant with a state church. Allo\ving rulers of various areas of the Ro ly Roman Empire to ehoose a denomination bad impo1tant political effects . It gave the countries and duchies n111ch1nore autono1ny than they. prev iously had. Consequently, the states of Prussia (now part of Geunany ) and Austria began to assert themse lves , although they still formally belonged to the Holy Roman E1npire. Prussia, after suffering trem _endous destJuction during the Thirty Ye.ars' War, developed a strong militru·y to protect itself. The Prussian military tradition would bec61ne a key factor in European politics into the 20th century. EMP IRES: BELIEF SYSTEMS 171 Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires, 1450-1750 Relig ion Ottoman Empire Safavid Empire Mughal Empire • Mostly Sunni wlth some measure of to lerance under Suleiman • Mostly Shi 'a • No tolerance·• Ismail I made conversion mandatory for Sunni population • Tolerance under Akbar , but his blend of Islam and Hihduism did hot prove popular • Less tolerance under later rulers • Less to lerance under later rulers Islamic Religious Schisms As in the Holy Roman Empire , re ligion and the state we re closely tied in Islamic empires . Isl am continued to be an enduring be lief system, spreading its sphere of _influence despite faction s that developed within it. Ottoman Empire Until 1453 , 111uch of th e area had been controlled by the Byzantine Empire and followed the East e1n Orthodox religion . After the siege of Constantinop le, the area became Otto1nan and th e dominant religion became Islam. A sultan replaced the emperor, and the Byzantine Empire 's Justinian Law was replaced by shariab. This is a strict Islainic legal system that deals with all aspects of life , such as crimina l justice , maiital laws , and issues of inheritance. The Safavids Using Sbi 'a Is lam as a unifymg force, Shah Ismai l built a power base that supported his rule and denied legitin1acy to any Sunni. This strict adherence to Shi 'a Islam caused frequent hostilities within the Ottoman Empire. Mughal Toleration and Prosperity Akbar tolerated all religions. He gave money or lai1d tol -Iindus and Muslims. }le also gave money for a Catholic church in Goa , on In dia 's southwest coast. Ife provi ded land grants fo r the rela tive ly new religion of Sikhism , which developed :from Hi11duis111 and may hav e been influenced by th e Islamic mysticism known as Sufism . (See Topics 1.2 and 1.3.) Sikh ism, a monotheistic fa ith that recognized 'the rights of other faiths to exist , became the fifth most popular religion in the vvodd by the 21st century . Akbar tried t6 ease tensions between Hind us and M uslims. He gave of high and low positions Hindus positions in his government-zamindars could be Hindu-and married Hindu wives. He exempted Hindus -from poll taxes paid by non-Muslims in the empire. B ecause he enjoyed religious discussions, Akbar invited Catholic priests to Delhi to exp lain Christia,nity to him. Rega rded as one of the world's ou tstat1ding rulers , Akbar enco u raged learning , .art, architecture , and literature. He tried ( and failed) to prohibit chi ld marriages and sati , the 1itnal in which w idows killed the 111selves by jumping on the funeral py res of their husbands .. He died in 1605 without successfully converting his Hindu at1d Islamic subjects to the religion called Din-i Ilahi. or "d ivine faith ," which he had pro 1noted to reconcile Hinduis n1 and Islam. 172 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Religious Schisn1sThrough History Religion and Region Schism Leaders Nature of 'Dispute Buddhism in India Theravada and Mahayana (approximately 300 B.C.E. to 100 C.E.) • Four counci ls held after the Buddha 's death Disagreement between emphasis on personal meditation (Theravada) and public rituals and compassion (Mahayana) Islam in Middle East Sunni and Shi'a (632 C.E.) • Abu Bakr Disagreement over the rightful su.ccessor to Muhammad as leader of the Islamic community Christianity in Europe and Byzantine Empire Roman Catho lics and Orthodox (1054 C.E.) Christianity in Europe Roman Catho lics and Protestants (1517 C.E.) • Ali • Pope Leo IX • Patriarch of Constantinople., Michael Cerularlus • Martin Luther • John Calvin • King Henry VIII Disagreement over the role of faith, issues of salv,ation. Disagreement over the authority of the pope and d ifferences in rituals Disagreement s over the role of faith, the role of the clergy and the pope, and how to Interpret the Bib le Scientific Revolution In the early 1600s, scientifie thinking gained popu larity in northern Europe as. trends in Renais sance jdeas, curiosity, investigation , and discove ry spread. In a per iod of religious schisn1s, scientific thought represented a very different kind of thinking-one based on reason r-ather than on faith-that would set in motion a monumental rustorical change . In 1620, English scientist and philosopher Francis Bacon deve loped an early scientific method called empiricism , which insisted upon the collection of data to back ap a hypothesis. Bacon .challenged traditional ideas that had been accepted for centuries and replac.e thetn with ones that could be demons.trated with evidence . Scientific thinking advanced through the correspon dence of leading scholars with one another, even dur ing the relig ious wars, and by the establishment of a RoyalAcad emy of Science inFra:nce a,ndEngland. Sir Isaac Newton , combining Galileo•s laws of terrestria l 1notion and Johannes Kepler 's laws of planetaiy motion, published a \Vork on gravitat ional force called Principia (1687) . The ideas -in Prifzcipia influenced science and mathematics and helped lead to a new vision of the world. Many intellectuals thought that scienc.e showed that the world was. ordered .and rational and that natural laws applied to the rational and orderlyprogress of governments and society. This thinking is a key to the Enlig htenment (see Topic 5.1). EMP IRES: BELIEF SYSTEMS 173 KEYTERMSBY THEME _., GOVERNMENT: Euro pe Henry VIII Anne Boleyn Charles V Philip II Spanish Armada Peace of Augsburg Edict of Nantes Thirty Years' War Peace of Westphalia CULTURE : Prot est antism Mart in Luther 95 Theses John Calvin elect predes ti ned Puritans Protestant Reformation Ang lican Church C ULTURE: Islam shariah Sikhism CULTURE : Scie nce empiricism CULTURE: Cat holicis m indu lgences . simony Holy Synod Counter-Reformation Inquisition Jesu its Council of 1rent MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below. "Re is very valiant .and has a great liking for warfare and weapons of war , vvhicb he has constantly in his hands: vve have been eye-witnesses of this because , whenever we were with him , be was adjusting h is [swords], testing his [n1uskets], etc . .. This is the great experience , which be has obtained of warfare over so many years , that he makes it.in person and from the first bas tna_de him a fine soldier and very skilled, and his men so dexterous that they are little behind our men in Europe . He has ititroduc e:d into bis militia the use of and esteen1 for [n1usketsL in which they are very pract iced . Therefore it is that his realn1 has been so much extended on all sides .... All the above 1nentioned soldiers , who wi ll total some 100,000 , receive pay for th e who le year." Father Simon , a European Roman Catholic priest , in a report to the pope on meeting the Safa,vid Shah Abbas I, 1588 1. Which claim about Fath er Simon 's purpose for meeting Shah Abbas I is best supported by the above passag e? (A) Simon was in1pressed by the .new techno logy used by the Safavids . (B) Siniob wanted the pop e to know of the Safavids ' military power. (C) Simon hoped the pope wou ld se ll new weapons to the Safavids. (D) Simon thought the Safavids could teach Elu-opeans about how to organize a 1nilitary. 174 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 2. Which n1ost strongly contributed to the historical developn1ent reflecte d in Father Simon 's description of the Safavid military structw ·e? (A) Safavid intolerance for the Sunni population '(B) Mughal support for Sikh isn1 (C) Ottoman development of shariah (D) the Thirty Years ' War 3. This source support s the clai1n that the Safavids were simi lar to the Ottomans arid the Mughals because alJ three (A) used gu npowd er weapons (B) practiced identica l religious beliefs (C) organized empires using the same methods {D) were ahead of 1he European s in n1ilitary power SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. 1Jse the passage below to answer all parts of the qu_estion that follows. "Let no one think that this Commandment entirely forbids the arts of painting , engraving , or sculpture. The Scriptures inform us that God Himself commanded to be made unages of Cherubin1 [a category of ange l], and also the brazen serpent. The · interpretation , therefore , at which we must aiTive, is that images are prohibited ouJy inasmuch as they are used as deities to receiv e adoration , and so to injure the true worship of God .... .He [the pastor] will also inform the unlettered ... ofthe use of images , thatthey are intended to instruct in the history of the Old and New Testaments, and to reviv .e frotn tin,e to tune their tne1nory; that thus, moved by the contemplat io11 of hea .vellly thjngs, we may be the more ardently inflamed to adore and Love God Himsel f. H.e should , also , point out that the images of the Saints m·e placed in churches , not only to be bonore.d, but also that they may admonish us by their examples to itnitate their Iives and vittues. " Council ofTrent Catechism for Parish Priests, 1566 (A) Describ e ONE vvay in which the passage reflects a respons e to the Prot estant R eformation durin g the period 1450 to 1750. (B) Exp lain ONE way in which the passage refl ects how the centralizat ion of states impacte d the role of religion during the period 1450 to 1750. (C) Exp lain ONE way in which the passage reflects how the cha llenges to the Roman Catholic Church were similar to the religious challenges in the Ounp-owder Empires betw een 1450 and 1750. EMP IRES: BELIEF SYSTEMS 175 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) D esc ribe ONE way in which the Prot estant Reformatio n and the Scientifi c Revolution were si1nilar in the period 1450-1750 . (B) Exp lain ONE way in which Renais sance ideals influenced E urop ean states' polici es in the period 1450-1750. '(C) Exp lain ONE way in which Ren aissanc e ideals influ enced the Prot estant R eforma tion in the period 1450-1750 . THJNK AS A HISTOfUAN: EXPLAIN POINT OF VIEW IN A SOURCE Whil e historians try to describe th_e past fairly, their uati0n~ty, ethnicity, ge nd er, ancl other characteristics can shape their valu ~s:Jn tum , these valu es shape ho w they see the past. An "interpretation of history is-a histarian's view of why events happ ene_d and why they weresignificant. in e-achpair of stat¢me,nt1i;, wVhich :one r,:10,t"e -. r:lear(·y rr ~presents a point of view o_fthepctst that ,n ight reji:ecitlut values o_fthe11rriter? E~plain {he point oj'view qJ'the ehQicey q~t iden(ify. 1. ProtestantReformatio n ~- "Pa;risis we LIworth a Mass, " King He,!ll'.Y IV wrote in the l_6th.een.tuty, ·shedd.ihg light on n.0whe ;and <Jt4et1nonareh:.,;,ofhls ' tlme ,we:re willing.to l;,-w;gairi and.compromise, ruling willi practkali~ntb:er than th eology . b. A Roman Caih.olic monk , Martin_Lu:th◊r, presented ,a.set 0ffobjectio:ns , tilf va:Ei0 us Chw:cb prac,tices, a di::rcumen:t J,mown.as tlie 9,5,Tb:e'..se s, t0 Church leaders in Wittenber:g, 6-ennanJ , 011 October 3 1, 1517. 2. Reli_gion and Toleration a. The final great religious wa r was the Thirty Years' War ( 1618- 1648 ), wbich invQlvecltheNet4~rla11 ds , Denmark, .Sweden, Fn u1ce, and Spain. b. ' 'The hwnanis t projec t for changing the world was soon caught. up in a 'theo~0gtcaLroad-rage '' 0f grimly egmpeting religious grtho doxies. The liberatiq,n symoo:li:zedby l 5l 7"tookeffect in.14e·savage·i;'u:ppress ion oftbe ·Pe asants ' Revolt. and in the relentless oppress ion of radicals by Protestants and Catholics alik-e; culminating in the :evis~ ce ration 0£ Europe · in.the Thi11tyYears ' War.•· -:Fleur Ho~n REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIA .L QUESTION 1. In one to three paragr aphs , explain hovv different belief syste1ns end1u·ed or changed durin g the period fro1n 1450-17 50. 176 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION a.4 Comparison in Land-Based Empires Foreigners appreciate only military power. . . . Thus, they submit to us wholeheartedly and do not dare to despise China .ancB we display our hunting techniqu es to them. -Qu inlong, Emperor of China,1735 Essentia l Question: By.what metl1ods did empires increase their s.ocietal and cultural influence from c . 1450-c. 1750? ' B uilding and maintaining large land-based empires is a major theme in the period c. 1450-c. 1750. These empires grew as they incorporated lands they conquered. Their-rulers implemented policies to so lidify or legitimize their nLle over a diverse population. However, the conquered often d:id not totally assinulate to the life and culture of their conquerors. In some cases the conquered influenced the conquerors, helping to shape a blended culture. The intercol1Ilection of hemispheres also led to blended cultures. Source: \Vi.kimodfa Commons As part of its conquest of present-day Hungary , the Ottoman Empire under Sulcimaill besieged tile f.{absburg-coutrbllcd city of E.sztergmn in J 543 with the he lp of French rutillcry : The .figure at the far left is a Janissaiy . Sule i'man is on horseback.. COMPAR ISON IN LAND-BASED EMP IRES 1TT Not all empires were able to maintain their autho 1ity. For examp le, the Gunpo wder En1pires declined , unabl e t6 con1pete with European trading companies, espec ially the B1it isb, .and unable to resolve conflicts of heirs motivated by harem politics (see Topic 3.1) . Other factors in the decline included weak or corrupt leade rship and failu re to keep up with developments in military .and naval technolo gy. The expens ive armies each empi re needed to 1naintain control placed harsh financial burdens on the peasants and villages in the fotm of taxes and other obligations. Religious conflicts also divided and weakened tbe Gunpowder Empires . A deep religio us schism divided Muslims and Hindus in Mughal Indi a, ju st as a s.chism divided Sunni Ottomans and Shi' a Safavids and set the stage for conflict between the present-day count 1ies of Iraq and Iran. (Glennect: Wrjte a p~agrap h coroparing the . decline of Mµghallnili~ w:ith the deGlin~of the M0ng0l Empire. .See f@pic 2.1.) · · Military Might The armies of these land-b ased e1npires were we ll trained, well orga nized, w.e n equipp ed, and well led . Empires in Etu·asia all relied on gunp owder weapons, includ ing lar ge cannons , in support of more traditiona l cava lry and infantry units. In the Americas , the fierceness of both the Aztec and Incan warriors .allowed them to intimidate and con quer neighboring territories. Soldiers In sotne cases, the rul_ers of land-b ase d empir_es d_eveloped an elite group of soldi ers to use .in.solidifying their control over their territories. For instance , both the Ottoman sultan and Safav.id shah used slave so'ldiers to offset the power of troops who bad more loyalty to their tribe or local gove rnor than to the sultan or shah. The Janissaries .in.the Ottom an. Empire helped to preserve t he power of the Ottoman sultan and t he Ghul am.s helped to protect the Safavid shah from riva l clan s. Both the Janissruies and the Ghulams were often rec ruited fro1n minority religious or ethnic groups found with.in the empires. The Janis saries we re often slaves taken from Christi an areas of the Ottoman Empi re, whil e the Gbulan1s can1e fron1 the Georgian, Armenian , or Circassian populations within the Safavi d Empire. The system of taking slaves .as part of a "blood' ' tax (in the Ottoman Empire this was known as devshirme) or tribute was not limited to the Ottomans or Safavids. Aztecs also required slaves or prisoners as part of the tribute offered by conquered states. Wa rfare These strong militaries did not prevent conflict ·a1nong the landb ased en1pires. The Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire went to war over the teIIitorial claims each bad at its bord er. However , religio n also_playe d a.role as ·an underlying cause of this conflict. The Ottom an Empire was a predominantly Sunni Muslim state, while the Safav ids were mainly Shi'a. Eac h believed the other to pra ctice a heretical type of Isla1n .and was •;,v illin g to go to war over this split. Religion was not as import ant a factor in the conflict between the 178 WORLD HISTORY MO DERN: AP® EDITION Safavids .and tbe Mughals as it was in the Ottoman-Safavid War. Inst ead, control over resources and trade routes in present-day Afghanistan was at the core of the war between these two land-bas ed e1npires. Two Muslim powers conflicted when Morocco invaded the Songhai Empire in 1591. Moroccan f.orce·s sacke d the capita l of Gao and ended the empir_e. I-fowever , Morocco was unable to hold onto all the Songhai ten·itory. Centralized Bureaucracy Controlling a large area with such diverse populations required land-ba sed empir_es to estab lish an organized and centralized bureaucracy. Recruiting bureaucratic elites took severa l fonns . In the Ming and Manchu dynasties of China , the civil service examination system was used to assess the abilit ies of tbemembers of the scholar-gentry who wished to enter gove1nment servic e. In the Ottoman Empire , the devsh irme system provided the sultan with a readymade pool of civil servants strictly loyal to hini , v.1bil e in the Safavid En1pire, the shah would enlist a class of bw·eaucrats from the Persian population of the empire , known as "the n1en of the pen." Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires, 1450-1750 Ottoman Empire Safavid E!llpire Mughal Empir e ' • Taxes on nonMuslims • Taxation policies used to encour-age adherence to Shi'a Islam • Taxes on unbelievers were ab.ollshed by Akbar but reinstated later ''" Taxes - • Taxes on peasants • Taxes on peasants MiUtary • Warriors (often trained Janissaries) were granted villages to provide for their .subsistence • The military funct ioned .as..a dua l auth.ority witli central government • Warriors w~re the Qizilbash, Tutcoman m ilitants who helped establish the empire • Leaders made the military indepenc:lent of _centra l government • Warriors were granted villages to provic:letheir upkeep • Officials known as zamindars made the military independent of central government • Sma ll navy • No significant navy • Stro.ng navy In the Songhai Empire , the ,nansa , a Mandika word meaning ''sultan," emp loyed bureaucrats frotn the scholarly class educated in the schools, or madrasas, of Timbuktu . While the Inca s did not use a dedicated scholarly class to rule their en1pire as the Ming and Manchu s did, they did organize COMPARISON IN LAND-BASED EMPIRES 179 their empire into a federa l system of province ·s beaded by nobles loyal to the emperor. Ftuiher, these nobles oversaw a vety organized political structure that was divided on .the basis of.a decimal system . Despite its 1nany similarities to other land empires, the Aztec Etnpire was less centra lized and bureaucratic than the other land empires. The Aztec created ·a tributary empire and had little to no direct control over the territory within the region of Mesoamer ica. It kept control over this region through force , fear, and intimidation rather than tlu·ough a centralized bw·eaucracy. Sourer: Wikimcdia C9mrn1> n.s A portrayal of Aztec warriors from the Florentine Codex . written betwecu l540 and J 549. Taxation Some form of tax.ation or revenue coll_ection was necessary to support the btu-eaucracy and military of the land-based empires of this peliod . Taxation took n1any fonns in these en1pires: • Mughal zamindar tax coll ection: Mughal emperors appointed tax officers or zamindars to collect taxes fro1n the peasant class based on land and production. • Ottoman tax farming: Rath er than e1np loying go vernn1ent tax collectors, the Ottoman sultans appointed "tax farmers" to pay an annual fixed sum of money for an area to the central government and then recoup the outlay by collecting n1oney or salable goods from the residents of the <_1rea. Many Janissa1ies were paid their salaries in this .manner by collecting more 1noney than tbey paid out to the centra l government. • Azt ec tribut e lists: As the Aztecs (or Mexica) formed a tributar y empire, the main source of revenue that suppo1ted the Aztec nob le class and military came from yearly offerings or tributes from the SlUTOundingareas. The lists included whichever local product was made or valued but could also include a demand for people, many of whom became human sacrifices in Aztec religious ritua ls. 180 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION • Ming collection of "hard currency :" The M ing E1npire, like its predecessors, issued paper currency as a means to facilitate trade and tax collection; however the us e of paper 1noney led to rampant counterfeiting and hyperinflation . The Ming then ordered that all taxes sho uld be paid in the fonn of 1ice, '-1Ildlater silver coins , known as ''hard currency ." Striving for Legitimacy While the ctiversity of the populations of the land-bas ed empi res was beneficial t6 the economic and politi cal strength of the e1npires , ru ling over populations that included many ethnic ities, re ligions, and triba l ties was challenging. Therefore many rulers turned to other than political means to unite their subjects in their loyalty to the state. Rulers used reli gion, art , and n1onumenta l architecture to Legiti1nize thei r rule . Akbar attempted a syncretic approach to religion in the Mughal E1npire, but he had little success in that area . Sources of Legitimacy Religion Examples • Rulers in Islamic empires used references to the title "ca liph," or successor to the Prophet. • European monarchs clal.m to "di vine right" that gave the monarch the mandate to rule by the Christian God . • Conversion to. Islam of Songhai rulers and nob.le class p.rovides a religious and legal str ucture to the empire . • Aztec (Mexica) use human sacr ifice in religious rituals. • Portra its of' th e Qing emperors and other high officia ls Art • Miniature paint ings In the Ottoman Emp.ire • Financial support of art ists by European rulers Monumental Architecture · Mausolea, Sl!Ch as the Taj Maha l an.d m.osques in the Mugha l Empire • European palaces , such as the Palace of Versai lle.s in France and El Escoria l 1nSpain REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. Comparison Create a chart comparing the effec ts of transoceanic connections in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres . Includ e the impact on trade , on re lations with other empires , and on culntre . 2. In one to thr,ee parag r aphs , explain the methods empires used to increa se their societal and cultural influence from c. 1450 to c. 1750. COMPARISON IN LAND-BASED EMPIRES 18 1 UNIT 3 REVIEW HISTORIC~L PERSPECTIVES; WHY DID THE '.IS-LAMIC ,GUNP 0 WDER EMPIRES RISE AND 0EGLINE? _TIie term '"Gunpowder Empires>· w.aseQ_i;ned :by Mai;shall0 . S. H9_dgsonin the L970s t9 refer,to ·th_e-large tan~empires·of_89µthvvestem.an:d SouthAsi.a thatfl@urished the . pf Ls!c,111:T.heOunpt,>wdetEp1pires.and l(fode;·n fnom 1450to 1750 (The Ve'/iture Ritie~·). T.heierm is often ·us·~ to dis¢ribei4e Ottomans ; .Safavicls, anti Mughals. Trade ll ntl fhe .Rise of Empires Kenneth Pomel"cU1Z and Steven Topik , in 'their 2005 b0ok The World That Trade Created, described the empires as pan of the _growing global econ omy . These ,authors , taking econ omic and -social pers_peotiv-es, used c0ffoe -~ one ~xample. of the. intematiopaJ character 9f co nsum er goods: '' Coffee ~s r@l~in s9cia,i?iµ.lyand prestlge 4t£ru ;ope was enhanqed by toe arrival of A_ustrj4 in 16.65- tG6,6, wh~ _p0ured etni:ssa:ries of the Ottplnan sultan in France \'U)d the ~*oticJi'q1.J,otfortli_ei:11 aristocraticEuropeq.ll gt~ests duning extravagant s'Oi:rees. " Rea-sons for D eclin e Histor ians .have given varjous reasons for their declines 1 buf mostfa lLinto three -eateg6ries : ( l) ineff~et iveness ; (2) into l.erance @fminorities ; and ('.l) failure t0 modernize, One reviewer summarized historian Vladiniir Minorsky 's re~ons torthe.ciecline Qfthe ,Safiivid gmpir~ ; a. decline offheoctatic ide0logy b. 9:Rposit'ion. betw~ep old and nt~w·elemynts in the.military class c. clisfurbance in eq_uiJibriurn amon g the service classes , w hich lost interest in the cause tht:y w~re Sl!pp91iing d. the ' 'shadow gove!runent" representecl by the harem e. dege11e1'ali0n of the dynasty as a result of its fusular nature Military Weakness William McNe ill pointed out that rulers and nlilitary ~dmini str.ators did not trYto ke .ep up ~ith "s~1bsequenJ Etµ:opean innovation~ in m.llr4uy and. naval .rµatteJs~ leavin g them w9e:fu. U,y expos .ed t<_:>attack." Mc Neill .noted that the Ottomans-' guns were able to defeat their Ishµruc rivals , th¢ Safav~id~; teniained -t~cbnically and in ev~ bec&.~e •'tumil a\;011t 1600, -the Ottom an }:1.rn:ty way in the· veryJorefro.ht of military proficre1icy." Nevei;tn.eless,after tlieti.meof Suleiman, leatters did not themselves lead so ldiers iri battle ; and milinuy discipline declinedjust..as·efficiency and tee1mology, began to lag.behind WestemEU1:ope. '.foleran ce and lnt oJeranc:e Amy Ch:ua; Dczyof Empire: £i '(}W Hy.perpqwei,·s n for R4e t0 ' Gioba! Dothitui.nce--qr(a Why TheyF4ll, $\.lggested & different 11.easo the ' eve ntual failure of the ·Gunpowder Rnipires•.Her thesis was that infolerance ultimatel y becan1e.an ob.stacle i0 retaining _greatpower . She suggested that empires we re success:fµl 4ili91ding then; p9wer when. they were at their ·mostreligiqusly ,and ethni.QaUyt\,i1~ t. This:·thesis ·c,an help explain wliy the Ottoman Etnpire, with. its relative folerance , outlived the 1nore''intoletant Safavi'd andMu.~bal .Empires. ]) evelop a.n Argument: E.valuate the extent to which historical evideffce supports one of the perspectives . on th:e1:isean.d.decline of the Gunpowder BmJ;>ir es. 182 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION WRITE AS A HISTORIAN: ANALYZ~ THE QUESTIO N As you nave read, llie M't'Stage ·in.w1iting a 10,ngessay Js to carefully :rea'd and ana lyze U1equestion st) you know ·eX!aetlywhati±ie'framew.orkis for your .response. (See page 183,) ln addi:tion to surface-l evel analysis ofthe tenns of the ques1ion, you also ap2ly tbe fiis'torical thinking skill of analyzing historical devel0p1nenrs !:!ll d prqeesses for a deeper underst!1llding_ofthe guestion .. Su]?p@se,for ~xample , you cho.ose'to l!OS'-' '.erthefollowing long ·essayquestion: ''.DevelQp. arrargument t hat evaluates_the e.xtent t9 Whi~b religion CI.eatedunity or co_nfl.ict betwee.n t450 and 175.0 .in Europe and in South&'i.i .'; Bor aisurface Jev.el }:lll;:tlysi,s ~ you c6uld compiete }:1chart like the one below. Key Terms and Fram~work Key Terms Argument , evaluate, extent, role of religi_ on , unity , and conflict Framel,','.oi'k Geographic A reas: Europe and Sou.tli Asia Time Period: 1450-1750 Reasonin•g Process Comparison For a deeper analysis -of the q_uestion~ use the thinking ,skill of ana lyzing histmical deve lopmenJs and processes . Ask ql!estio.ns suc,4 as the f0Uowjn& to arrive at a de~per und~i;standing of:t:4e question. Questions for Deep er Analysis What is the role of religion in the deve lopment of unity? What is the role of religion in t he clevelo pment of conflict? How did religion deve lop unity in Europ e?How did religion deve lop con flict ih Europe? How d id religion deve lop unity in South Asia? How d id religion deve lop con flict in South Asia? What other developments between 1450 and 1750 were taki ng pJace in Europe that are relevant to the role of religion? What other c!evelopments between 1450 and 1750 were taking . place in South Asia that are relevant to the role of religion? tn the next' stage of wr iting, th~se quest ions will help you focus the ev idence yo1}~tiler to answe1~the qu~stioJL Ap plication: Suppese you 'thoese to answer the following long es~ay qu estion: "".Develop an·argumenJ $at ,~valuates the extenJ to whic h c0rrtinuity or chanRe oconrredmJ;he particip~ti0n ofChinamthe ex.pandmg gl'abal trade networks fro1n 1450 to. 1750." Comp lete a Key Terms ·arid Fram~work chart for the question to understand the basic requireµient~ of the task '.f,h_en et eat.e- a Questi/i)ns'for D eeper Analysis chart to help y@u deve lop a more-complex i.m derstan ding oftlie question. Po,·Ciurre11t/1;ee-,~pons.e question ~amp/es, r>i~i( : http.s.,/lapeentrai.<;qilegebo.ard. 01:g/CQ'u,1s·esfap-,world~bi:slo1y /~4 m UNIT 3 REVIEW 183 LONG ESSAY QUESTIONS Directions: Write essay responses to 1, 2, and EITHER 3 or 4. The suggested writing time for each essay is 40 minut~s . l. In Africa and Eurasia from 1450 to 1750, various forms of Islam and Christianity were key factors in the expansion of en1pires. Develop an argument that evaluates the extent to which the various belief systems showed continuity or change over time during the period fi·om 1450 to 1750. 2. Rulers of empires in Africa and Eurasia from 1450 to 1750 developed new n1ethods of governing to solidify their authority over their citizens. Develop an argum ent that evaluates th e extent to which changes in government caused the consolidat io n of pow er in empires in the period 1450 to 1750 . 3. New ·technology , including gunpowde r weapons , shaped empires in throughou1 southern and so uthwestern Asia from 1450 to 1750. Develop an argument that eva luate s the exte nt to which va riou s landbased empires in southern .and southwestern Asia <leve l.aped in similar ways from 1450 to 1750. 4. New technology, including gunpowder weapons , shaped em pires :in Ru ssia and China from 1450 to 1750 . Deve l.op an argum ent that evaluat es the extent to which various Landbased enipire •s in Russia and China developed :in simi lar ways fro1n 1450 to 1750. In each respons.e you should do the followi,ng: • Respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning. • Oescribe a broader historical context relevant to the prompt. • Support an argument in response to the prompt using specific and relevant examples .of evidence. • Use historical reasoning (e.g., comparison , causation , continuity or change) to frame or structure an argument that addresses the prompt. • Use evidence to corroborate, qualify, or modify an argument that addresses the prompt. Source: .-11 >• WorldHI,iw,y Course and £ram De.,criptiou. Effective Full 2019. 184 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION DOCUMENT-BA SED QUESTION Directions ; Question 1 is based on the accompanying documents. The documents have been edited for the purpose of this exercise . You are advised to spend 15 minutes planning and 45 minutes writing your answer . 1. Using the docu1nents and your knowledge of world history , evaluate the extent to which Peter the Qreat took steps during his reign (16821725) to modernize Russia and transfonn it into a major European power. In your response you should do the following: • Respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a Une of reasoning. • Oescribe a broader historical context relevant to the prompt. • Support an argument in response to the prompt using at least six documents. • Use at least one additional piece of specific historical evidence (beyond that found in the documents) relevant to an a_rgumentabout the prompt. • For at least three documents, explain how or why the document's point of view , purpose , historical situation , and/or audience is relevant to an argument. • Use evidence to corroborate, addresses the prompt. qualify , or modify an argument that Do cun1ent 1 Soui-cc: Bishop Burnet of England describing Peter the Great, 1698. He was desirous to understand our doctrine , but he did not seem disposed to mend matters in [the Russian en1pire]. He was, indeed , res.olved to encourage learning and to polish his people by sending some of tliem to ti"avel in other countries andto draw strangers to come and live among them. He seemed apprehensive still of his sister's intrigues. There was a mixture both of passion and sev.erity in his temper. He is resolute, but understands little of war, and seemed not at all inquisitive that way. Do cumeilt 2 Source: Peter I, Deeree on Compulso1y Education of the Russian Nobility. Send to every [region] some persons from mathematical schools to teach the children oftbe nobility- except those of freeholders and government clerks- n1athematics and geon1etry; as a penalty . . . no one will be allowed to marry unless he learns these [subjects]. UNIT 3 REVIEW 185 Docum ent3 Source: Peter I, Decree o.n the Invitation of Foreigners, 1702. Since otu-accession to the throne aUotu· efforts and intentions have tended to govern this realm in such a way that all of our subjects should, througli our care for the general good, beco1ne more and more prosperous. For this end we have always 1Tiedto rnaintain internal order, to defend the state against invasion, and in every possible way to improve and to extend trade. With this pw-pose we have been .compelled to make som_e necessary and salutary changes in the administration, in order that our subjects might more easily gain a knowledge of 1natters of which they were before ignorant , and become m.ore skill:ft.tlin their commercia l relations. We have therefore given otders; made dispositions, and foUllded institutions indispensable for increasing our trade with foreigners , and shaU do the same it1the future .... To attain these worthy aims, we have endeavored to improve our military forces, which are the protection of our State, so that our troops tnay consist of well-drilled men , maintained in pe1fect order and discipline. Lnorder to obtain greater improvement in this respect, and to encourage foreigners, v.rho are abl.e to assist us in this way, as well as attisans profitable to the State, to cou1e in numbers to our country, we have issue·d this manifesto. Document4 Source: Peter I, Decree on Western Dress, 170 l . Western dress shall be worn by all the boyal'.s,members of our councils and of our court ... gentry 6f Moscow, secretaries .. . provincia l gentry, gosti [merchants], government officials, streltsy, members of the gnllds pw-veyingfor our househo ld, citizens ofMosc .owofaUranks, and residents of provincial cities .. . excepting the clergy and peasant tillers oftbe soil. The upper dress shall be of trench or Saxon cut, and the lower dress . . . - waistcoat , trousers, boots , shoes, and hats- shall be of the Gem1an type. T hey shall also ride German saddles. Likewise the womenfolk of all ranks , including the priests ', deacons ', and church attendants ' wives, the wives of the dragoons , the soldiers , an_d the streltsy, and their children, shaU wear Western dresses , hats,jackets , and underwear- nnde1-vestsand petticoats - and shoes. From now on no one of the above mentioned is t0 wear Russian dress or Circassian coats, sheepskin coats, or Russian peasant coats, trousers, boofs, and shoes. It is also forbidden to .ride Russian sadd les, and the craftsmen shall not manufacture them or sell them at the marketp laces . 186 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Document 5 Source: Statute for the CoUege ofManufactures, 1723. His imp erial Majesty is diligently striving to establish and develop in the Russian Empire suchmanufactuting plants and factories as are found in other states, for . the general welfare and prosperity of his subjects. He [therefore] n1ost graciously charges the College of Manufacture s to exert itself in devising the means to introduce , with the least expense , and to spread in .the Russian Empire these and other ingenious a['.ts,and especiaUy those for which materials c,111be found within the empire .... His ln1perial Majesty gives permission to everyone , without distinction of rank or condition, to open factories wherever he may find suitable .... Factory owJ1ers must be closely supervised , in order that they have at their plants good and expe rienced [foreign] n1aster craftsn1en, who are able to tra,in Russians in such a way that these, in turn, ma,y themselves become masters, so that their pr oduce may bring glory to the Russian manufacture s. Do cument 6 Source: Jean Rousset de Missy, lif e of P eter the Great, c. 1730. The tsar labored at the retorm . of fashions , or, n1oreproperly speaking, of dress. Until that time the Russians had always worn long beards , which they cherished and pres~rved with ,nuch care, allowing them to bang down on their bosoms, without even cutting the moustache. With these long beards they wore the hair very short, except the eccles iastics, who, to distinguish then1selves, wore it very long. The tsar, in order to reform that custom , ordered that gentlemen , 111erchants , and other subjects , except priests and peasants, should each pay a tax of one hundre·d rubles a year if they wished to keep their beards ; the commoners had to pay one kopek each. Officials were stationed at the gates of the towns to collect that tax , which the Russians regarded as an enormous sin on the pari of the tsar and as a thing whichtended to the abolition of their religion. These insinuations , which can1e fron1 the priests , occasioned the publication of many pamphlets in Moscow , where for that reason alone the tsar was regar·ded as a tyrant and a pagan; and there were many old Russians who, after having their beards shaved off, saved them preciously , in order to have them placed in their coffins, fearing that they would not be allowed to enter heaven without their beards. As for the young men, they followed the new custom with the n1ore readiness as it made them appear more agreeable to the fair sex. UNIT 3 REVIEW 187 Document 7 Source: Portrait of Peter the Great. Library of Congress. 188 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION UNIT 4: Transocean·ic Interconnections from c. 1450 to c. 1750 Understand the Context The voyage by Christopher Co lumbus in 1492 that connected the Eastern and Western hemispheres !ed to the first global trad e networks. They provided the framework for histo1ical events for the following centuries. Establishment of Maritime Empires Betw een 1450 and 1750 , European states, starting with the Portuguese and Spanish, sought a transoceanic route to Asia. Europeans established trading post empires in the Indian Ocean that inadve1iently brought them into contact with the Americas. Global Exchanges Trans-Atlantic trade linked the Americas, Europe, and Africa for the first tinte. European colonists who wanted sugar and other crops to.sell in the global market developed plantations in.the Americas . Th eir desire for laborers fileled the trade inAfrican slave s. Trans'-Pacific trade flourish ed as \Vell. Silver mined in Latin America was the major commodity. Over tinte , the transfer of crops , a.niinals, and disease between the Eastern and Western hen1ispheres, known as the Cohunbian Exohange , altered lif e eve rywhere. The introduction of potatoes, corn, and tomatoes to E1u:ope led to population growth. Th e introduction of deadly pathogens , such as sma ll pox and m _easles , devastated the populations of the Americas. Change and Continuity Within the conte xt of increasing European influence, regional commerce and estab lished states in Afro-Eurasia continued to flourish . Th.e Mughal, Ottoman, and Qing Empires expanded, creating ethnically diverse states. Across the globe, peasant and art isan labor intensified as the demand for goods and food increased. These developments set the stage for the revo lution s that defined tbe period after 1750 . SP,alo completes Hernan Cortes .conquers the smallpox-weakened Aztec Empire. its conquest <>f1he lnc:a Empire. 1521 1572 i 1492 Christopher Columbus travels From Europe to the Americas. !i 1~50 ! The Dutch East India Company, a joint-stock COlrlP,MY, Is es_t.abllslied. r 1602 Ru~sian tsar Peter the . G·reat vis.Its Weste rn Europe to study its technoJogy. 16t7 1650 ~ 1526 16"00 The Mughal Empire ls established in present-day ln<lia; lasts until 1761. Tokugawa Sh<>gunate, Japan 's last feudal military governm ent, begins. UNIT 4: TRANSOCEA NIC INTERCONNECTIONS 1624 Ana Nzlnga .be.comes ruler of Ndongo _In south-central Africa FROM C. 1450 TO C. 1750 189 Topics and Learning Objectives .Topic 4.1: Technological Innovations pages 191-198 A: Explain how cross-cultural interactions resulted in the diffusion of technology and facilitate d changes in patterns of trade and travel from 1450 to 1750 . .Topic 4.2: ExpJoration: Causes and Events pages 199- 208 B: Describe the role of states in the expansion of mari time exploration from 1450to 1750. C: Explain the economic causes and effects of maritime exploration by the various European states. Topic 4.3: Colombian Exchange pages 209:....211 D: Explain the caus·es of the Columbian Exchange and its effects on the Eastern and West~m Hemispheres. Topic 4 ..4: Maritime Empires are Established pages 218-231 E: Explain the process of state building and expansion among various empires and states in the period from J450 to 1750. F : Explain the continu ities and changes in economic systems and labor syste1ns from 1450 to 1750 . G: Explain changes and continuities in systems of slavery in the period from 1450 to 1750. Topic 4.5: Maritime Empires are Maintained and Developed pages 232- 242 H: Explain bow rulers employed economic strategies to consolidate and maintain power .througboutthe periodfrom l450to 1750. I: Explain the continuit ies and changes in networks of excha nge from 1450 to 1750. J: Explain bow po.litical, economic, and cultura l facto.rs affected society from 1450 to 1.750. K: Explain the similasi ties and differences in how va rious belief sy,stems affected societies from 1450 to 1750. Topic 4.6: Internal and External Challenges to State Power pages 24.3-250 L: Explain the effects of the development of sta te power from 1450 to 1750. Topic 4.7 : Changing Social Hierarchies pages 251-260 M: Explain bow social categories , roles and practices have been maintained or have changed over time. Topic 4.8: Continuity and Change from 1450 to 1750 pages 261-264 N: Explain how e·cdnonlic developtnents frotn 1450 to 1750 affected s.ocial structures over time. 190 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 4.1 Technological Innovations The sailors, n1oreover, as they . sail over the sea, when . in cloudy. weather they can no longer profit by th,e light of the sun, or when the world is wrapped up In the darkness of the shades of night, and they are ignorant to what point of the compass their ship.'s course is directed , they touch the magnet with a needle, which (the needle) is whirled round in a circle until, when its motion ceases, ifs point looks direct to the north. -A lexander Neckham (1157.-12 17) Essential Question: How did cross -cu ltural lnteractidns spread technology and facilitate changes in trade and travel from 1450 to 1750? A1tbou.gh land -based empi:res were important during this period, various inventions allowed Eu ropeans to venture long distances on th e ocean . The magnetic compass , originally created in China for fortun e telling, helped steer a ship in the right direction , ·as described by Alexander Neckham. The astrolabe, improved by Muslim navigators in the 12th century, let sailors find out bow far north or south they were from the equator. The caravel , a sma U, three-masted sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th cenn 1ry, allowed sailors. to s_urvive stonns at sea better than earlier-designed ships. Cartography, or mapmaking, and know ledge of cun·ent and wind patte rns also improved navigation. Demographic pressures pushed Europeans into explo ration and tr-ade. As the population grew, not aU workers in Europe could find work or even food. Not all sons of the wealthy could own land because primo geniture l a"l\'S gave all of each estate to the eldest son . In the early l 7th century, religious minorities searched for a place to settle where people were tolerant of their dissent. All of these groups; as we U as those just longing for adventtu-e and glory, were eager to settle in new areas. Those who left their homelands in search of work, food, land, tolerance , and adventw·e were part of a global shift in den1ographics. Developments of Transoceanic Travel and Trade Europe was never totally -isolated from East and South Asia . The Indian Ocean trade routes had long brought silk , spices , and tea to the Mediterranean by way of the Red Sea . Islamic traders had long known of laJ1droutes from China to the cities of Baghdad and Constant inop le and from th.ere to Rome. Then , TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS 191 in the l 6th century, more and more Europeans became active in the Indian Ocean, with hopes of finding wealth and new conve1ts as their twin n1otives. Ilo wever, Europeans faced con1petition from Middle Eastern traders based in kingdoms such as Oman. For example, the Portugu ese set up forts in Oman but were repeatedly challenged by attempts to remove them. The OmaniEurop ean rivalry was one reason for Christopher Columbus's search for a new route to lndia. The voyages by Colun1bus connected p eople across the Atlanti c Ocean. European traders beca1nego-betweens linking Afro-Eurasia and the Americas . • From the Americas , they obtained sugar, tobacco, and nun . • FromAfuca, they obtained enslaved people. • From Asia, they obtained silk, spices, and rhub arb. This extensive ttade transformed Spain, Po1tugaL Great Britain, France , ·and IloUand into mariti me empir es, ones based on sea travel. Much of this tra de was carried out by men. I-fowever, in Southeast Asia , Europeans conducted most of their business with women, who traditionally handl ed markets and money-changing services in those cultures. Classical, Islamic, and Asian Technology We·stem Euro pean countr ies such as Portugal, Spain, and England were developing their naval technology. They were aware ·of traditions of sailing that went back to the classical Greeks, such as using the stars to navigate . They combined this knowledge with new ideas developed by Islan1ic and Asian sailors and scholars, which they learned about because of the crosscultural interactions resultin g from trade networks. Al-Andalus , in what is now Spain, was a place where Islamic ideas diffused into Europe. The leading European figw·e in this development was Portuguese ruler Prince Hem)' the Navigator . While he never sailed far enough out to sea to lose sight of land, he strongly supported exploration. He financed expeditions along Afiica 's Atlantic Coast and around the Cape of Good Rope. With h is backing, Portugal explored African coastal conm1unities and kingdoms before other European powers. Advances in Ideas As scho lars gathered knowledge , they improved the safety of sailing on the ocean. For example, Newton ' s discov ery of gravitatio11 increased knowledge of the tides. As a result, sailors could reliably predict when the depth of water near a shore would b e decreasing, thereby exposing dangerous rocks. As people kept increasingly accurate records on the direction and intensity of winds, sailors could sail with greater confidence. Improvements in cartography also improved navigation. An astronomical chart is any map of the stars and galaxies. Mariners relied on these n1aps to guide ships ' direction , especially before the introduction of the compass , using the ski es to help them determine their location. Ancient astronomers in Babylonia and Mesopotamia had created star cha1ts as early as the 2nd 192 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION millennium. B.C.E . C-hart s by Chinese astronom ers date back to the 5th centu ry B.C .E. Charts we re also nsed w idely by classical G-reek astrono1ners. Using telesco pes to help create astrono ·mica] charts began in 1609, and the practice was wide ly used to 1nap the stars by the end of the 17th century . Astronomers typically clivided the charts into grids to help locate specific conste llation s and astronomical obj ects . Advances in Equipment Several deve lopments in the equipm ent us ed on ships 1nade sailing safer and faster than ever. Ships moved .adroi tly, aided by a new type of rudder , another idea ilnported frotn China. Th e astrolabe , improved by Mu slimn avigators in the 12th century, allov.1ed sailors to detennin e how far north or south they were from the equator . The con1pass is tl1e prin1ary directi on-findin g device used in navigation . It works either with magnets or .a gyroscope, which is a whee l or cliskmo unt ed to spin rapidl y around an axis in various directions. Other co1npasses determine the location of the sun or a specific star. The magnetic co1npass 1 originally .invente d in China , allo wed sa ilors to steer a ship in the Tight direction . It is the oldest and most fa1uiliar. It was discovered by marin ers in both China and Europ e in the 12th centwy. This type of compass works as Eart h itself acts as an enormou s bar magnet. Earth's magnetic field is·almost parall el to the northsouth axis of the globe, which means that freely n1oving n1agnets, .such as tho se in a compass , take on the same orientation. Th e la.teen sail, or a ship sail in the shape of a trian gle, was a pivotal piece of techno logy. Used by Arab sailo rs and in the Indian Ocean, it significantl y affect e:d medieval navigation and trade. The ancient squar e sails th at preceded the la.teen allo wed sailin g only in a sing le direction and had to be used with the wind . The lateen, however , c.ould catch the wind .on either side of the ship , allow_ing it to travel in different dir ections. When used with the squar e sail, the la.teen allowed sa ilors to travel .successfu lly into large bod ies of water, including oceans; for the first time , thus expandin g trade routes . So,u·ee: Getty .Lmoges Lateen sails are still used en mode_m sailboats. TECHNOLOGICA L INNOVATIONS 193 New types of sltips also improved trade . By adjusting the ratio of lengt h to width of a ship, adding or reducing the number of masts, and using different types of sails, builders cou ld adapt ships to improve their efficiency . (C6nneet: Compare the techno logical ~dvances of the Mongols an_d Chines.e of the L2th and 13th centuries withthose in the cbarthe lew . See Topic 2J .) Three Types of Ships Ship Typical Leogt h Sails and Masts Pur;pose Primary Users Centuries of Peak Usa- Carrack 150 feet Square and lateen on 3-4 masts Trade Portuga l 14th to 17th Carave l 75 feet Lateen sails on 2 or 3 masts Long voyages at great speed Portuguese and Spanish 15th to 17th Fluyt 80 feet Square on 2 or 3 masts Trade Dutch 16th to 17th Long-Term Results The long-term resu lt of combining navigational techniques invented in Europe with those fi·om other areas of the world was .a rapid expansion of exploration and globa l trade. About the only part of the AfroE .urasia world not affected by the rapid increase in global trade was Po lynesia , .since it wasfar re1noved from trading routes . The introduction of gunpowder , another Chinese invent ion, aided Blu-opeans in their conquests abroad . Soon enough , however , sea pirates also used the new technology , particu larly the Dutch pirates known as Sea Beggars . In North Africa and in the trading cities along-Africa 's east coast , I.slam spread rapidly as a result of the grov.rth of the Abbasid En1pire, centered in_ Baghdad , and the activities of Muslim merchants. Interactions among various cultures inside and outs ide of Africa brought extens ive trade and new technology to the continent. Navigationa l techn iques continue d to spread throughout the 17th century . Russia's Tsar Peter the Great visited Weste1n E.urope in 1697 to observe nulitary and naval techno logy. His inte rest in European techno logy led him to hire technicians from German y, and elsewhere to help build Russia 's military and naval power . KEY TERM S BY THEME ECON OMICS: Europe primogeniture laws Omani-European rivalry 194 TEC HNOLOGY: Navig ation cartography astronom ical chart WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION GOVERNMENT: Europe maritime empires MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3.refer to the image belo,v. Sour ce: Muset nflllonul d~ la Morine, Paris. Fronce. Wildmcdia Commons This mode l of a carave l shows so me oftbejunovations that made ocean travel oas icr. 1. The specific technological innovatio n depicted here that jmproved deep water navigation was the (A) compass (B) upper deck oars (C) astrolabe (D) lateen sail s TECHNOLOGICA L INNOVATIONS 195 2. T he techno logica l innova tion dep icted in the above ilnage was first used in (A) the B lack Sea (B) the East Af rican coasta l city of Ki lwa (C) Constantinop le (D ) the Ind ian Ocean 3. The European monarch who made the greatest use of this new techno logy was (A) Prince Henry (B) E-IenryVITI (C) Mellined the Great (D) Pope Urban II SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passages below to answer all parts of the qu.estion that follows. "After the year 1500 there was no pepper to be had at Calicut that was not dyed red with blood. " VoJtai:re , l 756 ·'Gunpowder weapons we.renot new. The Chinese- invented g1mpowder and they made the fust true guns in the tenth century, primarily fot defensive pu1poses. The Mongols unproved these Chinese weapons into a more effective ofTellSiveforce , to bfow open city gates . By 1241, these weapons had reached Europe. Early modern E1u-opeallS,Turks , Mugha ls, and Chinese owed Lheir strength in part to improvements in gunpowder weaporuy . C01nhined with better :military organization arid seagoing capability, advaneed weaponry inevitab ly affected polittca l and socia l systen1S. As they spread throughout Eurasia and North Africa, gunpowder weapons changed waifare. Ew·opeans learned how to make particu larly deadly weapons , improving the technology in part because they had easier access to rneta ls." Craig A. Lockard , Si>cieties. Nerworlcs.-and Transitions:A Global Hislo1J1. Volume TI:Binte 1450 ( 2010) 196 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION (A) Explain ONE way in which the passage from Lockard reflects technological develop1nents that influenced socia l structures in the period 1450-1750. (B) Explain ONE way the words ofVoltaiTe reflect technological deve lopments that influenced political struch 1res in the period 1450- 1750. (C) Explain ONE historical sjt uation in the period 1450- 1750, other than the ones illustrated in the pas sages, in which states in Asia or Africa had fill impact on the development of Ew·opean states. 2. Answer all parts of the qu.estion that follows. (A) Explain ONE political 1notivatio11for developing navigational technology. (B) Expla in ONE economic motivation for understanding wind patterns . (C) Explain .ONE way -inwhich state interactions in the period .14501750 had an impact on differ ent cultures. Source: .Picrru50I$/WikimtilluComnums A French astro labe made in 1603 TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS 197 THINK AS A HiSTORIAN: IDENTli=Y ANO DESCRIBE A Hl·STORldAL . . . . CONTEXT Suppose the topic yo u have just read was the on ly ·topic yo'□ have read s0 far. What WQuld you make of it? Without a GQntext,it WQuld be Jiard to appre-ciate fully: Chanc ·es ·are, though, that you have read some topi(}s b~fore this one , so you do have . a context in which tp sfutate this in:formati0n . .To under.stane context, fust simply identity it-in this ca'Se,an era of the expansron of trad e anaemp ires. Then , to understan9 the context as fuUy as _possible, describe it. [n this ca~e, you mi-ghtdese1ibe the co.ntext as one of anibiti@USrulers eagerto stake ·out territory for both trade and political control, centralizing political states , religi0us difl erences s0 sttong that fuey. le.d to war.fare, and an interest m Ji'umanism and the natural w.orld. Finally , aniengal l the descriptors you thought of, nar:row the Gont~~t down to th~ most relevant. 'For :example, if yo.u are trying to c.0ntextualize hum-anisID; you wo.u!d focus on the confesxtofphil6sopliy;and ideas rather than thal of-expanding trad e . 0 1n tfue·e of four sentences, identify .and de.$crioe:a histori .cal c:ontext for ea.ch of the follow ing. 1. Th:e ma&netic compass 2, The introduGtion ·of gµngowder .3-. the invention o.f the printing pr-ess· 4. 'Know ledge ofm9nsoon wind~ REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTI.AL QUESTION 1. [n one to three paragraphs , exp lain how cross-cultural interactions spread technology and facilitated changes in h·ade and trav el from 1450 to 1750. 198 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 4.2 Exploration: Causes and Event.s You can never cross the ocean unless you have the courage to lose sight of the shore. -Chr istopher Columbus (1451-15 06) Esse ntia l Questio n: What were the caus·es and effects of the statespohsored expans ion of maritime exploration? Thank s in part to improved navigation techniques, Italian cities with po1ts on the Mediterranean had a 1nonopoly on European trade with Asia. By controlling access to the trade route s, the Italians controlled prices of Asian .imports to Europe, driving Spain and Portugal , and later France, England , and the Netherlands , into these.arch for ne\v routes to Asia. Explorers hoped to find riches overseas , especially gold and silver. In addition .to these econo1nic and political reasons, explorers were interested in converting others to Christianity. Also, technological breakthroughs in sailing .and navigation made bold new voyages possible. Christopher Columbus, quoted above and credited with "discovering the New World," was fo1tunate in 1492to gain the support of the Spanish monarchs, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand , for his voyages across the Atlantic. I-Iis jomneys helped increase the interest in discovery, and the English, French , and Dutch supported later exploration . The Role of States in Maritime Exploration European states were seeking ways to expand their authority and control of resources in . the era of empire-building. Conquests brought ne'vvwealth to states through the collection of taxes and through new trading opportunities. In time it .also brought great material wealth, especially in silver, to European states. Rivalries among European states stoked efforts to expand ·before another pow.er might claim a territory. Religion was also a motivating force for exploration and expansion. Many Europeans believed that it was their Christian duty to seek out people in other lands to convert them. For all these reasons, states were centrally involved in maritime exploration . Voyages such as those Columbus undertook were expensive, and without the financial support of a state , they would most likely have been too expensive EXPLORATION: CAUSES AND EVENTS 199 for exp lorers and even most merchants to be able to afford . Since religion was tightly woven into the govermnent of 1nost European states , preserving and spreading a state 's religion became another reason for state invo lvement. Also, in the 17th century , Europeans genera □y measured the wea lth of a country in how much gold and silver it had a6cun111lated.For this reason , countries set policies designed to_sell as many goods as they cou ld to other countries-in order to maximiz .e the amom1t of gold and silver coming into the country-and to buy as few as possib le from other countries-to n1inimize the flow of precious metals out of the country .·This theory, known .as mercantilism, regttired heavy govenunent invo lven1ent. Expansion of European Maritime Exploration In no nation were the interests of the state and the i1nerest of explorers as closely tied as they were in Portugal , which l.ed the way in European exp loration as it had in maritime innovations . (See Topic 2 .3.) Portugu e_sein Africa and India The s1nall kingdom of Po11ugal, bounded on the east by the Spanish kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, could expand only overseas. Three peop le led its exp loTation: • Prin ce Henry the Navi gator (1394-1460) became the first European .monarch to sponsor seafaring expeditions, to search for an all~water route to the east as well as for African go ld. Under hin1, Portugal began importing enslaved Africans by sea, replacing the overland slave trade. • Bartholom ew Diaz sail.ed around the so utheTn tip of Aftica , the Cap.e of Good Hope, in 1488, into waters his _crew did not know. D iaz feared a 1nutiny if he continued pushing eastward, so he returned l1ome. • Vasco Da Gama sailed farther east than Diaz , landing in India in 1498. There he claimed territ.01y as part of Po1tugal's empire. The Portuguese ports in Ind ia were a key step in expanding Portuga l's tTade in the Indian O cean and with points fa1ther east. Portu guese in Southeast and East Asia Ea rly in the 16th century, the ruthless Portuguese admira l Afonso de A lbuquerque won _a sbo1t but bloody batt le with Arab traders and set up a factory at Malacca in present-day Indonesia. He had previous ly se1ved as .governor of Portuguese India (1 ~0915.15), sending strings of Indians ' ears home to Portugal as evidence of his conquests. China 's exploration of the outside world came to an end -after Zheng He 's final voyage in the 1430s. (See Topic 2.3.) Ho'Wever, Jess than a century later, in 15 14, the outside world arrived on China's doorstep in the for n1 of Po1tuguese traders. At tha t time, Portugal 's superior ships _and weapons were unmatched among the Europeans . As a re·sult of this advantage , the Portuguese had ah·eady won contro l of both the African and Ind ian coasts. They had won a decisive victory over a Turkish-Egyptian-Venetian fleet at Diu , India, in 1509. 200 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Initial Portuguese visits had little impact on Chinese society. But the traders were followed by Ro1nan Catholic missionaries , ma inly Franciscans and Dominicans , who worked to gain converts an1ong the Chinese peop le. The Jesuits s.oon followed and tried to win over the Chinese court elite . Scientific and techn ical know ledge were the keys to success at the court . Jesuit missionari _es in Macau , such as Matteo Ricci (an [talian , arrived 1582) and Adam Schall von .Bell (a German, arrived 1619) , impre·ssed the Chinese with their learning. However , they fai led to win 1nany converts an1011gthe hostile scholar-gentry , who eonsidered them barbaric . Trading Post Empire To enstu-e contro l of trade , the Portuguese had consttucted a series of forts stretehing from Hormuz on the Persian Gulf (built in 1507) to Goa in vvestern India (built in 15 10) to Malacca on the Malay Peninsula (bui lt in 15 11) . The aims of tl1e fort constr uction were to establish a monopoly (comp lete cont rol over a market) over the spice trade in the area and to license all vesse ls trading between Malacca and Hormuz. The forts gave Portuga l a global trading post empire , one based on small outposts, rather than control of large territories. The Portuguese also restricted lndian Ocean trade to those who were willing to buy permits. Portugues e Vuln erability The PoTtuguese succeeded in global trade for several decades , but Portugal was a sn1all nation , lacking the workers and the ships necessary for the enforcement of a large trade empire. Many Portuguese merchants ignored their government and traded independently. Corrupt ion among govem n1ent officials also hrunpered the trading empire. By the 17th centu1y, D utch and Eng lish ri vals were chal lenging the Po1tuguese in East Asia ; including islands that are today part of Ma laysia and Indonesia. The Dutch captured Malacca and built a fort at Batavia iii Java in 1620 . From Batavia , the Dutch attempted to monopolize the spice trade. As a re·sult, the English focused on India, pushing the Portuguese out of South Asia. In the early l 6th centui:y, the Portuguese .also travelled to Japan to trade , followed by Christian missionar ies in 1549. They formed large Catholic settlements until the 1600s, when Japanese rulers outlawed Catho licism and expelled the missionaries . Spanish in the Philippin es Portuguese explo rers such as Vasco da Ga1na were the first Western Europeans to reach the Indian Ocean by sea by going ru·ound the southern tip of Africa. Spanish ships , however , becrune the first to circumnav igate the globe when the government sponsored the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan. He died on the voyage in the -Philippine Islands in 1522 , but one of the ships in his fleet n1ade it around the world , proving that the earth could be circumnavigated . Spain annexed the Philippines in 1521 when Magellai1'-s fleet arrived there . The Spanish returned in 1565 and started a long can1paign to conquer the Filipinos , who put up :fierce resistance. Manila became a Spanish commercial center in the area ; attracting Chinese merchants and others. Because of the Portugues .e and Spanish occupatjons, many Fili pinos became Christ ians. EXPLORATION: CAUSES AND EVENTS 201 The Lure of Riches Collllnbus and other European explorers sought a new route to Asia and hoped to find gold, silver, and other valuable resources. The Spanish found so little of value in their first two decades of contact that they considered stopping further exploration. The Eng lish, after sponsoring voyages in the 1490s, made little atten1pt to explore or settle for ahnost a century. However , European interest in the Americas was rekindled when the Spanish came into contact with the two major empires in the region, the Aztecs in Mesoamerica and the Incas in SouthAmerica. These empires had the gold and silver that made exploration, conquest, and settlement p1·0:fitable. In addition, Europeans soon realized that, by using enslaved Native Americans and later enslaved Africans, they could grow wealthy by raising suga1~toba<,co,and other valuable crops. Trade Across the Pacific China was a patticularly enthus.iastic consumer of this silver from the Western Hemisphere. Silver, for example, made its way from what is now Mexico across the Pacific Ocean to East Asia in heavily anned Spanish ships known as galleons that n1adestops in the Philippin es. At the trading po,st in Manila, Europeans exchanged silver for hJXury goods such as silk and spices, and even for gold bullion. Tl1e impressive Manila galleons allowed the silver trade to flourish. Indeed, the Chinese gove1ument soon began using silver as its main fonn of currency. By the early 17th centtuy, silver had beco1ne a dominant force in the global econo1nic system. Spain's Gold and Silver Imports from the Americas , 1503~1660 25 20 -+- ------------ :g ~1 5-+- ------------! a. 0 en C: .2 10 --- --------- :E 5-+- ------ 1503- 1520 1541- 1560 1521-1540 1581-16()0 1561- 1580 1601-1 620 1641-166() Period of Time Souree: EartJ , Hamlltoo·1,npo,,s or Amotlcan Gotq and Sltver int<)Spain. 1s ci~-1 6GO.",l>e -O,;nr1a(o/Joo,nal of 5'..onom/<!. 1929. 202 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Spain's rivals in Europe also explored and elaimed regions in the Americas . French, English, and Dutch explorers a □ looked for a north,vest passage- a rout e through or around North America that would lead to East Asia and the precious trade in spices and luxury goods. French Exploration In the 1500s and 1600s , the French govemn1ent sponsored expeditions in search of a northwest passage. h1 1535, for exarnp le, French exp lorer Jacques Cartier sailed fi:01n the Atlantic Ocean into the St. Lawrence River at today 's northern U.S. border. He did not find a new rout e to Asia, but he did claim part of 'vVhatis now Canada tbr Franc .e. Eve1itually, explo rers such as Cartier and Samuel de Champlain (exp lored 1609-1616 ) realized there were valuable goods and richresources avai lable in tbe Americas , so there was no need to go beyo nd t.oAsia. Lik e the Spanish, the French hoped to find gold. Instead, they .found a land rich in furs and other natw·al resources. ln 1608, they estabLished a town and trading post that they nained Quebec. French traders and priests spread across the continent. The traders searched for furs ; the pri _ests wanted to convert Native An1ericans to Christiarrity . The missionaries sometimes set up schools an1ong the indigenous peoples. In the 1680s , a French trader knowu as La Salle explored the Oreat Lakes and followed the Mississippi Ri ve r south to its. mouth at the Gulf of Mexico. Ile claimed this vast region for France. Un like the Spanish-or the English who were colonizing the East Coast of what is now the United States-the French rarely settled permanently. Instead of demanding land , they traded for the furs trapped by Native Americans . For this reason , the French bad better relations with natives than did the Spanish or English colonists and their settlements also grew .more slow ly. For exan1ple, by 1754 , the European population of New France, the French co lony in NorthAn1erica, was only 70,000. The English colonies included one nlillion Europeans . English Exploration In 1497 , the English king sent an explor er named John Cabot to America to look for a northwest passage . Cabot claime d lands from Newfoundland south to the Chesapeake Bay . The English, how eve r, did not have enough sea power to defend themsel ves aga,inst Spanish naval forces-although English pirat es called "sea dogs " s0 1netin1es attacked Spanish ships. Then in 1588, the English surprisingly defeat ed and d,estroyed all but one third of th e Spanish Armada. With that victory, En,gland declar ed its elf a major naval power and began co.mpeting for land s and resources in the Americas .. At about the same time the FTench were founding Quebec; the English were establishing a colony in a land called Virginia. ln 1607, about one hundred English colonists traveled approximately 60 miles inland from the coast, where they built a sett lement , Jamestown , on the James Riv er. Both the settlement and the river wer ,e named for the ruling English monarch, :James 1. Jam estown was England's first successfu l colony in the America s, and one of the earliest colonies in what would beco1ne the United States. The first colonies in the present-day United States were Spa.rush settlements in Florida and New Mexico. EXPLORATION: CAUSES AND EVENTS 203 Co,nparing Transoceanic Voyages, c. 1300-c. 1800 SpOl'.\ $Oring Elllp tre E~plorer Key Voyages Purpose Impact China Zheng He • ln.dia • Midd le East To open up trade networks with lhclia, Arabia, and Africa and to spread Chinese culture China decjded not to continue exploring • Africa England Johh Cabot • North America To find a sea route to the Ea.st going west from Europe Claimed land In Canada for Britain and estab lished a shorter, more northerly route across the Atlantic than Columbus's route . Portuga l Vasco da Gami'I • West coast of Africa To open a sea route from Europe to India and China Portugal expanded trade an_ d cultural exchange betwe~n India and Europe To find a sea route to India and China going west from Eur-ope Spain led the European exploration and colon ization of t he Americas To demonstrate that Europeans could reach Asia by sailing west Spain _ established links between the Americas and Asia across the PacJfic Ocean • India Spain Christopher Columbus • Caribbean islands • Central America Spain Ferdlnan·d Mage llan • South America • Philippines Dutch Exploration 1n 1609, the Dutch sent Henr y Hudson to explore the East Coast ofNorthAmeiica . Among ·other feats, he sailed up what became known as the Hudson River to see if it led to Asia. He was disappo inted in :finding no northwest passag e. He and other explorers would con tinu e to search for suc h aroute. Though it wou ld travel through a chil ly region , it offered the possibility of being only half the distance of a route that went around South An1erica. Though Hudson did not find a northwest passage , his explorations proved valuab le to the D utch . Base d on his. voyage, the Dutch claimed the Hudson River Va□ey and the island of Manhattan. Onthe tip of this island, they settled a con1munity called New Amsterdam, which today is know n as New York City. Like many po1t towns , New Amerste rdam prospe red because it was located where a major river flowed into the oc·ean . 20 4 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION New Amsterdam became an important node in the Dut ch transatlantic trade net\.vork. Dutch merchants bought furs fro1n trappers who lived and 'vvorked in the forest lands as far north as Canada . They purchased crops from lands to the south, pa1ticularly tobacco from Virginia planters. They sent these goods and others to the Netherlands in exchange for manufactured goods that they could sell throl~ghout colonia l North America (Conneet: Ex.plainhow one of the Emopean e~plorers in 4.2 ·ooinpares to MarGo Polo. See T.opic,2.5 .) KEY TERMS BY THE-ME ECONOMICS : Europe mercantllism trading post empire Manila GOVERNMENT : Portugal Prince Henry the Navigator TECHNOLOGY : Mar itime galleons GOVERNMENT: Exploration Christ opher Columbus Bartholomew Diaz Vasc.o Da Gama Ferdinand Mag!:lllan n'orthw.est passage Jacques Cartier Samuel de Chatnplairi John Cabot Henry Hudson GOVERNMENT : Colon ies Quebec New France Jamestown New Amsterdam EXPLORATION: CAUSES AND EVENTS 205 MULTIPLE -C HOICE QUESTIONS Question s 1 to 3 re fer to the pa ssage belo, v. "Whe n the Po1tuguese go from Macao, the most sout:hen1po1t city in China, to Japan , they carry much white silk , gold , pernun e, and porcelain and they bring from Japan nothing but silver. They have a great ship that goes to Japan every year, and bdngs back more than 600,000 coins' vvo1thof Japan ese silver. The Po1tuguese use this Japanese silver to their great advantage in China. The -Portuguese b1ing from China gold, perfume , silk, copper, porcelain, and many other luxury goods." Ralph Fitch , a Briti sh merchant, in. a:u account of his travels to the East Indies, l 599 1. Which conclusion about the Portuguese is best supported by the passage above? (A) They 1nanufactured luxury goods that they could sell in China. (B) They made great profits transporting goods b~twe·e n Asian countries. (C) They primarily wanted to .accumulate silver . (D) They preferred to trade with China rather thanJapa:n . 2. Which statement best describes the point of view of th~ source, Ralph Fitch? (A) He was ridiculing the Portuguese for working so hard for so little profit . (B) He was embarrassed that the Portuguese were taking advantage of the .Chinese and Japan ese . (C) He was hoping to mak e profits just as the Portugues e were doing. (D) He was criticizing tl1e Portu guese for being so focused on acquiring wealth. 3. Which statem _ent best explains why Portugal established a tra_ding post empire ? (A) It had a large navy and was able to conquer nearby lands. (B) It was a landlocked country and cou ld not expand except by sea. (C) It had only enough peop le and power to 1na:intain trading posts rather than a large empire. (D) It was ahead of other European states in developing navigational innovations. 206 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. ·use th e chart below to an swer all parts of the qu estions that follow. European Voyages in Search of a Water Route to Asia Emp.ir~ Expl9rer aQd Year Regi9n, Impact Spain Cl'lristopher Columbus, Caribqean Sea Spain took the lead in co lonizing America ·Canada England claimed Canada Brazil Portuga l strengthened its claim on Brazil St. Lawrence River France claimed Canada New York Holland founded New Amsterdam 1492 England John Cabot , 1497 Portugal Pedro Cabral , 1500 France Jacques Cartier, 1535 Holland Henry Hudson, 1609 (A) Describe ONE technolqgica l improvem ent in the period c. 1250-c . 1750 that originated outs ide of Europe that he lp ed European s in their voyages of discove ry. (B) Explain how ONE explorer liste d in the chart ·affected the e1npir e that sponsored him beyond the impact identified in the last column. (C) Explain how one explorer liste d in the cha1-taffected the indigenou s population of the A1nericas. 2. Answe.r a.Upat ts. of the qllestion that follows . (A) Desc ribe ONE political or economic difference betwee n the British and French settlements ju _the Americas in the period C. 1250-c . 1150. (B) Describe ONE social or economic similarity bet\.veen the Spanish and French sett len1ents in the An1ericas in the per iod c. 1250-c . 1750. (C) Describ e ONE political or econonuc differen ce between the Dutch and French settlements in the An1eri cas in the period C. 1250-c . 1750. EXPLORATION: CAUSES AND EVENTS 207 THINK_AS~ HtSTORIAN ; M:AKE CONNECTIONS BY RELATIN~ HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS .Historians -of exp loration 1night we'll.focus a specialized study on the searcl1 for a northwest p~sa.g~n the det ails of eacm effort to find one and the o:utcome 0£ the exp loration. In a:similar Way, e¢o.riornic histoiians mi ght well focus a specialized study on the expansion of trade netwotks a.s a. gl0bal ecorro;my began to develop. HQw.ever, to appreeiate the intercotui.e'Otio.lis of hist0rical deve i:opments, Jiistorialis would relat e th~ ~~ploratory and the econom ic developm~nts , loo.king -for ways in which d.eve;h>pment~ in one field. of ~tudy ;iinfluence,d developments in the other field ~For ex-a1np le, the esx p.lorers fa:iled in their 1niss ion to find a northwest passage , but they .found instea.clthat there were g909s to made on the-land the.y traveled through . and, they explored.new territories .that proved rich with trading possibilities . These findings, in tum , led to the desir e -tormore exploratiop that .would lead to new: participant s in the global-trad e network, i n a sentence or t;i,yo,relate each 0/tli-ejolloivilig econo.rnic. deve.lopf'nent,s -to· dno.tluir hi,lto ri ca l developm:enlin,.a d{fferentfield o,[ ,s,tudy,such as ,niljta,y hz,sto,y or o"QCialhisto,y. ' 1. M ef'cant ilism 2. Ir.acting post empire 3. Increased tax revenue REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIA .L QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs, explain the causes ·and effec ts of the state sponsored expansion of 1naritin1e ex ploration. 208 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Columbian Exchange We are crushed to the ground ; we lie In ruins. There is nothing but grief and suffering in Mexico and Tlatelolco, where once we saw beauty and valor. -from "Flowers and Songs of Sonu w;" anor;iymous Aztec poet , (c. 152 1- 1540) Essential Questi.on: What were the causes of the Columbian Exchange and its effects on the. Eastern _ and Western Hem ispheres ? Asthe excerpt from the poem above suggests, initial contact and the subsequent conquest .and colonization of the Americas proved disastrous for the native peoples. Overpowered by superior weapons and decimated by disease, many native populations declined , dissipated , or were forced to submit to new 1ulers and a new religion. Although Ernopean couq11estserious ly da1naged entire native societies and their \vays of life, eventually new ways of life developed out of the interaction of three broad traditions of culture: indigenous American , European, and African. In the process , the Easten1 and Weste1n Hen1ispheres became linked in a new \1/ay, shruing disease, foods, and anhna.ls. For the role Christopher Colwnbu s played in establishing the link , these interactions became known as the Columbian Exchange. The Columbian Exchange had far-reaching effects beyond dramatic changes in population and biodiversity. It also contributed to a changing global eeonomy, sometimes \VLthunintended consequences . For example , Spain successfully mined silver in the Americas. Ho'Wever, this silver sparked inflation in Spain, which co1itributed to the downfall of the Spanish Empire . Diseases and Population Catastrophe Until the arrival of Columbus , the peoples of the Western and Eastern Henuspheres had been almost co111 pletely isolated from each other. For that reason, the indigenous people of the Americas had no exposure- .and therefore no immttnity-to the germs and diseases brought by Europeans. Although European horses, gunpowder , and meta l weapons helped conquer indigenous Americans , disease was re·sponsible for the majority of deaths . COLUMBIAN EXCHAN(,3E 209 Spanish soldiers, called conqui stadores, s:ucb as Fi"ancisco Pizai.To and Heman Cortes, brought smallpox with the1n . Sn1a1Jpoxpathogens are spread through the respiratory system . When Europeans, who were large ly immune ·after mil lennia of exposure in Afro-Eurasia, had face-to-face contact with indigenous populations , they infected these populations with the dead ly disease. As colonists began to settle in the Amer icas, so did insects, rats, and other disease-carrying animals. Meas les, influenza, and malaria, in addition to smallpox , also killed many n_ative peoples of the Americas . The indigenous population of the A1nericas fell by more than 50 p.ercent through disease alone in less than a eentury. Some American land_s lost up to 90 percent of their original populations . rt was one of the greatest popu lation disasters in hwnan history. Source: W,kimcdin Commons Deadly diseases such as smallpox that came from E urope spread rapid ly in the Americas. Animals and Foods Germ and diseas_e transmissions were only one part of tbe Columbian Exchange. Another major component of the excl1ange was the sharing of new crops and Livestock in both directions. Before the exchange began around 1500 , Mesoamer ican peoples cons umed very little meat. Although contemporary Mexican food sold in the United States is reliant on pork , beef , and cheese, the indigenous people of Mexico knew nothing of pigs or cows until Europe.ans introduced them . These anin1als, along with -Mediterranean foods su.ch as wheat and grapes , were introduced to the Western Hemisphe re and evennuilly became staples of theAmelican diet. Another domesticated anirnal the E uropeans brought to the Ameticas, the horse , transfonned the culture of the Ame rican Indians living in the Plains region. With the artiva l of the horse , Indians could hunt buffalo on horseback so efficiently-and over a.larger region-that they had a surplus of food . That 210 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION efficiency gave the1n more time for other pursu its, sueh .as art and spirituality . However, competition ·and even armed conflict among tribes increased, with thos e having the most horses having the n1ost powe r. At the same time, European explorers took back Mesoa.merican maize (corn) , potatoes, tomatoes, beans, peppers , and cacao to their home countries, where peop le started to grow them. Potatoes became so popular in Europe that they are often thought of as being native to certain regions, such as Ireland. The introduction of these vegetab le crops caused tren1endous popu lation growth in Europe in the 16th and 17th centuries . Cash Crops and Forced Labor People theinselves also beca1ne part of the exchange. The coerced arriva l of enslaved Africans to the Americas brought biological and de1no_graphic changes. For example, Africans brought okra and rice with them to the Americas. Tobacco and cacao produc ed on Ame rican plan tations with forced labor were sold to consumers in Europe, Africa, .and the Middle East. Even though slave traders kidnapped millions of Africans from their homelands, populations actual ly grew in Africa during the 16th and 17th centuries. That population growth happened because of the nutritious foods that were introduced to the continent. Ya1ns and 1nanioc, for example, were bi-ought to Africa from Brazil. The Lure of Sugar While Spain and Spanish America profited .fro1n silver, the Portuguese en1pire focused its endeavors on agriculture. Brazil, the center of the Portuguese-Ameiican empire, with its tropical climate and vast tracts of land, was perfect for sugarcane cultivation. As disease had decima ted the indigenous population , however, there were not enough laborers available to do the cultivation. M_oreover, n1any of the people who were forced to labor in the st1gar fields escaped to the uncharted Brazilian jung le. In response , the Portugu ese began to import enslaved peop le from Africa, especially from the Kongo Kingdom and cities on the Swahili coast. Slavery Sugar's profitability inEuropeanmarkets dramatically increased the number of Africans captured ·and sold through the transatlantic slave trade. Sugar cultivation in Brazil den1anded tl1econstant importation of African labor. Afiican laborers were so numerous in Brazil that their descendants became the majority population of the region. Slave i1nporters sent more than 90 percent of slaves to the Caribbean and South America. Only about 6 percent of slaves went to British North America. Until the mid-1800s , more Africans than Europeans went to the An1ericas. Slaves often died from backbreaking working conditions, poor nutrition , lack of adequate shelter, and tropical heat and the diseases that accompanied such heat . Sugar plantat ions processed so niuch Sl~garthat they were referred to as engenhos , which means "engines" in Po1tuguese. Because ofthe engenhos' horrib le working conditions , plantation owners lost from 5 to 10 percent of their labor force per year. Slavery is discussed in more detail in the Topic 4.4 . COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE 211 Growing Cash Crops The Spanish noticed Portugal 's success \Vith plantation agricul ture and .returned to the Caribbean to pursue cash crop cultivation , such as sugar and tobacco . Cash crops are grown for sale rather than subsistence. Soon, sugar eclipsed silver .as the main moneymaker for the European empires. (Co.nnect: Write a para~~hcom_par:ing the e-c0n0mie practices of Spain in the Americas and Pbrta,gal in Sonth i. Southwest I and Soufueast&ia , .$ee .Topie 4.2.) African Presence in the Americas Afr ican cultures were not comp letely lost once capti ves ruTrved in the Americas . In fact , dtu-ing the Afr ican Dia spora (dispersion of Africans out of Africa) , enslaved Africans retained some aspects of their cultures. Langua ges With a few exceptions, Africans were not able to transplant their languages to the Americas . The captives were forced away from their collllnunities , and they soon found themsel ves on ships among captives from all across West Africa (and, on so1ne slave ships, from across East Africa as well). Since captives v,1ere taken frommyriadAfrican cultural groups, most did not share a common language . Understandably, th ey found it difficult, if not imposs ible , to comn111nicateen route. Because of their linguistic isolation .on the ships and in the Americas, most Afi-icans lost their languages after a generation. In spite of this forced iso lation from their cultures, West Africans tnanaged to combine European co lonizers ' languages (English , Spanish, French , or Portuguese , for example) with. parts of their West African languages and grarnn1atical patterns to create new languages known broadly as creole. Because the Caribbean islands had a larger concentration of enslaved Afr icans than did North Alnerica , creole languages dominate there even today. 1n the United States, which had a smaller percentage of Africans in comparison to the total popula tion, few exatnp les of creole languages exist . One notable exception is the Gullah or Geechee language of coastal Sou·th Carolina and Georgia , in place ·s where slaves once composed 75 percent of the population. M usic Africans broughrtheirmusicwiththem . Th.e syncopat ed.rhythms and percussion they used influenced later styles. These include gospel , blues , jazz, rock and i-oll, hip-hop , rap, samba, i-eggae, and country music. One reason many African descendants maintained their musical trad itions was because enslaved Africans in An1erica used them as a means of surv ival , singing tunes from home to help them endure long wolkdays as well as to communicat e with other slaves , such as when phinnine an escape. They blended European Christian music with ·their own religious songs, known today as Negro spirituals-essential elements of American folk n1usic history. Ens laved people also invented the banjo , which is very similar to stringed ins_tru:ments found in WestA:frica . 2 12 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION F ood In addition to dee an d okra, Africans brought their knowledge of the southe rn how to prepare these.foods. Th e dish known as gumbo . popular u1 United States, has roots in African cooking. With influences on lan guage, music , food, and much more , African culture has had a p1:ofound and lasting impact on life in the Ameiicas. Columbian Exchange: Eastern Hemisphere to Western Hemisphere Typ~ otEx2hang~ ~mples Effects.on the \fiestern H~mi$pb~re Crops · Sugar • Wheat • Deforestati.on to make way for sugar, wheat , barley, okr~, rice , and other crops • Barley • Okra • Soil depletion from growing the same crops repeatedly on the same land • Rice • Oranges • Grapes • Lettuce • Coffee Animals · Horses • Oxen · Pigs • Cattle • Sheep • Overgrazing by .cattle, sheep, ahd goats • Soil erosion because of overgrazing • Spread of diseases from mos.quitoes , rats, ancl livestock • Goats • ·Mosquitoes • Rats • Chickens People · Europeans • Racial diversity · Africans • Chattel slavery • Socia l structures based on race an.cl ethnicity Diseases • Smallpox • Spread of disease • Measles • Millions of deaths among Native American popu lations • Typhus • Bubohic plague • Influenza Technology and Ideas • Alphab etie writ ing • Firearms • Improv ed qommunlcation • New methods for hunting and warfare COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE 213 Columbian Exchange: Western Hem isphere to Eastern He,nisphere Type .of Exc hange Exa111ples Effects on the Eastern Hemi sphere Crops • Potatoes • Better nutrition • Maize • Increase in population • Manioc • Tobac·co • ·Greater wealth ' • Cacao • Peanuts Animals • Turkeys • Llamas • More diverse diet • New types of textiles • Alpacas • Guinea pigs Diseases • Syphilis • Increased health risks People • Native Americ.ans • Ethnic diversity Techno logy and Ideas • Rubber • Quinine • Rubber was first used as an er.aser • Quinine provided a treatment for malar fa Environmental and Demographic Impact Contact between Afro-Elirasia .and the Americas brought dran1att.c changes to both. Most changes resulted f rom the Columbian Exchange. In addition , though , Europeans ttsed agricu ltural land more intensively than did American Indians. For examp le, colonists cut down trees to clear areas for planting crops, and they created large fields that they cultivated year after year. As a result , deforestation and soil depletion became problems in the Americas. In addition , Europ eans of1en lived in more densely populated comm.unities than did Atner ican Indians. This increased the strain on water resources and created more concentrated areas of pollution . KEY TERMS BY THEME ENVIRONMENT: Disease smallpox ENVIRONMENT : Animals horse GOVERNMENT: Empire conquistadores 214 ENVIRONMENT : Foods maize cacao okra rice sugarcane CULTURE: A frican Qreole gumbo WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION ECONOMY : Exchanges Col.umb ian Exchange transatlantic slave trad ·e engenhos cash crop SOCIETY: Populat ion African Diaspora MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 ref er to the passage below. "And so at the rumor of the rich deposits of mercury . .. in the years l 570 and 1571, they sta1ted the construction of the townofI -Iuancavelica de Oropesa in a pleasant val ley at the foot of the range. It contains 400 Spanish residents , as well as many te1nporaiy shops of dealers in merchandise and groceries , heads of trading house ·s , and transients , for the town has a lively commerce . ... Up on the 1·ange there are 3,000 or 4,000 [ndians working in the mine .... The ore was very 1jch black flint ... and when they have filled their little sacks, the poor fellows ; loaded down with ore , cli1nb up those ladders or rigging , so1ne like mas.ts. and othe rs like cables, and so trying and distressing that .a man empty-handed can hardly get up them .., Antoni o Vazquez de Espinosa , Comp endium a nd J)escription of the r-V esl Indie s_,J622 1. The exeerpt implies that Espinosa felt (A) sympathy for those working in the mine (B) loyal to the Spanish government (C) eoncerned for the souls . of the indigenous population (D) interested primarily in making profits from the mine 2. The system for using [ndian labor described in the passage \Vas most similar to the systen1 of lab or used (A) on indentured servants in tl1e Brit ish North American colonies (B) in the bureaucracy in Tang China (C) in early capitalism in Western Europe (D) by n1erchants in the tsans-Saharan salt trade 3. What impact djd the products of mines described in the passage, along with n1etals ext racte-ct•from other mines, have on Spain and the rest of the w.0rld? (A) It enab led the Spanish navy to defeat the English navy in 1588. (B) It resulted in inflation and a worldw ide devaluation of silver. (C) It cause d gold to_beco1ne the new form of worldwide currency. (D) It a llowed many South Americans to move to Eui-ope. COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE 215 SHORT-ANSWER QUEST IONS 1. U se the passages belo,v to answer all parts of the question that follows. "On I.he evening of October 11, 1492..... The two worlds [Old and New world], which God bad cast asunder, were reunited, and the two worlds, which were so ve 1y different, began on that day to become alike. That trend toward biological homogeneity is one of the most importan t aspects of the history of life on this planet since rhe retreat of the continental glaciers." Alfred W. Crosby Jr., The Colombian Exc hang e: Biolo gical and Cultural Con.sequences of 1492 ( 1972) "Maize was the most important grain of the American Indians in 1491 , and it is one of the most important grain sou1·cesin the world right now. It is a standard crop of people not only throughout the Americas , but also southern Europe. lt is a staple for the Chinese. ft is a staple in .lndonesia, throllghout large areas of Africa. lf suddenly American.Indian crops would not grow in aU of the world, it would be an ecological tragedy. It would be the slaughter of a very .largeportion of the hwnan race." Alfred vV. Crosby Jr., Sinithsonian.com , October 4, 20 11 (A) Describe Crosby's argument about the interactions that occurr ed betw een the Americas and Europe /Africa in the period c. 1450-c . 1750. (B) Explain ONE way in which the biological impact referred to in the passage differed from other en<,ounters betv.1een the Americas and Europe /Afri ca in the period c. 1450-c . 1750. (C) Explain ONE histor ical situation in the per iod 1450-1750 , other than the one ill ustrated in the passage , in which states exper ienced environmental impact. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Expla,in ONE way in which dis ease transformed the Americas, Af rica 1 and Europe in thepeliod c. 1450-c. 1750. (B) Explain ONE way in which commodit ies affected economies in the Americas , Africa , and Europe in the period c. 1450-c . 1750. (C) Explain ONE way in which Eu ropean practices affected the environment in the Ame ricas in the period e. 1450-c. 1750. 216 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION TI-IINKAS A HISTORIAN : IDENJIF¥ EVIDENCE IN AN ARGUMENT Histqrian s develop arguments to explain and interpr et the past. They ctevel0p ·claims-statements that express the a:ssertions they makeand tbey. stip,p.orttheir claims with evidence. Rerectd the second p-ctssuge.))yA-·lfr~/J' . W:Crosby J,: in q1,,1e.s1.i0n 1 o,r.i the prev.i<)uspage. Then an!.''fver tli,ese que-stibns. .1. What claim(s) c;i0esCrosby. make in this passag l'? 2. l d.entify five pieces of evidence Crosby use s to back up his G. laims ' .' REFLECT ON THE TOPI C ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , explain the causes of th~ Columbian Exchang e and its effects on the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. Sour~e: Gc11 y l.mngc$ Maiz;eis one of the most impo11a11t .grain .sources 1n th~ world today. COLUMBIAN EXCHANGE 217 4.4 Maritime Empires Link Regions You grow your peanuts And plenty n1illet The king sets a hand on everything And says it is not yours anymore! In the deepest of your sleep Th.e king beats his drum And says wake up! You are not free anymore -A nonymou s West African griot (storyte ller:) so ng Essential Question: How were the empires of European states established between 145(}to 1750 , and what economic and labor systen1s fueled thern? European nations, driven largely by political , religious, and econo1nic rivalries , established new maritime empires and administered trading :posts in Asia and Africa and colonies in the Americas.Asian trade frequently exchanged silver and gold for luxury .goods such as silk and spices, while newly developed colonial ec.onomies in the Americas often depended on agr iculttu-e. American plantations relied on existing labor systems and also introduced new labor systems . Among these were indentured servitude , arrangements through . which servants contracted to work for a specified period of years in exchange for passage. Another was chattel slavery , a syste1n in which individuals were considered as property to be bought and sold. The appalling shock of free people ·being seized and enslaved is captured in the griot (storyteller) song of the West African Wolof people. The growth of the plantaiion economy increased the demand for slaves in the Americas, leading tosignificant de1nographic, socia l, and cultural changes. State-Building and Empire Expansion The explorations of European states (see Topic 4.2) were the foundation of 1naritime empires. States claimed lands and established the basis of an empire in the areas they explored. 2 18 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Trading Posts in Africa and Asia Certain .regions of East and W est Africa were the targets of European conquest durin g the late 15th cenniry. P ortuguese ruler Pri nce Henry the Na vigator was keenly interested in navigationa l technology. (See Topic 4 .2.) He .financed expeditions along Africa 's Atlantic Coast and aroun d the Cape of Good Hope, explor ing African coastal comniunities before other Europ ean powers. With the cooperation of local ru lers, first Portuguese and then other European traders set up trading posts along Africa 's coasts . So1ne loca l rulers tra_d ed slaves to the Europeans in exchange for gunpowde r and caimons , giving those coastal governments a militru.y advantage when battlin g neighboring villages. Son1e Afticau city-states grew wealthy by selling enslaved Afri cans to Europ eans . In particular, the Kingdon1 of Dah omey grew stronge r because it r aided other villages to enslave peop le, and sold them to Europeanme rcl1ants. Af rican St ates Io central West Africa, Po1tuguese explorers, traders; and missionaries made inroads into the Kongo and Benin kingdoms . Attwork from these societies bears signs of Europ ean as well as African cultural influences. As ear ly _as the 16th century, Benin artisans incorpora ted images of the European "intrud er" into their carvings and sculptur es. Yet the expans ion of n1aritime tra_ding networks suppo rted the gro\vth of som_e African states, including the Asant e Empi re and the King dom of the Kongo. Their participation in trade led to an increase in their influence. In 1498, Po 1tuguese exp lorer Vasco da O:ama (see To_pic 4.1 ) invaded the Swahili city-states of East Africa , most of vvhich were thriv ing co 1nmercia1 centers in the Indian Ocea n trade. The Portugu ese took over trad e in Kilwa, Mombasa, and .oilier city-sta tes by sen ding heavily armed ships and buildin g fortresses. This takeover threw the reg ion into a devastat ing decline. Japan Just as Europe an states were expandin g tlieir trade networks, Japan was sharpl y restricting its networks. Japan had tolerated the first Po1tuguese and Dutch traders and nlissio nai·ies in the mid- 16th century. Thousands of Japanese conve1ted to Christiat1ity. Some Christians , intolerant of other faiths, destroye d Buddhi st shri nes. In response , in 1587, the Japanese gove nun ent bann ed Christian wors hip serv ices. Over the next 40 years, Japan took additional steps to persecute Christians and limit foreign influences. By the 1630s, the gove rmn ent had expe lled nearly all foreigners , banned n1ost foreign books, and prohib ited Japan ese people fron1 traveling abroad. For n1ore than two centuries , Japan was partially iso lated from the rest of the wo rld . They allowed some Dut ch merchants to live on a sma ll island in Nagasaki hai·bor, in almost total sec lusio11.In addition, Japan continue d some trade with the Chinese , mostly carried out by reg ional lords who were far fron1 the capital city with easy access by sea to Korea, Taiwan, and Okina wa. The Japanese thought that they were throug h with the ''uncoutli" Europeans . Ifowever , Europeans and Am ericans would return in the mid -19th century. China After th e voyages of Zheng He .in the 15th centu1y, the Min g Dynasty tried to limit outside influence on China by restricting trade. The MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 219 Ming prohibited private foreign trade, destroyed some dockyards , limited the size of ships that could be built, and began reconstiucting the Great Wall. These changes were part of a broader pattern of conservatism under the Ming to undo the influence of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty that ruled China before th.em. For examp le, the Ming reemphasized the importance of Confucianisin and reinvigorated the traditional exam system . Many of the limits on tra_de \.Vereeventually reversed, and China resumed its important role in global trade. Europea-n Rivalries on Five Continents European1ivalries fueled by political, economic, and religious motives shaped the expansion of empires. Several powers established trading posts in India: • The British East India Company had begun a commercial re lationship -.viththe Mughal Empire in the 17th century . • Portugal controlled a coasta l trading post in the southwestern s.tate of Goa . • France controlled Ponclicherry, a city in the southeastern state of Tamil Nadu. During the mid-1_8th century, France and Great Britain, along with ·their respective allies, competed for po\.ver on five continents in the Seven Years ' War. Brita in 's victory in that war in 1763 drove the French out of India . The Po1tuguese ren1ained in India unt il driven out in tbe mid-20th century . British in India At first, British trading posts in India were typical of those established by Europeans in India and elsewhere. The East [ndia Company (EIC) established small forts on the coasts that focused solely on making a profit tlu·ough ti-ade. Liinited by the power of India's Mughal Empfre, tl1eEiC posts controlled very Littlete1Titory. However , the E iC th.en began to expand. It took advantage of the tensions between Muslims and Hindus in lnclia and began to increase its political po\ver through . treaties \.Vithlocal 1ulers . With the he lp of European-trained Indian private forces called sepoys , the East India Co1npany 1noved inland , spreading its. influence. Ultimately , Britain intervened in India politically .and militarily to such an extent that it controlled much of the subcontinent . The British Global Nehv ork The British -also set up trailing posts in West Africa, vvl1erethe Asante Empire limited their impact. T1·adingposts inAfrica, India, and elsewhere paved the way for globalization. Each post became a node, an intersection of multiple points serving as a trade center for goods from many pm1s of the world. Europeans in the Americas Before tbe a1Tivalof Europeans in tbe late 15th century, the Az tec Empir e in Mexico and the Inca Empir e in South Ametica each included 10 million to 15 million people. However, the spread of European cliseasescaused theirpopulations to pltunmet. Both e1npires collapsed quickly when attacked by Spanish forces. 22 0 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION In Mexico , helped by groups that the Aztecs had conquered, Cortes's forces overthre"v the Aztec by 1521 and established the colony of New Spain. Tl1e Spaniards n1elted down the Aztecs ' treasures and sent the gold back hon1e. They destroyed Tenochtitlan .and built their own capital, Mexico City, .on its ruins. In the Andes of South America , Francisco Pizarro and his crew attack ed the Inca and captured 'their ruler, Atahualp~. Piza1To offered to re lease Atahualpa if the Inca would fill a large room with go ld. Th.e Inca compli ed. How ever, in 1533 the Spanish killed Atahualpa anyway. By 1572, the Spaniards had compl eted their conquest of the [nca Empire . Spain Versus Portugal In the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, Spain and Portu gal divid ed the Am ericas between them. Spain res erved all lands to the west of a 1neridian that wentthrough eastem SoutbAm erica. 'Portugal reserved all lands east of this line. This arrangement put Brazil under Portugal's rule , while Spain claimed the rest of the Americas. Spanish and Portuguese Colonies , c. 1600 A TLANT J C OCEAN Carihlt£,r Sta .dZ l,1 11 ~ I' -1 PA CTFIC ✓ OCE .-1N . 0.,,, W/ II ' I (i J• Lim I SOUTH AME-Rf~ p fusi Ds • I I pain Portugal o ,---, O 500 MIios . · 50;1> Kllo,ru!: ters MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 22 1 In addition to establishing colonies in Mesoamerica and South A1nerica, Spain explored other :pa1ts ofNorthAmerica north of present-day Mexico. The explorer Pedro M.enendez de Aviles established a fort in St. Augustine on the east coast of Florida in 1565, which becan1e the oldest continuous settlen1ent in what later becarnethe United States. Spain would not be able to cont rol all of North America , however, because the French, British , and Dutch later 1nade claims and settlements there. France Versus Brit .aio France and Britain continued to vie for dominance in North America. As British sett lers n1oved into former Dutch tenitory in upper Ne'vvYork, they began to forn1 ties with the powerful Iroqt tois, who had been in conflict with the French over h·ade issues for decades. The British hoped that the lr oquois could frustrate French trade interests ; Over time , the Iroquois began to realize that the B1itish posed more of a threat than the French. In a shift of alliances , the Iroquois and French signed a peace treaty known as the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701. In the s~e war in which Britain dJove France out of India, the British drove France out of Canada as we ll. The No11h American portion of this war is sometimes cal led the French and Indian War. French, English, and Dutch Colonies , c. 1650 HUDSON 'S BA¥ COMPkV\" {ENGL,tND J □ New Fralic& rr.::-1 Dutch l...2:..J c.olanlas □ Now Spain Brilish colonies 0- 500 Mlles 0 500 Kllomotors C u{[ •f ~itxf,o Continuity and Change in Economic Systems Although the intensification of trade and the increasing influence of Europeans brought some disruption to the Indian Oceat1 trading networkc:;, on the \Vhole, the system absorbed the changes and continued its familiar ways of doing business. Merchants in the fndi an Ocean networks were used to paying ta~es and fees to states controlling sea lan es and ports and operated often tlu·ough 222 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION religious and ethnic ties. They did not use arms to protect their trade, and if the fees in one trading center becaine too high, they were free to move elsewhere . Europeans in the Indian Ocean Trade The Portuguese , however , arrived with superior naval forces, religio us zeal , ·and a determination to profit fron1 the increasingly diverse products being traded, both from Asia to Europe and al.so within Asia. 1n addition to porcelain and silk from China, cloth from Gujarati weavers in weste 1n India , agricultural goods from Java , and spice·s from tnany places created an abundant market for tra_de and profit. In contrast to the ethnic and religious trading ties developed over hundre:ds of years, the Portuguese used their military superio rity to take control of trade , creating a string of armed trading posts along the trade routes of the Indian Ocean. In 1509, for example, the Portuguese had a decisjve victory in the Battle of D iu in the Arabian Sea over the combined forces of Gujaratis, the Mantluks of Egypt ~ and the Zamorin of Calicut w ith the support of Venice, Portuga l's Ew·opean co1npeti tor. Despite the differences between the traditional trading networks and those contro ll ed by European powers, merchants in the Indian Ocean trade netvvoti<s continue d as before in many ways-paying for the right to use c.ertain ports or passageways and deve loping trade links through traditional networks. Spain and Gold in the Ame ricas The Weste1n Ernopean search for pro:fit began \vith Columbus. On his first voyage , he was convinced that gold was. plentiful on Hispiiniola , the name he gave the island now occupied by Haiti and the Dominican Republic. But gold was spa rse in the Caribbean. Desiring to return home with something valuable, Columbus and bis crew kidnapped Ta:iuos, indigenous peop les, ·and took them, ens laved , to Spain. In the early 1~00s, the Spanish established a system calle d the encomienda to gain .access to go.id and other resources of the Americas. Encomenderos , or landowners , co.mpelled indigenous people to work for thein in exchange for food and she lter., as lando\vners required of serfs inEurope ' s manorial system . This coercive labor system was notorious for its brutality and harsh living conditions. The Spa,nish crown often granted land to conquistadores as a reward for their efforts . The hacienda system arose when landowne rs developed agric ulture on their lands-wheat, fruit, vegetables, and sugar. They used coerced .labor to work the fields. Silver While gold did not yield ric hes for Span ish conquistado res, the discovery of silver in .Mexico and Pen1 revived econo 1nic fortunes-for both indivi dual exp lorers and Spai n. The w;e of mercury to separate silver fron1 its ore increased the profitability of silve r mining . By the end of the 16th century, the cities of Zacatecas , in Mexico, and especially Potosi, in the Andes Mountains in mod ern-day Peru, becan1e thiiving centers of silve r mining. For this indu stry to flourish, Spanish prospectors needed Labor. The indigenous populations wou ld do all but the most dangerous work in the mines. In respons .e, Spanish authorities in Peru transfo1med the traditional MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 223 Incan mit 'a system of labor obligation, in which young men were required to devote a certain amount of labor to public works projects, into a coerced labor system . Villages were compelled to.send a percentage of their 1nale population to do the dangero us work in the1nines for a paltry wage. Silver and Mercantilism The silver trade not only made individual Spanish prospect.ors wealthy, it also strengthened the Spanish economy. European powers at the time were adopting mercantilism, an econonuc system that increased government control of the economy through high tariffs and the establishment of colonies, claimed lands settled by i1nmigrants fr.01n the home count1y.In the case of Spain, the main purpose of the colonies in the Americas \.v.asto supply as much gold and silver as possib le. Another way to increase national wealth, according to the mercantilist system , was. for a colonizing country to export more than it imported. A percentage of overseas silver productio11went directly to the Spanish crown. The en1pireused tlus wealth to build up the mi Litary and establish foreign trade. Continuity and Change in Labor Systems Different regions and different economies used different labor systems. Types of Labor in the Early Modern Period Laborer Location Type of Work Freedoms/ Limits -- Slave • Americas • Domesticlabor • Considered property • Africa • Agricultura l labor • Had few or no rights • Europe • Subs.istence farming • Attached to the land: not free to move at will • Most of t he yield belonged to the lord • Had litt.le or no legal protect ion • Domesticlabor Serf • Asia Indentured Servant • All regions · Fieldwork • Employer paid for transport to a new location • Individual worked without pay for up to seven years Free Peasant • Europe • Farming • Worked on their own land • Asia • Craft labor (blacksmithing, weaving , etc.) • Sometimes ownecl a business • Europe · Asia • Animal breed ing • Pasto.ralism • Did not own land perma_nently • Africa • Herding_ • Had freedom to move • Europe • SkiUed craft labor • Started as an apprentice • Workers organized to set standards for quality and ptice • Could eventually work independently Nomad Guild Member 224 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION • Paid taxes to the lord • Paid tit hes to the chutch • Used land tempo.rarily During this era, Europeans sought sources of inexpensive labor in the An1ericas. Western European countries such as Portugal , Spain, and England were developing their naval technology, but Portugal was ahead of the others . In We·st Africa dtu-ing the latter pmt of the 1400s, Portuguese trading fleets anived in the Kingdom of the Kongo seeking slaves. Initially they took the enslaved Africans back to Europe to work as domestic servants . Slavery existed in Africa-including the extensive enslavement of women as household workers-'Neil before Europeans sought labor for their investments in the Americas . .For example, in many societies, the entire comniunity shared the land. In order to establish positions of wealth and power , individuals not only showcased the property they owned, but also showcased the enslaved people they owned. Europeans wer_e also not the first foreigners to seek out African labor. Arab merchatits during the Postclassical Era (600-1450) often bought enslaved people during their travels to the Swahili Coast of East Africa. 1-Iowever, it was the Atlantic slave trade that wreaked the most havoc 011African societies . (Capnect: Comp·ose.agraphic organ:ize~ comparing slavery ciiffin-gSub-Saharan: Africa's early colonial period with slavery from 600 to 1450. See 'Topic 2..3'.) Why Africans? Several factors con verged to make Africa a target for slave raids by Europeans after 1450. Slavery in Latin America and the Caribbean began toward the end of the 16th century, when European conquistadores sought fortunes in gold, silver, and sugar. Land was plentiful , but labor to make the land profitable was scarce . Europeans initially forced indigenous people to do the ha:rd labor of mining and farming , but Etu-opean diseases wiped out large portions of these coerced laborers. The indigenous slaves who survived often escaped bondage because , in.comparison with the Europeans, they were more fa1niliar with the territory, had social networks that could protect the1n, and could easily camouflage themselves within the native population. Repeated efforts to enslave Native Americans failed, although other efforts to coerce labor did have s01ne success . Labor for Plantations In North America , plantation owners recruited Europ ean indentured servants who would co1ne to wor-k, 1nostly to grow tobacco , for a specified period in exchange for passage, roon1, at1d board. Howev er, most of these people were not used to the backbreaking agriculnu·al working cond itions and the climate of the A1nericas. In addition, indentured servants were required to work for only about s.even years . If they sw·vived their indenture , they became free laborers . Thus, landowners did not think of indigenous captives and European indentured servants as ideal workers. Capture and Shipment of Slaves to the Americas Captllling Africans for slavery was invariably violent. When African leaders along the coast realized that their kingdoms could economically benefit from tbe slave trade, they invaded neighboring societies in a quest for slaves to take back to the coast. At times , African rulers were also willing to hand over individuals from the lower rungs of their own societies, such as prisoners of war, servants, or criminals . MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 225 1-1owever, Kin g Afon so of Kon go und ersto od that sla ve raids we re not eas ily controllab le . Though he had initiall y allowe d slave trading in his kingdom, he had no intention of giving up his soc iety's elite to s lavery , nor did he want Kon go to he depopula ted. Ki ng Afon so also saw that his authority was undennin ed because his subjects we re able to tra_d e s laves for Europ ean goods without his involvement. Bef ore th e Europ eans came, he had been able to contro l all trade in his d61nain. Source :. Wikit11t'tlfo Commons. Public D\)main Slaves being transported uu\.fr ica., 19th century engraving The Horrors of tbe Jonrney Captive Africans , swept awa y from their famili es, we re tak en to holdin g pens in West Africa known as banacoons , or "slave castles .'' The mod ern co untr y of Ghana has preserve d the·se ''Points of No Retnn1," where thousand s upo n thousands of Africans saw their hom eland for th.e last time. Today, people can visit one such holdin g pri son-t he so-call ed House of Slaves on Il e de Gor ee (Goree Island), on the coast of Senegal . Fro1n the se holding pens , slave traders next cranm1ed thei r captives into the dank cargo section of a ship , providing them little water, food, or even room for movement. Tu e grueling jomn ey across tl1e Atlantic was known as the Middle Passage , because it was the middle patt of the captives ' jomn ey. Many capture d Afi·icans attempted .rebellions at sea, but 1nost upri sings were crushed. Durin g the journ ey to the Americas ; which usua lly took about s_ix weeks; up to half of a sh ip's captives might die . O ver the hundr eds of years of th.e Atlantic slave trade, from ilie early 1500s to the 111id-19th century ; 10 to 15 percent of all Afri can captives perished before reaching the Am er icas. (Gon.nect:Write -an outline of the effe'cts ef theA tlan tic slave tiadeonAfr ica. See T9pi~ 4.3.) 226 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION Destination of Enslaved Africans by Colonial Region Destination Percentage Portuguese Colon ies 39% Brit ish West Indian Co lonies 18% Spanish Co lpnies 18% French Colonies 14% Brit ish Mainland Colonies 6% Dutch West Indian Colon i~s 2% Other 3% So,rr cc: Stcpl,~n D. BcbrcJ1dt cl ul. .,VNca11a: The f:;119•al<1pi!di a of the .'!frlc(l11a11d .4jrlco rt A(uertc:an E.xperiem:e1 Demographic , Social, and Cultural Changes ·The growth of the planation econo1ny and the expansion of slavery in the Amer icas led to significant changes that affected not only countless individual lives but also broad patterns of history. The physical migration of captives had significan t i1npact on the den1ographics of both their African hon1es and the countries of the_ircaptivity. The expo1-ration of enslaved people that was . required to keep the population continuing in the country of captivity caused a century-long decline in populatio11inAfrican home countries. In addition to physicalmigration, slave ry resuJted in a migra .tion of status , from free person to enslaved , setting up socia l classes that remain influential in post-slav ery countries. Further, it disrupted family organization, since families were often separated , and more 1nen than women were taken captive . Polygyny (having more than on_e wife) became more common. With peop le treated as commodities, as chatte l slavery, social and fanuly groupings were dete rmined more by supply and demand than by tbe fa1nilial bonds of kinship . Each region in which slavery was introdueed wa s affected in a unique way. Iiowever , in a □ of them, people with African roots helped shape and enr ich the language and culture of the societies into which they were brought. The mixing of ethnic groups resu lted in new groups of multiracial peop le, such as mestizos and 1nulattos . The Indian Ocean Slave Trade While most Africans who were enslaved and transported to the Americas came fro1n west and centra l Africa, there was a long-111nning slave trade in the eastern part of the continent. By routes overland or in the Indian Ocean , slaves from eastern Africa were sold to buyers in northern Africa , the Midd le East ~and India . Many were transported to the islands offtbe southeast coast of Africa, such as Madagascar. The trade reached its peak in_the 18th and 19th centuries. MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 227 Slaves taken in the lndiru.1-Oceantrade suffered different fates from those taken across the Atlantic. Slaves in the Indian Ocean were n1ore likely to work in seaports .as laborers in the shipping industry ,and as househol.d servants . Some worked as sailors or even soldiers. Living in towns or cities, they had some opportunity to develop connnunities and to work alongside free laborer s. Slaves who ended up in Islamic communities had ce1tain rights, such as the right to marry. As a result of the Indian Ocean slave trade, African \.1,1ords, musical styles, and customs can be found in Oman , India, and elsewhere . ,----------------------------------,, , KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNMENT:African GOVERNMENT:Amer icas ECONOMY: Economic States Asante Empire Kingdom of the Kongo Aztec Empire lnea Empire New Spain Mej(ico City Francisco Pizarro Atahualpa Treaty of Tordesillas Hispaniola conquistado 'res Systems mercantilism colonies GOVERNMENT:East As ian States Ming Dynasty ECONOMY:Products silver 228 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION ECONOMY: Labor Systems . indentured servitude chatte l slavery encomienda encomenderos · ooercfve lal!>orsystem hacienda system mit'a syst'em Middle Passage MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the ima ge belo w. Sow-c~: Oil on Clll vu s. 1760. Jua,cPotn ci9 Mork tc Ruiz (I 713-1772,J Gin of tbl.'.20 1I C,,lk c'fOr• Coniipirtce I LACMA A Spanish colo□ist. an American Ind.ian woman . aud tbe.ir c.bild 1. This painting probably r_epresent _s a family in Latin America rather than one in British North.America because Latin American families were n1ore likely to (A) have young children living with them (B) wear foTmal clothing with lace (C) consist of a European tnan and a native woman (D) include a husband and a wife of simi lar ages 2. Why wo uld the family portrayed in this painting have been rareT to find in a French colony than in other Em·opean colonies? (A) The .French developed worse relationships with Native Americans . (B) French settlers were less likely to sett le permanently in one place. (C) The "French had a strict ban 011n1arriage with Native Americans. (D) French settlers were usual ly females rather than 1nales . MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 229 3. Which of the follo\ving best describes the culttu-al exchange represented in the pa inting ? (A) The colonist has adopted aspects of the culture of the woman . (B) The child likely speaks Spanish. (C) T he woman is raising he r chi ld in the t raditions of he r culnu·e. (D) The woman has ad.opted aspects of the culture of the colonist. SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to answer all parts of the question that follows. "The widespread use of slavery was a systematic Spanish adaptation on the north Mexi can frontier wherever nomadic Indians were encountered. Aln1ost at the very rnoment that the Ne\V Laws ( 1542) n1ade slavery illt;gal in Mesoamerican Mexico , the Mixt6n War (1541-1542) in Nueva Galicia provided the initial reason for retaining the practiee legally o:n the frontier for generations. The discovery of silver at Zacatecas sealed the fate of Spanish-Indian relations not only on the Gran Chichimeca, but throughout most of the North. The inevitab le resistance by bunter-gatherers to Spanish domination, the shortage of labor, and the serniautonomous political power wie lded by provincial and local authorities insured the survival of slavery and encomienda in northen1 New Spain into the eighteenth cenhuy. " Jose Cuello. The Persistence of il1dian Sla ve,y.and Encomienda in the Northeast of Colonial lvlexico, 1577~1723, (1988) (A) Explain Cue llo's argtm1ent in the passage. (B) Explain_ ONE way in which the treatment of slaves in Mexico was different from the treatment of slaves taken in the Indian Ocean trade in the period 1450- 1750. (C) Explain ONE histotica l situation in the period 1450-1750 , other than the one illustrated in the passage, in which Europea,n states transformed the lives of colon ized states. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Describe ONE economic impact that the rnit'a system had on Europe in the period c. 1450-c . 1750. (B) Exp lain ONE silni lar ity between the trade in tl1e India n Ocean net\vorks before the arriva l of the Portuguese and the trade .after their arriva l c. 1450-c. 1750. (C) Explain ONE difference between th.e economic deve lopment of Portugal and the econo1nic deve lopment of China in the period C. 1450-c . 1750. 230 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION THINK AS A HISTORIAN: PURPOSE AND AUD IENCE IN PRIMARY SOURCES: O>neway to determine the ·accuracy of Jiistorical , sources ·:is ta identify their pui;pose. H9weyer 1 then; stated pu1:pose ls not n~cessarily their real purpose. ldeniifying the.ir intend;ed auclience can helpj>in d0wn the purpoS'e of sources. Spa:nis_b bistoriWl, re:(ormer, and Later Dnrn:inican F.riarBartolpme de las Casas(e. J48~1566) w:rotew'hat.he refe1Tedt<Ja:seyeWitn'es,saccounts of the suffering the Sp;;iniards inflicted on the· indigenous people. The fo,Uowin:gpa_ssage is n:om ;f Brief Account oj'the.Desu·uct'iQnof tireinpie J published in Seville in 155l . L as Casas hatl us.ed his observations·:to help pass file so~called N¢w La ws in 1,542, which outlawed forcing .indig~q.0115 people into slavery .and at:te.mpted to ban the:.sy~tc;mof ·~ncomie.ncla. "In the Year 1509, the Spaniards !)ailed t0 the · Islands of St. John and. Jamaiea · . . . with the same purpqse and design. they pr@poset;I . to thwruelves · in the Isl~ of ,Hi~anio1a, perpetrating innumer;:ibl~ Rohberies and V-illail-iesas before ; wllei:eunto they added unheard 0f Cruehjes . ... and Finally by afflicting and harassmg them with ~ui_.-e _xampled 0_P,pre.ssionsand tonnents in the. Mines, they spo.iled and. µnpeopled this Oontrey [co1mtty] @fthese lnnoce:nts_. These 1:WOIslesCQntaining.six_ .bittidietl tnousand: at least , though . at.this day. tli¢te ~are scarce· two linndted men 10 be found·in either of flrem, fire remainder pedsh:i-!!g wi'tho1}tthe .knowie.dge of Chdst i_an.faith 01·Saa~ent." Answer thefollowi11g questions to 71 .elp under:,,tt,1,ndhow .the i:ntenile.d au</.{encec_(_J.f/ reveq,{{Ln {Htllior's _pur_nose. l. For what audience .di:d Las Cas'as write tbes.e accounts? What dees ili~t audien<;:esuggest about .his purpos~ for writing? 2. Suppose these aceourits had been written lily a visiter fron1 a c.ompeling, E:uropean power _eage 1· t.9remov~ th~ Spanish from tlie.Americ.as and take ov~r the land fQr it~el.f. -What migl;it he that au1hor' 's audience an:d_purpose? 0 3. R.e~dthe histQric~J perspectives on the brut~lity of the Spanish 9n page 265. Then in a sentence or two. exp lain the role of identifyjng purpose anda1.tdienc~ mdet~n11in ing th~ ~ccuracy ofa histor ical s.0uroe, referring to ~pe,cific e;~am_ples·from that p.ag~. REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. 1n one to three paragraphs , explain how the empires of Europea,n states were establishe d betwe .en 1450 to 1750 and what economic and labo r systems fueled them. MARITIME EMPIRES LINK REGIONS 231 4.5 Maritime Empires Develop .ot All of the resjdents these United Provinces [the Netherlands] shall be allowed to participate in [the Du tch East India] Company and to do so with as little or as great an an1ount ,of money as they choose. -C harter, Duteh Epst India Company, 1602 Essential Quest ion: What econom ic strategie$ did maritime empires use to. incr.ease thei r power 1and how did the deve loping empires affect po litic·a1, econo mic , religious , and cultura l dynamics? Maritin1e (sea-based) en1pires transformed commerce fro1n local , s1nallscale trading, mostly based on barter, to large-scale international trade using gold and silver. These empires employed new economic models, sucb as jointstock con1panies, through which investors financed trade by buying shares in corporations such as the East India Company, supporting increased trade in Asia . New ocean trade routes were opened, aiding tbe rise of this extended global econo tny. The At lantic trading system invo lve d the move tnent of laborincluding slaves-and the mixing ofAfrican,American ,.and European cultures and peoples , witb all groups contribut ing to a cultura l synthesis . Silver, sugar , and slavery ~rere tbe keys to the development of these mereantilist empires. Economic Strategies In the 17th century, Europeans generally measm'ed the wea lth of a country in ho\v much go ld and silver it had in its coffers. To achieve this wealth, countries used econonlic strategies designed to .sell as 1nany goods .as they cou ld to other countries in order to obta in n1aximtun a1nou nts of gol d and silver. To keep their \Vealth, countries would also spend .as little of their precious metals as possible on goods ftom other countries. The accum ulation of capital, material we.alth available to prod1,1cemore 'vvealth, .in Weste1n Em·ope grew as entrepreneurs entered .long-distance 1narkets. Cap.ital changed hands fro1n entrepreneurs t6 laborers, pu tting laborers in a better position to become consun1ers-and even investors , as the above quote suggests . Despite restrictions by the Chtu-ch, lending money at high rates of interest became conimonplace. Actual wea lth also increased with gold and silver from the Western Henrisphe re. 232 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Commerc.ial Revolution The transformation to a trade-based economy using gold and silver is known ·as the Comm ercial R evolution . The Commercia l Revo lution affected all r¢gions of the world and resulted from four key factors: the development of European overseas colonies; the opening of rtew ocean trad e routes ; popu lation growth; and inflation, caused partly by the pressure of the increasing popu lation and partly by the increased amount of gold and silver that was mined and put in circulation . The high rate of inflation , or genera l rise in pric es, in the 16th and early 17th century is called the Pri ce Revolution . Aiding the rise of this extended global economy was the formation of joint-stock companies , owned by inves tors 'Nho bought stock or shares in them. P eople invested capital in such cO"mpanies and shared both the profits and the risks of exploration and trading venture s . Offerin g limit ed liability, the principl e that an investor was not responsible for a company's debt s or oth er Liabilities beyond the .amount of an investment , mad e inv esting safer. The developing European 1niddle class had capita l to invest from successful businesses in their born e countries. They also had money with \Vbich to purchas e imported luxuries . Th e Dutch, English , and French all developed jo int-stock co1npanies in the 17th ce1itury, including the British East India Compan y in 1600 _and the Dutch East India Company in 1602. In Spain and Portuga l, however , the government did n1ost of the .inv est ing .itself through grants to certain exp lorers. Joint-stock companies \Vere a driving forc e behind the development of maritim e empires as they .allowed continued exploTation as well as ventures to colonize and dev elop the resourc es of distant lands with limited risk to investors. Co.mmerce and Financ e The Dutch were long the cornn1ercial middlemen of Europe, having s_et up and maintained trade routes to Latin America , NorthAmerica, SouthAfrica, and Indonesia. Dutch ships werefaster and light er than those of their rivals for most of the 17th century , giving theni an early trade a_d vantage . The Dutch East India Company was also high ly successfill as a jo int-stock company . It made enormous profits in the Spic e Islands and Soutl1east Asia . Source! Wikin1cdia Com1nons The Dutch ship Vi:vbul'g_on Chinese expo11porcelain, l 756 MARITIME EMP IRES DEVELOP 233 Pioneers in finance, the Dutch had a stock exehange as early as 1602. By 1609 , the Bank of Amsterdam traded currency internationally. The Dutch standard of living was the highest in Europe as such goods as diamonds , linen, pottery , andtulip bulbs passed through the hands of Dutch traders . France and England were not so fortunate. Early in the 18th century, both fell victim to speculative financial schemes. Known as. fi.naneial bubbles , the schemes were based on the sale of shares to investors who were promised a certain rettun on their invest:Inent. After a frenzy of buying that drove up the price of shares, the bubble blu-st and investors lost huge .amounts of money, sending 1nany into bankruptcy and inflicting wide damage to the economy . Triang~Jar Trade The Europeans' desire for enslaved workers. in the Americas coupled with Portugal's "discovery '' ofWestA:fricameant thatAfiica becan1e the source for new labor. Enslaved Africans becan1e part of a complex Atlantic trading system known as the triangular trade, because voyages often had thre e seg1nents. A ship 1night carry European manufactuied goods such as fire.arms to West Africa, and from there transport enslaved Africans to the An1ericas, and thenJoad up with sugar or tobacco to take to Europe . Sugar was the 1nost profitable good from the A1nericas. By the 1700s, Caribbean sugar production and rum (made from sugar) were financing fortunes in Britain, and to a lesser extent , in France and the Netherlands. Triangular Trade 9 GR.EAT BRl TA IN , · AERICA sblJ'I'H AMEUCA 234 0 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 1,000 kllometors Rivalries for the Indian Ocean Trade After Europeans stumbled on the Americas , trade over the At lantic Ocean became significant. However , states continued to vie for control of trade 1·outes on the fuctian Ocean as we ll . The Portuguese sotmdly defeated a con1bined Mus lim and Venetian force in a naval battle in the Arabian Sea in 1509 '(see Topic 4.4) over cont roll ing trade. They . met a different fate , though , when they tried to conquer Moroccan forces in .a battle on land in 1578. Its coffers depl_eted after the victo1y, Morocco looked inland to caphire the riches of the Songhai Kingdom, despite the prohibition of waging war on another Muslim state. With thousands of soldiers, camels , and horses , as well as eight cannons and other firearms, Moroccan forces traveled months . to reach their greater Songhai. 1111590, in a battle near Gao, the Songhai~espite nun1ber of :fighters-we re overco n1e by. the force of fireanns. The en1pire crumb led. The Spanish and Porl11guese soon overtook n1uch of this territoty. Change and Continuities in Trade Networks The trading networks invo lved a new global circulation of goods, wea lth, and labor. Silver from the Spanish colonies in the Amedcas flowed to Asia, where -Asians were eager to exchange their goods-silks , porcelain, steel prodt1ctsfor silver. Asian .goods were eagerly purchased in the Atlantic markets. N elv Monopolie s One way these patte1ns of trade were maintained was through monopolies charte red by European rulers. Monopo lies granted certain merchants-us ually through a joint-stock company-or the government itself the exclusive right to trade. For example , the Spanish government established a monopoly first over all the domestic tobacco grown and then over all the tobacco grown in its American colonies . The profits from this monopoly greatly enriched the Spanish govern1nent The incon1e from tobacco in Spain made up about one-third of total revenues . Ongoing Regional Mark ets At the same ti1ne, traditional regiona l markets. continued to flourish in Afro-Eurasia. However , improved shipping offered merchants the oppo1tuuity to increase their volume of products. The increasing output of peasant and artisan labor-woo l and Linen from Weste1u Et u·ope, cotton from Inctia, and silk fro1n China-exchanged hands in port cities with global connections. Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade The Atlantic slave trade greatly weakened severa l West African kingdoms , such as Kongo. The loss of so tnany people slowed population growth . Trade competition led to violence among their societies , but also made African slave-raiding kingdoms economically dependent on goods from Europe . Such societies were slow to develop more cotnplex econo1nies in which they produced their O\Vngoods: Thus, the slave trade set the stage for Ew·opean conquest and imperialism of the late 19th cenhtry . (See Topic 6.2.) MARIT IME EMP IRES DEVELOP 235 Eco1101nically, African societies that conducted slave raids , such as the D ahomey and the Oyo, became 1jcber from selling their captives to Europeans. This trade also had political effects , because when a society such as the Daho1ney exchanged slaves for guns, its raiders easily took advantage of rival societies that had no firearms. Without :fu·earms, neighboring groups could not :fight off slave raids, so raiding societies became even tic.her and mor_e fortified with fueanns. Intergroup warfare thus became more common and bloodier as a result of the slave trade . Slavery and Gender Those tnost affected by the slave trade were the peoples and civilizations of West Africa in present-day Ghana .and Benin, from which most Africans were kidnapped or sold. Geuder distributions in those regions became severe ly imbalanced, because more than two-thirds of those taken were males . The resulting predominance of women prompted a rise in polygyny (the taking of 1nore than one wife) and forced women to assume duties that had traditionally been men 's jobs. Impact of New Foods While the Atlantic trading system weakened Africa in many ways , it also ultimately spurred population growth tlu·ough an i1nproved diet. The Columbian Exchange introduced rtew crops to the continent, such as theAmerican crops maize , peanuts , and manioc (also known as yucca or cassava), which became staples in the African diet. Political and Cultural Changes for Indigenous Peoples Earlier land-based empires, s.uch as tho,se of the Romans , Muslims , and Mongols , all grappled wjth how to deaJ with conquered peop le's traditions and cultures . These en1pires either allowed tsaditions to e;dst or they tried to graft their ways .onto those of their subjects. European empires in the Atnericas stood in stark contrast to these laud-based empires. The Spanish and Portuguese empires managed to erase the basic social sttuctures and many of the cuJtt.u·altraditions of the indigenous Americans within a centw·y of 'vvhen the first European exp lorers a1Tived. Europeans' actions nearly depopulated the Americas. Political Changes: Colonial Administration Indigenous po litical structures in L atin America \Vere soon replaced by Spanish and Portuguese colonial administrations . Spanish royalty appointed viceroys to act as administrators and representatives of the Spanir;;hcrown. To keep these viceroys fr.O"moperating independently of the crown , Spain established audiencias, or royaJ courts , to which Spanish settlers could appeal viceroys' decisions or polici _es. Slow transportation and communica{ion networks between Europe and the Americas, however, .made it difficu lt for the Spanish crown to exercise direct contro l over New Spain. As a resu lt, the Spanish tlu·one did not focus on colonial affaiTs in the Western Hemisphere. Cnltur al Changes The indigenous p.eoples of the An1ericas lost a great deal of their culture and history at the hands of conquerors. Conquistadors, such as .Cortes in Mexico , ordered the burning of native books , which were 236 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION thought to be unholy. Thus, ve1y few originaJ accounts writteninNahua tl, the language of th e Aztec , exis t tod ay. The scarcity of firsthand accounts fron1 indi genou s peoples has shape d how historia,ns view this per iod. For example , because the Spanish burned nearly all Aztec documents , 1nost of the info1mation about the Aztec come·s from docum ents that were writt en by Spanish conqui stador es and priests after the con quest . The authors ' biases and lack of fan1iliarity with Nahuatl limit s the value of these sour ces . However , so.me sources are consi dered reliabl e. For example, in 1545, a Spanish priest named Be1nardino de Sahagun began compiling the F lorentine Codex, one of the most widely cited sou rces about Aztec life before conqu est. (A codex is a type of book .) Spanish and Portuguese conquerors transplante d their .own lan guages and religion into the Americas . The remnants of this cultuJal interaction are present today. Although ind igenous languages thrive in certain regions-in Guatemala and.in the mou1ita:insof Mexi eo, for examp le-Spanish predomina tes through much of Latin Atn erica, and Bra zilians overw hehnin gly speak Por tuguese . By 1750 , tho se born in A1nerica of Spanish origin, or cre oles, enjoye d political dominance in New Spain. They soon began clamoring for independen ce fron1 the Spanish thr one. (Conn ect: Create a two-oo lnn1n char t comp aringihe infl;uence: of Spanish anpPortuguese piartrm'le empires 0.n natwe populgti©llS: from the 16th and 17th centur ies. See Toprcs:4 .4) Eff.ects of Belief Systems The increase and intensity of newly esta blished global connections between he1nispheres ex-tended the reach of exist ing reljgions. In some al'eas, the new conn ections contrjbut ed to the deve lopment of sync retic belief syste tns and practices . In other areas , the connect ions contri buted to religious conflicts. Syncretic Belief Systems in the Americas Afiican religions in the Americas provide powerful exan1ples of religious sy n_ c retism, or the combining of different religious be.liefs and practices . Africans n1eld ed aspects of Christianity, usually Rom an Catholicis1n , with their West African re ligious traditions , such .as dru1nming; danc ing, and a belief in spir its that could take over and act through a person: • San teria n1eans. "the way of the sain ts;" Originally an African faith , it became popular in Cuba and then. trave.led throughout Latin America and to North An1erica . • Vodo:nmeans "spirit' ' or ''deity." This belief syste1n origin ated vvith African peoples of Dahom ey, Kongo , and Yoruba who were ens lave d and livin g in Saint-Domingue, which is now }Iaiti. • Candomble n1eans "dance to honor the gods." It is a co1nbination of Yoruba , Fo n, and Bantu beliefs fro1n different parts of Afr ica . It deve loped in Braz il. MARITIME EMP IRES DEVELOP 237 Enslaved Africans in the United States also laid the roots for the African An1erlcan church, a hybrid of Christianity and African spiritual traditions that remains one of the oldest and most stable institutions in Af1ican American communities. Islam About 1 in 10 of the enslavedAfricans practiced Islan1.While some of the men who sailed \villi Columbus n1ay hav e been Muslims , these enslaved Africans became the first significant presence of I slam in the Americas. Religion in Latin Americ~ Several Catholic religious orders in Europe, such as the Dominicans , Jesuits , .and Franciscans, sent 1nissionaiies to Larin Alneri.ca to convert people to Chlistianity. The missionaries were so successfi1l that today most L.atin Americans are Roman Catholic Christians. In recent decades, Protestant denominations have begun to gain members. Num _erous ex.amples of religiou s syncretism originated in the Spanish colonies. Catholic saints ' days that coincided with days honored by indigenous people were especially celebrated. In Mexico , a cult developed around the dark-complexion ed Virgin of Guadalupe , who was revered for her ability to perforn1miracles . Global Interactions and Religious Conflicts Syncretic religions also. deve loped in Afro-Ew·asia as global interactions intensified. Sufis1n, for example , with its focus on personal salvation , helped spread Islam and may have influ_enced Sikhism, which bl,ended Muslim and I-Iindu belief systems. The Mugha l leader Akbar (see Topic 3.2) tried to 1nediate conflicts between Muslin1s and Hindus under bis control. Religion .also played a 1·ole in conflicts as global interactions inc1·eas.ed. The split between Sunni and Shi 1a Muslims worsened conflicts between the Otton1an and Safav id emp ires. (See Topic 3.1.) The split between Catho licis1n and Protestantism, (IJ)d between official state religions such as Anglicanis1n and other Protestant sects, help ed dtive the sett le1nent of North America as people sought freedom to worship as they saw fit. KEY TERMS BY THEME ECONOMY : Strategies capital Commercial Revolution Price Revolut ion joint-stock companies limited liability East lndta Com·pany Duteh East India Company lriangu larlrade monopo ly 238 CULTURE: Blending syncretism polygyny creo les S~nteria Vodun Candomble Virgin of Guadalupe WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION GOVERNMENT: Latin Aineri .ca viceroys audiencias SOCIETY: Slave Trade Dahomey Oyo MULTIPLE- CHOICE QUESTIONS - Questions 1 to 3 ref er to the map below . The African Slave Tr:a de, 1500-1900 l' ACIFl C OCEAN 1ND1A1'J ' OCEA .N Sot!J'H T=A,r 1<.A Slave trade route o 1;oooMrtes '----' ~ • O 1,000 Kllometers 1. Of the 1novements shown on the map , the largest resulted froni a high demand for labor to grow (A) sugar (B) cotton (C) rubber (D) tea 2. This map best supports the claim that one effect of the movements shown on the map was that betweenlS00 and 1800 Anica 's population (A) was too large in 1500 to be supported by the techno logy of that time (B) was too sn1al1 in 1800 to enable the slave t rade to continue (C) was becoming more diverse as immigrants replaced people who had been enslaved (D) was growing less than it would hav e \vithout the slave trade MARITIME EMP IRES DEVELOP 239 3. The movements shown on the map were part of a global tren d between 1500 and 1800 of (A) greater contact an1011g peop le of diffe rent ethnic backgrounds (B) greater sepa ration runong people living in different c.ontinerrts (C) states beco1ning smaller and more homogenous (D) states becom ing larger but n1ore homogenous SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the pa ssage below to answer all parts of the questi Qn th~t follows. "Yodou [Yodun] as we know it in Haiti and the Haitian diaspora today is the result of the pressures of many different cultures and ethnicities of people being uprooted frotn Africa and imported to Hispanola [the isla:ild that includes Haiti] during the African slave trade. lJnder slavery, African culture and religion was suppressed , lineages were fragmented , and people pooled their religiou s knowledge ·and out of this fragmentation became culturally unified. ln addition to combining· the spirits of many different African and Indian nations , pieces of Ron1an Catholic l.ihtrgy have been incorporated to replace lost prayers or elements; in addition images of Catholic saints are used to representvaiious ·spirits or 'tniste' ('tnysteries ,' actually th~ prefeITed term in Haiti), and many saints themselves are honored in Vodou in their ow11 right. This syncretism allows Vodou to encompass the African, the Indian , and the European ancestors in a whole and co1nplete way .., Haitian Consulate. "Haitian Vodou:· www.haitiauconsuJa te.org (A) Describe ONE way tha t Vodou is .an example of religious syncretism . (B) Describe ONE way that Christ ianity in Latin Amer ica detnonstrated religious syncretisth. (C) Exp lain ONE specific example of re ligious syncretisn1 other than Vodou that resulted frotn the Atlantic slave trade . 2. Answer all parts of the question that follo ws. (A) Exp lain ONE way in which 1nercantilism affected economies in Africa and Asia in the period c. 1450-c. 1750. (B) Explain ONE way in which the developmenl of a global economy affected societa l structures in Eu ropean states between C. 1450-c. 1750. (C) Explain ONE way in which the C6tntnercia l Revo lution transformed global economies in the period c. 14,50-c . 1750. 240 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION l'HINK AS A HISTORIAN: l[!)ENTIFY A CLAIM IN A NON-TEXT SOURCE While most 0f tlie primary sources describing the c"t>Iiquestof Central and SQuth America were written by Spauiards, a few pictorial manlrscripts , -such a-sthe F lor;entine Codex and Kingshorogh Codex (<ill'C(!)dexTepetlaoztoc, named -fer the re:gion in Mexico where it was pr0duc ed), relate events fh~m the Aztec point of view. Images aswell as t~-b;1sed sourees ean: assert :a c/aitn, a statemttnt or position asserted to be tn1.e. Which °'lthefollo1,'r,ing best t'ep,·esents the C.lqiJn in theplctut'e belo~v fr0n1 the Codex TeJJetlaoztoc? 1. Spanim:c;is ,wQtked the indigenous peopLe t@o.hard. 2. The indigenous peop le we re not prepared to do the physical labor ,p.ecess-ary . 3. Spaniards treated the incligenou 's people with cnLelty_. 4. The indigenous people w,ere .obedien.t ancl :didwhatJhey wer-e tota to ao. MARITIME EMP IRES DEVELOP 241 REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , exp lain the econo.mic strateg ies maritilne en1pi:resused to increase their power .and the effect of the developing e1npires on po litical, economic, re.ligious, ·and cultura l dynamics. Suurct ; Wikimedi• Commall!, Pon.rah of tbe Virgin of Guadalupe. patron sain t of New Spain, by Joscfus De Ribera Argomanis 242 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Internal and External Challenges to State Power The English made them dtu(lk and then cheated them in Bargains. - John Easton. A Narrative of the Causes Which Led to Ph/lips Indian War, 1858 Essential Question: How did the development of state power r.esult ih external and internal cha llenges in the period between 1450 and 1750? As empires developed and changed , many social , political , and economic groups resist ed state expansion through a variety of challenges to state power. Some of these revolts occurred in the home of tbe empire. For example, the Fronde civil disturbances in France between 1648 and 1653 atte1npted to curb gro,ving royal power. Other disturbanc es took place -.vithin colonies. For instance , Metacom 's War ( 1675-1678) , also called King Philip 's War, was in part a result of English colonists using underhand ed tactics (such as that descdbed in the quote above) .in their continuing pressure to control Native American lands. Several powers sought to create empires in the 16th and 17th centuries. They fought with one another and with indi genous peoples. Resistance to Portugal in Africa By the 17th century, the Dntch and the English had pushed the Portugu ese out of South Asia. (See Topic 1.3 .) The Portugu ese looked to Africa, where it bad carried out slave raids since the 15th century, to build a co lony. In 1624, Ana Nzinga becam.e ruler ofN dongo in south-central Africa (present-day Angola). In addition to the slave raids by Portugal , other African peoples were attacking Ndongo. In exchange for protection from neighboting powers and an end to Portugal's raiding for slaves, N.zinga became an ally of Portugal. Nzinga was baptized as Christian, with the governor of the Portu guese colony as her godfather. I-lowever, the alliance broke down. Nzinga and berpeople fled west, taking over the sta te of Matamba . She then incited a rebellion in Ndongo , allied with the Dutch , and offered runaway slaves freedom in Matamba. Nzinga ruled for decades, building Matamba into an economically strong state. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CHALLENGES TO STATE POWER 243 Suurce: · Schombur,,; Center !or Rc~eard 1 in Black.Culture. Photograpl)s und l!rin.ts Division, Tb< N<wYqrk.Pllblic Library Lithograph of Ana Nzinga , queen of Matamba . by Fram;ois Villain (1800) Local Resistance in Russia In contrast to the Po1iuguese empire, pressures 011 state power came from within Russia , not outside of it. While conditions had improved for serfs (see Topic 1.6.) in Western Europe by the 14th centtuy , the same was not true for the serfs in Rw;sia. Wars during the 14th and 15th centtffies weakene d the central goverrunent and increased the power of the nobility. As demand for grain increased , nobles imposed harsh conditions on se1fs. But Russian serfs had long been oppressed. First the Mongols and later the Russian princes collected heavy tribute .and taxes (for services such as protection or to support·the governm ent's a1my) from the peasants . As a result, the p_easants' debts increased , and over time more peasants lost their lands and \.Vere forced into serfdom . Serfdom , Power, and Control The practice of serfdom benefitted the goverrunent because it kept the peasants under control, regulated by the nobility. Se1fdom also benefitted the landowne rs because it provided free labor. Although townspeopl e were also controlled and not pernutted to move their businesses fi·eely to other cities, the serfs were practically slaves, their labor bought and sold along with the lands of their owners. As Russian tenitory expanded west to the Baltic and east to Siberia, the institution of serfdo111expanded with it. An agricultural state, Russia kept serfs tied to the land long after the practice had ended, practically if not legally, in 244 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Western Europe. For example, Elizabeth I freed the last remaining serfs in England in 1574. In contrast, a law of 1649 chained Russian serfs to the lands where they were born and ensured their service to their landlords, who could buy and sell them and ad.minister punishm ents. The village commune s, called miI·s, also controlled even the small landholders among the peasants. Cossacks and Peasant R ebellions Southwest of Moscow, near the Black Sea, peasants who were skilled fighters lived on the grassy, treele·s.s steppes. Many were runaway serfs who lived in small groups, influenced by the ways of the neighboring nomadic descendants oftheM .ongols. These fierce Cossack warriors were sometimes at odds with the central, autocratic government of the tsars; Hov.1ever, these :fiercely independent warriors could .also be hired as. mercenaries to defend "Mother Russia " against Swedish, Tartar, and Ottoman forces. The Cossacks were thus in1portant in Russia's expansion to the Ural Mountains and farther east into Siberia. A Cossack known as Yemely ari Pugacll ev began a peasant rebellion ag~st Catherine the Ore.atin 1774 for giving the nobility power over the serfs on their lands in exchange for political loyalty, leaving the peasaiits without ties or recot u·se to the state. Falsely claiming to be Catherine 's murdered husband , Peter III, Pugachev gathered .a following of discontented peasants , people from different ethnic groups, and fellow Cossacks . At one point , these groups controlled the territory between the Volga River and the Urals. Within a year, though, the Russ ian army captured Pugachev and the Russian government e~ecuted him . The Pugach ev Rebellion caused Catherine to increase her oppression of the peasants in return for the support of the nobles to help her av0id future revolts . Rebellion in South Asia In the 16th and 17th centuries, the MughaJ empir_e controlled much of what is now India and Pakistan . (See Topic 3 .1.) The Mughals centralized government and spread Persian art and culn1re as well as Isla1n. However , 1nnch of the population remained Krndu. The Mru:atha-a Hindu warrior group-fought the Mughal s in a .series of battles from 1680-1707 . They created the Hindu Maratha Empire. It lasted until 1818, effectively ending the Mughal rule of India. Revolts in the Spanish Empire Spain also experienced rebellions within its territories. The Pueblo Revolt took place in 1680 against the Spanish in what is now New Mex ico. The Pueblo and Apache, two indigenous groups , fought colonizers who were trying to force relig ious conversions. The indigenous people killed about 400 Spaniards, drove the rest out of the area, and destroyed churches . The Spanish reconquered the area in 1692. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CHALLENGES TO STATE POWER 245 Struggles for Power in England and Its Colonies Although . Spain colonized much of the Cadbbean, Eng land's power there grew stronger. England defeated Spanish colonists and took contro l of mu.ch of Jamaica in 1655. Slaves in the Caribbean and former Spanish territories in the Americas fought to gain freedo1n in what were known as Maroon wars ( 1728-1740 and 1795-1796). Maroons were descendants of runaway African slaves in Jamaica. They escaped their owners and f.onned independent settlements . Queen Nan ny, herself an escaped slave, united all the maroons of the island. Jamaicans later rec::ognized her as a national hero . Slave revolts were comn1on in the Atnericas , especia lly in those locations where enslaved Afrieans outnumbered free Etu-opeans. The first recorded slave revolt in what is now the United States was the Gloucester County-Rebellion in Virginia in 1663. In this rebellion, enslaved Africans and white indentured servants consp ired togethe r to demand their freedom from the governor. Authorities found out about their plot , an1bushed them , and arre·sted them'. Metacom's War, discussed earlier in this topic , was the final major ~ffort of the indigenous people to drive the British from New Eng land. ·The \.Var spread throughout New England and resulted in the destruction of 12 towns. Some Native American groups, including the Mohegan and Pequot , sided vvitb the English. Although Native American peoples continued to live in the region , the war ended with the subjugation of the Wampanoag people to the Eng lish colonists. Struggles for power took place within England as well. In 1685 , James II became king. James was Catholic , and his anti-P.rotestant measures enraged many English people . A group of nobles .invited William of Orange, vvho was Jan1es's nephew and son-in-law , to invade England with an army and become the new Icing. He agreed, landing in England in 1688. J"'1]lesfled to France . In 1689, William and his wife Mary II (James 's daughter) began their j oint rule of Eng land. Both William and Mary were Protestant , and the English throne remained in Protestant hands .after that. Englis h people calle d this revolt the Glorious Revolution or the Bloodless Revolution. It strengthened the power of Parliament, \vhich :passed a law forbidding Catholics to rule England. That revolution took place without much vio lence, but religious tensions continued in England and throughout much of the world. (Connect: Create a grap,hic_organizer ·of the rebellions that were be-gin•n ing to chall enge grewing Eu ropean em_pire:s.) 246 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Internal and External Challenges to State Powers State ln! emallF?<t~rnal Cf1allenge Portug al • Dutch and English pushed Portugal out of South Asia (external) • Rebellion ih Ndongo allied with Dutch (external) France • Fronde civ il disturbances against royal power (internal) Russia • Cossack rebellion (interna l) • Pugachev rebellioh (interna l) South Asia • Hindu Marathas ended Mughal rule (Internal) Spanish Empire • Pueplo and Apache groups rebelled in present -day New Mexico (internal to the 0o lonies) British Empire • Maroon wars (internal to the colonies) • Glou0ester County Rebellion (interna l to the colonies) • Metacom's War (Interna l to the colonies) • Glorious Revolution (internal ) KEY TERMS BY THEME ENVIRONMENT: Locations Ndongo Matamba Black Sea steppe Maratha Empire CULTURE: Social Organizations rriii's GOVER NMENT : Lead~rs and Rebels AnaNzinga Yemelyan Pugachev Queen Nanny James II of Orange Wi_li_iam Mary II SOCIETY: Native American SOCIETY :.Revolts Fronde Metacom 's War Pugachev Rebellion Pueblo Revolt Maroon wars Gloucester County Rebellion Glorious Revolution Peoples Mohegan Pequot Wampanoag ----------~----------------------' INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CHALLENGES TO STATE POWER · 247 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passages belo\v. "This small Christian clan stranded in a tiny comer of the earth, surrounded by half-savage Mohammedan tribes and by soldiers , considers itself highly advanced , acknowledges none but Cossacks as hmnan beings , and despises everybody else . The Cossack spends most of his time in the cordon [i.e., ftontier fort], in [military] action , or in hunting and fishing. " Leo Tolstoy, The Cossacks : A Tale of185 2, published in 1863 "That night be stayed at hom_e and dreamed , of fue [American] West. His memory , coupJed 'vvith,whaJ he had heard and idealized by his imagination , conjur ed di1n visions of what he had once known and forgotten ; of a land where men and eonditions harked back to tbe raw fotmdations of civilization .;, B. M. Bower , The Lure of the Dim Trails, 1907 1. One sin1ila1ity between Cossacks and American cowboys was that both (A) lived on the frontier of an expanding counn·y (B) were crinlinals forced into exile by their government (C) often formed alliances with the native inhabitants of their region (D) represented the spread of urban society 2. Why would Tsar Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) use Cossacks to expand the Russian empire into Siberia? (A) They lived in -a harsh clim ate and could withstand the Siberian winters. (B) They lived neaT Musli1ns and therefore could negotiate with Siberian Mus1in1s. (C) They had a tradition of being fierce warriors. (D) They were Ukrainian and would defend ]van from rebellions by Siberian Russians. 3. The conflict between the Cossacks and Cathe rine the Great known as the Pugachev Rebellion \Vas most similar to (A) the Mongol conquests because it was a fight over contro l of wealth (B) the English Civil War because it was a fight between a mona1·cb and a legislature (C) the Thirty Years ' War because it was a fight do1ninated by religious beliefs (D) the conflicts in Japan during the rie ian period in which feudal lords controlled the lives of the serfs 248 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION 1. ·use the ·passage below to answer all parts of the question that follows . "The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 was one of the most significant events .in New Mexico history. But 1680 was not the first time New Mexico's Pueblos had attempted to rebel against the Spanish gover11ment. Begi1111ingwith I.he Acoma Revolt of 1599, Spanish intolerance of Pueblo religious practices and a persistent abuse of Pueblo labor had prompted several revolts against the Spanish in the seventeenth century. These uprisings, however, were d:isc0vered and ruthlessly crushed before they could grow into broader action ... .. The Spanish remained at El _Faso until 1692. For a while it appeared that the revolt had indeed succeeded. Papay and the other Pueblo leaders began a systematic eradication of all signs of Christianity and Spanish material culture. Everyone was to bathe in a ritual which washed away any trace of baptism, and Christian n1a1Tiageswere invalidated until reconfirmed by native tradition .... But it was easier to order the eradication of all vestiges of the Spanish presence than to accon1plish it Many items of rnaterial culture which had been introduce-0 by the Spanish- iron tools, sheep, cattle, and -fruit trees, for exan1ple- had become an integral part of Pueblo life. A few individuals, deeply influenced by the teachings of the Franciscans , rescued and hid the sacred objects of their adopted reljgion to av1ait the eventual return of the Spanish friars ." Robe1t Torrez , Former New Mexico State Historian (A) Con1pare Torrez's view oJthe long~term impact of Spanish rule in New Mexico with t he long-te r1n i1npact of Metacon1's Was. (B) Explain ONE way in which the Pueblo Revolts were simi lar to the battles between the Marat has and the M ughals. (C) Explain ONE way in which the Pueb lo Revolts diffe red from the Cossack Revo lts . 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Describe ONE examp le of how socia l structures affected a state's ability to maintain .order in sett lements in the period C. 1450-c. 1750. (B) Describe ONE examp le of how economic structures affected a state's ability to maintain order in sett lements in the per iod G. 1450-c. 1750. (C) Explain ONE historical situation in the pe riod 1450-1750 in which state power was chaUenged by internal pressures. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CHALLENGES TO STATE POWER 249 THINK AS A HISTORIAN: HIST.ORICAL DEVELOPMENTS - SITUATE . IN CON TEXT ~ ,- Unaerstan din gthe intetna l and esx_terna l challenges to state pnwe:r fron1 1450 to J?50requires under standin g the bi:oader context in which they deve loped: This uhderstandin _gsnould g_obeyen _d ,sitnple identification, such as "The· context in whic h internal and external challenges to state p_0wer t00k place w.as the widespread etpans i0Jl of e1npires." ~tead, work to explain how or why the 'c@nten ~peci:fieaUy relates to tbe internal &nd externa l challenges ro stat~ power. That is~ as,k, 'What specifically .abp'tltthe c·ontexeshecls LightOh the challenges?" To answer thaf question , co1nplete the foUowing~ .ctiviti es. First, review th'e.four .fell.titres o,fthe historieal concept qf e1npif·e outlined mi th~lastpag.e oj"Topic 3.1. For ed-ch bulletpoil it, explain il1a .rentencl?_0r .f:HIQ how that CQ1itext r"?late.,s.tQ the internal or external ehaRenges to statepowet y0.u read about in thi:,• topie. Next; cop]!the tbneli11e_ 0n,page189 011.separatepape:1;leaving plei"rty 0J'r00.m.betvve_en, dates. Tlren revie111this topic, a.ddbigzft.t0 the ·ti1neline the rebellions; revolts , and wars that arose as chalienges to stat~p<:> ·we,: By $Jtuatin,g1.h:esed.evelop,r1e1 11Sin a c/i ro110Logi(!;Ct/ context,you ,nay dise<iver addition:ai -e.,l pbahatio11s. REFLECT ON THE TOPI C ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , exp lain ho w the developm ent of state power resulted in external and internal challenges in the period between 1450 and 1750 . Sourc e: Wikimcd,n Commons William of Orange and his English wifo 250 WORLD HISTORY MO DERN: AP® EDITION 4.7 Changing Social Hierarchies We . . . aider the said Jews and Jewesses of our -kingdoms to depart and ne.ver to r.eturn or come back to them or to any of them. - Ferdin and and l&:lbella, Edict of the Expulsion of the Jews . 1492 Essential Question: How were soda! categories, roles, and practices mainta ined or ch anged from 1450 to 1750? Associeties faced rebellions from outside and within, social hierarchi es began to develop and transform. In Europe , the treatm ent of Jews show ed that majoriti es treated non-majority ethnic groups in different ways . Jew s had been expe lled from England (1290) , Frane e( l 394), and, as stated above, Spain (1492) . The OttomanEmp .ire, howe ver, provid ed a safe haven for Jews fleeing discrnnination in Europe . Tlu:oughoutth e wor ld, civilizations develope d distinctive socialhierarchies . Diff erent groups-inc luding royalty , nobility ; landowners , scholars , and soldi ers- sought power and influence . h1 so1ne societies, merchants and aTtisans began to form a middle class. And peasants , serfs, poor people , and slaves often struggl ed to stay alive . Man y states created polici es that discriminated against some groups based on religion , ethnicity , or social class . For exampl e, I-Iugu enots-Fr ench Prote stants in the pr edominantly Catholic country-s _uffered great p erseeution , and many fled to other European countr ies or to coloni es. States also support ed the formation of elite classes, in cluding the boyars in Ru ssia and the nobility in Europe . These e_lites both .support ed ruling power and challenged it. Social Classes and Minorities in Gunpowder Empires Tension betw een the nlilitar y elite and absolutist rule rs existed in three Islan1ic emp ires: the Ottoman (Turkey), the Safavids (Iran ), and the Mughals (India) . They are called gunpowder enipires because they succeeded 1nilitarily by using guns and cannons wh en they first became widely available. (See Topic 3. 1.) Ottoman Society The Ottoman socia l syste 1n w.as built around a warrior aristocrac y that soon began to compete for positions in the bureaucrac y wi th the ulan1a, who were scholars and experts in Islamic law. Within the military , the Janissari es gained power and prestige. (See Topic 3.2.) Ultimately , the Janis saries tried to mount coups against the s.ultans . CHANGING SOCIAL HIERARCHIES 251 As sultans became increasingly ineffective and incapable , strong advisors caUed viziers gained influential positions in government, where they spoke for the sultan . 1-lowever, the sultan still had consjderable pnwers . These inc luded timar, a system in which the sul tan granted land or tax revenues to those he favored. The sultan also used timar to reward soldiers and keep them loya l. Treatment of .R e.ligious Minorities One reason for the success of the Ottoman En1pire was its relative tolerance toward Jews and Christians. After the Spanish monarch exiJed Jews from his k:ingdomin 1492 , Sultan Me hmed II invited then1 to sett le in Istanbu l. Many did. Some Jews becrune court physicians and dipl01nats. Oth ers contributed to the literary community and 1night have brought the printing press to the Ottoman Empire. Whi le they were allowed to worship , ·they did not have fu ll equality: • They were permitted to live only in specified areas of the cities. • They paid .a tax ea1led a jizya that was reqmred of all non-Muslims in the e1npire. • They could not hold top positions in the empire, which v,1ere reserved for Muslims . R eligious Toleration in t he Mu gbal Empir e The Mughal Empire in what is now India began in 1526 . Probably its greate ·st emperor was Akbar the Great (ruled 1556--1605) , remembered for his militaiy successes and his .administrative achievements . To help keep his huge , fractious empire together , Akbar , like Ottoman ru lers , was tolerant of all religious. He ended the j izya tax. Re gave grants of land and money to Hindus and Muslims , provided ftm.ds to build a Catholic church, aud suppo1ted Sikhism . (For more on Akbar 's religious tolerat ion, see Topic 3.3.) Women in the Ottoman Empir e Women also p layed soc ial and political roles at court. Many wives and concubines of the sultan tried to promote their own children as likely heirs to the throne . This practice led to "harem po litics ," a reference to the harem , a residence where a powerful man's wives and concubines lived. One won1an, Roxelana, became unusual ly powerful in the Ottoman . E1npire. When she was a young girl , Crilnean raiders stole Roxelana fro1n her home in Eastern Europe .and sold her into slavery iu the Ottoman Empire . She was forced to conv ert to Islam and entered the harem of Suleiman the Magnificent, sultan of the en1pire. Sulein1an was notable for his milita ry ru1d ad1ninistrative skill. Suleilnan 1na.rried Roxelana ; which was highly unusual. She went from being a slave to collllni ssioning ambitious public works projects. Roxelana 1s son succe e:ded Suleiman. Dtuing the sou's reign, viziers cornplained about a "sultanate of the women ." They believed n1embers of the harem had too much influenee on politics. Roxelana's rise showed that it was possible-though rare-for peop le at this time to attain a differentsocial class. 252 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Other Soci al Classes Merchants and artisans fotthed a small midd le class in the empire . Below the middle class were the peasants , who were usually poor-particularly because they had to pay tribute to the government to help support the Ottoman annies .. Below the peasants were slaves . They came fron1 many areas as the Ottoman armies penetrated Central and Eastern Europe , captlllin,g prisoners of war in Ukraine and elsewhere. Barbary pirat es, those who plied the seas near North Africa along the Barbaiy Coast (named for the Berbers who lived there) captured other European slaves in the Meditenanean and then sQld them to the sultai1 or other highranking officials. Some people were impressed , or forced into service , in the navy as galley slaves . Sou·rce : li tian, La S11/tu 1a1 R0ss(J.c, 1550. John and rytoble RJngHngMuseum As 1nany .as one million .of A rt. Wildmcdia Conuno11 s people were impressed Roxelana became famous for her power as an Ottoman leader. between the 16th and 19th centuries . Manchu Power and Conflicts in the Qing Dynasty China 's Qing Dynasty laste d fron1 1644 until 1912. Under this dynasty, the Manchu people from Manchuria ruled over the majority Han .Chinese and other ethnic groups. Lik e the Mongols some 400 years earlie r, the Manchu were ethnica lly and culturally distinct from the people they n1led. However , they were less toleran t than the Mongol leaders, and they resolved to make their culture dominant in China. Lik~ the Mongo ls, the Qing put their own peop le in the top positions of government. Also like the Mongols, the Qing n1aintained continuity with so1ne traditional Chinese practices. For exa1nple, they maintained the Chinese civil service exams and bureaucracy . They recruited Ran Chinese to work under or alongside Manchus. In time, some- but not all-. Chinese came to accept the Qing Dynasty as l~gitin1ate rulers of China. Co.nfilcts lvith the Han The I-Ian ethnic ity in China experience d Q_ing intolerance most severely. A lthough non-official 11an civilians were allowed CHA NGING SOCIAL HIERARCHIES 253 to wear Hanfu , or traclitional Ran clothing, all men were required to wear their hair in g11eues, the b raided pigtail style of the Manchu. This policy was a test of loyalty fo r the Ma nchu, but it was also a hmn iliating ren1inder of the way Qing autho rity challenged traditional Confucian values. A man who re:fi. 1sed to wear his hair in a queue could be executed . The Qing used E-IanChinese defectors to car1y ou t massacres against I-Ian who refused to assi1nilate to Qing practices. These defectors played a 1nassive ro le in the Qing conquest of China . Han Chinese General Li Chengdong , for examp le, orchestrated three separate massacres in the city of Ja iding within one month . By the end of those fo ur weeks , there was hardly a pe rson left alive in the city. L ater, Han Ch inese defector Liu Liangzuo massacred the entire popula6on of J iangyin , ki l ling between 74,000 and 100,000 peop le. European Hierarchies Like states in South and East Asia, European states also had a social hie rarchy. In E urope the top level was roya lty- 1nembers of a royal family. The aristocracy or nobility \Vas the next highest level. Nobles were usually 'vvealtby.landowners. Near ly every state in Europe had .laws that recognized a class of nobles and gran ted the1n specia l privi leges. The nob ility made up a sma ll minority of the population but owne d most of the land. They n1ainta.ined their power through a syste1n in which lands and titles passed down from one generation to the next throug h a syste n1 of inhe ritance. The Nobility Makes Gains fu the Netherlands and Eng land, the nobil ity held power and took an active part in the gove rrnnent. Dutc h landowners provided the stab le support for local provincia l gove1nme11t.In England , large landowners contro lled Parliament. Howeve r, the landowne rs had to contend \Vith 1·adical religio us sects and the middle class, which \Vere two growing segments of the social order. The N obility Faces Losses Nobles struggl_ed for power with royalty , the emerging mid dle class of me rchants and skilled workers, the priest ly class, and the commo n people. A fai led upr ising in France in the n1id-160Os conv inced Louis XIV that he must keep power from the common people and the nobil ity. The nobi lity also faced ctiticis .n1 from w1ite rs and thinkers of the time . The Eng lish states man Thomas More wrote this about the nobility: "L iving in idleness and luxury witho ut doing society any good no longer satisfies then1; they have to do positive ev il." Power of Royalty over Nobility Gunpowder, cannons, and other techno logical advance ·s allowed rulers to destroy nob les' fortresses and seize their lands . Many rulers believed they deserved absolute power . Louis XIV is fan.1ousfor saying, "I am the state ." However , Frederick .of Prussia saw things different ly. He declared , ''I am the first servant of the state. " (G<lnne'Ct: Trac:e ~heehanges m,sqcial hiera rchy fi-9.J,11 . feudal Europe t~ the L:7th eep:tµry. See Top,ic 1.6.) 254 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION G·row ing Acce ptance of Jews Jews began to have a larger role in many count1ies startin g in the 17th century . Their expulsion from Spain , by Ferdinand and Isab ella, was particularl y significant beca use so 1nany Jews lived the re. Many resett led in areas around the Medit erran ean Sea, in northern Afiica or the Middl e Ea st Sinc e the Hebrew word for Spain is Sepharad. Jews who trace their herita ge back to Spain became known as Se phardi c Jew s. In contrast , Jews from central and easlern Etu-ope becam e known as Ashkenazi Jews . Jewish scholars once used the term Ashkenazi to refer to Gennany. Under the influence of the scie ntific revolution and the Enlightenment , prejudices against Jews declin ed somewhat. Jews begai1 to 1nove more freely in Europe. They becrune pa rticularly important in banking and commerce. The Netherland s was especia lly tolerant of religious diss ent, and th e Jewi sh minority faced less disc1iminatio11 there than in n1ost of Etu-op.e . Many Jews hoped the centruies of discrimination they had confronted were over . Russian Social Classes Moscow's social hierarchy continued that of Kievan Rus in the 11th century. The noble landowning class , the boyars , topp _ed the social pyramid . B elow them were the 1nercha111S . La st .and most .numerous were th e peasants , who gradually sank into debt and. They became serfs, peasants who receive d a plot of land and protection from a noble. In return , they were botmd to that land and had little personal freedom. If th e noble sold their land , control of the serfs went with it. Though not technically slaves , serf led very hard lives. The boyar class experienced tensions w ith the rulers simil ar to the tensions betwee n nobl es ·and rulers :inWeste rn Europe. Boyru·s ofNovgorod opposed the expansionist po licies of Ivan JV, known as "Ivan the Terrib l_e" for murde1ing his own son, an1ong other crimes. After [v.an's forces def eated No vgoro d, Ivan confiscated the lands of his boyru· opponents . He forced them and their fa1nilies to move to Moscow , \Vhere he could keep them under surveillance . Political and Economic Elites in the Americas Socia l stn1ctures in the An1ericas changed drastically du1ing tllis period because of the arrival of Europeans , the in1portation of African slave labor, and outbreaks of disease that killed tens of millions. The co1nbinatio11ofEuropean settlers , iinported Africans , and the conquered indigenous populations led to the deve lopment of a new social hierarchy based on race and ancestry. Skin color beca1ne a signifier of power and status in many parts of th.e Am ericas and, in fact, in aU European colonies . Racial and etlmic background defin ed social statu s in a formal way in the Spanish and Portug _ue·se empires in the Western Hemisphere for centuries following the Europeans ' arriva l. The Casta System in Latin America A t the top of the soc ia l pyramid in Latin An1e1ica stood the penin sular es, those who were bo1n on the Ib erian peninsula . Next down the pyramid were the criollos, those of European CHANGING SOCIAL HIERARCHIES 255 ancestry who were born in the Americas. Below these two groups were the castas , people of mixed-race ancestry. At the top of this group were mestizos , those of mixed European and indigenous ancestry, followed by mulattoes , those of n1ixed Ew·opean and African ancestry, and zambos , those of mixed indigenO'us and African '-1IlCestry . Indigenous peoples and enslaved Africans 1nade up the bottom of the hierarchy. People \Vere assigned to their Levels at baptism and could not move up except by intermarriage. People in the botto1n layers of the hierarchy had to pay higher taxes and thbt1tes, even though they could often least afford them. Source: Hugllsh \Vlkipcdi a To sbow the lmportancc of the casta system, the Spanish bad paintings made delineating the groups within it. This ·painting shows a. zambo , a pcrs911wiJJ1one blac.k pare11t and one indigenous parent. KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNMENT : Powe r and Authority Mehmed II Akbar the Great Roxelana Qing Dynasty Manehu Li Chengdong Liu Liangzuo Louis XIV Ivan IV 256 SOCIETY: Ottoman Empire timar harem ECONOMY : Piracy Barbary pirates impressed $OC IETY: Russia boyar CULTURE : Religion and Ethnicity queues Sephard ic Jew A::;hkenazi Jew SOC IETY: Europe n-obllity serf SOCIETY: Latin America peninsu lares crio llo castas mestizos mulattos zambo.s WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 ref er to the passage below. "Learned men of various kinds and from eve1y count ry, as well as_adherents _of many different religions and creeds , assemb led at his co Lu1and were admitted to conve rse with him . Night and day people did nothin g but inquir e and invest igate . .. His Majesty colle _cte d opinions of eve 1y one, especia lly of those who we re not M ohan1n:iedans [Muslim]. .. and co llected eve rything which people can find in books, \Vith a tal ent of selection peculiar to him and a spiri t of inquiiy opposed to eve ry lslarnitic prin cipJe . Thus .. .as the result of all the influen ces which were brought to bear upon him , there grew ... the conv iction i11 his heart that there ~rere sens ibl e n1en in .all religions .and .abstemious thinkers and men .endo we d with mirac ulous powers among all nati ons.' ' Bada'iinI's History - section on the Mugbal emperor , Akpar 1. B as_ed 011the passage and what yo u have read in this unit , what were Akbar's policies towar d religion? (A) Akbar favored stri ct Isla n1ic p ractice and son1etimes persecuted Catholt _cs . (B) Akbar focused almost exclusive ly on the relatively new religious teac hing s of the Sikhs. (C) Akbar sh owe d toleran ce of and in_terest in a var iety of relig ion s. (D) Akbar was not inte reste d in religion, pursuing philo soph y instead . 2. In the above passage , wha t is the author 's attitude toward Akbar 's beha vior ? (A) He disappro ves of Akbar 's lack of adherence to Isla1nic practice. (B) He is impressed by Akbar's curiosity an d open-1nindedness . (C) He wa nts to participate in the relig ious dis cussions in Akb ar's court. (D) H e b elieves Islan1ic thou ght has too tnuch influ ence over Akba1·. 3. Which of the following bad policies on religio n that most resemb l ed thos e of Akbar? (A) Spain under Ferdinan d and Isa bella (B) Qing dynasty (C) Otton1an Empir e und er M ehm ed II (D) England underEd\vard l CHA NGING SOCIAL HIERARCHIES 257 SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to answer all parts of the question that follows. ''Nowadays , s01ne 185 years after most of the Latin American nations obtained their independence , none of the Latin governn1ents consider race to be an issue. All of these governments are firmly convinced that the racial caste syste1n of colon ial. times bas t0tall y disappeared. This firmly held conviction is , howe ver, not shared by academics and ordinary citi:zens who have noticed the distin ct racial stratification of the Latin Americ an societies. for these dissenters , the prevailing raciaJ economic hierarchy and the ea:,ily uncovere d attitudes that consider the dark-sk:i1u1ednnattractive and inferior clearly indicate that the racial caste system continues to operate. Today 's racia l caste system is, of course , not nearly as ·rigid as it was in colonial titnes. But the fact tbat it has survi ved 185 years of social, economic , and political advances in1plies that this system is deeply embedded in the Latin societies. Hence , it must have rel.evant social, economic, and poli ti cal effects." Rutilio Martinez and Vish Iyer , Latin Americas Racial Caste Sys tem : Salient Mark eting implications (2008) (A) Exp lain the autho rs' argume nt in the passage . (B) Exp lain .ONE way in which the casta system changed European econom ies in the period c. 1450-c. 1750. (C) Ex.plai.n_ONE historical sit uation in the period 1450-175 0, other th an the one illustrated in the pas.sage, in which in1perial states .adopted policies that limited the politi cal power and infhience of _group s of peop le. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Ex.plain ONE way in whieh soci al struct ures inc. 1450- c. 1750 in the A1nericas co1npares to the social structures in China during the Qin g dynasty . (B) Exp lain .ONE way in which challenges to an elite class affected political or economic structures iii the pe rio d 1450-1750 . (C) Exp lain ONE way in which policies of monarchs and leaders withstoo d cha llenges in the period 1450- 1750. 258 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION T_HINKAS A HISTORIAN: EXPLAIN THE PURPOSES OF EVIDEN.CE Evidetieein ana:rgµme,ntc .an serve a vari ety ofp\ll'POSes.l ts mpst commpn purpioseis to s1wport the claim at the heart ·of an argument. Specific facts ,or examples that ,de1nonstrat e the trulh of.a more general ass·ertion in the thes 'is fi:tlfil1 this pµrpose. Evidence can also tnQdjJj, a claim by provic;ling facts, ex-arilples, or reas~ning tlia-tshow . that parts of the elaim ate true but th~ qtber. part.s are not. Ev idenq~ CaQ also re_fw.,te , 91"disprove, a G.laitn. Eviden¢e tb:at:semes· t:hi, s pprpose provides facts, examples, or_i-easoning that support aL1 alte·mative 0i opposing clain1. Consi~er th.e claim (qi bGld type below ) m ~ argument: When King Ferdinand expelled the.Jews from:Spainin 1492~he provided for a three- 1noni:h period for them ready the,mselves for,departui e. The King prqmised that the state would "take and reeeive ihem unc;l~r01!I Seeuri;ty, pr0tecti@~ and royal safeguard" and "tllat duri ng tbe said time , rro. one sh~ harm.Jbem, .;norinjur~ the.m,no wrong sh~ pe done to 1hem ag¥Ost j ustic.e." Mt hough. the K:i.,.g' s p1·omjses sQnnd r espe~tful of ,the .fews ' rights to s·afety; the very il'ct of expulsion marked them as inferi~r and e::l_ 1)0sed them to relentless harms. to The ~ate ,nehts below a1teji·on1 .an accourit written by an ltaUan.Je1'Vin 149,,5(Internet Jewish History Spurce Qgok),.For (?aeh strite_n'lient, deter1rrinewhet:he,: it could bestbe L!S€d f() suppo.rt, fn@dify, (J. r 1:efu(ethe clai1.J1 above. a. •'When th.eeruet 0f expulsion.becamekn.owcn. ... vessels came from .Genoa to the Spanish harbors to carry away the Jews. The cr~ws·of these v~sels . .. ~etedma,li~i0usl¥ ~dme<illly, t0:wa:rd tlie Jews, rebbed. tbem, and ~elivered S()me 0f them to the ·famous t>-iI ;ate oft haftime who w,as caUed th~ Corsa:it,o:f;Genoa . To thos~ wnoescaped an_d.,arriv~d a t GenQa the pe(!)ple of the city ·sho.weJI ilie1ns .elves n1erciless, and oppressetl ano robbed ilie1n ; and the cn1elty of the-i,rwicke d hearts went s~ farthat th_ey t0o'k the inf~ts from.tbemotbers . .... ." 2. "0ne huµ:d:red and twenty ~hnus_and [Jews] went tp Portuga l, a"c ,eording to a compa·ct which:a prominent man . . . had mad e with the King of Po rtu gal [who J allowea the1n to stay in bis country six n:ro.nths : . . . [AJft~r tbe:s'ix_mont:bsbad el<,tps.ed he made ,slaves of all [wlio],remained in bis countryj and banished seven hundred .and ~ of tpem died.,,.. Qhildrento a r_emote island to s<;:ftle-it, 3. "Many shJps w1tb Jews, espe-Giallyfrom Sjcily, went to the city of N aples on ~e coa:sf. Tu e ;King of tpis (}Oun.try was frie_ndly · to the Jews·,r<;;oeivedth~mall , and ·was mereiftutowar-ds 1hem, and he helped then1with 1noney. The Jews that wete at N:aples supplied them with friod ... and s~nt around to ~he other p<}-rls of CHANG ING SOCIAL HIERARCHIES 259 Italy to collectm .oney to su,st~ them .. .. [But] all this w~s~9t en0ugh. Some Qfthetncdiedby famine , others ~old fu;eirchildren to Christians to sustain their life. Finally, -a_plague broke out ·among them,,5pread to Naples, angverymany.oftllern died , so that the li\llllg weat:ied of burying the dead.' REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIA.L QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , explain hovv social categoTies , roles , .and practices were maintained or changed from 1450 to 1750. Source~ Royal Sp:misb Ai:nd,~-n 1y The ,.\I/exlean Castes, oil paiming b¥ Ignacio Maria Barreda, I.777 260 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Continuity and Change from C. 1450 to C. 1750 The seams of [the world] were closing, drawn togeth .er by the sailmaker's needle . -A lfred Cr0sby, historian who identified the Columbian Exchange, 1986 Essential Questi.on: How did economic developments from 1450 to 1750 affect social structures over time? · By1750, n1ost of the world was integrated within a system of economic , political, and culn.u·al c.onnections . Better technology enabled the Eastern and Western hemispheres to connect. Meanwhile , Western European maritime powers created trading empires in the Indi.an Oce.an trading network and in the Americas. Religions .and other cultural practices continued to spread .as a result of these interactions , but they also were transformed as new or syncretic fotms developed. Coercive Labor systems eontinued to exist in this newly connected world. However, new forms deve.toped as new economic systems sought to exploit natural resources and to generate wea lth for Western European nations. Transoceanic Travel and Trade The most significant change to the global econo1ny in this period was the integration of the Western He1nisphere into the global trading networ'k. This change resulted from Weste1n European states wanting to find a sea route to Asia. They borrowed and deve·loped techno logy that mad e ocean travel easier: • astronomical charts • astrolabe • compass • magnetic compass • lateen sail • carraek • caravel • fluyt CONTINUITY AND CHANGE FROM C. 1450 TO C. 1750 26 1 The result was the Columbian Exchange: a biological exchange of crops , anin1als, peop le, and iliseases between the Eastern and Western Hemisphere. The Co lumbian Exchange had wide-ranging effects on both hemispheres. The A tlantic System The C.olumbian Exchange also caused the development of a transoceanic trading network called the Atlantic Systen1. The Atlantjc System was made up of the reg ions of Western Europe , Western Africa, and the Americas and involved the moven1ent of goods and peopl e among those regions. Columbian Exchange forever changed who grew what foods where and how they grew thenL ft also unleashed deadly diseases on populations that had no immunity to them. In addition, it led to massive migrations , n1any of then1 fo rced, and new socia l structures. As peop le migrated or were forced to migrate within the At lantic System, cultural changes occurred . For instance , religion spread a.lid often created syncretic belief systems and practices. Empir es in 175 0 .11\ . r1r o ~- '·.•:·. ·,·..·......... 4-. ... . .~:=:=:::::::~:~:::::w~~-~.❖:❖:-:,. f ••••-~-•••.,..•..,.•· .............. .. !I•• • LA ~ TI C. C lL◄ l'A f lFI :"\ '. ._,,..._ JAPAN .... .· . .' p ti C 1 F 1 U t. EA~ ~ .,,BA.HOM:E C OC.F..rt., • L___.2:, 000 Mfi1lS .---, 0 1,000 Kilom<t)""' ...._, __.European Countries and Colonies ~~I France - Great Bn1aln - Netherland s !mfl '.m !HPort ugal Spain Economic Cbanges European transoceanic voyages resulted in the integration of the \Vestern Hemisphere within the global trading network. This integration had profowid effects on the global economy. Maritime trading empires emerged , led by the Portuguese and followed by the Dutch and the English. As a result , Europeans established trading ports and cities along the coasts of Africa and the lndian Ocean. This brought Europeans .into contact-and often :into conflict-with existing merchant networks . One consequence of this contaet and conflict was that Europeans came to donrinate globa l trade at the expense of Arab , Inman , and Chinese n1erchants. 262 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Europeans , then, 1nade considerable profits fron1 transporting the goods from one region to another. (Connect'. Identify the differences between the Atlantic Systemand trade on tbelQdiau .Qyeru;t.$e-e'Fopic2.3.) Colonies in the Amer icas In contrast to the trading e1npires in the Indian Ocean~ Spain created an e1npire in the Americas. Soon -Portugal, England , France , and the N etherlands established colonies there. The discovery of large deposits of silver in Spain's colonies helped further integrate Europeans into the global economy . Asian markets and merchants , espec ially in China, desired sil ver. Shipments of silver to Asia from the Americas became a regular feature of the global trade network and helped finance the increasing volwne of trade between Asia and Europe . Some experts estimate that the amount of silver in the global economy tripled in the 16th century. Mercantilism and Capitalism European rulers soon came to see the benefits of enco uraging the expansion of trade, as the wea lth that could be amassed was considerab Je. To ensure they participated in wealth accumulation from trade , many Europeanmona rchs devised mercant ilist economic policies that would provide the ruler with a steady stream of income . Whi le expand ed international trade cont.inued to be an important goal of European monarchs , mercantilism eventua lly gave way to capitalism as the predominant economic system in the new global econotny. Investors formed joint-stock companies , also called chru1ered companies, so they could sha re th e.risks and rewards of global trading opportunities. Effects of the New Global Economy The new global flow of goods an d profits produced son1e significant benefits . The flow ofwealthintoEurope helped to eXpand the middle class and provided the capital t hat would lead to the Industrial Revolution. Howeve r, the huge (l.llounts of gold and silver flowing into Spain and China from the Americas also produced negative econo 1nic effects. In particular , the increase in the quantity of money in circulation caused inflation . Source: Rljksuluscurn Amsh:rd:11 11:WikirncJii1 Commons Rembfalldt , The ·Syndics of the A111 s1e.rdu11iDrap ers· G11Ud . 1662. This shows a group o f Dutch offida ls evaluating a carper from Persia. CONTINUITY AND CHANGE FROM C. 1450 TO C. 1750 263 As ·a result of the activities of European merchants, regional markets in Europe , Africa , and Asia continued to prosper . Funding for the arts increased as merchants and governments used their rising profits and revenue to sponsor artists and authors. Some rulers used their sponsorship of th.e arts to produce art and .architecture that helped to legitimize their rule. Other ai1 symbolized the growing impo1tance of global trade. Demand for Labor Intensifies The new global economy also brought about significant disruptions. The Co.lumbian. Exchange and the Atlaiitic System caused a demographic shift in Africa as the Atlantic slave trade intensified. Slavers capn 1red and sold millions of Afric~ men. These African men ended up on American plantations, producing cash crops that included sugar, cotton, arid tobacco. As a result, some African con1111unitiesexperienced a gende r imbalance. Afr ica's population declined because of the Atlantic slave trade . Eventually, th.e population increased as people grew new crops, such ·as manioc. Traditiona l forced labor systems , such as serfdom , continued in areas of Afro-Eurasia. How ever, other coerced labor systems developed in the Alneri.cas as a result of the Colu1nbian Exchange and the Atlantic System , in .addition to the chattel slavery of the Atlantic slave trade . Many Eui-opean settlers first arrived in the Americas as indentured servants, contracted to work for a period of tin1e before they were free to pursue other jobs or occupations. The encomienda and hacienda systems, as welJ _as the adoption of the Inca 1nit'a system, are examp le·s of other coerced labor systems in the Spanish Americart colonies . New Social Structures As Europeans , Africans , and Native Americans coexisted in the new American colonies, the social s.tructures of the Americas changed. New social systems .apperu·ed that were based on racial or ethnic identity. This division led to a rigid and hierarchia l society , with white Europeans or A1nericans of European descent possessing the majority of wealth arid political power. A new subculture appeared that consisted of people who were of n1ixed European and African heritage. Societa l conflicts eventually led to revolutions. REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. Continuity and Change Identify four historical developments in the period frotn c. 1450-c. 1750. Rank the1n according to how ·significant they were in eith~r 1) maintaining continuity or 2) bringing about change. Explain your rankings in a paragraph. 2. In one to three pru·agraphs, explain how economic develop1nents from c. 1450 to c. 1750 affected social structures over time . 264 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION UNIT 4 REVIEW HIS~O.RICAl PERSPEC'tlVES : HOW HARSHWERE THE Sl?ANISH? . . the first veyage @f Chris toph er C.@ lumhus, Spanish •conga.is-tad-ors creat ed a sva.st colonia l empire in the Americas. In 1552 1 tl1e Don1inicanfiiar Bart.01 ome <ileLas Casas qesGribe.dthe greed , ntthlessnes~ } a.11d ·Qruelty that Spanish :officials inflicted on native pop .ulation s. -Ever since, historians have debat ~d the ~cc.urac.yof his obs_e~~fions. Met Qri_ginsof th~ Blac.l<'L·~ge,nd Writin_s m 19.14, Spanish historian Julian Judetia s labeled this belief in the evils of Spanish rule as the -Bl ack Legend . Re arg tJed that during tile 16th an9 i:7th centuries , other E.urop·~ .s werejeal0us of Spanish wealth and power. As a result, they we1;e-p,1-epared to "believe the worstabout Spain's rule . Jud elias sug geste d that historians .focus~d s0 m'QcbQn c1u~lty that they, ign0i-ed the p0sitive aebievemenjs of Spanish colonialism . 0 Debating theBlack Legend B esid es jealou sy, another factor affecting how historians vie,w~d 'Spain w·asreligi~n. During the ce.nnu:ies of st:rgg-gle betwee n Pr0testgnts and Catholi cs,. th e Black L e"gind fit with th e negative views· many Pr0tes·tants had toward Cath.plics. In the United States, whe:i;e Protestants .dominated the writing of history m :tbe 19th century ~ a"ce.eptarrce ofthe Black Legend-was common. In fue,fust ha1f _of the 20thcentury ; rµaey · Spanish .historians shar e.cl the perspective :of Juderias. Their w0rks reflected the int ense national prid e tha t many Spaniards f~l.tabout ~~ir pa:sf, in defendin g Spanish ooloniz ~tip n, 1hey clevel0pe.d what their cniics 9alled a Wliite Legen~ to co:unterlhe Bfack. l ege nd. Emphasis 011:R et:or_mOne.American historilllla.ctive in the d~bate ,over Spanish c'oloni.z ati0n w·a.s Lewis Rµnke. Re argued against theJ3lac.k Legene by trying to show that La:~c·asaswasjust one of many Spanish reformers. Tht;ough the efr.Qrtsof tl:iese n~forrners, Hanke ar:gned, the :Spanish eJ]lpire was~:''one of the greatest -attempts the ;world has se-en t-o rnake Christ ian l in the relations b~twee n peoples.,; nr~cepts [rules] p-tev.ai Defen~ers 0f tl:ie Bla:¢k. L~gen.d. tliotlght H_atikehacl ·~xagge rat~d. tl:ie -strength -of L.as easas arid the .ref6rme1:'s ; thereby makin g: the Span ish look beJteEthan they were. Oth ets emp~siz.e d that despi te any artemp~ :at reform , what-actuallyh.a:ppenedwas extra@rdinatily .harsh. The GlobaJ Context In recent years, hi st0r ians taking a n10.i'egloba l approacl1to.histoi-yhav e compa:l,'e d coionia l empir es more syst ematicall y than .didprevious hist.0tians. While ~tbey have not ed diff erenc.es am0n g Eur0peans in the Americas , tl1ey.have found \.Vide~pread exampl es ofb rutal1ty.Whetlier 1h~ Spanish we re any worse th;.mother European isr~main.&hatd c to.d et~rnnne. Develop an .Argument: Evaluate th e extehtJo .w hich historical evid ence suppo:rts one of th~ persRecttv~s on Spanish co lonization. UNIT 4 REVIEW 265 WRITE AS A HIST .ORIAN: GATHER AND ORGAN IZE EVIDENG.E Aft er analyzing thetas~ and deve1@pingquestions you need t0 answer to eompiete it (s.ee page 183), tlie next step in wtitlng a long essay is to gathet and organiz e your evidence. Gr,,thering evid~nee- :r~lies on .Te.call-how much you remem .ben from yo'ur reading anrl othe r studies, Organi~ing evidence re:q_ uires the ski lls of se·eirig patterns and connectjo~ andusing historic a·I r eas:onin g. Suppose you are answering this Johg essay question: "Develop an ar:gament thaf evaluates the extent to which continuity or change over cipati,o}lof China in the expanding global, time characterized the pa:r:ti ' Gather the evidence by wrJtingd0wn trad e networks fi:01n1450 to. 175:C).1 ev~rything you know ~bout China's role in global trade netwodq; between 14.SOand 1750. (Answer th e: qpestions you developed in the app,lication activity ·on page 183.) Your essay mighr include the follo\Vi.rig: • Em~er~r Kangxi r elax~d the limi ts.on -foreigners, operung Chinese ports to European n1erchants andn1issi6naries. • Chin-aexpo1te d silk poreelai:n, spiqe, .and tea anrl i:mpQtted little. • Corrfucian.philosopqy _preferred fanners who p1·oduee d food over m erchants who·transfer.red focydfrom 011ep~F.~onto another. • Ccynfucian phil0s0phers r esp~ctedthe Jesuits. • China r egar ded its cultur e a:~.su.perior to tho se of other countri es . • With the Silk Roads .and Indian Ocean trade networks .pouring •.gold and silver into China for their .goods, th e Chinese felt .wealthy. and in no,need Qf fon;.ign ·co1runodities. After writingeverythingyou (tan reme mber, organize-youreviaenoe '. R eview yournof es, looking for patte~ related to th e task . Wh:ieh.pieees of evidenc ·e re prese nt a· Gontinuity? Whid 1 represent a 'tha.nge?-M.ake a si,:mpleQbarj"to place fhe ey ideneein the corre qt oateg"Q.ry . Then ev~ u~te, the exte nt t0 wliich chanite 0utweigh~d oontin'.aity or vic·e versa . Application: On a sepa rate sheefof paper, expand on'the evidenc:e you recall about China's .participation in global trade n_etworks· between 1450 and 17.50by adrling no.teste the above list. T.hen::makea chartlik eth e one below : Place each piece of evidence in th e appropriate column. I Continult ;es I Chang es F0r cttirent j 'ree response question sttrr,ples. visi'(: https:l/apoei1trcd. col[egeboard.orglcourseslap-vi1orld-histo 1y/ exanz 266 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION LONG ESSAY QUESTIONS Directions: Write essay responses to 1, 2; and EITHER 3 or 4. The suggested writing ti.me for each essay is 40 minutes. 1. In the period from 1450 to 1750, trans-Atlantic trade brought new inve ntion s and ideas to societies in the East ern and Western hemispber _es . Deve lop an ru·gu1nent that evalua tes the extent to which cross-cu ltural interactions resulted in the diffusion of technology and helped cause chang es in patt ern s of trade and travel during that era . 2. Strong central governments, me1·cantilism, and slave trading all shaped Europeans ' transoceanic explorations from 1450 to 1750. Develop an argument that evaluates the extent to which economic systems and labor systems showed continuities or cha:nges over tim e <luting that period. 3. The Collnnbian Exchange brought riches to Europe from 1450 to 1750, but it also brought 1nisery to the An1ericas and Africa . Dev elop an argument that eva luates the exte nt to which the systems of slavery in that era showed changes or continuities ove r tin1e. 4. A desire to convert others , the deve lopment of syncretic belief system s, and re ligious conflicts changed the Americas , Africa , and E urasia frotn 1450 tol 750. Deve lop an argu 1n ent that evaluat es the extent to which the effect on societies of various belief systen1s was similar or differen t during that time period . In each response, you should do the following: • Respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning. Describe a broader historical context relevant to the prompt. • Support an argument in response tQ the prompt using specific and relevant examples of evidence . • Use historical reasoning (e.g., comparison , causation , continuity or change) to frame or structure an argument that addresses the prompt. • Use evidence to corroborate , qualify, or modify an argument that addresses the prompt. Sour«': AP' Wtirld /Jlsfury Coui '." ' a nd Exa m D,·scripti11 11. l!ITcclivc Pall 2019. UNIT 4 REVIEW 267 DOCUMENT -BASED QUESTION Directions: Question 1 is based on the accompanying documents. The documents have been edited for the purpose of th is exercise. You are advised to spend 15 minutes planning and 45 minutes writing your answer . 1. D evelop an .argument that evaluates the extent to which states managed to consolidate and expand their power durin g the period 1450 to 1750. In your response, you should do the following: • Respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning. • Describe a broader historical context that relates to the prompt. • Support an argument in response to the prompt using at least six documents . • Use at least one additional piece of specific historical evidenc~ (beyond that found in the documents} that is relevant to an argument about the prompt. • For at least three documents , explain how or why the document's point of view, purpose; historical situation, and/ or audience is relevant to an argument. • Use evidence to corroborate , .qualify, or modify an argument that addresses the prompt. Document 1 Soui-cc: The Tokugawa Shogun, Toyotomi Hide yos hi, The Edicts o.f Toyotomi Hidey oshi: Excerpts fron1 Collection c?(Swords, 1588 1. Farmers of aU provinces are strictly forbidden to have in their possession any swords , sho1t swords , spears , fireanns; or other types of weapons. If unnecessary implements of war are kept , the coUecti6n of ,'innual rent (nengu) n1ay becon1e 1nore difficult , and without provocation [pron1pting] uprising s can [ocCtJr]. Therefore , those who perpetrate improper acts against samurai who receive a grant of land (kyunin) must be brought to trial and punished. However , in that event , their . wet and dry fields will remain unattended , and the sa1nurai will lose their rights (chigyo ) to the yie lds from the fields. Therefore , rhe heads of the provinces , samurai who receive a grant of land, and deputies must collect all the weapons described above and submit them to Hidey6shi 's government. 2. Th e swords and sho1t swords collected.in the above mam1er will not be waste d. The y will be used as nails and bolts in the constructi011 ofthe Great image of Buddha. In this way the fai1.uers will b enefit not billy in this life bui also in the lives to come. 3. If farmers p0ssess on ly agriculture i1nplements and devote themselves exclusively to cultivating the fields, they and their descendants will prosper. This compassionate concern for the well-bein g of the farms is the reason for the issuance of this edict, and suc h concern is the foundation for the peace and security of the country .and the joy and,happiness of all the people. 268 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Document 2 Source: Letter from the Spanish General , Don Alonzo del Campoy Espinosa to Henry Morgan , Adn1iral of the Buccaneers. Morgan was an English privateer, 1669-. Privateers were sea captains who were given permission by the English government to raid Spanish ports and ships to acquire gold and other commodities. Having , through our friends and neighbors , received news that you bave had the audacity [boldness] to conunit hostilities in the territories and cities owing obedience to His Catholic M~jesty, the king of Spain my maste1~1 have come to this place , according to my bounden duty, and have built up again .that fo11ress which you took from a set of faint-lieaits and fro1n which you flung down the guns, that I may prevent your escape fro111 this lake and do you all the injmy my duty requires. Nevertheless, if you will surrender with humility all which you have taken. including all the slaves .and other prisoners, I will have the cle1nency to let you pass, that you n1ay return to your own cow1try . Should you [stubbomJy] resist these honorable conditions which I propose, 1 shall send for sloops from Caracas*. in which l sha ll embark my troops to sail for Maracaibo , with orders to destroy you utterly and put every man to the sword. This is my final resolution: take heed, and be not ungrateful for my kindness. l have with me valiant soldiets, yearning to be allowed to revenge unrighteous acts you have con:unitted against the Spanish nation in America. *Caracas was,the capital of the Spanish Empire's Venezuela Province. UNIT 4 REVIEW 269 Document3 S011rcc: The Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peauants, a list of grievances drawn up by a group of peasants during the Gennan Peasant s' War ( or Great Peasants ' Revo lt), 1524 to 15.25. Drafted by two religiou s leaders, Sebastian Lotzer and Christoph Schappeler , in the German eity of Memmegen between February 27 and March 1, 1525. The Third Alticle. Jt has been the custom ... for men to hold us as their O\V.n property . .. Accordingly it is consistent with the Scripture that we should be free and should wish to be so. Not that we would wish to be absolutely free and under no authority .. . We would gladly observe all I.his as God bas connnanded us in fhe celebration of the commllllion. He has 11otcommanded us not to obey the authorities , but rather that we sho uld be humble , not only towards those in authority, but towards every one. We are thus ready to yield obedience to God 's law to 01u· elected and regular authorities in al1 proper things becomingto a Christian. We therefore take it for granted that you will release us fron1 serfdo1n as true Ch1istians , unless it shouJd be shown from the gospel that we are serfs .... The Seventh Article. Seve nth, we will not hereafter allow otu·seives to be further oppressed by our lords , but will let them demand only what is just and proper according to the word of the ag reement between the lord and the peasant. .. . The Ninth Alticle. J.nthe ninth place , we are burdened with a great evil in the constant making of new laws . We are not judged according to the offense , but sometimes with great il1-will, and s01netimes too leniently. fn our opinion , we should be judged according to I.heold written law, so that the ca·se sh aU be decided according to its merits , ,'ind not with partia lity [bias). 270 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Document4 Source: The Ambush ofSeydi -Ali (August 1544 ), from the Li vro de Lisuarte de Apreau,,written between l 558 and 1565. The drawing shows the defeat of an Ottoman nava l fleet under ilie command of Seydi-Ali by a Portuguese naval fleet in the Gulf of Oman in the lndian Ocean. Document 5 Source: Friedri ch Schil ler, late 18th century German historian, excei:pt fro1n his book The Thirty Years War ( 1799). The Thitty Years \Var was fought from 16 18 to l 648. Religion alone could have rendered possible all that was accomplished , but it was far from being the sole motive of tbe war. Had not priv ate advantages and state interests been close ly connected with it, vain and powerless would have been the arguments of theologians; and the cry of the people wott ld never have 111etw ith princes so willing to espouse [support] thei r cause , nor the new doctrines have found such numerous , brave, and persevering champions ... Princes fough t in self-defense or. [to increase their own power], •.vhile religious enthusiasm recruited their annies, and opened to them tbe treasures of their subjects. Of the multitude who flocked to their standards [agreed to fight for then1], such as were not lure d b y the hope of plunder [stolen riches] , in1agined they were fighting for the truth , whi le in fact they ~ere shedd ing their blood for the personal objects of their princes. UNIT 4 REVIEW 271 Document 6 So urce: Painting of the Salt Riot in Moscow , J648 , Ernest Lissner, 1938. This painting depi.cts the violent riots by artisans and serfs against Czar Alexei l's government over the imp lementation ofa universal tax.on salt. Document 7 Source: Letters of Ogier Ghiseline de Busbecq , a Flenush wr iter and ambassador of the Austrian Empire to the Ottoman court of Suleiman the Magnificent , 1554- 1562. Solyman [i.e. Suleiman the Magnificent) at one time 1Tiedpersuasion on the Shah [ie. the Safavid Shah Tahmasp I] , reminding him of the treaty, by which he had agreed they should both have the san1e friends and enemies , and at another, endeavored to frighten him with menacing · language and threatened hin1 with war .. .He [Sulieman] had placed sti"ong garrisons in all his towns on the Pers ian [i.e. Safavid] frontier , and filled Mesopotamia and the bank of the Euphrates ~ith soldiers, who were taken for the most pati from the lmperial guard .. .He also sent frequent messages to fhe tribes they call the Georgians [peop l.e of the Caueus region of Eurasia], who dwell between the Caspian and the Black Sea, and border on Media , urging Lhe1nto take up anns against the King of Persia .. . ln another directidn are still to be found five Turkoman chiefs descended from Tamerlane ; ru1d these also were invited to join the i1·arms against the corrunon foe. 272 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION UNIT 5: Revolutions from C~ 1750 to 'C_. 19,Q.Q Understand the Context Bet\veen 1750 and 1900, peopl e continued becoming more integrated into a global trade network. New techno logy, .fro1n machine1y for s1)inning thread to locomoti ves to telegraphs to steel n1ill'>, fostered closer integration. The increase d use of machinery in producing goods, a shift known as the Indust rial Revo lution , caused manufacturing output to skyrocket. rt began in Great B1itain and affected all of the world by 2000. The Industria l Revolution set the stage for dra1natic changes in international relations, po Litics , and demography. Foreign Power As global trade increase d, industrializing countries protected the access of their business es to resources for manufacturing and to 1narkets for selling goods by estab lishing control over overseas lands. However, ·these lands often rebelled against foreign domination. Among the first to rebel were the United States and Haiti in the 18th century . A New Typ e of Country Industrializ .ation provided the background for reorganizing states. Befor e the 1800s, most peopl e live d -in large mu lti-ethnic en1pi:res or small bo1nogenous kingdoms. Aft er 1800 , people increasing ly Lived in nation- states, a country in which everyone shared the san1e culture , and everyone who shared a cultur e lived in the same country. Breaking up empires and combining kingdoms to create nation- states frequently led to war. Move ments of People Indu strialization was also th e context for massive hun1an n1igrations. As demand for labor shifted, 1nillions moved in search of work. For example , many Europeans vo lm1tarily resett led in the Am ericas and Australia. South Asian s were coerced into takin g jobs in southern Africa . Mi llions of Africans were enslaved and taken forcibly to the America s. Thes e movements diversified communiti es across the world . Jean-Jacques Rousseau publishes. The Social Contra ct. 1762 1750 The American Revolution begin.ll- 1776 1800 James Watt oreates steam engine which helps start Industrial Revolution. 1815 1801 1765 Meiji Era begins , marking the start pf Japan 's rapid Indu strialization. Sim!5,nB.ollvar"s• "Jamaica Letter• descnoes his goals for Lalin America. Toussaint L' Ouvertu re creates a co,istitutlon for Haili . 1789 1850 1868 1900 1848 Ameri can women organize the Sen'e'ca Falls Conference. The French Revolution begins. UNIT 5: REVOLUT IONS FROM C. 1750 TO C. 1900 273 Topics a.nd Learning Objectives Topic 5. 1: The Enlightenment pages 275-284 A: Exp lain the intellectua l and ideolog ical contex t in which revo lutions swept the Atlantic woTld fro1n 1750 to 1900 . B: Exp lain how the Enlightenment affec ted societ ies over tim e. Topic 5.2: Nationalism and Revolutions pages 285 - 296 C: Exp lain causes and effects of the v arious revo lution s in the p eriod _from 1750 to 1900 . Topic 5.3: Industrial Revolution Begins pages 2.97-303 D: Exp lain how env ironm ental factors contribut ed to indus trialization from 1750 to 1900 . Topic 5.4: Industrialization Spreads pages 304- 309 E: Exp lain how diffe rent mode s ·and locations of production have deve loped and change d over tun e. Topic 5.5: Technology in the Industrial Age pages 310-316 F: Exp lain how technology shape d economio production over time. Topic 5.6: Industrialization: G·overnment 's Role pa ges 317- 324 G: Exp lain the causes and effe_cts of economic strategies of different states and empires. Topic 5. 7: Economic Developments and Innovations pages 325-3 31 H : Explain the deve lopment of econo.mic systems , ideologies , and institution s and how they contr ibuted to change in the period from 1750 to 1900 . Topic 5.8: Reactions to the Industrial Economy pages 332-342 I : Explain the causes and effects of calls for changes iI1ind ustrial societies from 1750 to 1900 . Topic 5.9: Society and the Industrial Age pages 343- 350 J: Exp lain how industrializatio n caused change in existing soci al hie rarchies and stan dards of living . Topic 5.10: Continuity and Change in tf?e Industrial Age pages 35 1-356 K: Exp lain the exte nt to 'Nhich indu strializatio n brought change from 1750 to 1900. 274 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 5.1 The Enlightenment Except our own thoughts, there is nothing absolutely in our power. -R ene Descartes (1596 -165 .0) Essential Question: How did the Enlightenment shape ihe intellectua l and ideo logical th inking .that affected reform and revolution after 1750? As empires expanded and trade route s Ledto more interactions , intellectuals .in the 17th and 18th centwie ·s stich as Descartes began to emphasize reason over tractition and individualism over community values . These shifts were called the E nlightenm ent. The -idealsof this movement, such as individualism , freedom , and seif-detenn.ination, challenged the roles ofn1onarchs and church leaders. and planted the seeds of revo lution in the United States , France , and around the world. An Age of New Ideas Growing out of the Scientific Revolution and the humanism of the Renaissance , Enlightenment thought was optimistic. Many writers believed that applying reason to natural laws would result in progress. While not denying the existence of God, they emphasized human accomp lishments in 1mderstanding the nan.u·al world. Such beliefs led to the conclus ion that natural laws governed the social and politica l spheres as well. While traditional religion did not disappear, it became less pe rvasive . New ideas emerged about how to improve society. Schools of thought including socialis,n .and liberalisni arose, giving rise to the :period being cal led "the Age of Isms." Opposing socialisn1 and liberalism were the currents of conser vatisni , particularly popular among the European ruling class. (A ll of these "isms" are defined Laterin this topic.) The clash between new ideas and old political structures led to revolutions that often had two aims: ind,ependence from imperial powers and constitutional representation . The breakup of empires and the emergence of new forms of government often followed. These developed out of the couc.ept of nationaUsm, a feeling of intense loyalty to others who s_hare one's . language and eulture. The idea that people who share a culture should also Livein ru1independent nationstate threatened to destroy all of Europe's multiethnic eu1pires. THE ENUGHTENME NT 275 New Ideas and Their Roots In the 17th century, Francis Bacon emphasized empirical 1netbods of scientific inquiry. Empiri cism is the belief that knowledge co1nes from sensed experience, from what you observe through your expe1ience, including through experiments. Rather than relying on reasoning about princip les provided by tradition or religion , Bacon based his conc lusions on his observation of natural data. 1-Iobbes and Lock e fu the san1e century, philosophers Thomas Hobbes (author of Leviathan, 1651) and John Locke (author of Two Treatises of Governn-zent. 1690) viewed political .life as the result of a social contract. 1-lobbes argued that people's natural state was to live in a bleak world in which life was "nasty , brutish , and short ." How ever, by agreei~g to a social contract , they gave up son1e tights to a strong centra l government in return for law and order. Locke , on the other band, argued that the social contract implied the right , even the responsibility , of citizens to rev olt against unjust goven1ment. Locke thought that people bad nattu·al rights to life , liberty, and the pur suit of property . ;a11 Another of Lo cke's influential ideas is found in An Essay Concerning Hu1r1 Understanding .( 1690), in w.bich he proposed that a child was born with a ntlnd like a "blank slate " (tabula rasa ) waiting to be filled vvith knowledge. In a world in which most people belie ved that an individual 's intelligence , personality, and fate were heavily determined by their .ancestry, Locke's emphasis on environment and education in shaping peopl e was radical. The Philosophcs In the 18th century, a new group of thinkers and writers vvho came to be ca □ ed the philosopbe s explored soc ial,political, and economic theories in new ways . In doing so, they popularized concepts that they. felt followed rationally upon those of the scientific thinkers of the 17th centtuy . Taking their name fro1n the French word philosoph e ("philosopher"), these \Vriters included Thomas Jefferson and Benjan1in Franklin from America , Adam Smith from Scotland, and several Fi-eneh thinkers Of particular in1portance to writers of the new constin 1.tions in France and America in the 18th and 19th centuries were the ideas of Baron Montesquieu. I.:risfan1ous work The Spirit of Law s (1748) praised the British government 's use of checks on power because it had a Parlia1nent. Montesquieu thus influenced the American syste 1n, which adopted bis ideas by separating its executive branch (the president) from its legislative branch (Congre ·ss) and bo'th from its third branch (the federal judiciary ). Francois-Marie Arouet , pen name Vol.taire, is perhaps best known for his social satire Candide (1762) . I-le was famous durin g his lifetime for his wit and for his advocacy of civil liberties. Exiled for three years due to a conflict with a member of the French aristocracy, Voltaire lived in England long enough. to develop an appreciation for its constitutional monarchy and a rega rd for civil rights. I-le brought these ideas back to France, where he campaigned for 276 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION religious liberty and judicial reform . His con·espondence with heads of state (such as Catherine the Great of Russia and Frederick the Great of Prussia) and h is extensive writings , includ ing articles in Did erot 's Encyc lopedia. are still quoted today. His idea of religious liberty influenced the U.S. Constitution . Acontemporary ofVoltaire was the writer Jean-Ja cques Rou sseau, who expanded on the idea of the social contract as it had passed down through the work .of Hobbes and Locke . One ofRoussea .u 's early works wasEnrile , or On Education ( 1762) in which he laid out his ideas on chi ld-rearing and education. A later work, The Social Contract (1762) , presented the con<,ept of the Gen eral Will of a population and the obligation of a sovereign to carry out that General W ill . An optimist who believed that society cou ld improve , Rousseau inspired many revolutionaries of the late 18th century . Adam Smith One of the most influentia l thinkers of the Enlightemnent was Adam Smi th. In his book The Wealth of Nations (1776), Smith responded to mercantilism by calling for freer trade. While Smith did support some government regulations and saw the benefits of taxes, he .general ly advocated lai ssez-fai re, a for French phrase for " leave alone.' ; This approach meant that governments shou ld reduce tl1eir intervention in economic deci sions . Smith beli eve d that if business es and cons:wners were allowed 111 to 1nake choices their own interests , the "invisible band " of the market would guide them to n1ake choices beneficial for society. His ideas provided a foundation for capitali sm , an economic systen1 1n which the means of production , such as factorie ·s and Suurre: Gent Images natural resources , are Adam Smilh. was one of the first medern ccono.lilists, private ly owned and are operated for profit. (€onne ct: Create 'a' eh'art or Venn diagratn that com.pares Tqpics . 4.4 a:nd 4,S.) and contra~ts mer .eantil ism and the free maclret. :see Deisn1 The Enlight enment's emphasis on reason led so1ne thinkers to r_eexa1uine the relationship of humans to God . Som .e adopted Deism, the belief that a di vinity simply set nattu·al laws in 1notion. Deists compared the divin ity to a watchmaker who n1akes a watch but does not interf ere in its dayto-day workings . Deists beli eve d these laws cou ld be best understood through THE ENLIGHTENMENT 277 scientific inquiry rather than study of the Bi ble. Despite their unorthodox ideas , many De ists viewed regular church attendance as an important social obligat ion and a way peop le received 1noral guidance. Thomas Pain e, never one to shrink from conflict, was militant in his defense of Deism in the book 171.eAgeoj'Reason (1794). Paine's previous work, Com.,non Sens e ( 1776) , made him pop ular in America for advocating liberty from B.ritain, but his anti-church. writings damaged much of bis popularity . European Intellectual Life, 1250-1789 Period Representative Th jnker..s Cl;laracteristi cs Medieval Scholasti c ism • St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) • Used reason to defend faith • Argued through Writing and debating • Relied heavily on Aristot le • Used little exper imentation Renaissance Humani sm • Erasmus (1466-1536) • Mirando la (1463-1494) • Wrote practical book$, such as M.achiave lli's The.Prince • Emphasized human ach ievements • Focused on secul.arism and the individual Scientifi c Revolution and Enlightenment • Francis Bacon (1561-1626) • Emphasized use of empirica l data • Isaac Newton .(1642-1727) • Believed in natural rights , progress , and reason • Thomas Hobbes (15881679) • Wanted new constitutions • John Locke (1632-1704) • Supported religlpus tolerat ion • French ph llosophes • Wrote for the reading•public The Age of New Ideas Continues In Europe and America, Enlightenment thinkers reacted to the social iils caused by increasing ·trrbanization and indu strialization . Poverty in the cities increased . Poor 'v\7o rke rs lived in slums without proper sanitation and without politica l representation. Various writers proposed solutions to the observable problems . Some wanted more government regulations and programs , and many Christians called for greater private charity. But some conservatives blamed the poor thems elves and called on then1 to change. Conservatism is a belief in h·aditional instin 1.tions, favoring reliance on practica l experience over ideo logicaJ theories , such as that of human perfeetability. Utopian Socialism The econo.mic and political theory of socialism refers to .a system of public or direct worker ownership of the means of production such. as the mills to make cloth or the machinery and land needed to mine coal. Various branches of socialism developed in the 19th centu ry; providing alternative visions of the social and economic future . Those who felt that society could be channeled :inpositive directions by setting up ideaJ colllllltmitie•s were often called utopian socialists : 278 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION • Henri de Saint-Simon, of France, believed that scientists .and engineers, working together with businesses , could operate clean, efficient, beautiful places to work that produced things usefitl to society. He also advocated for pubLic works that would provide e1nployment . He proposed bui lding the Suez Canal in Egypt , a project that the French governm _ent later undertook and which opened in 1869. • Charles Fornier identifiedsoin e 810 passions that, when encouraged, wou ld make work more enjoyab le and workers less tired. L ike oth er utopian .socialists, Fourier believed that .a fundamental principle of utopia was harm.onious living in con1rnunities rather than the class struggle that was. basic to the thinking of Karl Marx. • Robert Owen was born in Great Brit ain . He estab lished intentio nal eommunities-sma ll societies governed by the ptinciples of utopian socialism-in NewLanark , Scotland , and New 1-farmony, Indiana. He believe d in educat ion for childr en who worked, con1n1unal ownership of propetiy, _and co1nm1mity rules to govern work, education, and leisure tune. In the later 19th centtu-y, socia list groups such as the Fabian Society formed in England . The Fabians were gradua l socialists: they favored refo1nling soc iety by. parliamenta 1-y means. Writers H. G. Wells, Virginia Woolf , (IJ)dGeorge Bernard Shaw were prominent Fabi(IJ)s. By the 1nid-20th century, socia list p1inciples wou ld influence most of Western Europe. Classical Liberalism Oth ers advocated classical liberalism, a belief in natural rights , const itution al governn1ent, laissez-faire economics, and reduced spending on armies and establ ish ed churches. Most classical libera ls were professionals , writers, or academics . In Britain they pursued changes in Parliament to reflect changing population patterns so that new industria l cities would have equa l parliamentary representation. Classical liberals backed the R efor m Bills of 1832 , 1867, and 1884, aU of which broadened male suffrage. Feminism This period saw the emergence of the moven1ent forwomeu ' s rights and equality based on Enlightenment i deas. The.French writ er Olympe de Goug es fought for these rights in the era of the Frenc h Revolution. In 1789, FTance had adopted the "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the (Ma le) Citizen ," a pioneering docmnent in the history of human rights. In 1791, de Gouges publish ed a "Dec laration of the Rights ofWoman and of the (Fema le) Citizen ,'' to point out that 'vvomen's rights ha d not been addressed . In 1792 in England , the pioneering writer Mary Wollstonecraft published A Vindication o_fthe Rights o_f"Women . In it, she argued that fema les shou ld receive the same education as males. Universal educat ion , she argued, wottld prepa re women to participate in po litica l and professiona l society, enabling them to support themselves rather than relying on men. Wollstonecraft's ultimate goal was for women to gain the same rights and abilities as nien through the app lication of reason. Women won the fi,Illright to vote in 1928. THE ENLIGHTENMENT 279 Source: li brary of Congress Mary Wollstonccrn:ft, engravin g by Jam es Heath , c. 179 7 after the pain ting by John Opie In 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, activists gathered to promote wo1nen 's rights and suffrage (the ability to vote). In the convention's ''Declaration of Sentiments ,' ' organizers Lu.cret ia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton dec lared , ''AU n1en and women are created equal. 1' They demanded won1en deserved the right to vote and bold office, bold property and manage their o\vn incomes , and be the legal gua rdiai1s of their children . The Seneca Falis Convention wasa landmark in the history of the women 's rights n1ovement. Abolitionism Reform movements to provide rights ai1d equa lity extended to the :freeing of slaves and the end of serfdom . A bolitionism , the moven1ent to end the Atlantic slave trade and free all enslaved people, gained follow ers in the 18th oentmy. Slave trading was banned earlier than slavery itself. The first states to ban the slave tra_de were wit h Denmark in 1803, Great Britain in . 1807, and the United States in 1808. In most countries, the slave system depended on a steady supply of new enslave d people in order to fhnction. As a resu lt, as soon as the slave trade stopped , slavery began to decline. In mo.st parts of the Americas , slavery was abolished within 30 years of the end oftbe slave trade. The United States was the rai·e countiy where the nu1nber of slaves increased after the importation of slaves was legally ended. The last country in the An1ericas to end s lave1y was Brazil , in 1888. The End of Serfdom Serfdo1n in Europe had been declining as the economy changed from agrai-ian to industrial. Peasant revolts pushed leaders towa rd refonn. Queen Elizabeth I abolished serfdom in 1574. The French governn1ent .abolished all feudal rights of the nobility in 1789 . Alexander Il 280 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION of Russia abolished .serfdom in 1861. The Russian emancipation of 23 01illion serfs was the largest single e1naocipation of peop le in bondage in hun1an history. Zionism Yet another "isn1'' in the late 19th century was the emergence of Zionism-the desire of Jev.1s to reestablish an independent home land where their ancestors had lived in the Middle East. After centuries of battling antiSeinitism, hostility toward Jews , and pogron1s-violent attacks against Jewish communities-many European Jews had concluded that living in peace and security was not a realistic hope. To be safe , Jews needed to control their own land . Leading the movem _ent was an Austro-Hungarian Jew, Theodor Herzl Support for Zionisn1 increased .after a scandal.in France known as the Dreyfus Affa.ir. In 1894, Alfred Dr eyfi:1s, a tnilitary officer who was Jewish , \Vas convicted of treason .against the French government. However , the convjction had been based on forged documents by people promoting antiSen1itis1n.Dr eyfus was ultiin ately pardoned after tin1e iI1prison, but the case il lustrated how widespread (.lllti-Semitism was in France, one of the countries where Jews seemed least oppressed . Zionists faced many obstacles. The land they wanted was controlled by the Otton1an Empire , a:ndPalestinian Arabs were already living in the .region. Both the Ottomans and the Palestinians were predominantly Muslin, , which added a religious aspect to the conflict. E-Iov. rever, the 2'.ionist moven1ent grew in strength until 1948, when the modern country of Israel was founded. 11 KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNMENT: Reforms John Locke social contract tabula rasa philosophes Baron Montesquieu Voltaire Jean-Jacques Rousseau CULTURE: Isms Enlightenment deism liberalism conservatism empiricism national ism classical libera lism feminism abolitionism Zionism anti-Semitism The·odor Herzl (Zionism) Dreyfus Affair ECONOMY : Refo rms Adam Smith The Wealth of Nations laissez-faire capitalism socialism utopian socia lists Henri .de Saint-Simon Char les Fourier Robert Owen Fabian Society THE ENLIGHTENMENT - 28 1 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS - Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below. "Who tnade man the exclusive judge, if women partake with him the gift of reason? In .this style, argue tyrants of every denomination, from the weak king to the weak father of a family ; they are all eager to crush reason ; yet always as~ert that they usuTp its throne only to be useful. Do you not act a similar part, when you force aU women, by denying them civil and political rights , to ren1ain immur ed [confined against their will] in their fanlilies groping in the dark? For surely, sit:, you wi ll not assert that a duty can be binding which is not founded on reason ... ? Let there be, then, no coerc ion established in society, and the c.O"mmonlaw of gravity prevailing , the sexes will fall into their proper places . And now, that tnor_e equitab le laws are forming your citizens , marriage may become more sacred, your yollllg may choose wives from motives of .affection , and your 1naidens allow love to root out vanity ." Mary W0Jlstonecraft, A Yindica1io11of the Righ 4 of Women (Dedicatory letter to Talleyrand of France) , 1792 1. Wollstonecraft 's main goal in this passage is to (A) secure inheritance rights for surviving wives (B) secure female equality with males (C) .allow men and wo1nen to marry based on love (D) encou rage Britain to support the bourgeoisie in the French Revolution 2. Which of the following wri ters wo uld LEAST likely support the goals of Mary Wollstonecraft? (A) a conservativ e (B) a Utopian Socialist (C) _a class ical liberal (D) a Marxist 3. What part of the excerpt is connected most closely to the ideals of the Enlightenment? (A) its r~ference to equality in marriage (B) its mention of equitable .laws (C) its appeal to reason (D) its rejection of tyrants 282 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage belo, v to answ er all parts of the qllestion that follows. "l wish I knew what mlghty things were fabricating. If a form of government is to be established here , what one will be assun1ed? Will it be left to om· Assemblies to choose one? And will not many men have many minds? And shall we not run into dissensions among oursel ves'?. I am. more and 1uo.re conv.inced that 1nan is a dangerous creature; and that power, whether vested in many or a few, is ever grasping . ... How shall we be governed so as to retain our liberties? ... Who shall frame these laws? Who will give them force and energy? ... When J e:oruider these things, and the prejudices of people in favor of ancient custo1ns and regulat ions. I feel anxious for the fate of our n1011archyor den1ocracy, or whatever is to take place ." Abigail Adams . letter toher husband John , November , 1775 (A) [dentify ONE way in which the passage reflects one philosophicaJ debate in the late 18th or early 19th centuries. (B) Explain ONE way iii which the ideas of Adams support or reject th e ideas of Thomas Hobbes. (C) Explain ONE way in which the ideas of Adams support or rej ect the ideas of John L ocke. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follo,vs. (A) Describe ONE way in which the ideas of the Renaissance impacted the ideas of the Enlightenment. (B) Explain ONE way in which Enlightenment thinkers in Britain and An1erica were sin1ilar in the period 1750-1900. (C) Explain ONE way in wh.ich Enlightenment thinkers in B1·itain and America diff ered in the per iod 1750- 1900. THINK AS A HISTOR .IAN.: DESGRH;3E.AN ARGUMENT The Enlightenment was a ti.Jneof lively debate and ru;gt1 1n:en1 cente red <m the hnman capacity to r~sqn-a key aspect 0f argull!-ent itself Argurrrents can use rea.sonin a variety @fwa:ys.:For example, deductive reasoning , sometim es called "top-down reasoning,'' 15uilds an argument from a gen:eral pr0position (All men are mortal j t.0· a mo re specific premise (Sa.crates is a man) and .finally to a cohelusion that n1ust be true if th~ othei: pr~mis_es ar~ .tr_u_e_(The.r~fore, Socqrtes is m91tal). lndu ctiv~, or ''b.ot.toni up" reasoning , in contrast, us.es· specifie fae-;tsto form an tmcerta in general ization (Chicago has never rece ived.snow an any day in August , so iris likely that no futureA ug.ust day will see snow) . Arguments . THE ENLIGHTE NM ENT 283 ean also us.e _reas0ningby ana.lo gy, a .fQrm of iudileti'\(e reas01ting, to assei,t th~t two things to be alike in so~e ways ar.~ likelysimilar in oth~r unknown w.ays (Hµma.o. mmninal ~ e:Kperie.nce a wid;e.ran,ge of emotions , s0 it is likely nonhu.manmfurunal s exp erience asimilar rang e).. M9st argµments use ·seve.ral different Jcindsof rea soning to dev elop their ideas fully.Knowing how.:todes•cribe the structare of an argument arrd th:_e types of reasonin g tan help you evaluate the "stfcngfu of its conclusions •. known Read thefoll011vi11gext eip.tfr0 1na, report 0n p~tblic education.by French govern ,nent official and .fo nn er bi1;hopM TalleyFand-PerigQrdpr<1sent¢din 119J 1.0 the Natio .nal Assenib ly of France. Then read the excerpt.ffb ,11ih.ededictttory letler .f0r Mary Wt)ltslonecr({ft~ A Vind ic~tion of the Rights of Women tnlilt reopo1_1ils t.o Ta.lley ra,nd~ t and ty_yes9.(.r -ettspni:rlg in ea.ch posi.tion. D e~,cribe the t1rgtifl1,et~ exce,pl , and give ,.-easons ./€lry our description. "Letusb:ring up w0men,notto as_piretoadv:antageswbichthe©0nstitution deni es them , fiut to know and appreciate- tho se w hich it guarantees them .. . Mell are destine _d to live on th e stage Qf the w0rld. A publi c education suits them . . .. The paterJiai home is better for tlie education of w.omen; tliey have less need to !_earnfo de.al with the int~1:ests ,o f othe:rs) than t0 aeoustem them~_elves to. a calm and 'Seclud~d life. '~ Talleyrand -'•Contending for til e.rights Qfw.amen.,i:µy.main argumept is built on this simp le principle , that if she be not prepared by education to become th~ companion·of man, she will stop the progress of knowledge .... 1f e,hildren are to he ~due.atedt-0und erstand the tnle _principle Qf patriptisni, . their n1other mnst be a pattrot ; and the love of mankind, fron1 which an orderly train of virtues ·sprin,g, can only be pr9duc ed by considering th e mo1:al and ei-vil:interest 0f mankitrd ; but the e.ducati/i)n and .situation of woman, at prese nt., shuts her out from such inves tigatio ns .... earnestly wjsh t0 s~.e w.aman placed in a staaon in which she would ad van o.e , instead of retardin g, the pro.g ress of t hose gloriou s principles that giv~ ~ s-µbstance tp morajity. My o_p:in:io.n, , indeed, respecting the , rights ane duties of womµn, . s,eem:s t0 flow so ,nat:rually from these sinwle principtes , thar I tllink it scarce ly po ssible , out that' so.m.e of the enlarged mind ~ who f0.rmed your adin:ifabte consti.tutio:q, will coincide w.ithme.' '-Mary \,V0llstpnecraftt1792) m REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to thr ee paragraphs , explain how the Enlighte111ne11tshaped the id e ological and intellectual thinking that affect ed refo1m and revolution in the per.iod after 1750 . 284 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 5.2 Nationalism and Revolutions Everynationgets the government it deserves. -Joseph de Malstre (1753-1821) Essential Question: What were the _causes and effects of the ,various revo lutions ih the period from 1750 to 1900, including influences of the Enlightenment and emerging nationalism? The age of new · ideas led to political and philosophical conflicts. Like the English statesman Edtnund Burke , the French thinker Joseph de Maistre \.Vas a conservative who went against the tide of Enlightenment thin.king. ln the view of conservative thinkers such as Burke and Mai stre , revolutions were bloody , disruptive , and unlikely to yield positive results. However , try as conservatives 1nigbt to quell revolutionary change, the desire of co1nmon people for constitutiona l governn1ent and democratic practices en 1pted in revolutions . throughout the 19th centui:y. And n1any nations did, indeed , get a new form of government that responded to the new wave of thinking with its key ideals: progress, reason, and natural law. The American Revolution The ideals that inspired the AmericanRevo.lutionhad their roots in European Enlightenment philosophy. The economic ideas of the physiocrats also played a part in the American Revolution, providing a defens e of free market ideas .in opposition to English mercantilis1n. Additionally , the Am erican colonists had become incr_easingly independent politically . Colonial !egislatures were making decisions usually made by Parliament. Moreover , great distances separated the colon ists fromParlian1entand the king in London. With economic and political desires for independence grew a new s.ocial spiri t. Declara.tion of Independence On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence expressed the philosophy behind the colonists ' fight against British rule. In the docum ent, Tl1omas Jeffers .on picked up the phrase "nnalienable rights" from John Lock e. For Jefferson , these rights were to life , liberty , and the ptu·suit of happiness. In the war that followed , the colonists triumphed in 1783 with crucia l help from Britain's long-tin1e enemy, France . NATIONALISM AND REVOLUTIONS 285 The New Zealand Wars New Zealand had been oc·cupie d by Po lynesian people , the Maori , since at least the 1nid -1200s. In the period between their a1Tival and the arriva l of Europeans the Maori developed a rich cultw·e. The peop le were divided into inclividual tribes , or iwi, who sometiine ·s engaged in warfat'e. After colonization by the Br itish, made official by annexation of New Ze.aland in 1840, English control over Maori affairs increased , as did pressure for their land. These issues resulted in a series of wars between the Maori and British collectively known as the Ne\v Zealand Wars. Though the Maori tribes fought together, developing a sense of Maori nationalism , by 1872, theBritishhad won. The French Revolution In France in the 1780s, revo lutionary ideals took on their own spin , sumn1arized in the slogan liberte , egalite, et fraternit e (liberty, equa lity, and fraternity). These ideas , which struck nuiny p.eople as radical, were popularized throughout Europe in the writings of the philosophes . Economic Woes However , addit iona l causes led to the French Revaluti6n. France had long spent more than it \Vas taking in, partly to finance .a series of vvars. Among this spending was the economic aid that France supp lied the Ainericans in their revolut ion. To address its financ ial situation., the French government called a meeting of the Estates-General in spring 1789. Three sectors of soc iety, or e·states , made up the Estate·s-General: the clergy (teligious officials) , the nobility , and the commoners . However, inequa lity in voting caused the co1nmoners (who n1ade up 97 percent of Fren.cl1-society) to break a.way and fonn a new body, the National Asse1nbly. The Revolution Begins In. the early days of the FTench Revolution , 1noderates such as Marquis de Lafayette see1ned to be on the point of establishing a constitutional monarchy. The National Assemb ly began meeting in Paris , but then the King threatened to arrest the leade rs. Angiy crowds rioted in Paris ·and elsewhere in France . On July 14, 1789, a crowd in Pa1is stonned the Bastille , a former prison that symbolized the abuses of the monarchy and the con·upt aristocracy. In the French countryside, peasants rose up against nobles, even burning some manor houses. Some royal officials fled France . The king was forced to accept a n.ew government with a National Assembly in charge. The date July 14, 1789 , became French Independence Day. The 1nost permanent changes \Vere enacted early in the Revo lution-the abo lition of feudalism and the adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of Man , a staten1ent declaring basic hu n1an rights. Lou is XVI and the nobility r efused to accept the Limited monarchy, which led to dissatisfaction among raclical groups Stich as the Jacob-ins and inspired the establishment of the First French Republic in 1792. The Reign of Terror , a.period during which ·the governm _ent executed thousands of opponents of the revolution, .inc luding the king and queen , sprang from the Jacobins . After a p.eriod of turmoi l and war , the brilliant general Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor of France in 1804. 286 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION The Haitian Revolution At the end of the l 8th .century, rev0lutionary forces were .also at work in .th e rich Fren ch sugar and coffee colony of Haiti on the western third of the island of St. Domingue, also known as Hispaniola. Slaves revolted against their white masters, killing them and burning their houses . This slave revolt was soon joined by. escaped slaves called Maroons . The exrunples of the recent American _and French revolutions led fonner slave Toussaint L'Ouv ertur e to join the revo lts in 1791 and then to lead a general rebellion against slavery. Besid es being \Veil-read in Enlightenment thought , L'Ouvertur e proved to be a capable general .. His army of enslaved Africans and Mru·oons established an independent govenunent and p layed the French , Spanish , and British against each other . Haiti In 1801 , after taking contro l of the te1ritory that wou ld becon1e the independent country of Haiti, L' Ouverture produced a constitution that granted equality and citizenship to all residents. He also declared himself governor for life. I-Iaiti next enacted land refo 1n1: plantations were divided up, with the lands being distributed _among formerly enslaved and ·free black people . L' Ouverture worked with the French but they betrayed and .imprisoned him. I-Ie died in France in l 803. But he had cemented the abolition of slavery .in Haiti, which he set on the road to independence frotn France. In 1804 , L'Ouverture 's successor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines J orchestrated a Haitian declaration of permanent independence. Thus , Haiti becan1e the first country u1Latin America to win its independence and the first black-led country in the Weste1n Hemisph ere. It was aJso the only country to become permanently .independent as .a result of .a .slave upnsu1g. Comparin g the Haitian and F rench Revolutions Both the Haitian and French revolutions grew out of the Enlightenment's insistence that men had natural rights as citizens, and that legal restraints were limitin g the freedom of peop l.e by forcing them into various estates (social classes). Howe ver, in the case of the Haitians ; the restraints · were more severe-the rebellion was led by slaves who had no rig hts at a.ll. Source: W,kimcdin Commons Toussai nt L' Ouverturc NATIONALISM AND A.EVOLUTIONS 287 Creole Revolutions in Latin America On the Latin American mainland, revolutionary ideals were taken up by creoles. Born of European ancestry in the .Atnericas, the creoles were well educated and aware of the ideas behind the revo lutions in NorthAn1eriea and France . They considered themsel ves .superior to the mestizos , who were born of European and Indian parents. Colonists who were born in Spain or Portugal , known as p enin sulares, felt superior to everyone . At the bottom of the social ladder were the African slaves , the indigenous population , and mulatto es, those of African and either European or indigenous ancestry. (Some of these socia l distinctions remain today.) There were n1any reasons for discontent in the colonies , each of which encouraged some people to desire independenc e from Spain: • Many creoles were wealthy owners of estates , mines , or businesses . They opposed Spain 's mercantilism , which required colonists to buy manufactured goods only from Spain and sell products onJy to Spain. • Creoles wanted more political power. They res.ented that Spain tended to give important government jobs in the colonies to peninsulares. • Mestizos wanted politica l po\ver and a share of the 'Nealth of the colon ies. Many had jobs in the towns or worked in the mines or on the estates of the peninsu lares and creoles . The Boli v ar Revolution s In many parts of South America, the desire for ind,ependence from Spain grew among the creole class. Fearing the masses , the creo le·s refused the support of mestizos , .indigenous peop le, and n1ulattos (people of mi,xed Afr ican and European heritage). The creoles had seen the resu lt in E-Iaitiof a s.lave uprising as well as. the excesses . of the ~rench Revol ution during the Reign of Terror . Some creoles , such as Simon :Bolivar, continued to push for Enlightenment ideals in Latin An1erica. He became instr umental in the independence of areas that beca.me Venezuela ; Colomb ia, Ecuador , and Peru . Bolivar was born in Venezuela in 1783 to a family whose ancestors had been village aristocrats in Spain . Th e fami ly had grown . very wea lthy in Venezue la, and Bolivar had access to this wealth for his revo lutionary causes. After considerable military success in Latin America fighting the Spanish, his forces achieved the formation of a large area that he called Gran Colombia. 11ehoped it would beco1ne a federat ion sinlilar to the United States , one based .on Enlightenment ideals . E-Iedescribed hin1self as a liberal who believed in a free 1narket and the abolition of slavery . Bolivar's goals and concerns fo r L atin America are outlined in his "Jamaica Letter ;' (1815): '' Generous souls always interest themselves in the fate of a peop le who .strive to recover the rights to which the Creator and Nature have entit led them , and one 1nust be wedded to error and pass io11not to harbor this noble s.entiment." The new nations of Latin America .suffered from the long wars of independence. An nies loyal to their generals led to the rise of the 28.8 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION caudillos-strong, local leaders with reg ional power bases; These men inter vened in national politics to make or ·break govemments. Sometimes the caudillos defended the interests of tl1e regional elites and son1etin1es of the indigenous population and the peasants , but in general they disr egarded representative forms of governme nt and the ntle of law. Results of the Creole Revolutions Although the constitutions of the newly independent countries in Latin Am erica legally elided some social distinctions and abolished slavery, .governments were often conservative. The first constitution of Peru, for example, forbade voting by those who could not read or write in Spanish , which effectively denied n1ost indigenous people the vote until the constitution \Vas changed in 1860. The c1·eolescontinued to form a powerful and conservative upper class , as they had before the wars of independence from the Europ ean nations. Women gaine d little fro1n the revolutions in Latin America. They were still unable to vote or enter into contracts . Most women received Little education until late in the nineteenth cenniry, and most remained submissive to tnen . One notable exception was Manuela Saenz ( 1797-1856 ), who was the lover of Sitnon Bolivar . She actively participated in fighting alongside Bolivar, for example, in 1822 in a battle near Quito, Ecuador. An exce Uent rider as well as courageous fighter, she rose to the rank of colonel On one occasion, she saved Boli var 's life, for which she rece ived the nicknan1e "Libera tor of the Liber ator." (Qonnect: ln a brief paragraph or ()utline, tFac~ the conneeti©t1S: between 'cre·o le elites an€!-re,;relutions:in Lati:nA.riieriea.S'ee Top1c4.5) Later Challenges to Spanish Colonialism Spain's grip on parts of its empire lasted throughout the 19th century. In the Caribbean , Puerto Rico and Cuba were among its final colonial holdings. Both islands saw uprisings against Spanish rule beginning in the year 1868. While 1nany individuals and organization s contributed to the spirit of revolution in -Puerto Rico , the role of Lola Rodriguez de Tiowas tmique. A recognized poet during an era of Little educational opportunity for women, Rodriguez de Tio became famous for her eloquent critiques of Spain 's exploitive rule over Pu erto Rico. I-Ier home became a meeting place for political thinkers an d revo lutionari es. At such meetings , she began to read lyric s to a revolutionary song, "La Boriquefia ," which encourage d her fellow Puerto Rican s, "Awake fron1 your sleep, for it's time to fight!"' The 1868 uprising forced Rodriguez de Tio into exile in Venezuela. She \Vas allowed to retu rn in 1885, but her critica l writings again ended in exilethis time in Cuba. Once the re, she wrote and worked for Cuban independence, earning her exile from there, too, to New York. She returned to Cuba in 1899 '-1Ildspent her remai ning years as a c<_llllpa igner for soc ial justice there. Propaganda Movement The Philippin es, too, rema ined a Spanish colony throughout the 19th century. Educational opportunities, even for weUto-do Filipinos, were Limiled and controlled by religious autho1ities. As a result, n1any young men (often creoles and mestizos) fron1 wealthy fan1ilies traveled to Ew·ope, especially Madr id.and Barc elona, to attend universities. An NATIONALISM AND A.EVOLUTIONS 289 atmosphere of nationalist fervor and republicanism , inspired by Enlightenment thinking, existed in 188.0s Europe, and these Filipino students embraced it. Jose Rizal becrune the most pro n1inent of these young agitators , all of whom contributed to.magazines, pamphlets, and other publications advocating for greaterautono1ny for the Philippines. Ca lled the Propaganda Movement, it did not call for revolution or independence. But Spanish authorities viewed its members with suspicion . Rizal's arrest in 1892 and execution in 1896 shocked Filipinos and helped sptu· the first nationa list movement with the organization and strength to truly challenge Spanish rule. A se1ious military upheaval , the Philippine Revolution, began .in 1896. Nationalism and Unification in Europe As nationalism spread beyond Ew·ope, people often c1·eatedan identity under one government where none bad existed before. Nationalism increased .in France and in other areas of Europe and in the Alne ricas . M ore than in the past, people felt.a common bond with others who spoke their language , shru·ed their history , and followed their custo1ns. Nationalism thrived in France and beyond its borders in areas conquered by Napoleon , particular ly those in the Germanic areas of the declining Holy Roman Empire. Nationa lism \.Vas a unifying force that not only threatened large empires , but it also drove efforts to unite peop le who shared a culture into one political state. Italian Unification Count di Cavour , the prime tninister of PiedmoutSardinia, led the drive to unite the entire Italian Peninsula under the only native dynasty , the House of Savoy . At the time, the region was divided among a patchwork of kingdon1s and city-states , and most people spoke r egional lru1guages rather than Italiru1. Cavour himself spoke French better than he spoke Ita lian. Like other classicallibera Js, he believed in natural rights , progress , and constitutional monarchy. But he also believed in the practical politics of reality, which came to be called realpolitik . Thus, he did not hesitate to advance the cause of Italian unity through 1nanipulation. In 1858 , he maneuvered Napo leon III of France .into a war \VithAustria, hoping to ~reaken Austriru1 influence on the Italian Peninsula. Napoleon III backed out of the vvar after winning two in1portant battles, partly because be feared the wrath of the Pope , who was not eager for his Papal States to come under the control of a centraJ Italian government. Nevertheless, it was too .late to stop the revolutionary fervor, and soon several areas voted by plebiscite , or popular referendum , to join Piedmont (the Kingdo1n of Sardinia). To aid the unification effort , Cavour adopted the radical romantic revo lutionary philosophy of Giuseppe Mazzini , who had been agitating for Italian resw·gence (Risorgim ento) since early in the nineteenth century. Cavou r also allied with the Red Shirts mi litary force led by Giuseppe Garibaldi , which was fighting fa1ther south in the Kingd .om of Nap les. Gt!rman Unification In Germany, nationa list n1ovements had already strengthened as a resu lt of opposition to French occupation of German states 29 0 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION under Napoleo11 Bo naparte. "Follo\ving the Congress of Vienna , which settle d the Napole.onic Wars in 1815, revolutions occurre d in a number of European states, includin g Pru ssia and Au stria. The revolutions of 1848 were the result of both nationalism (especially a desire for :independence) .and libera lism (a desire for representation und er cons titut ions that recog nized civi l libertie•s). Pru ssian leader Otto von Bismarck, who like Cavour favored realpolitik , used nationa list feelings to enginee r three wars to bring about German unification. Bis1narck 1nanipulat ed Austria into participating in two wars , the first with Pn1ssia ag,;1instD enmark ( 1864) and the secon d between Prussia and Austria (Seve n Weeks 1· War of 1866) . After winning bot h wars, B.ismarck n1anipulat ed Fran ce into decla1ing wa r against Prussia. His am1ies beat the French sound ly in the Franco- Prussian War (1870). In each of these three wars , Pr ussia gaine d territory. In 1871, Bisin arck founded the new German Etnpire , made up of many territories gained from the wars 1 including Als ace-Lon·a ine, an area long part ofF ran ce on the border betweenFrance and the new Germany . Global Consequences By J 871, two new powers, Italy and Germany , were on the -inte1national stage in an environm ent of competing alliances . Balance of powe r wou ld be achieved briefly through these alliances , but extren1e nationalism woul d lead to World War I. Unification did not solve all Italian troubl es. -Poverty in Italy, more in the south than in the north , led to considerable emigratio n in th e late nin eteenth centt u·y-pa rt:ic ulart y to the United States and to Argent:ina, where the consti tution of 1853 specifica lly encourage d immi grati on, the movement of people into the country fro tn other countries. Wars of Unification in Europe B.,1,1, Sc(t PRPSSIA EUROPE D Prussia , 1862 United with Prussia irl1866 (North Genn ·an Confederation) - United with North German Confederation in 1871 (Gentian Empire) "' 0 0 soo .Mlles 500 KIiometers □ Kingdom of Piedmont 1860:-1870 NATIONALISM AND A.EVOLUTIONS 29 1 Balkan N ationalism The Ottoman Empire had been the dominant force in southeastern Europe for centuries. But for many reasons, the 17U1century saw· the beginning of its long, slow-declin e. A failed atten1pt to conquer Vienna in 1683 signaled the b~gjnning of successfu l effo1ts by Austria and R11ssiato Joll back Ottoman dominanc e in the Balkans. It was largely due to the increasing invo lvement and contact with Western European ideas and powers that Balkan nationalism developed . In Greece, which by 1800 had been under Otton1an control for 1nore than 3 50 years, increased eontact with Western idea s meant exposure to Enlightenment principles. It also meant exposure to the reverence with which Greece and its ancient culture were viewed across Europe . Together, these developments helped Jeawaken Greek cultural pride and stoke the fu·es of Greek nationalism. A protracted civ il war against Ottoman forces brought some success. Ho wever, it took the intervention of a British, French, and Russ ian fleet, which destroyed an Ottoman fleet in 1827, to help assure Greek independenc e. Events in other Balkan regions , such as Serbia, Bulgaria , and Ron1ania, followed a sim.ilru:, but by no means identical , course. The waning of Ottoman control led to greater freedom and an influx of new ideas, including nationalism. People began to rally around important cultural markers, such as language, folk traditions , shared hi story, and religion . Later, outside powers , such as Russia or Austria , aided in achieving indepen dence. Source: WjkJmcdio 'Cllmrnons This painting by Paaagiotis Zografos shows U1cOttoaian seigc ot'the Acrnpolis . Aided by British , French, and Russian forces·, the Greeks won their iudependence by 1832. 292 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Ottoman Nationalism . The 1870s and 1880s sa,;,vthe development in the Ottotnan state of Ottomanism-a move1nent that ai1ned to create a more modem, unified state. Officials sought to do this by minbnizing th.e ethnic, linguistic, and religious clifferences across the empire. Taking control of local schools and 1nandating a standard curricu hun was a major part of this drive. But the effects of nationalism were not limited to Balkan territories and Ottoman officials. Ethnic and religious groups within the Ottoman Empire had nat _ionalist urges of their o\vn, and they viewed Ottom anism with suspicion. Ironi cally, this attempt to cTeate a more unified state actually served to highlight and intensify subject peop le's fee lings of difference and pro1note their desire for independence. The F11tureof Nationalism While nationalis1n contin ues to shape how people view themselves and their political allegiances , some signs suggest that nationalism might be starting to decline. In Europe , many count1ies have agreed to use the san1e currency, to allow -people to tTavel freely across borders , and to coordinate pub lic policies. These chc_lllgesmight reflect a shift away froni nationalism and toward a larger political grouping . Lik e city-states and empires , nations might someday give way to other forms of political organization . KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNMENT: Amer ican Revolution Dec laration of Independence GOVERNMENT: French Revolution phi losophes Declaration of the Righ'ts of Man Rel.gn of Terror CULTURE: France liberte , egalite , et frate;nite GOVERNMENT: Haitian Revolution Haiti To.ussainr L'Ouve.rture GOVERNMENT : Bolivar Revo lutions Simon Bolivar CULTURE: Italy Immigration GOVERNMENT: Puerto Rice Lola Rodr iguez de Ti6 GOVERNMENT: .German Unific atien Otto Von Bismarck GOVERNMENT : Philipp ines Propag_anda Movement GOVERNMENT: Ba lkans Ottomanism GOVERNMENT : Ital ian Unification realpolitik Giuseppe Mazzini Risorg imento Giuseppe Garibaldi SOCIETY: Clas!>eS Maroons mestiz9s peninsulares mulattoes SOCIETY : Europe Basti lle Italian Peninsu la NATIONALISM AND A.EVOLUTIONS 293 MULTIPLE:-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the table belmv. Reyoluti9n C>ne,Maj _or qause Two Major Be_$U1t$ American Revolution Opposition to taxation without r~presentation • Established independence • Createcl a written constitution French Revolution Opposition to the growing concentration of wealth • Overthrew monarchy Haitian Revolution Opposition to slavery • Led to end of slavery Creole Revolutions Opposition to European contro l • Ended feudalism and serfdom • Redistributed land to free blacks and former slaves • Established several independen t countries • Led to soc ial conflicts 1. In wh ich two re volution s was the growing power of the middle class a major cause of revolt? (A) Creole and American (B) French and Am erican (C) Haitian and FrenGh (D) Haitian and Creole 2. Which revolution most direct ly addressed the unequal distr ibution of economic opportunity and resourc es? (A) Amer ican (B) Haitian (C) French (D) Creole 3. Which gene raliza t'ioil applies to all the revo lutions list ed in the table? (A) All resu lted in newly independent countrie s. (B) All advocated racial equality. (C) .AU were reversed within a generation of their completion. (D) All were inspired by Enlightenment ideals. 294 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passag e belo, v to answer all parts of the qllestion that follows. "We are not Europea n; we are not Indian ; we are but a 1nixed species of aborigines and Spaniards. An1ericans by birth and European s by law, we find ourse lves engaged i.11 a dnal conflict: we are disputi ng witb the natives for ti11es ·of ownership, and at the same tim.e we are struggli ng to mai.ntain our selves in tbe country that gave us birth against the opposition of the invaders. " Sim611Bolivar , speech to the Co1mcil QfAngostura , J819 (A) Identify who was Boli var 's intended audience. (B) Explain ONE way in which the ideas of Bolivar suppor t or reject the Enli ghten ment. (C) Explain ONE example of a long-term impact of Bolivar' s actions. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Explain ONE exam ple of why nationali sm thriv ed in the period C. 1750-c . 1900 . (B) Explain ONE way in which nationalist tnovements in Italy and Germany were similar in the pe1iod c. 1750-c. 1900. (C) Explain ONE way in which ideas of revolutions in the Am ericas differed in the period c. 1750-c. 1900. l'HINK AS A HISTORIAN: eoMPARE ARGUMENTS , ' Arguments rest on claims-ma in ideas w:ith which people can re asonably ,dis8;gtee. ,Comparin g the arguments or main ideas ortwo sources _on the same ,subjeet can help y0u put lltgutnent s in perspe~tive and evaluate the strength of their c laims. + ,.• Read the fo llo·wing tv.10 passages .fi'O:'mdif]~re111. s.ides of tJ1e(Jlf.gumenl Dn declaring Alne>:ica11.indepe.nde,1.ce.Then ti'fiswer. the quesiions. thHt fallow. . ''I kno w the nariie of libe rty is dear to ... us ; but ha ve we net enjoye d libe.rfy eyen gnde t th~ English monarch y? Shall we . . . r~nounoe that to go and ~eekit inJ kn·0w.<0olwhat fotn\. of re public, whi ~h will so on change int o. a licentious anarchy and p0pulai tyranny? In the ' human Q0dythe head only. sustains aQd g9verns all the me~b ers, 'directing NATIONALISM AND A.EVOLUTIONS 295 them ... to the ,s&me .objec t;, whichcis self-preservation and ha]::>piness; so the liead of 1he body pQlitic, that is the Icing, in con¢tWtwith the Parliament , ,min akfne maintain ·the unrc'.fnof the m:embers of this Eritpire ... and-prevent civil war b~ obviating aUthe evils. produced b~ variet~ o.f0pini/i}ns ' an.d diversity of interests. '' -JolmDicl.~.im;~n, CoJ1tlne1 1t~lCong res.s, .July, 1, 17']6 "The history of the· present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injwies and 1:1surpati011$. . ....He has refused his Assent to Laws·~the most wli0lesome and necessary fQr the _pualic good .... He has called fog~ther l~gislative bodies at pl~ces unusual, unoomfoi,table , and diBtant. .. . He has diBs9tve.d Repr-eseutative Houses repeate.dly, . for o_pp .osing: with manly firmness his invasions cm the :rights of the pepp le . . .. tie has plµndered our se&s,.ravaged pur Coasts, bu.mtour towns , and destroye.d the Jives of our people .... [For thes·e reasonsL these United Colonies are, and ofRightoughtto beFree-andindependent States ... . Andf0.rtbe suppprt0ffuis Declwati011., with a firmrelianee on the prot ection 0f divin .e .Ptovidence, we mu.tua.llypledge to e:ach other our Liv:~s,our Fortunes and our sa.c~ed Honor .., -De0laration offndependenc.e, July 4, I7tJ6 1. Wha t is Joh.n Dickinson 's view about separ,ating .ftom the Bri tish monarch? 2. Describe the sa:ucture ofDic'kinson~ .argumeut. (Se·e Topic 5.1-, Think as a His,torian.) J. What is .the main id-ea-or claim . of the passage -from the Declaration of Independence? 4. In.what ways does the passage fram the -Declru :ation of Independence dra\.v on the ideas of Locke and other EnligJrtenment thinkers? 5. Explain the deductive reasoning behind the· passage from the D~ciarat:ion of Independ ~nce. REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , explain the causes .and effects of the various revolutions in the period from 1750 to 1900, including influences of the Enlightenment and emerging nationalism. 296 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 5.3 Industrial Revolution Begins Qne man draws out the wire, another strmghtens it, a third cuts it, a fourth points it, a fifth grinds it at the top for receiving the head; ... c;1ndthe important business of making a pin is, in this manner, divided into about eighteen distinct operations. - Adam Smith, Weal.thof Nations {1776) Essential Question: What factors contributed to and characterized industria lization in 1he period from 17 50 to 1900? ' In addition to new ideas, uew technologies were reshaping · societies. These technologies led to a dran1atic change in society and econonlies. This cbc,U1ge was so dnunatic that it is called the Industrial Revolution. The rigid stnLcture of early factory work described by Adam Smith, Scottish economist and philosopher , is one of the most enduring images of the Industri al Revolution . Industrialization, the increased 1necha11ization of production , and the social changes that accon1panied this shift , had their 1·oots in severa l influences. A1nong these were the Columbian Exchange and rise of ma1itime trading empires , increased agricultural productivity, and greater individu~ accmnulation of capital. As the Industrial Revolution .spread from Great Britain to Europe and North.America, and then to the world, it reshaped society, increasing world population , shifting people from fann to city, and expanding the production and consumption of goods. Agricultural Improvements Just before the Industrial Revolution , in the early 1700s, an agricultural revolution r_esulted in iilcre.ased productivity. Crop rotation (rotating different crops in and out of .a field each year) and the seed drill (a device that efficiently places seeds in a designated spot in the ground) both increased food production. Also, the introduction of the potato fron1 South America contributed more calories to people's diets . As nations industrialized , their populations grew because more food was available to more people. And because of improved medical care, infant mortality rates declined and people lived longer. With these demographic cbange·s, more people were available to work in factories and to provide a market for manufactured goods. INDUSTRIAL A.EVOLUTION BEGINS 297 Preindustrial Societies During the early 18th centu ry, most British fan1ilies lived in rural areas , grew · 1nost of their food , and made most of their clothes. For centuries , wool and flax had been raised do1nestically, a.lid people spun fabdcs they needed. However , one result of the commercial revolution and the establishm _ent of maritime empires (see Topic 4.5) was tbaJ Indian cotton becan1e available in Britain , and before long it was in high de1nand. Wool and flax could not be produced quickly enough or in a large enough quantity to compete with cotton inlports . To compete with Indian cotton, investors in Britain began to ·ouild their nation's own cotton cloth industry. Using in1po1ted raw cotton produced qy slave labor in the Americas, the British deve loped the cottage industr y system, also known as the putting-out syste~ in which merchants provided raw cotton to women who spun it into finished cloth in their o-wnhomes. rlome sp innln g was hard vvo1-kand pay was low, but cottage industries gave wo1nen weavers son1e independence . Whi le working in their own homes , they were also close to children . But cottage industry production was slow. fnvestors demanded faster production, spurring the develop1nent of technologies and machinery that turned out cloth in n1ore efficient ways. Growth of Technology By the mid-eighteenth century , the spinning j enny and the water frame reduced the time needed to spin yarn and weave clotl1. The spinni ng jenny , invented by Jam es Hargreaves in the 1760s, a11owed a weaver to sp in more than one thread at a tin1e. The water frame , patented by Richard Arkwright in 1769, used waterpower to drive the sp inni ng wheel. The water frame was 1nore efficient than a single person 's labor, a.nd this mechanization doomed the household textile cottage indu stry, as textile production was 1noved to factories big enough to house these bulky machines . Arkwright was thus considered the father of the factory system . Interchangeabl e Parts In 1798 , inventor Eli Whitney created a syste1n of interchang eable parts for manufacturing fir eaims for the U.S. military. In Whitney 's system , if a particular component of a machine were to break , the broken co1nponent could eas ily be replaced with a new, identical part. Entrepreneurs adapted this method of making fire'arms to the 1nanufacture of other prod1,1cts.The system of interchangeable parts was a pivotal contribution to industrial technology. Whitney 's systen1 directly led to the division of labor. Factory owners no longe r had to rely 011skil led laborers . to craft every component of a product. Instead, with specialization of labor, each wor-ker could focus on one type of task. For examp le, one worker nlight cast a part, and then another worker wou ld install the part on the finished product. In the early 20th centtuy, I-lenry Ford expanded the concept of the division of labor , developing the moving assembly line to manufactur _e his Model T automobiles . (ConneQt: Compai:e the te~b:n·0J.0gieal in1pr0.v~ments· ofI~la:olic ana.A~i:anstare;s w,itb,those in the Western woild during the Indu sttia l.Revolution. See Topic-4.1. ) 298 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION The Growt h of Britis h Cit ies, c . 1800 • Growing cities ~ Coal ~ fie.lds o::::===--~100Miles o / i oo Kil.omelets N OR 1·H SE.A () I RI SH SEA L;podoo Britain's Industrial Advantages Britain had many environmental and geographic advantages that made it a leader .in industrialization . Located on the Atlantic Ocean with its many seaways, the count1y was we ll placed to import raw llli!terials and export finished goods. Mine ral Resources Britain also had the geographic luck of being located atop imm ense coal deposits. Coal was vital to industrialization because wh en . btuued it could power the steam eng ine. The burning of this fossil fuel , an energy source derived from plant and animal remains, was also essential in the process of separating iron from jts or e. Iron production (and later steel production) allowed the building of larger bridges, taller buildings , and stronger shlps . Coal mining became the major industry of north en1 (IJ)dweste 111Brita in, including South Wales , Yorkshire , and Lanca shire . Wh en the Unit ed States industrialized , coal-mining areas develop _ed in West Virginia , Pennsylvarua, and Kentucky. Resources from the Colo nies As a colonizing power , Britain also had access to resource ·s available in its colonies, including timber for shlps . Larg ely because of the wealth they accumulated during the trans-Atlantic slave trade, INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION BEGINS 299 enough British capitalists had excess capitaJ (money available to invest in business es) . Without this capital, private entrepreneurs could not have created new con1mercial ventures. Abundant Rivers Britain., the northeastern United States, and other regions also had a natura l network of rivers supple1nented by publicly funded canals '111dharbors. These water routes made transport of raw materials and finished products inexpensive. Strong Fleets Britain also had the world 's strongest fleet of ships, including naval ships for defens e and commercial ships for trade . These ships brough t agriculnu-al products to Britain to be used to make finished products for consumers. Protection of Private Property A vita l factor that aided industrialization in Britain was the legal protection of private property. Entrepreneurs needed the assurance that the business they created and built up would not be taken away, either by other businesspeople or by the government. Not all nations offered these legal guarantees. Growing Popul~tion ~nd ·u rbanization The increases in agricultural production caused two shifts in society. As faaners grew more food, they could support more people. As they grew it m.ore efficiently, society needed a srnaller pen,entage of the population working in agriculture. This growing population in rural areas did not remain there. Migration was sometin1es the best of bad options. English towns had traditionally allowed farmers to cultivate land or tend sheep on government property known as "the commons. " However , this custom ended with the enclosure movement as 'the government fenced off the commons to give exclusive use of it to people 'vvbopaid for the privilege or who purchased the land . Many farmers became landless and destitute. The enclosure 1novement was thus instnunental in a wave of demographic change-forcing small farmers to move from rural areas to urban areas such as Manch ester and Live rpool The people who moved then became the workforce for the new and growing industries. KEY TERMS BY THEME - TEC HNOL OGY: Textiles spinning jenny water frame Jame.s Hargreaves Richard Arkwright factory system TECHNOLOGY : Ag riculture agricu ltura l revolution crop rotation se·ed dri ll 300 ECONOMY : Manufacturing Industria l Revolution industri alization cottage industry Eli Whitn·ey Interchangeable parts dJvision of labor specialization of lc1bor assemb ly line ern;:l0sure movement capital WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION .. ENVIRONMENT : B rita in seaways raw mater ials Manche .ster Liverpool MULTIPLE- CHOICE QUESTIONS Qu es.tions 1 to 3.refer to the chart below. Urban Population in England, 1801-1901 ¥ear Manche ster Liver-pool 1801 328,609 85,627 1821 526,230 137,880 1841 860,413 271,824 1861 1,313,550 392,481 1881 1,866 ,649 649,613 1901 2,357,150 Not available 1. Which of the following changes ·best explains one of the main causes of the trend shown in the chart? (A) increased use of cottage industries in Great Britain (B) increased 1nigration fro1n rural to Ltrbanareas in Gr~at Britain (C) increased British demand for imports of coal (D) increased British demand for i1nports fro1n India and China 2. Which of the following changes explains one of the main effects of the trend shown in the chart? (A) increased supply of workers for factory jobs (B) increased protection for private prop·erty (C) decreased support for the British fleet (D) decreased reliance on the specialization of labor 3. Which was the most important part of the context iii which the change shown in the cluut was occurring? (A) The Enlightnment was influencing how Europeans thought about religion and individual rights. (B) The idea of nationalism vvas spreading fro1n country to country throughout Europe. (C) The rise of maritime empires changed the relationship between Europe and other regions of the world. (D) The shifts in political forces created both internal and external challenges to European governments . INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION BEGINS 301 SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to ariswer all parts of the question that follows . "The advances which gave this great economic change the name ln.dustrial Revolution occurred in Great Britain , yet it would be contrary to the facts to regard the . mechanization of industrial proce sses a;; strictly a,n English experience .. . . England was the leading innovatoi: of methods for rendering raw materials more useful to man, but it by no n1eans .had a mon opoly of inventions. A Frenehman , Antoine Lavoisier , discovered the chemical nature of combustion .. .. An American , Eli Whitney, invented the cotton gin. And a Geiman , Justus von Liebig, determined Lhechief chetnical components of plants and thus laid the basis for a chemical fertilizer industry." Shepard B. Clough, ·'The lnd.ustrial Revo l.ution in England ," Columbia Hisl01y of the World, 1972 (A) Describ e ONE historical situation , other than the one illustrat ed in the passage , that also demonstrate how an economic deve lopment in history was 1nore than the experience of a sing le country . (B) Ex.plain ONE historical situation , other than the one il lustrated :in the passag e, that chall enges Clough 's view that the Industrial Revolution was. more than "strictly an English experie nce.' ; (C) Explain how the time in which Clough was writing might have influenced his viewpo int toward the Indus trial Revolution . 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) identify ONE way that natural environments contributed to the growth of Industrial Revolution . (B) Describe ONE way in which the development of the facto ry system affecte d economic structures in 1750- 1900. (C) Describ e ONE way in which popula tion growt h affected the development of technology in the period c. 1750-c. 1900. 302 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION TH[NK ~s A KISTOR1AN .: EXPLAIN THE PROCES'.s OF INDU.STRJAL~ATION S0:me pr0cesses me ve along in a linear :way,:water has to be .heated up ·and rea ch a te1nperatur e of 212 degrees before it boils and changes state ftom liquid to .gas. (First on~ thing b~pp~ns, tb~n aµother tping happ ens, a1id tl:ien ano1her thing happ ens .) Not all process.es axe lmeai ~ however. The proc-ess of industr ialization-the transformation of a mainly ag1:a~n socie~ to a mainly mechaniz ed and urban society-is · the resu.Ltof.many rlifferent fac.tors that may not fall neatly into a lin ear progres :sion. Gr0itp thej0ll0w i11;gfa c.t01·s1,:e-la.ledto •industrializciti0n inf() l@[tica/ categories. Each can appear in nzo1•e than one category : Then write aferVparagraphs exp lctinllig the rol:e:qfecrchfttc.tor a-nclt1ateg0ryin -the pfr:>oesso.[industrialization . l . urbanization 2. accu mu lation and invest ment of capita l 3. incr,eased agficuJtura:Lefficiency 4. technologi cal iinp1:ovemenls or br~~0ugbs 5. natural resources 6. 'Stability, orgQvemment 7. increa"sedpop ulatio n 8. consumers 9. transpo rta tion REFLECT O N THE TOPI C ESSENTI .Al QUESTION - 1. In one to three parag rap hs, exp lain what fact.ors contributed to and cha racterized indu strializatio n in the period from 1750 to 1900 . INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION BEGINS 303 5.4 Industrialization Spreads No exertions of the masters or workmen could haye answered the demands of trade without the introduction of spinning machines. -John Aiken , A D.escriptio n of the Country ... Around Mancheste r, 1795 Essential Question: How did differerit iypes and locations of product ion deve lop and change over time? Al though the Industrial Revol ution began in Britain, it soon Spread elsewhere. The British cottage industry system for the production of cotton , in which merchants provided r-awcotto n to be spun into cloth in workers ' homes, was supp lanted by the industrialization of cotton manufactur e in factories. Cotton became an increasingly valuab l.e commodity in the world economy as industrialized Britain , with higher productivity , was able to.replace Indian and Middle Eastern goo ds. After Brit ain industrialized , Belgiu1n and then France and Germany followed , and evenh1ally Russia and Japan became industria lized. These countties possessed many of the characteristics that allowed B1itain to industrializ e, including capital, natural resources, and wate r transportation. Spread of Industrialization After Britain industrialized , Belgium, and then France and Germany followed. Like Britain , these countries possessed capital, natural resources, and water transportation. The United States, Japan , and Russia also transformed as industrialization spread. FranceandGermany Despitesomefavorablefactorsforindustrialization, France had sparse ly populated urban centers , whi.ch limited the runount of labor availab le for factories. Also, the French Revolution ( 1789-1799) and subseq uent wars invo Jving France and its neighbors consun1ed both . the attention and the cap ital of Franc e's elites. These factors delayed the Industrial Revolution in France . Germany was politically fragmented into numerous small states , which delayed its industrialization. Ifow ever, once Germany unified in 1871, it quickly became a leading producer of steel and coal. The United States The United States began its industrial revolution in the 19th century. By 1900, the United States was a leading indu strial force 304 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION in the world. Human capital (the workforee) was a key factor in U.S. success. Political upheaval and widespread poverty brought a large number of in1migrants to the United States from Europe and East Asia. These in1nugrants, as well as migrants from rural areas in the United States, provided the labor force to work in the factories. Agricultural Products for Trade in the Nineteenth Century Product Producers Users (Finished Products) Wheat Russia , Britain Britain (foocl) Rubber Brazilian Amazon Britain (tires, footwear, fabr ics) Palm Oil West Africa, Indones ia Britain (cooking oi l, soap) Sugar Caribbean Islands, Brazil Britain (refined sugar) Cattle and Hogs United States, Ireland ,. Argen t ina Britain , United States (meat) Cotton United States Britain (texti.les) Russia Russia also began to industrialize, focusing particula rly on railroads and exports . By 1900, Russia had more than 36,000 miles of railroad connecting its coinmercia l and industrial areas . The Trans-Siberian Railroad stretched from Moscow to the Pacific Ocean, allo,ving Russia to trade easily with countries in East Asia , such as China and Japan. The Russian coal, iron, and steel industries developed with the railroad, 1nostly in the 1890s. By 1900, Russia had beeo-me the fourth largest producer of steel in the world. However, the economy remained overwhel1uiogly agricuJtural until after the Communists seized power in 1917. Japan The first country in Asia to industrialize was the one that had the least contact with Europe since the 17th century: Japan. In the nud-19th century, Japan went through a process of defensive modernization. That is, it consciously adapted technology and institutions developed in Europe and the United States in order protect its traditional cultur_e. By leanung from the West, Japan built up its military and eco1101uic strength so it could maintain its own dotnesli c traditions. In the last four decades of the 19th cenniry, Japan e1nerged as a leading \vorld power. For more details on Japan, see Topic 5.6. Shifts in Manufacturi □g While Middle Eastern and Asian countries continued to produce n1annfactnred goods , these regions' shar e in global manufacturing declined . Shipbuilding in India and Southeast Asia Shipbuilding initially saw a resurgence in India at the end of the 17th century, largely due to the political alliances formed between India and western countries . However, Indian shipbuild ing ultimately suffered as a result of British officials' INDUSTRIALIZATION SPREADS 305 1nis1nanagen1ent of resources and ineffective leadership during the period of Brit_ish coloni zation in the late 17th and 18th centur ies . In 1830, Britain designated ships of the British East India Company as the Indian Navy. The Indian Navy was disbanded by 1863, ho\vever , when Britain 's Royal Navy took complete control of the .Indian Ocean. Iron ,vorks in India British coloni al rule in Indi a also affected the count ry 's mineral production. D1u·ing the period of company 1·uJe-British East India Company contro l over parts of the Indian subcontinent from 1757 to 1858-steep British tariffs l_ed to the decline ·of India's ability to mine and work metals. The British .also began to close mines comp letely, especially after the Rebellion of 1857 , because they perceived that the tnines were being used to extract lead for mnn1unition. The ongoing ·fear of another uprising led to the Alms Act of 1878, which restricted not only access to minerals , but also to the subsequent production offireanns . British colonizers limited India' s ability to 1u.ineand work metals in areas such ·as the mineral-rich state of Rajasthan . By the early 19th century , most of the mines in Rajasthan were abandoned and the ·1nining indus1l-y was extinct. Even though Briti sh colonial role ended in 1948, 1uining and n1eta lworking remained practically nonexistent in India until the early 20th century. Lack of technological .innovation after so many years of abandone d mines led to a relatively crude , labor-intensive method of n1iniog, which created the false impression that India 's minera l re·sources we re inaccessible. {&:innect: Identify the sitnilruities in how Brit ain treate"d its colonies jn South Asia ,and i~s e0lonie~ m the Americ .as . See T(')pic4'.~.) Textile Production in India. and Egypt India and Egypt were both among the first to engage in the production and trade of textil.es. Just as it stifled the production of ships and iron , British colonizati on also .affected textile productio n in Ind ia. As the textile industry flourished in Ind ia, it undenn.ined the Bri tish textile mills in Britain, specifically in L ancaster . The owners of the Lancaster textile 1nillspressured the British government in India to impose an '' equalizing " five percent tax on all textiles produced at the n1ore than 80 n1ills operating in Bombay , thus unde1mining their profitability. Egypt's textile industry , too , experienced difficulties as a result of Europe's worldwide economic reach. [n the 18th century, Egypt exported carpets , silks, and other text iles to Europe. By the mid-19th century, however , the huge growth in ELu-opean texti le production had changed 1uatters. Egypt had lost not only its export market in texti les, but much of its domestic market as well. KEYTl:RMS BY THEME ECONOMY: Railroads Trans-Sib .erian Railroad 306 E.CONOMY: Manufac,turing human capital company rule WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below. "The economic relations of Russia with western Europe are fully comparable to the relations of colonial countries with their metropolises . The latter consider their colonies as advantageous n1arkets in which they can freely sell the products of their labor and of their industry and from which they can draw with a powerful hand the raw materials necessary for them. This is the basis of the economic power of the .governments of western Europe, and chiefly for that end do they guard their existing colonies oracquire .new ones. Russia was, and to a considerable extent still is, such a hospitabl e colony for all industrially developed states, generously providing then1 \vi.th the cheap products of her soil and buying dearly the products of their labor. But there is a radical difference between Russia and a colony: Russia is an independent and strong po_wer. She has the right and the strength not to want to be the eterna l handn1aiden of state·s which are 1nore developed econom ically. She shou ld know the price of her raw materi.als and ofthe natura l riches hidden .in the womb of her abundant territories, and she is conscious of the great, not yet fu lly displayed , capacity for work among her people. She is proud of her great nlight, by which she jealously guards not only the political but also the eco1101nic independen ce of her empire. She wants to be ·a metropolis herse.lf. On the basis of the people's labor, liberated from the bonds of serfdom, there began to_grow our own national economy, which bids fair to become a reliable counterweight to the domination of foreign industry ." Sergei Witte , Russian finance minister, secret report to Ts.ar NiehQlas 11on industrialization , J899 1. 1n the above passage, what policy is the Ru ssian Minister of Finance u1·ging? (A) maintaining current political and commercial relat ionships (B) supporting independent Russian industria l development (C) relying on foreign industry for econom ic growth (D) using tnilitary strength to prevent foreign industrial domination 2. What shift in econ61nic focus was enabled through the emancipat ion of the serfs? (A) [t create:d a labor pooJ not tied to agriculture. (B) It supported new mefhods of farming. (C) [t encoura ged popu lation growth . (D) [t established anew consume r base for manufactur ed goods . INDUSTRIALIZATION SPREADS 307 3. What was a criticaJ strategy in the industr ialization of Rus sia? (A) ·building an infrastructlJJ"e of canals (B) confrollin g the settle 1nent of Siberia (C) expan ding the national railroad network (D) developing a free trade policy SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to answer all parts of the question that follows. "By this oath we set up a·s our aim the establishment of the nationa l weaJ on a broad basis and fran'ling of a.constitution and laws. l. Deliberative assemblies shall be wide ly estab lished and all matters decided by public discussion. 2. All classes, high and Low, shall unite in vigorous ly carrying out the adm.in:istrationof affafrs of state . 3. The c01nmon peop le, no less than the civ il and n1iJitary officia ls, shall each be allowed to pursue his own calling so that there may be no discontent . 4. Evil customs of the past sha ll be broken off and everything based upon fhe just laws ofNattu-e. 5. Knowledge shall be sought throughout the wodd so as to strengthen the foundat ionsof imperia l rule." The Charte r Oatli of the Meij i Restoration, 1868 (A) Explain ONE way in which the Charter Oath affecte d tbe development of Japan 's indu strializat ion . (B) Exp lain.ONE way in which the passage reflects chan ge in Japanese political or social structur es in the period c. 1750-1 900. (C) Exp lain. ONE historical sit uation in the period 1750- 1900, other than the one illustrated in the pas.sage, that led to changes in Japan. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows . (A) D escribe ONE way in which revo lution affecte d industi-ialization in France and the United States. (B) Compa re ONE way in which indu striaJization affected Japan and Britain in the period c. 1750-c . 1900. (C) Explain ONE way in which political policies and cultural traditions influenced the Asian or Middle Easte rn shar e in global 1nanufach1ring. 308 WORLD HISTORY MO DERN: AP® EDITION l'HINK AS A KISTORIAN : CONNECT IMPERIALISM AND 'INDU STRIAL IZATION Think abo11tthe bistori ~a] devetopn1ent ofuup ·erialism and-the process of industrializati0n. Could onenave existed w,ifuout the otheli? Did they develop 0n separ.ate paths or is their developniellt intertwined? To't.1n:dersttznd if or hqw the twQ are related, begin by revie1iving.the paragrc1,phsJ1au.wro.te.f0rthe Think as a.Historicul/activity.for Topic 1 parag,_1r1phs 5.3. Then write 11.e111 explaining any relationshi:ps yo u find between trr,p-erialistn crndindu_s(rializat,ion . REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. 1n one to three paragraphs , explain how different production methods and locations developed and changed over time . Souree: Wikimooin Commons The Trans Siheri!IJ1Railway. c. 1913 INDUSTRIALIZATION SPREADS 309 5.5 Technology in the lndustrial Age Railroad iron is a magician 's rod , in its power to evoke the sleeping energies of land and water. -Ral ph Waldo Emerson (1803-1 882) Essentia l Question: How did techno logy shape economic product ion during the period from 1750 to 1900? As the IudustriaJ Revolution spread, it became increasing ly important economicall y. Although he later came to be troubled by the role of teclmology, Ralph Waldo Emerson initially saw the innovations of the industrial age as a delightful way to mold natw.:e in the service of humankind. The steam engine and then the inte rnal cotnbustion engine, po\vering rai lroa_ds, ships, and factories , increased acc.e·ss to resourc.es and increased the distribution of goods those reso urces helped produce . The next technological wave, known .as the second industiial revo lution, came in the late 19th and early 20th centuries ·and involved chemicals , steel, precision n1achin ery, and electronics. Electrification lit the streets , and the telephone _and radio 1nade world-wide, instantaneous communica tion a rea lity. The Coal Revolution The new 1nachinery of the Indust rial Revolutio n benefitted from a new power source, one more mobile than the streams that had powered the ffrst factories w ith their wa ter power . The version of the steam engine made by James Watt in 1765 provided an inexp_ensive way to harness coal power to ere.ate steam , 'vvhichin turn generate d energy for 1nachinery in tex tile factories. Within 50 years , steam was produc ing power for stea1n powered trains. Water Iransp ·ortation Stea1nships revolutionized sailing. The use of coal 1nade energy production 1nobile and dependable. Instead of being fixed in one place as .ariver was , coal-pov.1ered steam engines could be built anywhere and could be used on ships and trains. Further , Lmlike the wind, engines could be turned on by people when needed and turned off when not. As a result , ocean-going shjps a:nd boats on lakes were no longer dependent on winds for power. On rivers, steam-powered ships were able to trave l quickly upstream on r ivers 1 up to five miles per hour, instead of having to sail up or be towed by 31 Q WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION people and an imals along the shor e. Over time, steam-powered ships repla ced sailing ships in worldw ide h·avel. As a result, coaling stations , especiall y at critic al points on trade rou tes, such as Cape Colony in South Africa and various islands in the Pacific, became jmportant refueling points. Source: Huuft:rWood. I$ 19. Wikimc.tlin Commons. 1ne SS Se111w11wh (upper) was the .first steru:il-pewered shjp te cress the Atlantic Ocean ( 18 19) Soui'ce: U.S. Post Oaic.: The first transcontimmtalrailroad I 869 in Utah. (lower) was completed in TECH NOLOGY IN THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 311 Iron In addition to pnwering steam engines, coal made possible the 1nass production of iron. Throughout the 1700s and into the early 1800s, ilnpro ved processes helped iron producers increase outputs . One of these was the introduction of coke, a refined form of coal that made possible the use of n111chlarger iron producing furnaces. Cast iron was strong but brittle, making it difficult to stretch and shape. But in 1794, Englishman Henry Coit patented the process for ma.king the less strong but mucb niore workable wrought iron. Each was a valuable component in transportation and industry, but greater improvements were still to come. A Second Industrial Revolution The United States, Great Britain , and Germany were key players in what is known .as the second industrial revolution , which occurred _in the lare 19th and early 20th centu1ies. The innovations of the first industrial revolution were in textiles, steam power, .and iron. The developments of the second indus.trial revolution were in steel , chemicals , precision machinery, and electronics. Steel Production The mas.s production of steel, an alloy of iron and carbon, ·became possible with the introduction of the Bessemer Process u1 1856. This process invo lved blasting the molten metal with air as a means of removing implu-ities_as well as helping keep the metal fro1n solidifying. Over the years, Bessemer's innovation was refined and improved, aJlowing stee-Jto become the strong and versatile backbone of the industrial society. Oil In the mid-l 800s, the first co1nn1ercialoil wells were drilled, tapping into a vast new resource of energy. Petroleum, like coal, is a foss il fuel, an energy source derived from plruit and anin1al remains. At first, the most i1nportant product from petroleun1 was kerosene , which was used for lighting .and beaters; In 1847, inventors developed cbemicaJ techniques to extract kerosene from petroleum. These techniques led to other develop1nents, such as precision machinery and the inte1naJcombustion engine, which in tlu-nled to automobile and airplane technologies . When automobiles were.introduced in the early 1900s, gaso line as fuel became a more important product from petroleum than kerosene . Electricity The hame·ssing of electrical power bad to wait for the development of an effective electrical generator. In 1882 in London, the first public power station .began production. Electrification led to street lighting and electric street trains in the 1890s. Co1nmunications The development of electricity and electronics over the years helped lead to important developments in co1nmunication tec.hnology. Inventors had been \Vorking with the jdea of transmitting sound by electrical n1eanssince the early 19th century. FinaLiy,a patent forthe telephone was issued to Alexander Graham BeU in 1876. Early phone systems were notoriously low in quality, but Thomas. Edison 's 1886 design of a refined voice transmitter made telephone use more practical. 312 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Radio developed after the experiments of Italian physicist Guglie1no Marconi . In 1901, he was able to send and receive a radio signal across the Atlantic Ocean. After further refinen1ents and invention s, radio become a form of popular mass media with an impact unlik e any previously seen . Global Trade and Migration Railroads , steamships , and a new invention calle d the telegrap h n1ade exploration , development , and cO"mmuni cation possible . The telegraph allowed immediate co1nmutrication. The construction of railroads , including the Transcontin ental Railroad that connected the Atlantic and Pacific oceans when it was comp leted in 1869, facilitate d U.S. indu strial growth. Like the canals , the railroads were heavily subsidized by public fhnds . The vast natura l resources of the United States (timber , coal, iron, and oil. for examp le) and the ability to transport them efficiently contributed to the deve.topm ent of the United States as an indu stria l nation. The desire for capital , money available to invest in a business , was a driving force do1nestically an d abroad . Produ cts of industrialization, such as the railroad, steamship, and the te legraph, directly Linked frumers , miners , manufactu rers, custon1ers, and investors globa lly for the fust time.in history. With the develop1nent of the railroad and stean1ships, such countries as Great Britain, Germany, .and the United States intensified industrialization , increasing the need for resources. Industrialized countries sought to p1·otect their access to resources and markets by establishing colonies. Whereas earlier trade and migration often centered on coas tal cities , railroads , steamships , and the telegraph also opened up to exp loration and deve lopment the interior regions around the globe. Access to these are.as increased trade at1d migration. (Con:ne0t: Write a par-agrapb deseribing b,~w the Silk Roads set the stage for the industria l deve lo'j?ments of the 1800s . See Topic2J .) KEY Tl:RMS BY THEME ENVIRONMENT: Resources coal coa ling stations TEC HNOLOGY: Transportat ion and Communicat ion Alexander Graham Bell Gugliem·o Marconi Transcontinental Railroad ECONOMY : Indust ry steam engine James Watt steel oil capital - SOCIETY : sec9nd industrial rev9lution TECH NOLOGY IN THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 313 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the image below; Source: Library of Cong-res. ~ A aitl working in a textile factory in the lnd_ustrial Revolution 1. Which statement provides the best context for interpreting this photo ? (A) Machines used in factori es during the Industrial Revolution were si1nilar to the ones used iu cottage industri es. (B) One effect of the industrialization was that girls and boys worked side by side rather than in separat e job s. (C) As the Bessem er Process in1proved, textile n1achines beca1n e fast er and more sophi sticated . (D) The Industr ial Revolution led to a division of labor that meant employees began to d.o highl y specialized work. 2. Work in textile mills was most closely related to which technologica l breakthrough of the l ate 19th century (A) The use of electiic al power (B) The reliance on rivers for power (C) The telegraph. (D) The Transcontinenta l Railroad 314 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 3. The photo can best be used as evidence for 'Nhi ch of the following long-term effects of the Industrial Age? (A) Urbaniza tion (B) Pollution (C) Labor reform (D) Populati on increase SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS - 1. Use the image below to answer aD parts. of the question that follo,vs . Source: Library of Cougres.s Breaker boys, Woodward Coa l Mines . King ston. Pa. (A) Explain ONE way the image above reflects chan ges in workplaces in the per iod 1750- 1900. (B) Explain ONE technologica l developm ent in the period 1750- 1900 repr esented in the in1age. (C) Explain ONE way new busines.s praetie es affected workers lik e these in the per iod 1750-1900 . TECH NOLOGY IN THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 315 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Explain .ONE way in which the development of machine s mad e the discovery of new resources possible in the period 1750- 1900. (B) Exp lain ONE way technology affected co-mmunica tion in the peliod 1750-1900. (C) Explain ONE way that the industiiaL revolution affected global interactions in the period 1750- 1900 . THINK AS AN HISTORIAN: E~PLAI N THE EFFECTS OF THE bEVELQ PM ENT OF E_LECTRIC ITY Traeing the impact of -a deve lopment re·q_uiresrecogniz ing causes and effeqts. Foi; example,. the deve lopme_ntof h~nessing .electric&)power caused far-,rea:¢hing effects that c~ntinue to shape the modern ?{odd . On separ.µ.te pµ,pe1;1na.'kea char! like tbe one below to e.."K,p/a in a,nd give exatnples °'/'the spee(fic e;ffectsqf the (/(e,vel0p,:ne11to/e.lec'/:ricity. Specific Effects of Development of Electrical Power On creation of new indl!str ies On e·ase of daily life On communication On transportation On the environment On global connect ions REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIA .L QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , exp lain hovv technology shaped economic product ion dur ing the period fro m 1750-1900 . 316 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 5 .6 Industrialization: Government's Role It is_our purpose to select from the various institutions prevailing among enlightened nations such as are best suite,d to our present conditions , and adapt them in gradual reforms and imptovements of our .policy and customs so as to be upon an equality with thetn. , ' ' -Emper or Meiji. letter t o' President Ulysses Grant , 1871 Esse ntial Question: What economic strateg ies did differ:ent states and emp ires adopt, and what were the causes and effects of those strateg ies? AsWestern domination and technology spread, they met with varying degrees of acceptanc.e in different nations. Each country experienced competing pressures between preservation of traditional values and mode1nization. Egypt and some other countries early adopted policies that encoLu-aged the use of industrialized innovations, such as the stea1n engine, to boost textile productivity. Others, such as China, bad weakened central governments under European ascendency that were unable to pron1ote industrialization effectively. The Otto man E1npire The Ottoman 'Empire, although bordering Europe , had not adopted Western technology or Enlightenment ideas. Moreove r, rampant corruption led to rapid decline , and ethnic nationalisn1 aniong the empire's diverse population led to Widespread unrest. The empire earned the nickname "the sick man of Europe." Europea ns, particularly Russians, saw opportunities to expand their own empires at the expense of the weakening Ottomans . Though they feared the results of a power vacuum from a total collapse of the Otton1an Empire , they disn1antled it after World War I. A smaller nation-state, the Republic of Turkey, and several independent countries replaced the former empire . China China suffered two great humiliations at the hands of Europeans in the 19th century: the Opium War and the split into "spheres of influence .'' In the 20th century; China sh ook off foreign do1nination and briefly becrune a republic . I-lowever , its traumatic 19th centmy left a cenn·al government too weak to promote industrialization effectively for decades . (See Topic 6.5.) Japa n In Japan, in contrast, the central gove1nment grew stronger in its struggle to n1aintain independence and territorial integrity in the face ofWestern INDUSTR IALIZAT ION: GOVERNMENT ' S ROLE 317 challen ges. As the quote at the beginning of this chapter from Emperor Meiji's Jetter to President Grant indicates, Japan_actively sought Western innovations that it felt would help make it1he equal ofWesten1 countries . Ottoman Industrialization Suffe1ing fron1 problems of overexpansion and .failure to modernize , the Otton1an Empire unde rwent palace coups , declining trade , and weakening leadership in the 1800s. The e1npire no longer covered the grand areas of Sulein1an the Magnificent , who had taken his army to the gates of Vienna in 1529. The Rise ofMuhanunadAli One part of the Ottoman Etnpire where the sultan ruled in nam _e but had little power \Vas Egypt. In fact, the Mamluks, former Turkish slaves who formed a military class, bad ruled there for some 600 years . In 1801, the sultan sent an Ottornan a1my to retake Egypt. In the conflict with the Mam luks, an Albanian Ottoman officer., Muhammad Ali , rose to prominence , and local leaders selected hin1 to be the uew governor of Egypt. Toe sultan lacked the power to do anything but agree. Be.cause of his pow er, Ali was able to act somewhat independently of the sultan.. He joined the sultan's 1nilitary campaigns when it benefited him , and also unde1took several campaigns withou t the sultan's permission, including in the Sudan and Syria.1-1e also began his own reforms in Egypt. He began by 1naking over the country 's 1nilitary on a European model. He also estab lished schools, sent military officers to be educate d in France, and started an official newspape r-th e first in the I slamic world . Source: Wikimc dhl Commons, Jean -Frru19ois Portacls , portra it of MuhamJ:nad Ali , 1847 318 WOfiLU Kl::i I UHY MUUtKN: At-'"' tUI I IUN As part of his refoun of the Egyptian economy , ALi taxed the peasants at such a high rate that they were forced to give up their lands to the state. The government could then contro l the va luab le cotton production and make money on the export of cotton and other agricultural products. Secula,rizing religious lands put 1nore agricultural produc ·e in the hands of the government , resulting in large profits during the period of the Napoleonic \Vars ( 1799-1815), w.hen prices for wheat were high in Europe . Mu.hamn1ad Ali also pushed Egypt to industria lize . He had texti le factories built to compete with those of the FrenGh and British. In Cairo, be had factories built to produce ru.maments. In Alexandria , he set up facilities to build ships so that Egypt could have its own navy. The city of Cairo had dozens of sn1a1lshops turning out locks , bolts of cloth, a,nd other pruts for unifo1ms and weaponry . Ali is caUed the first great modem ru ler of Egypt part ly because of his vision of state-sponsored industrialization . Japan and the Meiji Restoration Japan's transition to a modern , industrialized country took less than half a century to accomplish . No country made such a rapid change. A Challeng e to Isolation Between 1600 and 1854 , Japan had very .little contact \Vith the rest of the world . However, the rising imperial powers in the world were not con:tent to let Japan keep to itself. The great powers of Europe , such as Great Brita in , the Netherlands , and Russia , all wanted to sell goods in Japan . Further, in the age of coa l-pov.1ered ships, trading states wanted to be able to refuel in Japan as they sai led to and from China and other pa.its of East As ia. Japan Confronts F oreign ers In 1853, a naval squad led by Commodor e Matthe w P erry in 1853 sa iled into Yedo and Tokyo Bay, asking for trade privileges. The next yeru·, Perry returned with even more ships, demanding that the Japanese engage in trade with the United State·s . Faced with the power of the U.S. \Varships, the Japanese gave in to U.S. demands. Soon they yielded to ~imi)ar demands by other foreign states. The ruriva l of Perry , and the threat be posed , caused Japanese leaders to realize the danger they and their culture were in . They had seen how even a large, traditionaUy powerfu l couutry such as China had been ]111n1il ia.ted by Westerners. They had watched as the British had gone to war to force the Chinese to accept opium inlports. While some Japanese argued that the country cou ld defend itself , many reformers feared it could not. They argued that the country should a_dopt enough Western techno logy and methods so it could protect its traditional cu ltw·e. ·To .accomplish this goal, they overthrew the shogun and resto red power to the empero r in 1868, an event know as the Meiji Restoration. Reforms by the M eiji Stat e Japan syste1natically visited Europ .e and the United States an.d invited experts to Japan in order to study Western institutions . Then, Japan adopted reforms based on what it admired: INDUSTRIALIZATION: GOVERNMENT ' S RQLE 319 • It formally abolished feudalism in 1868 by the Cha1·ter Oath. • It established a constitutional monarchy ba sed on the Prussian mod el in which the emperor ruled through .asubordinate political leade r. • It established equality before the law and abolished crue l punishments . • It reorganized the military based on the Prussian army, building a new navy and instituting conscription . • It created a new school system that expanded educationa l opportunities , particularly in technical fields. • It built railroad s and 1:oads. • It subsidized industrialization, pa rticularly in the key industries of tea , silk , weaponry, shipbuilding , and a tice wine called sake. The government financed all of these reforms with a high agricultural tax. The taxes proved a good inve stment because they stimulated rap id economic growth. The government's ability to collect increased taxes also provided revenue for the bureaucracy, uo\v centered in Tokyo. However, in replicating the methods of Westem countries, the Japanese also replicated some of industria l society's problems. For exan1ple, accounts of abuse and exp loitation of fema le Japanese mill workers are similar to the experience ·s that British female mill workers ha d l'ecorded decade ·s earlier. (C o_pnect: Write a brief piy-agtaph compar _ing: J~p~•s fudustri~z~tiQU :wj~ dev~loprn:ents in the West. Topic 5.3..) :see China and Japan in the 19th Century 0 1.000 MIies 0 e M111b i11 1,000 Kilo meters appo . ,. n.slm • kita cndai 0 . J: AN .,I;-. ~ Xi•an• Nanjiilg-e CHINA • EAST CHINA .• SEA I •ifa ipcl PA CIF i C OCEA1'\ 1 (1A.IWAN Wltls#>ou ~ ·. . IN1;)IA. Tokyo k11 SbruJw,ai H angzhou saka Hong Kong 0 HAIN ,IN DAO s;,,;,,, BrrJ• of B, uga l / P/ 1ilipp i11, S,a 320 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION The Role of Private Investments -while the relationship between industry and centralized government waskey to mode1nization in Japan , p rivate investn1ent'from overseas also becan1e iniportant. Once new industri es were flourishing, they were sometimes sold to zaibatsu, powerful Japanese fami ly business organizations like the conglomerates in the Uriited States. The prospect of attracting investors encouraged innovation in techno logy. For exam ple, a car penter founded a company in 1906call.ed Toyoda Loon1 Works that 1nade an automatic loom. The con1pany prospered , 1nodified its na1ne, and grew into today 's Toyota Motor Company. Japan's Economic Transformation , 1872-1914 Year Coal Production (metric tons) . . . S~eamshipS (total number) . . Railroads (miles) ~ 1872 ---- ---- 18 1873 --- 26. 1875 600 ,000 -·-- 1885 1,200 ,000 ---- ---- -- 1887 -- - ---- 640 1894 --- 16'9 2,100 1895 5,000,000 ---- ---- 1904 -- - 797 4,700 1913 21,300 ,000 1,514 --- 1914 --- ---- 7,100 Source: Thaya Wa11d u1. ··Mc.iji Rc~1ora1io11 /Rcvo lu1.ion,tt ~jsu .cdu. Daia not avrulublc for all cl!lcgock ~ for all years, KEY TERMS BY THEME - GOVERNMENT : Ottoman ECONOMY: Japan Mam luks Muhammad Ali Commotlore Matthew Perry zaibatsu TECHNOLOGY: Japan - c1utomatic loom GOVERNMENT:Japan Meiji Restoration Charter Oa:ttr INDUSTRIALIZATION: GOVERNMENT ' S RQLE 321 MULTIPLE- CHOICE QUESTIONS Qu estions 1 to 3 refer to the passa ge below. ;'Generali y speaking , the strength or weakness of a country is dependent on the wealth or poverty of its people, and the people ' s wealth or poverty derives from the amount of available products. The diligence of the people is a major factor in detennining the an1ount of products available, but in the final analysis, it can all be traced to the guidance and encouragement given by the gove1nment and its officials .... Your subject respectfully recoinmends that a clear-cut plan be established ... to determine 'the prioriti _es under which industries may be encom·aged . .. . If the people are adequate ly wealthy, it follows naturally that the country will become strong and wea lthy.... If so, it will not be difficult for us to co111peteeffectively against major pov.1ers." Okubo Toshimichi , ·•on the Role of the State in Industrialization," 1874 1. The main idea of this passage is that the government of Japan should (A) persuade peop le in Japan to work more diligently. (B) create a plan to encourage foreign .investment in Japanese industry. (C) avoid influencing private econo1nic decisions. (D) encourage industrialization to enable Japan to compete economical ly. 2. Which possible government policy would most directly support the goal stated by the writer? (A) reforming the Japanese educat ion sys.tern to increase training of workers and managers. (B) in1proving the Japanese agricu ltural system to feed the foreign residents broughl into Japan to work in the industriaJ factories. (C) providing subsidies to the poor who would .lose their traditional jobs as Japan industrialized. (D) passing .new laws that would reward peopl e for working hardeJ. 3. Which list of events related to_the topic of the excerpt is in the correc t chrono logical order? {A) Perry 's ships arri ve in Tokyo Bay, the Meiji Restoration, the Shogunate collapses, Japan industrializes. (B) Japan industrializes , the Meiji Restoration , the collapse of the Shogunate , Perry's ships arrive in Tokyo Bay. (C) Perry 's ships arrive in Tokyo Bay, the Shogu11ate collapses, the Meiji Restoration, Japan industrializes . (D) the Shogunate col lapses, Perry's ships arrive in Tokyo Bay , the Meiji Restoration, Japan industrializes. 322 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to ans,ver all parts of the guestion that follo~vs. "It was cotton production , especially , that characterized the beginnings of Egypt's iniegration into the global capitalist system. Cotton was an impo1tant part of the British_ Industrial Revolution, as textile mills in Lancasuire and elsewhe re canie to symbolize the changes that occurred as a society b"ansitioned front a feudal n1ode of production to a capitalist one. Egypt 's .i.nitial ro le in this chain of developments was to Sl!pplycotton to Briti.sh textile 1rriUs, especially when theAtuerican Civil War cut off supplies of cptton from the s0.utbem Urrited States (Beckert , 2004, p. 1405) . . . . Many of the 111aj or changes in Egyptian agriculture, and in rural Egyptian society moTe broadly, can be traced to the development of the global capitalist system. As the British promoted cotto11cultivation in Egypt, large estates took over land that had supplied the means of subsistence for peasants under precapitalist modes of production. The result was that 'the great majority of the peasantry wasby the end of the nineteenth centwy either landless or la:ndpoor, while a new class of large landowners - an agrarian bourgeo.isie-:bad emerged' (Beinii1and Lockman , 1987, p. 8). This agrarian bourgeoisie assumed much of the power in rural Egypt, yet the-influx of foreign capital during this develop1nent of agricultural production in Egypttneant that the fo reigners who controlled the capital also held much of the power over Egypt as a whole." Peter Bent , AgrariC/11 Clwnge and Industrialization in Egypt (2015) (A) Descr ibe ONE way in which cotton production changed the econom ic or socia l structure of Egypt in the period 1750- 1900 . (B) Describ e ONE way the passage reflects a diff ere nce between the political or economic polieies of Egypt and China in the period 1750-1900 . (C) Explain ONE historical situation in the period 1750-1900, other than the one illust.rat ed in the passage, in vvhich states in Asia or Af r ica adopted Western policies that affected traditional economic structures. 2. Answer all .parts of the question that follows. (A) Explain ONE historical situation that supports the argu 1ne11tthat Westernization brought more problems than benefits to people in Turkey, China , and Japan. (B) Explain ONE historical situation that challenges the argumen t that Westernization brought more probl ems than benefits to people in Turkey, China , and Japan. (C) Expla:in ONE historica l situation . that supports .an argume1it .about whethe r Turkey, China, or Japan r esponded most successfu lly to Westernization. INDUSTRIALIZATION: GOVERNMENT'S RQLE 323 THI.NK AS A HISTO .RIAN: IDENTIFY DIFFERIN~ PATTERNS OF INOU:STRIALfZATlDN As historians make connections betwe-en cultures and era'S, they look forn0t only co~istent patterns but also for c:liverg~ntones..~~r instance , the pattern in :France and Germany was consistent: these countries realized their need to follow Biifain "s charge towards "industti:alizing productiQn ill Qrder to strengthe 11 their ec_0n([)mic pres~nce. .This · trend towards industria:lizing reveals their interest in gaining a global economic pr_esence, pe.rhaps;_ even econom ic d0minanee. The states you read about in this· tepic, h~wever, did net follow that patt~m Revi ew the il~forrnp_tionin .thz,s topic µ1_1ii.identify a patt ,ern, of tndustr.ial'iz.tflgslurred by th-eOtton-zpfzsatul Ja.pti11e,se. In a Je111 ptiragraphs, iden-f[fythe p 'attern a11dexplain how rtdifj'eredjroiii that o.l European states both SQ'eially and ecpno,nu:al/y,; · REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In.one to three paragraphs, describe the economie strategies that different states and empires adopted , and expla in the causes and effects of those strategies. 324 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 5.7 Economic Developments and Innovations Man is an animal that makes bargains: no other animal does this - no dog exc.h-angesbones with another. -Adam Smith (1723- 1790) Essential Question: How did the development of econom ic systems , ideologies, and institutions contribute to change between 1750 and 1900? Industrialization and n1oden1ization led to new philosophies and business structmes . In the Wealth of Nations (1776), Adam Smith, arguing that humans are naturally transactional , provided a foundationa l text in support of capitalism and the establishment of private entr_epreneurship and shaped the economics and politics of the industrial age and the centuries to follow. Mercantilism , a system of econon1ic protect:ionisrn, was replaced by a laissez-faire ("leave alone' ' in French) policy that :promoted minin1al governmental involvement in coID1nerce and encouraged countries to reduce tariffs on trade . These econonuc ideas were reflected in, and supported by; emerging transnationalinstih 1tions, including banks such as theHong ·Kongand Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC} and manufacturers such as Unilever. As trade increased, so did the availability, aflord~bility, and variety of conswner goods . Effects on Business Organization New ways of organizing businesses arose during the Industrial Revolution. Some manufacturers formed giant corporations in order to n1iniroize risk. A corporation is a business chartered by a govenm1ent as .a legal entity owned by stockholder•s (individuals who buy partial ownership directly from the con1pany when it is formed or later through a stock market). Stockholders . might receive sums of money, knovvn as dividends, from a corporation when it 1nakes a p rofit. If a corporation e)(periences a loss or goes bankrupt., the stockho lders _are not liable for the losses. The most that stockholders ca:n lose .is what they pa:id for the stock in the first place. Markets with One Seller Some corporations becrune s.o po_werfi.11that they could form a monopoly , control of a specific business and eliminat ion of all competition. For ex.ample, Alfred Krupp of Essen, Germany , ran a gigantic co1npany that used the Bessemer process~ a more efficient way to produce ECONOM IC DEVELOPMENTS AND INNOVATIONS 325 steel, gaining a 1nonopoly in the Gern1an stee l industry. rn the Un ited States, John D. Rockefeller created a monopoly in the oil industry . Companies Working Across Boundaries British-born Cecil Rhodes, founder of De Beers Diamonds, was an especially enthusiastic investo r in a railroad project that was to stretch from Cape Town , .in modern-day South Africa , to Cairo , Egypt. Connecting all of the Btitish-held colonies with a transpo1tation network could mak e governance easier and .aid in conducting a war, if necessary . The proj ect was ne ver completed becaw;e Brit ain never gained control over ail the land on which such a railroad was to be built. The overwhelming majority of railway workers in Africa were natives who were paid fa r lower wages than their European counterparts . Thus , railroad technology was .a means of extracting as many resources as possible fro1n subject lands while paying colonial laborers as little as possibl e. De Beers was one of many transnational compan ies-those that operated across national boundaries-that emerged in the 19th cent1.u:y.For examp le, the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation , a British-owne d bank opened in its colony of Hong Kong in 1865, focused on finance, corporate investments , and global hankin e . The Unilever Corporation , a Briti sh and Dut ch ventw·e, focused on household goods-most famously, soap. By. 1890 it had soap factories in Australia , Switzerland , the United States , and beyond .. Unilever sourced the palni oil for its soaps :first from British West Africa and later the Belgian Congo , where it operated huge plantations. Because th ese companies were transnational , they gained wealth and influence on a scale rarely approached before. (C3onriect: Defehd or r efute the clain1-· mereantllism wa,s neces sary for the eventual growt h of ~ransnatio:n,d cori'.l_panies. SeeTopic 4 .4 .) Corporations A s.ole propri etorship is a business owned by a sing le pe rson, and a partnership is a small group of people who make all ·business decisions. A corpo ration differ s fron1 these two oth er n1ajor forms of business ownersh jp in that a corporation is a more flexib le structur e for large-scale econo 1nic activity. It replaced the tradi tiona l system of a single entrepreneur eng~ging in high-risk business end_eavors with a system of larger companies, collective ly engaging in low er-risk efforts . By spreading risk, investments becan1e 1nnch safer and more attractive . Four Features of a Corporation Feature Description Limited Liability Capita l suppliers are not subject to losses greater than the amount of their investment. Transferability of Shares Voting rlgnts in the enterprise may be transferred easily from one lhvestor to another. Juridical Personality The corporation itself acts as a "person '' a.nd may ther&fore sue ahd be sued, may make .contracts, .and may hold property. Indefinite Duration The life of t he corporation may extend beyond the participation of any of Its ihcorporators. 326 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Despite critics' charges that corporations undermined individual responsibility , they became a comn1on form of business organization. They eventua lly dominated n1anyareas of business, fro1n banking to manuJacturing to p1:oviding services . With their growth, corporations ga.ined great economic and political power . For example, the decision by a corporation about where to build a new factory could create thousands of new jobs for a cotnmuni ty. Banking and Finance Another way to reduce risk was through insurance, especially marine insurance. Lloyd 's of London , with beginnings in a coffee house where .merchants and sailors went for the most reliable shipping news , helped establish the insurance industry. Thenu1nber of banks rose as 1nerchants and entrepreneurs looked for a reliable place to deposit money .and to borro,v it when needed to bujld a factory or hire workers for a new enterprise. Effect on Mass Culture A culture of consumerism as we□ as of leisure developed among the working and middle classes of society in Great Britain, and for some people , living standards rose. Consumption needed to keep up with production , so producers began to advertise heavily, particula,rly to the middl.e class whose 1nembers had son1e disposable inco1ne, 1noney that can be spent on nonessentia l goods. Leisure activities such as biking and boating became popular during the late 1800s. In the l 880s, the penriy-farthing bicycle (below left) was replaced by the newer safety bicycle (below right) . The older style featured one large wheel and one small one. This allo,ved riders to travel fast, but the danger of falling over was high. The newer style , by using a chain connecting different sized gears on the wheels , could go the srune speed, but with less risk. E . 1.. llvt: YUIii ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS AND INNOVATIONS 327 Companies encouraged their workers to participate in athletics, because they believed that sports rewarded virtues such as self-discipline and playing by the rules. The sales of athletic equipment also generated business for those who made everything fro1n soccer' balls to sports stadiums. Perhaps because workers spent most of their waking hours in a bleak industrial environment, material goods and l_e isure ente1tainn1ent became important escapes. In Europe , soccer (known there as football), became popu lar, while baseba ll dominated spo rts in the United States. Particular sports developed along class. lines: tennis and golf in Eng land, for examp le, were played by the upper classes, while certain types of rugby were played only by the lower classes. The con:unercialization of the demand for public culture was also seen in the constn 1ction of 1nusic halls and pub lic parks , particularly during the second half of the 19th centui:y.130th the halls and the parks were built to accommodate a wjde range of socjal classes . One ain1 of this 1ningling of classes was for the low.er classes to see 1nore civilized, rational behavior so that they would be encotu·aged to emulate it. The 1nanner in wrucb one dass may have ultimate ly influenced the other is difficult to quantify, yet the enduring presence of such public mingling p laces r_emains intact. KEY TERMS BY THEME ECONOMY: St ru ct ures corporations stockholders . stock market monopoly Cecil Rhodes transnational 328 ECONOMY : Bu sinesses Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Unilever Corporation WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION CULTUR.E: Popula tion consumerism urbanization TE C HNOLOGY : Indu stry Bess!3mer process - MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below. "It [creating a n1011opol y in the oil industry] was forced upon us.. We bad to do it in self-defense. The oil business was in confusion and daily growing worse. So1neone had to make a stand. .. . This move1nent was the 01igin of the whole syste1n of economic administration. It has revolutionized the \1/ay of doing busine ss all over the world. Tue time was ripe for it. It had to come, though all we saw at the moment was the ne ed to save ourse lves frotn was teful conditions . . . . The day of combination is here to stay. lndi vidualism is gone , never to return. " John D. Rockefeller, interview. 1880 1. Which individual would most likely have agree d with the views expre ssed by Rock efeller on business comb ination s? (A) Jaines Hargreaves (B) James Watt (C) Gugliemo Ma1·coni (D) Cecil Rhod es 2. Which state n1ent su1mna1izes an ilnportant difference betwee n R ock efeller and Enlightenment thinkers? (A) The perspective that an action could be ''.forced upon us" by others {B) Th e desir e to end traditiona l practices that led to "wastefu l conditi ons" (C) Th e conclusion that an innovation could have impact "a ll over the world" (D) The belief that ''"indi viduali s1n is gone." 3, Wh ich exain ple provides suppo rt for the claims made by Rockefe ller? (A) The Krupp steel industry in Germany . {B) Th e declin e of the Otton1an En1pire (C) Th e ri se of cottage indu str ies (D) The suppo rt for the Americai1Dec laration of Independence ECONOMI C DEVELOPMENTS AND INNOVATIONS 329 SHORT-ANSWER QUEST IONS 1. Use the pa.ssage belo w to an swer all parts of the question that follows . "It is especially difficult to explait1why consumers chose to use the increasing incomes which they had at their disposal for conswnption rather than _for saving or inves.tment. Some historians ·suggest that consumptiem increased because consumers shared an almost instinctive desire to enjoy a higher standard of living and improve their material and psychological wel1-bei11g. Others believe that consume.rs consumed in order to emulate those around them; as Perkin suggests, 'I f consumer demand was the key to the 1ndustria1 Re.volution, social emulation was fhe key to consumer demand. By the eighteenth century nearly everyone in England and the Scottish Lowlands received a money inc.ome , and nearly eve1yone was prepared to spend a large part of it in keeping up wit.h the Joneses.' Other historians 1naintain that c.onsumers were manipulated by the machinations of advertisers and other commercial interests. According to Royle , 'The lubricant to n1ake the consumer society of the late twentieth century function smoothly was advertising , which was n1adeaH the easier with the advent of televisi6n. ' " John Benson, Con.rnmpiio11and llie Co11st1mer Revolulion, 1996 (A) D escribe ONE way in which ideas from the period 1750- 1900 contributed to the deve lopment of the consumer. (B) Ex.plain ONE way in which industrialization influenced th.e consun1er revolution in the period 1750-19 00. (C) Ex.plain ONE way in whieh capitalism influenced the cons.umer revolution in the period 1750- 1900 . 2. Ans"'Ter all parts of the question that follo-,-vs. (A) Exp lain ONE way in whic h Western Eu1·opean counh"ies changed a prev ious economic system in the period .1750- 1900 . (B) Explain ONE way in wh ich fTee-trade policies atiected a cultural structure in the per iod 1750-1900 . (C) Explain how an economic event in the 18th century influenced the economic ideas of Adam Smith . 33 0 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION l'HINK AS A HISTORIAN: EXPLAIN Rl::LATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DEVELOPMENTS Using: rea'Scming processes of co.mpar ison, causat ion, ·and /or continuity and change , historians can explore and ~x.plain relati onships betweea diffe_i;enthist0rical developments. F0r example, they can exp lain the relationship betw een the historical deve lopment of state·-bu1lding and the hi~toric.al <ilevelopment of global, trading netw0rks by· asking sµch guestioris as:. • Ho:w were these deve lQpments the same , and how were they, diff ere nt? • What caus,ed each development, and what w~re the effects? Did @nedevelopment cat1Sethe other? • What degre e of change did the developm ~nt b1ing about? lrl 0theE words, to what exten.t was C@nt:inuity preserved or disrupted? Tw.odevelop1nents during the p eriod 17S0 to 19Q0hove earned the retl@htff.onih Bl'ita.in. .tei'tn "rev.olution. '' These are Zheagri€uit~l1"al and the,Jndustrial R,evalution: Answer the qu estions above about ea:chre,vo/utiQn tQ -e.xpla:.in the r~la.ti0nshipsb ~tween the<11.. Pr¢pare Dne or rhdre grct:phies showing y our anttly,sis . REFLECT ON.THE TOPI C ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , exp lain how the development of economic systems, ideo logies , and institutions contributed to change in the period from 1750 to 1900 . ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS AND INNOVATIONS 33 1 5.8 Reaction .s to the Industrial Economy Fat a second 's sunlight , n1en must fight like tigers. For the privilege of seeing the .color of their children's .eyes by the light of the sun, fathers rnustfight like beasts In the Jungle. - Mary Harris "Mother " Jones , (1837 - 1930) Essential Que stion: What cohd itions led to calls for chahge in industria l societies, and what were ihe effects .of those efforts? Theharsh conditions of industrial life provoked resistance and calls for reform. "Moth er" Jones, a labor organizer, described the severe deprivations of the coal miners working underground all day, and other activists told of the hon·ors of factory wor'k. Philosophers such as John Stuart Mill soug ht to address this growing inhumanity of the industr ial era through social refo1ms Oth ers, such as the utopian socialists , argued for comp letely changing a system they considered to be basically flawed. Workers formed trade unions to advocate for higher pay and safer working conditions. Various ideologies and polit ical 1nove1nents e1nerged, s61ne pron1oting alternative visions of society. The Ottoman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin, China, and Japan also instituted reforms to promote industrialization . In response , in each , faced reactions against the results of economic change. Labor Unions Dan gerous and unsani tary working ·conditions , low wages, and long hours were common in facto1y wor'k in the 19th century. A connn ittee of Britain' s Parliamen t release d a study called the Sadler Report in 1833. The repo1t described these conditions . It mad e many people in Britain, particularly in Parliament , aware of the need for reforms. Workers also re·sponded to low pay and harsh conditions. They began to fonn labor unions --organ izations of workers that advocated for the right to bargain with employers and put the resulting agreements in a contract. For most of the 19th centuiy, w1ions in Great Britain had to organize in secret because the governn1ent treated then1 as enemies of trad e. However , by the 20th cenh try; union s bee.rune more acceptab le and membership increased. 332 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Unions improved \vorkers ' lives by winning minimum wage law s, limits on the number of hours worked , overtime pay, and the esta blishment ofa five-day workweek . Voting Ri ghts Unions sparked a larger movement for e1npowerment among the working class . In 1832, 1867, and 1884 , the British parlian1ent passed reform bil ls to expan d the pool of men who cou ld vote, thereby giving more repre·sentation to British cities. The acts re duc ed property ownership qualifications as a requir ement for voting . These r~forms laid the foundation for expansion of the franchise (right to vote) to all men in 1918. Briti sh women would not gain eq11alsuffrage (voting rights ) until 1928. Child Labor Along vvith unions, social .activists .and reformers hoped to i.tnprove the living conditions of the least powerfi:11i.t1society. Reform ers ' achievements especia lly benefited children. A law ill 1843 declared that children under the age of 10 were banned -fro1n working in the coal mines . In 1881 , educat ion became n1andatory for Brit ish children between the ages of 5 and 10. This focus on education, as opposed to work for monetaiy gain , pennanently redefined the role of children in urban society. The Intellectual Reaction As trade and production bec<_lll)eincrea sillgly globa l, the ideas of early economists such as Adam Smith (see Topic 5.1) were taken in new directions . While Stnith wrote in an age of individual entrepreneurs and small busin esses , people of the 19th centu ry vvitnessed the rise of larg e-scale transnational businesses. This shift caused people to think about society in new ways. For example, utopian socialists tried to create new communities . to de1nonstrate alternatives to capitalism. John Stuart 1'{ill Some economists, clergy, and intellectua ls criticized laissez-faire capitalism as inhumane to workers . One of these was a British philosophe r, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). Ife chan1pioned legal refo nns to allow labor unions , limit child labor , and ensure safe working conditions .in facto ries. Whil e his ideas were controversial in his time, .many of them eventually becom e widely adopted in industrial societies. Mill's philosophy 'vvas called utilitarianism. Rath er than state a se.t of timeless 1noral rules, as many religi ons or ethicist s did , utilitarianis1n sought "the greatest good for the great est number of peop le. "Unlike utopian sociali sts, who wanted to replace capitalism, utilitarians vvanted to address the growing p roblems they saw with it They viewed tbe1nselves as mod erate , rational advocates of gradual refo rm. REACTIONS TO THE INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY 333 Karl Marx Whi le most reformers wanted to fix what they considered prob lems with capitalis 1n , some peop le wanted m.ore extensive changes. Karl Marx (18181883) was a Gennan scholar and writer who .argued for socialism . Unlike Litopian socialists , whom he scorned because he thought they wanted to escape problen1s rather than confront them, he wante d to look at how the world actua lly operated . He called his approach to economics "scientific socialis1u." In 1848 , Karl Marx and his wealthy supporter Friedrich Engels published a pamphlet (now calle d the Communist M~nifesto) that suo11uarized ·their critique of capitalisn1. According to Marx , capitalism was .an advance on feudalism because it produced tre1nendous wealth , but that it also produced needless pove rty and misery. This contradiction between wealth and poverty occtuTed beca use capitalism divided society into two basic classes. • The proletariat was essentially the working class, working in factories and mines, often for little compensation. • The bourgeoisi e inc luded the middle class and investors who owned machine ry and factories where workers produce d goods. Marx said that market competition drove the bomgeoisie to exploit the pro letariat for the .sake of higher profits . Because the botu-geoisie owned the means of production, such as mac hines, facto ries, 1nines, and land, they rece ived most of the wea lth p1:oduce.d. The pro letariat, who did the phys ical and dangerous work , received ve1y litt le, just enough to survive. Marx exhorted ·the pro letariat to recognize their shared interest as a class and tak~ control of the means of production and share the 'vvealth they created fairly. For M arx , socia lisin wou ld replace capita lism. It, then, would later be replaced by a fina l stage of economie deve lopment, communism , in which all class distinctions would end. (Co.nnect: Create a chrut oompariQ.g utQpian and Marxistfhougbt. See 'Topic 5:1.) Ottoman Response to Industrialization In the 19th century, the Otton1an Empire 'vvasno longer at the peak of its political power . However , it ma intained son1e econo1nic power . Sultan Mahmud II (ruled 1808- 1839) reformed the Ottoman system. In 1826 , be abo lished the corps of Janissaries , which had oppose d him , and develope d a rtew artillery unit trained by Europeans . When the Istanbul Janissa ries revolted, he had them massacred. The .abolition of the feudal syslem in .183 1 marked the final defeat of the Janissaries' poweT. Mi litary officers were no longer able to collect taxes direct ly from the populace for their salaries. Instead, tax collections vvent directly to the centra l government , wbjch paid military personne l, thus ensuri ng their loya lty . 33 4 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Mahmud's reforms also included building roads and setting up a postal service . To tight the power of popular religious charities, he set up a government directory of charit ies. To operate the central administration of governn1ent ~ Mahmud TI created Etu:opean-sty le ministries. Reorganization Reforms after Mahmud (dtu-ing the years 1839-1876) (.irecalled Tanzimat (reorganization) and include the following changes: • The sultans in this period worked to root out long-standing and widespr~ad corruption in the central government. • Education had long been under the control of the nlruna , the educated class of Muslim scho lars. Now the sultans created a secular syste1n of primary and secondat)' schoo ls. Secu lar colleges were also gradually set up, one for each special purpose: military , engineering , trans lation, civil service , and so on. • The sultans codified Ottoman laws ru1dcreated new ones , including a commercial code (1850) and a penal code (1858) . These codes made it easier for foreigners to do business in the empire. • In 1856, the sultan issued an edict known as the Hatt-i flumayun (Otto1nan Reform Edict) that updated the.legal system, declaring equality for all tnen in education , government appointments, and justice regardless of religion OTethnicity. The .new lega l system also regulated the mill ets, which were separate legal courts established by different religious communities, each using its. own set of religious laws. Christians in the BalkatlS protested the new regulations because they felt that their autonomy was being threatened. Mu slims, on the other h'-10d, protested the reforms because they conflicted with traditional values and practice. Although not achieving religious equality , the Tanzimat reforms continued to have wide effects in areas such as the military and education. These effects continued even when succeeding sultans blocked other reforms. Ottoman Economy and Society The reforms under Mahmud II and the Tanzilnat occurred during a period of economic change in Turkey. After the Napoleonic waTs ended in 1815, prices for food and other crops declined in the Otton1an Etnpire. However , a global economy was in p lace , built partially on the flow of \Vealth into the Mediterranean from European colonial expat1Sion in the Americas. Ottoman workers were jucreasingly paid in cash rather than in goods. Financial enterp rises such as banking incTeased. These econon1ic changes occurred along with the s low spread of industrialization. The growth of industt)' affected n1en and wo1nen differently. For example , most new ind1,1strialjobs went to men. Legal reforms also benefited 111enn1ore than .women. Traditionally, under shariah , women had been allowed to hold money , to gain fron1 inheritance , and to receive some education. The reforms of Mahmud II made the law more secular , and ended the right of wo1ne11to distribute their property or cash through trusts to fami ly 111 embe rs. REACTIONS TO THE INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY 335 Althou gh women had indirect control of their prope1ty, the new nom eligious courts ended even these limited right s. Many reforms had no effect on women. Since women were excluded fro1n the army, the prof essions, high er education, and co1nmerce, reforms in these areas did not affect the1n direct ly. The Tanzima t reforms of 1839 did not even mention women . Opposition to R eform When SultanAbdulhamid took power in 1876, he supported the efforts at internal refo1ms. He accepted a new constitution for the Ottoman Empire and he continued to emphasize primary education and secularization of the law. A fe'vvgirls were allowed to .attend gir ls' secondary schools by the beginn ing of the 20th century. Ho\ve ver, fearful of any ''seditious ;' reform , the sultan and the central government maintained tight contro l over the empire . Abdulhamid eventually ch-ovethe advocates for refom1, known as "Young Ttu-ks" into exile. Further , his gove1nment whipped up anger against minority groups, particu lar ly Almeriians and Assyrian Christians. Betw een 1894 and 1896, betw een 100,000 and 250,000 Atm enians were killed throughout several provinces in 'vvhathas become known as the Hamidian .massacres. For this blood shed, he received the nickname the Red Sultan. Reform Efforts in China Like other powers , China under the Qing Dynasty felt pressure to mod ernize. Its major refom1 effort of the late 19th century was known as the SelfStrengthening Movement. It developed as a way for the gove1nment to face the internal and external probl ems confronting China . Government officials hoped to strengthen China in its compet ition with foreign powe rs by advancing its tnilitaiy technology and readiness and by training Chinese artisans in the 1nanufacture of items for shipyards and arsenals. French and British advisors helped Chinese reform efforts . A stable government capable of collecting revenu e allowed China to repay debts and participat e in trade . For the Chinese , their existence as an indep endent state depend ed upon econo.mic solvency. Reform in the name of modernization seemed in evitable . As another step toward reform, the Chinese government set up its own diplomatic corps and a custon1S service to help collect taxes on in1ports and exports. The government's strate gy was to graft s01ne modern ideas and techno logy onto Chines e tradition rather than to create major change. Demand for reform increased after China's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895 ). People fanned clubs to call for change . One club, led by a civil servant named Kang Youwei, was able to m.eet with Emp eror Guangxu. Kang convinced the ruler to support a s.et of s~reeping refonn s known as the H undred Days of Reform . Tl1e reforms included the abolition of the outdated civil service exain , the elin1ination of corruption , and the establishment of Weste rn-sty le industrial, commercial , .and medical systems . Ci.xi's InitiaJ Conservatism Flowever, the emperor' s aunt and adopted 1nother and the most pow erful political figure in the count ry, E mpress 336 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Do,vager Cixi , was a conservative. At .first, she opposed the reforms and wanted to protect traditiona l socia l and governmenta l systen1S.In a coup d'etat ~ Cixi imprisoned the emperor and i1n1nediately repealed his reform edicts . She feared the influence of foreigners, so she resisted any new techno logy that would extend their reach into her country. For examp le, she stopped the extension of railroad lines and telegraph networks into the C-hinese interior. Reform of the Civil Service However , toward the end of Cixi 's rule, she came to recognize the problems 'vViththe civil service system . It was designed accord ing to Confucian ideals of respect for rank and hierarchy as well as values of civic participation and action. By the 19th centtn:y, though, the wealthy were using the civil servants to get favors. Revenue dropped off for the government as a result of bribes going into the pockets of corrupt civil servants. Moreover , non-qualified persons were purchasing civil service posts . China abandoned nearly 2,500 years of tradition, one that bad yielded an educated bureaucracy of scholar-gentry . In spite of this concession, the etnpr_ess's overall conservatism caused her to fail to cope 'vvithdemands of modernity -inChina. Chin~ and Foreign Powers Unlike Turkey, where Europeans had .little to gain from either passage or opposition to progressjve refonns, -in China , Europeans encouraged change. When reforms were tnet with the conservatism of Empress Cixi and the 1900 Boxer Rebellion against foreign influence (see Topic 6.2), the Chinese goverrune11t, including its provincia l governors, continued to mode rnize , with so1ne help from Ainerican and Ew ·opean advisors. Weakened by interna l rebellion and fea1ingencroachmerrt from Japan , China had to acc·ept territoria l "protect ion" fr.01nWestern powers , who in return demanded trade concessions. In 191 1, the Chinese chose to become a republic. (See Topic 7.1.) ln addition , they resisted being swallowed up by their exte1nal enen1ies. China's attempts to preserve its territoria l integrity benefited fron1 the efforts of the United States to maintain stability in Asia by preventing Japan -fro1n encroaching farther on its ten·itory after the Russo-Japanese War of 1905. U.S. efforts were exemplified by the Treaty of Ports1nouth, which sett led the war arid was negotiated with the help of President Theodore Roosevelt. Resistance to Reform in Japan J11stas China ended its long-standing civil service system, the Japanese also ended a traditiona l systeni of exercising authority. In 1871, Japan gave samru·ai a final lump-sum payment and legally disso lved their position. They were no .longer fighting men and were not allowed to carry their s'vvords. The bushido , their code ofconduct ~was now a persona l nui.tter, no longer officially condoned by the government. Some samurai adjusted to the change by serving the government as geuros, or elder statesmen. Others , particularly those from the provinces of Satsuma '-1IldChoshu , resisted the change. They defended their right to dress and wear their hair in traditional ways and to enjoy relative autonomy ftoth REACTIONS TO THE INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY 337 the centraliz ed government. The last ·battle between the samurai shogunat e forc es and those loyal to the empe ror occluTed in th e 1870s. Di sn1ayed by defeat, the samurai became the main victims of Japan's rapid mod en1ization. Ironic ally, some of their leaders were the same people who had supported the Meiji R estorat ion in the 1860s. Rise and Decline of Liberalization S01ne refo1ms in Japan worke d better than others. The new scb_ools quick ly impro ved literacy rates , the economy rapidly .industrialized , and the country began to develop traits of den1ocracy such as a free press, strong labor unions, and respect for individual liberties. However , by the 1920s, anny officers again began to dominate the governme nt . Sou re~: Wikirtmlio Com,mms Samurai from southern Japan lod the reaction agains t the rapid changes in Japanese society intbc 1860s and L870s . Limits to Reform Turk ey, China , and Japan each followed its own path in respondin g to indu strialization in the 19th cent1uy. Of the thr ee, Turkey began to mak e changes earliest. 1-Iowever, Sultan Abdulha1nid, though he supporte d reform s at first , became more conservative during his tin1e as ruler . China began to make changes only later in th e century . In contrast to Abdulhamid, China's Cixi star ted as skept ical of reform but becan1e more liberal during her reign. Japan respo nded to industria.lization with dramatic , rapid chan ges beginning wit h the Meiji Restoration in 1868. t ioweve r, the speed and depth of its reforms prompted a backlash from conservativ e metnbers of society. 338 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION KEY TERMS BY THEME ECONOMICS : Communists socialism Ka·r1 Marx Friedrich Engels Communist Manifesto means·of production communism SOCIETY: Workers labor unions proletariat bourgeosie CULTURE: Japan bushido genros GOVERNMENT: Ottomans Mahmud II Tanzima:t Hatt-i Humayan millets GOVERNMENT: China Self-Strengthening Movement Emperor Guanxu Hundred Days of Reform Empress Cixi .ECONOMICS : Theory John Stuart Mill utilitarian ism MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Q11estions 1 to 3 refer to the passag e belo,v. 'We have no\v received Her Majesty 's decree to devote ourselves fully to China 's revitalization, to suppress vigorously the use of the terms nei-v and old, and to blend together the best of what is Chinese and what is foreign. The root of China 's weakness lies in bcll'.m:fi.Ll habits too finnly entrenched, in n1le·s and regulations too minutely drawn , in the overabundance of inept and mediocre officials and in the pau_city of tntly outstanding ones, in petty bureaucrats who hide behind the written word and in clerks and yan1en runners [administrative clerks] who use the written word .as talismans [an object that brings good Luek] to acquire personal fortunes , in the n1ountains of correspondence between government offices that have no relationship to reality, and in the seniority system and associated practices that bloGk the way of men of real talent." Qing Reform Edict, January 19, 190 I 1. Which segment of Chinese society seems to be the focus of this excerpt from the Reform Ediet? (A) the military (B) the emperor (C) eivil servants (D) peasants 2. Which concept best reflects the ideas advocated.in the Refonn Edict? (A) the concept of conce·ssions (B) the princip le of extraterritoria lity (C) the Open Door Policy (D) the Self-Strengthening Movement REACTIONS TO THE INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY 339 3. Ho\v did the Boxer Rebellion lead to the Reform Edict? (A) Th.e failure of the Boxer Rebe llion persuaded many 1nembers of the Chinese govem1nent to support more extensive reforms. (B) The Boxers were the "inept and mediocre officia ls" that the edict was trying to remove. (C) The success of the Boxer Rebe llion against the Qing opened the way for 1nol'esignificant reforms to be enacted. (D) The Boxe rs shifted their efforts from trying to drive foreigners out of China to serving as efficient government officia ls. SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the post er below to answer all parts of the question that follows. American Federation of Labor, Library of Congress {A) Describe ONE way in which the poster reflects the inte llectual ideas of the period 1750-1900 . (B) Describe ONE way in which the develop1nent of industrialization contributed to the development of trade w1ions in the period 1750- 1900 . (C) Exp lain ONE historica l situ_ation in the period 1750-1900, other than the one illustrated in the poster, in which groups of people influenced ehanges in industrial s.ocieties . 340 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 2 . .Answer all parts of the question that follows . (A) Exp lain ONE way in which the ideas of Kru·l Marx compare to the ideas of John Stuart Mill . (B) Explain ONE way in vvhich reactions to Ottoman reform is similar to reactions to Japanese reform iii the period 1750- 1900. (C) Exp lain ONE w.ay in which Western European influenced reform in China in the per iod 1750- 1900. THINK AS A HJSJOR1AN.: EXPL;A. IN THE HISl'OR IC;A. L $ 1TUATION OF A,.SQl)RCE Knowing the historical situation of a source- including the other eonteiµp0raneQus @pinions'swirling a:bo,ut a topjc-helps situ(.l,tethe soutce .in a ~peotrum of view,po-ints. In ) 844, Samu~L Laing,, a British politi ejan 1 wro te a paper called "l'lie Causes ,().( and Rem edies ter,the ~xisting Distress of the Cotmt'ly,,; in rea ction to evidenc;e '' thal as wealth increa~es; poverty increas es in a faste:i;l'atio.'' HeJJroposed systematic,gpvernm~nt sponsored emigration a:s0ne soluti/i)nto the problem Read the e.xeer.plSbeiow)i :·om Laing spa.per qnd the11an.~er the qu,estio.nslhatfollow t0 he{p,explain itl; liistor-icalsit uation. ''The truth a_ppe¥S t0 bl;!, thc1twhile. emigrc1tionis advoeate.d simply as'aJnatter of _p11ont and [~ss, and regarded as a chea_pand convenient rri©'ide . otsnoving misery o)lt @fsight, it}s not calculated Jo answer the selfish enas of its promoters. But .i'fit were tak~n qp in a ~irit of charity., i:µ~d~ pait ,and parcel of;a comprehensive soh~m~ :fu1· raising the c0ndi1l9n.of the po ore r elas~es, and pr@s.eeuted by Ui~:govemment an~ $OC1li)tyfrom a sense of d11tycrlltherthaa0f ,?elf.-interes1-,there ~eems every ground for hoping that emigration niight beco1ne -an insfl:uinent of great good , not 0nly to the colonies , but to the mother counhy. If the o.wners of est?-Jes,foLinstanee , wh.erethe agqcultural p9pulation ii, :eJe.a:cly redqn:dant , were, with a. disititereste~ vi~w to th.e goo,d of their dependants , to -assist tlrenfin emig1sating, and if the ' governn1ent w:as, under proper guarantees, and with proper dis 0rimination, to cogperate in. the enterprise , there seems no dqubt Uiarmu ~h practical · ... m.ight be plantid in tli'e goo,d mighi ae a·ccom:plished. Colonie..-, N.arthAtnerican ~e.ttlementS wjth e\iety prospect of success; lhde.ed with the certainty that those , who . if the y had remained at home, Vi:ould .have _beeO'.sqpalig , pa.!lners, wil l, in a few· ye ars , :bec gme a body of respe~tabl ~ freeholders, an.dan i:mpo1ta.11t acq~siti:Qnit0 their adopte-0conntry. Hy th·e sam.e proeess "the' condition ofthose at home might be g.reatly ameliorated, provided active steps were taken by the laudl9J;d -t9 eragi'cate the evils wlrichhad led t9 the multip4cation REACTIONS TO THE INDUSTRIAL ECONOMY 341 of ,a pauper popula:_Lion . A great writen hai; said, "Do "14ed;uty that lies nearest to fhe"ei and a:lready,in so doing, thy next duty wil l have become elearer." . .. Eve1y step ,raken in advance with ag0od motive and in a right direetj:on, cleai;s away-a thousan:ddiffieu:lties, When it is cle&nlyseen that a measuTewHl oeaefit human aeing!h and injure n,othlhg-but abstract theories, let the··government strike boldly i~ and the theories will soon veei- r<i>undand prove · that what has been done is_right. . . . Do not let ·tbe g9vernment ri~ the ee1tain go9d tbat is effected rm.derthe _pfesent systJ;:mby any hazardous experiment tmsanotioneo. by, experience; but, on the otber hand , do not Jet them sink spellbound under tbe· influence of theories 0f laissez f aire, and gmit Qppo1tunitiesQf doing practieal g@odwbere itjs in their power . LettlieJJi leave tbe princy,leof s'eJf-interest to d~··all t.li'eg00d it :ean, but reme111 ber fuaf it can ne\iei- be a substitute for the higher principles of duty and charity , and that enugration , like ,any othe r -ex;pedien r for the relief of s0ciety, 1111Jst b.e condtJcted in ~ disin:t!:)rested SJ?irilof enlight@ed bene v,(:)Jence , in order t.o a-cc0mplish its ,object.~' SouTc~:.http~://~r~hive.!)rg/de,tailsj natiQn-aldistre.ss00lainuo ft/p_ageln4 - 1. In wbat context does La ing use fhe tenn ""self-interest''? 2. Wh:at does liis use ofthat term sugge~t ab~1utthe 0pinie11Sef tho-s-ewho would disagree with bis plan? How would fhey argue against .his plan? 3. To what does Laing refer when he writes that the plan will ''mj,ure npthing but abstract the0;ties "'?· 4. How would Laing respond to the idea that the •"invisible hand " will d0 a better j<;>Q than hi&proppsal in addre~sing problems of povei:ty?' REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , exp lain the conditions that led to calls for change in industrial s.ocieties and the resu lts of those efforts. 342 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 5 .9 Society and the Industrial Age Bleak, dark, and piercing cold , it was a night for the we/1-house.d and fed to draw round the bright fire and thank God they were at hon1e; and for the homeless , starving wretch to lay him down _ and .die. - Charles Dicke ns, Oliver Twist (1839) Essent ial Question : How did industria lization cause change in existing social hierarchies and standards of living? lnd1,1str ialization affected not only governments and economies but also people 's everyday .lives . D ickens illustTated the .sharp contrasts -inthe industrial age between the e1nerging n1iddle class , who enjoyed the benefits of the new pro.speri ty, and the urban poor , \vho were ill-treated. Young children worked in factories. Women experienced substantial changes in their lifesty le. Poor women took jobs in domestic service and the text ile indust ries, spending less time at ho1ne. Middle-class women, with no economic responsibilities , felt .limite d by household roles. The middle classe·s also started spending their free time seeking entertainment in theaters , concert halls, and sports facili ties . Effects on Urban Areas For the first half of the 19th century , urban areas grew rapidly and with .little p lanning by .governments. This deve lopment left a damaging ecolog ical footprint and created inhumane living conditions for the cities ' poorest residents , 1nembers of the working class. Working families crowded into shoddi ly constructed tenement apartment buildings , oHen owned by factory owners themse lves. Tene1ne11ts were often located in urban slums (areas of cities where low-income families were forced to live), where indust rial by-products such as polluted water supplies and open sewers were common . In conditions like these , disease , including the much-feat'ed cho lera, spread quick ly. So did other public hea lth menaces, such as fire and crime and violenc.e. Over tin1e, municipalities create:d police and fire departments , and several public health acts were passed to i1npleme nt sanitation refom1 by c1·eating better drainage and sewage systems, supp lying Gleaner water , removing rubbish , and bujlding standards to reduce accidents and fire. Eventua lly, industr ialization led to increased living standa rds for many. Wl1ile life could be'Very hard for poor and working class people , the growing middle class had increased access to goods , housing , cul ture, and education . SOCIETY AND THE INDUSTRIAL A<3E 343 The wealth and opportunities of the middle class were among the reasons people continued to strean1into cities from rur al areas. P eop le living in po ve1t y on fa1n1Sor in villages hoped to find a better life in an urban center. Many did. Effects on Class Structure As industrializa tion spread, uew classes of society en1erged in Britain. At the bottom rungs of the social hierarchy were thos e who labored in factories and coal mines. They were known as the working class. Though they helped construct goods rapidl y, the technology of intercban geab l.e parts and the factory system's division of labor had deprived \.vorkers of th e experience of craft ing a complete product. [n comparison to the artisans of earlier generations , workers needed fewer skills, so managers viewed them .as eas ily replaceab le. Competition for jobs kept wages low. (Connect: Exain ioe the .ehangesinc:la:ss st(uc.tur.efr-0m17.thcentur;y Europe to the second industrial revolution. 'See .To_pit4.7.) Source: 1.bluk.~1ock Sour ce: Library of Congress lndustria lization created new jobs in factor ies (upper) and offices ('lower) that pulled peop le from rw-al ar1eas into urban areas , a process that continues around tbc world today. 344 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION While industrialization created low-skilled jobs, it also required those who 1nanaged the productio11 of goods to have education and sophisticated skills . A new middle class en1erged, consist ing of factory and office n1anagers, sn1all business owners , and professionals . They were ,vhite-collar workers, those held by office workers. Most wete literate and considered middle class . At the top of the new class hierarchy wer_e the industrialists and o-wners of large corporations. These so-called captains of industry soon overshadowed the landed aristocracy as the power brokers and leaders of tnodern society. Farm Work Versus Factory Work Before industrialization, family n1e1nbers worked in close proximity to one another. Whether women spun fabric in their own homes or landless . workers fanned the fields of a landlord, parents and children usually .spent their working hours close to each other. Indust rialization disrupted this pattern. Industria l n1achinery was nsed in large factories , making it impossible to wolk from home . Thus, individuals had to leave their families and neighborhoods for a long workday in order to earn enough money to survive. In a facto1y, work schedules were nothing .like they were on .a farm or in a cottage industry. The shrill sounds of the factory whist le totd workers \Vhen they could take a break, which \Vas obvious ly .aculture shock to forn1erfarmers who had previ.ously completed tasks according to their own needs and schedules. Cons idering that workers commonly spent 14 hours a day, six days a week in a factory, exha:ustion was colllinon. Some of these exhausted workers operated dangerous heavy n1achine1y. Injuries and death were common . Effects on Children The low 'A/ages of factory workers forced them to send their children to work also. In the early decades of indust1ialization , children as young as five worked in textile mills. Because of their stnall size and nimble fingers, children could climb into equipment to make repairs or into tight spots in 1nines. However , the dust from the textile nuichinery damaged their lungs just as much as it did to adults' lungs. Children who worked in coal mines faced even more dangerous conditions than those in n1ills: • They labored in oppressive heat, carting heavy loads of coal. • Coal dust was even more unhealthy to breathe than faetory dust. • Mine collapses and floods loomed as constant threats to life. E ffect on Women's Lives The lndustria l Revo lutio11affected women in different \-vays, depending on their class posit ion. Because their fan1ilies needed the 1noney, working-class women worked in coa l mines (until the practjce of hiring women for coal mining was declared illega l in Britain in the 1840s) and were ·the primary laborers in textile factories. Factory owners preferred to hire won1en because they could pay them half of what they paid men. Midd le-c lass women were spared facto 1y work , yet in many ways they lived n1ore limited lives than working-c lass women. Middle-class men had to SOCIETY AND THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 345 11,;!ave the house and work at an office to provide for their famili es. If a wife .stayed at home, it was .an indication thather husband was capable of being the famil y's sole provider. Being a housew ife thus became a status symbol. By the late 1800s, advertising and cons.umer eulture eontribu ted to a ''cult of do1nesticity1' that idealized the female h omemak er. Advertising encouraged women to buy hou sehold products that would suppose dly make the home a husband' s place of respite from a harsh modem world. P(llllpblets instructed middle-class women on bow to care for the hon1e, raise chi ldren, and behave in polite society and urged them to be pious , submissive, pure , and domestic. For working-class women the cult of domesticity was even 1nore taxing, as ti.1ne. they had to manage the household, care for their children, and work fi.111 Indus.trialization also spurred feminism. When men left a communit y to take a j ob, their ·absence opened up new opportunities for the women who remained ho1ne. One political sign of this fe1ninism can1e in 1848 at Seneca Falls, New York, when 300 people met to call for equality for women. Effects on the Environment Toe Industrial Revolut ion was powered by fossil fuels such as c.oal, petroleum, and natural gas. Although btu-ning coal produced more energy than burning woo d, the effects were ex'tre1nely harmful. Industrial towns during the late 19th century were ch_oked by tox ic air po llution produced by coal-bu1ning factories . Sn1og (smoke and fog) from factories led to deadly respiratory problems. Water becrune polluted , also, as the new indus.tries dumped their waste into strea1ns, rivers, and lakes. Ch,olera, typhoid, and other diseases ravaged neighborhoods. 'lil.\lJJ I Sour ce: John L~crh, P,m ci,.July 3. 185$. Before London built a system ofpuhlic sanitatio n, the Thames River, the soUJ·cc ofthc c ity's drinking Wi)ter,was filled with sew age and industria l pollutio11. The river spread deadly diseas es throughout the city. 346 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION Industrial Revolution's Legacy The Industrial Revolution brought about profound changes . Mas.s production made goods cheaper , n1ore abundant, and more easily accessible to a greater number of :people than ever before . Growth of factories .attracted peop le to move , both from rural areas to cities and from agrarian countries to industrial ones. Both low-skill ed workers and high-skilled professionals moved to take advantage of new opportunities provided by industrialization . tiowever , the natural by-products of industrial production poUuted air and water supplies. Industry forever changed the nature of work and the lives of workers . Working populations became concentrated in urban centers , as opposed to being sprea d an1ong nrra l areas . The workplace shifted from homes to factories , dramatically .altering family life . The Industrial Revolution created a uew-and many said unequal-working relationship ·between workers and owners. More crowding and more poverty brought more crime . Global inequalities also increased because of industrialization. States that industrialized early desired more raw materials to power their production . They searched the world for items such as cotton and rubber. By exploiting averse.as natural resources , they undercut early industrialization -in Egypt, China, and India , and ushered in a second wave of colonization. KEY TERMS BY THEME ECONOMICS : Indust rializatio n mass production CULTURE : City Life tenement slums SOCIETY : Hier archy wqrking class white-co llar 1, SOCIETY AND THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 347 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below. "Tbe invalid workman is saved ·from starvation by the meas ure we no,v advocat e .... Whosoever has looked closely into the state of the poor in large towns , or into the arrange ments n1ade for paupers in country con1nnmes, and has see n for himse lf how--even in the best-m anaged vil lages-a poor wretch is some times treated when weakly and crippled, must admit that any healthy operative, contemplating that spec tacle, is fully justified in excla imin g: ' It is simply horribl e that a human being should be treat ed worse than a dog in .his own house !' I say, therefo re, our first object in brin ging forward this bill is to ensure kindlier treatment to this class. of the poor ; and next year r will do my best to give D epLity Richter full satisfactio n as to the extent of the provi sion propos ed to be mad e by the stat e for the b etter usage of the unen1ployed. Fo r the present this measure must be regarded as an experitn ent-a n attempt to find out the depth of the financiaJ wate r into which we ask the country to pltmge." Otto von.Bismarck, speech, J~8l 1. Which statement provides the best context for understanding the passage? (A) Germany lag ged behind Britain in ena_cting reforms to improve the lives of industrial wo rkers and the un em ployed. (B) Th e probl e1ns of u rban indu strial workers and the un en1ployed were much worse in Germany than in .Britain. (C) Th e Un ited States led the way in enact ing reforms to improve the liv es of industrial workers and the unemployed. (D) Ind ustrialization caused greater econo mic insec uri ty in the lives of many urban \vorke rs. 2. Bis1narck made the pro_posal iu the pa ssage because he believed that (A) the end of capitalism would create an era of equalit y and ju stice for industrial workers. (B) if the government did not address worker probl ems associated with industrial ization, socialist s and other radicals might incite ·a revolt. (C) he had to appea l to socialists and other radical s in order toget the1n to j oin his government and provide their input. (D) the gover runent needed to step in to reverse the environmenta l effects created by industrialization and urbanization. 348 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION 3. Which reform was instituted by another government in response to the prob lems of industrialization? (A) Britain expanded voti ng by reducing property-owning qua liftca tions. (B) The U.S. governn1ent encouraged the growth of labor ttnions. (C) Russia adopted a form of utopian socialism . (D) The United States allowed a women 's rights movement to en1erge. SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passag e belolv to ans,ver all parts of the que stion that follows. "five Points was the most notorious 11eighborhood in nineteenth-century America. Beginni11g in about 1820, overlapping \,\raves of lrish , ltalian , and Chinese immigrants flooded this district in what is now New York's Chinatown. Signmcant m11nbei:sofGennans , African Americans , and Eastern European Jews settled iliere as well . AU but forgotten today, the densely populated enclave \,\ras once renowned for jam-packed , filthy te11en1ents, garbage-covered streets , prostitution , gambling , violence, drunkenness , and abject poverty .. , . Few historians devoted much attention to Five Points in the early years of the twentieth centmy. Academic historians concerned then1Selves primarily with politics and law. Slmns , immigrants , and crime - none of these subjects seemed important enough to me.citscholar ly anaJysis. " Tyler Anbinder.Ffv e P 9ints: The Nineteenlh Cenlury New York Cfly Neighborh ood, 2001 (A) Explain ONE way Anbinder's description relates to the development of a consumer soc iety in the per iod 1750-1900 . (B) Explain ONE way in wh.ich the global nature of trade influenced the population of urban areas in the period 1750- 1900 . (C) Explain ONE historical situation .in the period 1750-1900, other than the one illustrated in the passage , in which the development of industrial cap italism .affected economic or societal structu res. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follo, vs. (A) fdentify ONE point that supporters the claim that mass product ion benefited incLividualsas cQnsluners. (B) Tdentify ONE point that supports the clain1 that mass production was difficu lt for ind ividua ls as worke rs. (C) Explain ONE way difference in bow wealthy and poor peop le might have been affected by n1ass production. SOCIETY AND THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 349 iHINK AS A HIST0RIAN: SITUATE A HISTORI CAL PROOESS IN CO~ Thro1Jghou t this book you have.read ~bout the ways in which $e roles and _stat us of women liave develop~d in speciti¢ eontexrs: Confucian attitudes toward women in China (Topic l. 1), the states of different classes of women within the Ottoman Emp ire (Topie 4'.7)~the push for s1.Lifra:ge in the c@n.texr 0fBnlightenment ideals (Topic 5. 1). E;wlain the pr.oees$ of ebange in wo1n-en~ status and roles in the contex,.t0,f industrializati0i1 anti ur.banizaff.0n in the pei.-iod 1750-19(!)0, REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , exp lain how industrialization cause d changes in existing soeiaJ hierarchies an d standar ds of living. Soune: Geuy lmag<es Women were expected to manage the .household and care for the chi ldrcn, -as th is 19th century illustratton sb.ows , even if they worked outside of tl1ehome: 3.50 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 5.10 Continuity and Change in the Industrial Age Capital is, therefore, not a personal , it isa social power. - Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx , The Communist Manifesto (1848) Essential Questi.on: How did the Industria l Revolution demonstrate both cont inuity and change ? The Industrial Revolution , an era that began in the late 18th centtu-y,produced economie, social, cultura~ politica~ and environmental changes not seen since the first Agricultural Revolution , more than 10,000 years before. The Industrial Revolution changed how-_ goods were produced , how-people earned their living, and how businesses were stn1ctured. The Industtial Revolution also caused sweeping socia l change·s. An expansion of the middle class in industrial economies occuiTed. A working class, dependent on factory jobs, emerged. The role of women was transformed , as they n1ade up a significant portion of the factory work force. Politically , the Enlightenment proved to be a long-lasting and influential intellectaaln1ovement that influenced events during the Industrial Revohition . The effects of the Industtial Revolution inspired the works of econo1nic '-1Ildpolitical philosophers like Ad@) Smith '-1IldKarl Marx. The Industrial Revolution alteted life locally as well as globa lly. Rivalries among nations, w.hich had existed previously, continued into and throughout this era leading to politieal and economic eorrflict. Additionally, rigid soeial orders, base:d on econon1ic or ethnic status, continued within industrial economies. Economic Continuities and Changes The Industrial Revolution . transformed the production .and consumption of goods. In Western Europe, access to abundant natural resources, trans-oceanic trade routes , and financial capital combined \vi.th an increasjng population resulted in a leadership role in industrialization . The Scientific Revohition , b~gun in the previous era and influenced by scientific knowledge transferred to the West fro1n the Islamic world, helped to bring about inventions that would .lead to the establishment of the factory systeni and the mass production of goods. However, the invention of the machines used to mass produce goods CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 35 1 meant a change from the era of skille d artisans working at their own pace to craft wnqu e and well-b uil t pi-odtJcts. With automa tion, many facto ry jo bs require d only unski lled labor workin g on an assembly line doin g repet itive tasks to produce ident ical goods. As a result , many consumer goods were now 1nore rea dily availab le, more affo rdable, and in greate r variety than eve r before. Industrialization Around the World New methods of indu shial production associated with the Indu strial R evolu tions spr ead and changed the economies of other areas of the wo rld outside of Western Europ e. As a result , the United States, Russia, .and Japan .experi.ence d increased indu str ial production and built more railroads. In the cases of Japan and Egypt, indu strialization was enco ur age d through state spo nsore d effo1ts to modemjze their economies with varying degrees of success. However, the industria l economies of Western Europe and the Urut ed States continu ed to do1ninate the .global econo1ny while the manufacturing outpu1 of Nlidltie Eastern and Asian econo mi es dec lined. Share of Total World Manufacturing Output (Percentage) 1750 1Q90 :t~~o 1880 1900. Europe 23.2 28.1 53 .2 61.3 62.0 United States 0.1 0.8 7.2 14.7 23.6 Japan 3.8 3.5 2.6 2.4 2.4 The Rest of the World 73.0 67.7 3.6.6 20.9 11.0 Suur re: Paul Kennedy. Tlte Rise and Fn/1-0/1!,eG,:eatPowers. p_age 149. Sou.rces of Ra"v Materials Son1e regions of the wor ld continue d to produce tnin erals, crops , and other reso urces as they had done in previous eras. Latin America an.d Africa were in1portant s.ources of minerals and metals used in indu strial pro cesses . Cotton from Egypt , South Asia , and the .Caribbea n was grown and export ed to Great Brit ain and other European countries. Southeast As ian areas continue d to be so1u-ces for spices but .also for rubb er, tin, and timber. New sources of raw materials we re also made possible by the invention of the steam ship and steam locomotive . Maritime trade was made faster and cheape r du e to steam power , and railroads built in interior regions helped to access an.d exp loit pr eviously untappe d natural resotu-ces. Oth er inventions such as the telegra ph helped to improve commuru cat ion across these far :flung and someti n1es remote areas. These and other teclmological inno vat ions made the move1nent of goo ds and peop le easier and cheaper and led to an increase in glob al trade. Western Europe Western Europe began to change from a mercantilist econo 1nic system de·signed to make a country wealthy throu gh tightly regu lated trade to a capitalist system in whic h private cotnparu es we re freer to pursue their own profits . Philo soph er and poli tical econotnist Ada1n Smith believed that the private pursuit of profit wo uld resul t in genera l prosperity. 3.52 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION While industrialization and eapitalism produced great ~realth overall , n1any people had hard , .short lives . In response to this suffe1ing, 1nany reformers argued for changes. One of these was the German philosopher Ka rl Marx. He argued tha t the working class, whom he called the proletariat, were being exploited by the capital class , or bourgeoisie. He called for workers to unite and take control of the means of production, a change ·that would revolu .tioniz e society. Social Continuities and Changes Industrialization caused significant changes to social stiuctur _es of Western Europe and, later, the United States . Prior to industria lization, the population of Western Europe was priinari ly rura l and involved in farming. As factories \Vere built in urban centers in greater numbers, main ly due to a new steam engine design invented by James Watt, agiicultura l wor-kers soonmigrated to find e1nployment in these industrial cities. Physical Labor As theindustrialRevolutio11spread, the need for factory labo r increased. An industria l working class emerged . Members of this class were paid low wages, worked long how ·s in poor conditions, lived in squalid housing , and resided in crowded and polluted parts of the new industrial cities . Much of their daily lives revo lved around ·their jobs in the factories. This was a change from the agricultural economy of the previous era, when faimers and farm laborers could n1ore or less set their own work schedu le based on the seasons . In response to their working and living conditions, the working class .formed worker associations , or labor unions , that used labor strikes and collective bargaining to win concessions on wages , working conditions , and hours from the facto1y owners. Office Labor Along with the eme rgence of the industrial working class , the Industrial R evo lution also changed the size and make-up of the middle class . In pre-industria l society , the midd le class was often mad e up of professionals such as doctors and lawyers as we ll as local merchants or shopkeepers. AB industrialization occurred~ while the·se pre-industria l occupations continued to be part of the tniddle class, other occupations were added to it, including the nliddle-management of factories, ba:nk,s, insurance companies , shipping agents, and, of course , trading ·companies. Growth of the Non-Agricultural Labor Force in Europe 1800 1850 1900 Engl and 68 78 84 Fran ce 41 57 69 Italy 42 56 67 Poland 44 53 58 Count,-y Source: Adnp!cdfrom World .Bank darn, CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 353 The Wealthy The Industrial Revolution .also transformed social hierarchies in the period from 1750 to 1900. Wealthy owners of industrial companies 'Nho n1ade 1noney fron1 investments rather than from land overtook the aristocracy in wealth and prestige. These capitalists soon made up the highest of the upper class in industrial societies . Gender and Industrialization The role of women changed significantly dlu-ing the Industrial Revo lution. In an agricuJtura l economy , wo1nen provided labor at critical titnes during the planting and harvesting season but were rar_ely paid foT their .labor. In a pro to-industrial system, ,;,vomenwere able to ean1 so1ne extra money in the 1nanufacturing of textiles. Despite these activities , women were s.till mainly supported by the labor and income of their male family menibers . This pattern began to change with the Industrial Revolution. Due to the low \.\'ages paid by the factories , all fami ly needed to work. Hence , a woman's income was just as i1nportant to the welfare of the family as a man 's. Despite the importance of fen1ale labor, women were often paid less than men for the same work and denied high-wage jobs. Political Continuities and Changes As during the Enlightenment , philosophers living through the Industrial Revolution era developed new political ideas about the indivjdual and government. During the Industrial Revolution, most people had .little to no fonnal voice in gove11in1entsuch as the right to vote, but they de1nanded the ability to exercise their "natural rights." Among these were the 1ights to petition, protest , and rebel against their governments. Sometimes these protests were based on nationalism and the right of people to choose their own govenunerits. However, political movements of the Industrial Revolution were almost aJways connected to the .interests of the gi-owing midd le and working classes. For example , labor leaders advocated formation of international unions so 'that ,;,vorkers in various countries could unite to demand higher ,;,vages.But the vast majority of the protests were for the right to vote and to end aristocratic privileges . A series of uprising throughout European cities in 1848, known as theRevolution _of 1848, were a sign of the growing interest in.more pltu-alistic, more democratic gove1nments : • In Paris , protesters called for gi-eater .freedom of the press. • In Berlin , people wanted a parlirunent to check the monareh 's :power. • In cities in l·Iungary, peop le demanded freedom from Austrian control. People wanted not just general natural rights , but specific rights recognized by their government. Voting Rights As the number of wealthy capitalists and the middle class grew, more frequent calls for gi-eater political participation were made. As a resuJt , some po litical r~forms were enacted that included the extension of voting rights to city dwellers, non-landowners , and, eventua lly, to the working 3.54 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION class . However, the voting franchise was extended to male voters only. Women would not gain the right to vote in Weste1n industrial countries un.til the early 20th century. S01netin1es voting rights were extended through the legislative process , as in Great Britain. However , in .other instances, protests and revolutions forced governments to enact political reforms. One factor in all of these politica l reforms \Vasthe size and influence of the middle class . In.countries where the middl e class was large and economically significant , de1n6cracy emerged. I-Iowever, in regions where the 1niddle class \Vas sma □ or insignificant, dietatorships remained in :place. Source: Public Domain The economic chang es of industrial capitalism countered the laborer 's vlsjon of soc ial equality, citizenshi p, and independence . As two distinct classes developed, tl1e rich and the poor, advocating for cq1tal rights became a movement tbat spanne d the 19th century. Protections for Workers Refotms that began in one country often spread . For example, Otto Von Bisn1arck's social reforms spread throughout Europe and eventually the world.All industrializing nations grapp ledvvith the new•challenges that factory life introduced. Among these nations, Germany implemented the most comprehensive set of s.ocial reforms to. protect industria l workers. Under the leadership of Chancellor Otto von Bis1narck, Germany started workers' accident compensation insurance, unemployment -insurance, and old age pensions for employees. Bismarck was concerned that if his goverrunent d:id not address these problems , socialists and more radical citizens would de1nand stronger government action. CONTINUITY AND CHANGE IN THE INDUSTRIAL AGE 355 Another effect of the expansion of voting rights was the emergence of politicaJ parties that represented the working class. These "labor parties" advocated for n1ini1num wages, shorter work days, paid sick and holiday leave, better working conditions , and health and unemployment insurance. REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTI ON 1. Continui ty and Ch~nge Create a chart showing how life remained .simi lar and life chang ed be·cause of the Industrial Revolution in four regions of the world covered in Unit 1. 2. ln one to three paragraphs, explain how the Industr ial Revolution de1nonstrate d both continui ty and change. Source: g<SJg.raph.org_.uk . Garcth,.Ja mes I Welsb National Mfolng Memorial The Welsh National Mining Meinocial: a memorial to all miners who have lost lhcic !Lvesln tragedy in Wales Wales, J:icltin coal deposits, was a leader in milling innovations during the lt1dust:rialRevolution tJ1atJed 10the use of coal rather \han wood as a pcimaiy source of fuel. About 25 percent of the ·welsh workforc.e was employed in mining by the 20th century. despite dangerous conditions and generally Jow pay. 3.56 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION UNIT 5 REVIEW HISTORICAL PtRSPECTIVES: DID OTTO'iv1ANREFOR M.S ·suCCEED? The indusmal. era was a perio d of mas sive politic:a l, ec0nomic , and ,$ocial uph.eaval. Histori~ have arg;ued ov~r how effectively the Ottomans adapted to these chapges . AL<>ng, Slo,v Declin e 13is~orians _intlte late 19th and ~r ly 20t h centuries, liv.ing in .a period when Tm~k-ish power w;as.Jow , genei:ally viewe·d the O'tton1anEmpire as the "s ickman of Eu rop e ." Some mark its f~ll as beginn ing with its fail ure to eonq uer Vienna in l 683.. In his wide ly used college textboo~ A BistoiJ ' of the Mod,efn Wc:irld (first published m 1950), Ii. R. Pal.mer stafed that the long slid~ of 1 the L9th-¢entury , Otto1nan Empire put the t;mj>.ire 'b~hind mod ~rn industrial nations in its scientifi c, 1nec hanical , 1nateria l, humanitarian , and aclmini~tliative achievement~ .'' Us refoilllS did little to ,stop the slid:e. Strength Through Reforms Rece_µt hisforians, living in a period .of .increasing Tutkisa influence in the Middle :East, have seen JllOre vigor in the-Q'tton1ans than did pre vious scho lars . They have credited 19th-e~ntury reforms ~ith pr<i1V iding a sta ble foundat;ion for the success of the Re_pul,,licof Torke)'., estab lished in 19.23. Fot example , the bistodan Donald Quatae1t ~rgued that the . Ottomans stabilized the e·~onomy, and gave Europeans mQre c:0nfid euc~ to. inves t in railroads ,p&rts, and pub lic utiliti.es . These proje cts pro vi ded·a modem infrastructure for the empire , .although at the loss. ofsorne aut0n0my for the· Ott01na11gevemment. While acknowledging the diffi culti es that capitulations caused , Suraiya Faroqhi e1nphasized that ' 1more re,cent stu dies prove th~t Ottoman commerc·e and artisan ptodu .ction we re more v:aried than they might appe~ at first g1anee." Justin McCar.thy called the Gh.ang~sm the Ottom~ system "ne itlier-smallnor cosmetic,' 1 J:)Ointi:ng t0 ''bum~ rights , a constit ution , Christia'.ns in high office, a parlian1ent, the middle clas~ in c.barge of~he state , and the ppwer 0ffsla .m eroded'' a~ evidence of pi:ogr.ess on multipl e fronts. McCarthy, futtb.er suggested that the· empire fell not because of lack of successful reform s or the failure to m0demize but b~c.aus-eof the military, pow er of its rivcl.l s: Develop an Argument: E .,;ialuattr the extent' to whicb hist orical evidence sup pacts one Qf the pe rsp .ectives Qll Ottoman reform. UNIT 5 REVIEW 357 WRITE AS A HISTORIAN: DEVELQP A 1:FIESIS. The thesis statement .must)) ~se1t a his~orically defensible elaim, 2) la:y out a line of reasoning, .and 3:) directly address ilie topic and fo.eus .or:the task. Histot:ically Defen,sible CJ~ A thesis; or claim, is a nonfactual st:ate1nentasse1:tedto be ·.true. It is: a statement aoeut which peeple ea.Ji dis~_greel;>eQ~use it requires an explanation oi: evahlation. A histoi:H,ally .detensibleclaim~ .op.,ethat can be-~p~o11ed Wit11;s0und lii~tori~~levidence. For exainple, Marx forwarded the clai:1nthat tl1e 1nateria ls and modes of produetioniather th~ p.\lilospphiea.lideas shape social sJructures·. 'Be used examples fremJiistocy 0£ the infl.:uenc ,e-of chatigingproduction methodshunter-gatherer, slavery, feudalism, capitaliSn1, and communism-,as evidence t©defend his cLaim. Line oIRea.soning A thesiso.i"e].aim also·conveys a line ofreasoningfor the argument fh_atwill ,be used to explain 1he relati0nsrups among p ieces of evidence. In Mane's thesis·, tor example, 'the lin,eof re..a;Soning is eausati'01.1: the modes 0fproduoti'6ncausethe structure ·ofsncial relations. Other lines:of reaspning µldlude comparison ru;tdcontinuity/change. Each line pf reasoning neerls to be embedded::lll:a .str.ohgthesis~statement..Here are two examples: Cv,npari:Son thesis s taternenL· Social relations fhndan1entally differed 1mder the pr0c;iue.ti0Jlmethods Qf the f~udal, system wrd the procl'u~tion metliods of eapitalisn1. Conlinui'tylchr,uige the~'is state,nent: While social r~lati9ns chaq.ged as th~ pmpo ses m~ m0des of pradHetiop changed, tlie re~ulting social structures continued to have an underpriviteged class, a c·ontinuity with long-lasting effects,. · . · Topic a:nd-:E'oc us..Qf Task A stro.Pg thesis. or claim directly addresses thetopic and focus of the task Itmustbe limited to the tin1eand geography state.d in the 1011g essay, questi011.. Part oftlie task will be''.to."evalnate the extent to which .. ... " lli tliis context, ·'' extent" means degree, scale, magnitude , scope, size,. oi; 1. evcl. To .determinee;ctent,yoll need to carefully an-aly,ze and evaluate tlie sinrllaritie s or diffarenc·es, continnities or t hariges, or causes and effects, depending on th e t~skyou are .given. Wh:icl1were m0st importru;1J , significan1;,::in:fluentia'.l , long~lasting,or in other ways largestin scope.?Arrd,just as impo:rn:ant, what are)'otlt reasons and evidence for evaluating the extent as you did? lqng Essttf Qwestion: Develop an argament that evaluates-the extent to which the c·ourS'e @f"stafe-$ponsoretl industrialization in Egypt under M1~ham1nad Ali ru;rdin Japan .under the Meiji regime between 175.0 and 1900 was similar lir different 0 3.58 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Thesis that ctett.rlyaddresses tire.topit .c(fl:dtask: B'em{een j 750 and 1900 , the· governments ,of both Mnhammad Ali in Egypt and the· Meiji regime in Japan ~mplQyed state-sponS'oJed programs @!industrialization t@ 'help tbemeteate aEuropean~sty'lemilitaty; but a difference in the nature and pmpos~ of .ea(}h progwm's products led fo s;ignifioantly differing CQurs.es. (Nate that 1he word signfficatztly begins· to address extent ) Application: Read the following long essay question and a thesis ,statement developed to address if. Evaluate the thesis statemen1;o-µ how well it 1) eXpL-esses a h.istocitally defensible claim, 2) embeds a lin e of reasoning, and 3) acldres&esth e ·topic and task, incladihg evaluating extent1. and,stays w.ithin the limnatiQ_JlS of the question. Re:visethe thesis·statement as apprepriate so.that it meets all three standards. Lqng Essay Q1, Jeo'tiou: DevelQp an ·ai;gyment that expl~ the extent tQ whioli industritdizati0n ch~ ged soda l -re-latiertsbetween 1750 and 1900. Tlresis Statem.ent · F,r orn 1750 to l 9Q0, industrialization ehanged the waygoo ds wete pro:ducedand consumed and affected peopl e areund.:tbe globe. _For-cufrent_free response CJuestidn-samples, vis'it.'.hr,tps://apcentral. collegeboard.orglcourses/ap-woild~histo1y/ ex,a1n UNIT 5 REVIEW 359 LONG ESSAY QUESTIONS Directions : Write essay responses to 1, 2 , and EITHER 3 or 4. The suggested writing time for each essay is 40 minutes. 1. In the 1800s and early 1900s , industria lization transformed societies in Africa and Asia , but the process of industrialization var ied fro1n colu1tiy to country. Develop an argun1ent that eva luates the extent to which tl1e process of industrialization in Egypt under Muhammad Ali and in Japan d1u-ing tbe Meiji Era were similar or different. 2. Enlightenment ideals and the concept of nationalism swept the Atlanti.c world fi·om 1750 to 1900 as people developed new standards of freedom and self-determination . Develop an argu1nent that eva luates the extent to which intell ectua l and ideologica l causes influenced the revolutions that oceu1Tedin the Atlantic world during that era . 3. New inventions cont1ibuted greatly to industrialization from 1750 to 1900 in Eurasia , Afiica , and the An1ericas , but agricultura l productivity and natural resources also played a part. Develop an argument that evaluates the extent to which envirorunental factors contr ibut ed to industrialization from 1750 to 1900. 4. In the petiod froni 1750 to 1900 , businesses in Eurasia , the Americas , and Africa developed new technologies and new types of business organizations . Develop an argument that evaluates the extent to which the technologies and types of business organizations in .Russia , the United States , and China were sin1ilar or different from 1750 to 1900. In each response you should do the following: • Respond to the prompt with a historically defensible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning. • Describe a broader historical cont~xt relevant to the prompt. • Support an argument in response to the prompt using specific and relevant examples of evidence. • Use historical reasoning (e.g., comparison, causation, continuity or change) to frame or structure an argument that addresses the prompt. • Use evidence to corroborate, qualify, or modify an argument that .addresses the prompt. Source: , IP • WorldHi.vw~1°Cour.i·e and Exa nr De.,i,r/pfimL l!ll'c~tivc .Fall 2019. 360 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTION Directions : Question 1 is based on the accompanying documents. The documents have been edited for the purpose of this exercise . You are advisecj to spend 15 minutes. planning and 45 m.inutes writing your answer. 1. Using the documents and your kno wledge of world history , evaluate the extent to which the rol es of women in Japan and Argentina were similar or different in the period ftom the 1850s to the 1920s . In your response you should do the following: • Respond to the prompt with a historically defens ible thesis or claim that establishes a line of reasoning. • Describe a broader historic.al context relevant to the prompt. • Support an argument in response to the prompt using at least six documents. • Use at least one addition.al piece of specific historical evidence (beyond that found in ~he documents) relevant to an argument about the prompt. • For at least three documents , explain how or why the document 's point of view, purpose , historical situation , and/or audience is relevant to an argument. • Use evidence to corroborate, qualify, or modify an argument that addresses the prompt. Document l Source: P. F. Siebold, lvf.a nners and Customs of the Japah ese in the Nineteenth Centw y. 1852. The position of women in Japan is apparently unlike that of the sex in all other parts of the East , and approaches more near ly their European condition. The Japanese won1en are subjected to no jea lous seclusion , bold a fair station in society, and share in all the innocent recreation s of their fathers and husbands. The .minds of the women are cultivated with as much care as tbose of men; and amongst the most admired Japane se historians , moralists , and poets are frnmd severa l fema l.e names. But , though permitted thus to enjoy and adorn society, they are, on the other hand , [kept in] cotnplete dependence on their husband s, sons , or other re latives . TJ1eyhave no Jegalsights , and their ev idence is not admi tted in a court ... At home, the wife is the mistress of the family ; but in other respects she is treat~d rather as a toy for her husband 's amusement, than as the rational , confidential partner of his life. UNIT 5 REVIEW 36 1 Docu:ment2 Source: Brian Platt , "Educationa l Reforn1 in Japan ( 19th century) ,., Children and Youth in Histor y. Enrollment in Japanese Primary Schools Date Numbe r of Schools percentage of Boys En.rolled Percentage of Girls En.rolled Percentage otAU Children Enrolled 1873 12,597 40 15 28 1880 28,410 59 22 41 1890 26,017 65 31 49 1900 26,857 90 72 81 Document 3 Source: Baron Kikuchi , Lninsterin. the Japanese gove a11nent, speech in 1907. Our fema le education , then , is based on the assumption that wotnen mar ry, and fhatits object is to fit girls to become good wives and wise motners ... . The house was , and still is, ... the unit of soeiety , not the indiv id11al.. . the object ... of fema le education - in a wo rd, to fit girls to become good ~ives and mothers , proper helptnates and \vo11:h y companions of the men of Meiji , aridnoble mothers to bring up future generations of J~panese . Docu:ment4 Source: Journalist describin g the Jives of female silk workers in Japan, 1898. When I encountere d silk workers 1was even more shocked than I had been by the situation of weaving workers .... At busy times they go straight to work on rising in the rooming , and not infrequently work throu gh m1til 12:.00 at nigh t. The food is six parts barle y to four pa1ts rice . The sleeping quatt ers resem ble pigsties, so squalid are they. Wh~t I found especia lly shocking is that in some districts , when business is slack, the workers are sent out into service for.a 'fixed per iod , with the e1nployer taking aU their earnings .. . Many of the girls conung to the silk districts pass through the h~ds of recruiting agents. In some cases they may be there for two to three fears and never even know the name of the nei ghboring town. The local residents think of tho se who have entered the ranks of the factory girls in the san1e n1anner as tea house girls, bordering on degradation . l f one had to take pity on just one group among all these workers , it must be first and foremost the silk worke rs. 362 WORLD HISTORY MO DERN: AP® EDITION Docum ents Source: international Statistics Annual , 1920. AH ntm1bers are estin1ates. Enrollment in Argentinian Schools Year T-otalNumber-of Boys Total Number of Girls Total Number of Stug~ots 1896 150,000 130,000 280 ' 000 1900 200 ,000 180,000 380 ,000 1905 290 ,000 170,000 560 ,000 1910 370 ,000 330,00 _0 700,0_00 19.15 480,000 450,000 930 ,000 Docum ent6 Source: Josefina PeUiza de Sagasta , "\Vomen Dedicated to Miss Maria Eugenia Echeniq_ue," 1876. Women should be educated ; give them .a solid education, based on wholesome principles , cemented with mora l and sensible beliefs; they should have a general knowledge of everything that awakens ingenuity and determines ideas, but not for them are the ca!cula_t:ionand egotism with which they instruct English wom~n, not for them the ridiculous ideas of North American women who pretend in their pride to be equaL to men , to be legislators and obtain a seat in Congress or be university professors , as ifit were not enough to be a mother, a wife, a housewife , as ifher rights as a woman were nol enough to be happy and to make others happy, as if it were not enough to carry out her sacred mission on ·earth: educating her family, cultivating the tender hearts of her children making tben1 useful citizens , laborers of intelligence and progress , with her words and acts, cultivating love in her children and the senti1nents that most enhance wotuen: virtue, modesty and humility. Girls, women someday, be tender and loving wives , able to work for the happiness of your Life's partner instead of bringing about his djsgrace with dreams and aspirations beyond your sphere. UNIT 5 REVIEW 363 Docum ent 7 Source: Maria Et1genia Echenique, wrrting in response to Josefina Pelliza de Sagasta, 1876. Every day we see n1enwith unscrewed-on heads who have no love for order nor true affection for their families , who spend their Liveson gambling and rambling around; cpld-bloodedly, they leave their children on the street, because their wives, wbos·e sphere of action is reduced only to love and suffering, do not know how to oppose forcefully the squand ering nor how to stop in time the abuses from their husbands nor save in this way the interests of their children. Emanc ipation protects wotuen from this catastrophe. A woman, educated in the n1anage1nent of business, even if she does not make a profession of it, knows how to prevent or remedy the problem once it has occnn:ed. She does not go through the pa in of seeing her c;hildren begging for bread from door to door, because she has a thousand resoutces to sati sfy their needs honorably. She goes to work, and thus she raises her children without the need for others ' support that could lead her to corruption and to spend a miserable and humiliating life. Love can dry tears and sweeten fhe bitterness of life, but it cannot satisfy hunger nor cover nakedness_.Love cannot be developed on a subli1ne and heroic level unle ss one is prepared to work, to put sentiment into practice. Emancipation , conceding to women great rights, insti Us in thetn a great hea1t that takes then1 closer to the true perfection to which men can aspire here on earth. A woman who, to her physical beauty and spirituality, adds education and the ability to act for good in her vast sphere, is the ideal type imagined by Christianity, and .she is going to carry out progress in this century. 364 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION UNIT 6: Consequences of Industrializationfrom C. 1750 to C. 1900 Understand the Conte.xt Techno logical change provi ded the framework for the histo1ical changes between 1750 and 1900. Indu strial growth fostered a wider exchange of commodities, the expansion of overseas empi res, and new patterns of migration. Imperialism Compet ition a1nong indu strializing states increased the desire for co lonies. Some states strengthened contro l over existing colonies, as the British did in India. Empires expanded into new reg ions, evident in the rapid European colonization of Afr ica. Economic imperialism emerged in paits of Latin American and Asia. Europeru.1s used Social Dar winism and religious ideologies to j ustify their control of others. In gene ral, the Portug uese and Spanish declined, the British and FrenGh and Russia expanded, and the United States ·and Japan eme rged as new empires . Resist ance to Imperialism In response to imperialism, antico lania l movements developed as part of ·a larger trend of emerging nationalism. Resistance to imperialism took many fo nn s, including rebellion , the establishment of peripheral states, '-1Ildreligiously influe nced responses. These .move1nents set the stage for deco lonization in the 20th century . Migration New means of transportation and the pu □ of eGonomic opportunity Spurred long-distance migration and a larger trend of globa l urbanization. Although many people chose to n1igrate, coerced 1nigration was .also co1nmon, as slave 1y and indenh tred servit ude conti nu ed to play a significant role in the globa l economy. Increase d migration changed the demographi<>sand cultures of both sen ding and i-eGeiving societies. Serbia achieves Independence as Ottoman Empire weak ens: 1750 1800 1780 Tupac A!naru II lea,ds a rebellion against the Spanish In Peru. People In India rebel -aga inst British ,:ule. SamoryToure begins fighting tt,e French In West Africa. 1857 1883 1815 Railroad wol1<ers from India .begin traveling to Kenya. 1886 1850 1839 1900 1865 China and Brftaln Leopold II or begi_n first Opium War. Belgium begl _ns rule and oversees u,e Invasion of Congo . 1884 Europeans meet In Berlin to agree on how to oofohize Africa. UNIT 6: CONSEQUE NCES OF INDUSTRIALIZATION FROM C. 1750 TO C. 1900 365 Topics and Learning Objectives Topic 6.1: Rationales for Imperialism pages 367 - 374 A: Explain how ideologies contributed to the developm ent of imperialism fro1n 1750 to 1900 . .Topic 6.2: State Expansion pages 375-387 B: Compare processes by \Vbich state power shifted in various :paits of the world from 1750 to 1900. Topic 6.3: Indigenous Responses to State Expansion pages 388~398 C: Explain how and why inte1nal and ex.ternaJ factors ha ve influenced the process of state building from 1750 to 1900. Topic 6..4: Global Economic Development pages 399 - 406 D: Explain how ya1ious e11vu·orunentalfactors contributed to the development of the globaJ economy from 1750 to 1900. Topic 6.5: Economic Imperialism pages 407-416 E: Explain how various economic facto rs contributed to the develop1nent of the globaJ economy from 1750 to 1900 . Topic 6.6: Causes of Migration in an lntercon .nected World pages 41T-428 F: Explain how v.aiious envu·onmental factors contributed to the developm ent of varied patterns of migration fron1 1750 to 1900. G: Explain how various economic factors contributed to the development ofvariedpatterns of migration fron11750 to 1900 . Topic 6. 7: Effects of Migration pages 42~438 I-I: Explain how and why new patterns of migration affected society from 1750 to 1900 . Topic 6.8: Causation in the Imperial Age pages 439-442 I: Explain the relative significance of the effects of unp erialism from 1750 to 1900. 366 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 6.1 Rationales for Jmperialism Take up the White Man's Burden Send forth the best ye breed Go bind your sons to exile To serve your captives ' need; To wait in heavy harness, On fluttered folk ahd .wild Your new-caught, sullen peoples , Halt-devil and half~child. - Rudyard Kipling, "The Whhe Man's Burden," 1899 Esse ntia l Questi on: What Ideologies contributed to the development of imperial ism betweeh 1750 and 1900? ' Rudyard Kipling was an English writer who spent his youth in British colonial India. The speaker in his poetn urged the whites of Western countries to establish colonies for the good of the " inferior" people of the word. Whether Kipling actually supported this idea is not clear, but his p6en1 was used to justify it. Proponents justified European colonization using a variety of explanations , from a belief in nationalism , a desire for economic wealth, ·a .sense of religious duty, and a belief they were biologically superio r. These various motives for establishing overseas empires- .a policy caJled imperialism-would lead to conflicts in Asia and a scramble to colonize Africa. (See Topic 6.2.) Nationalist Motives for Imperialism In Weste111Europe, revolutions, the rise of nationalism, and the creation of nation-states character ized much of the 1800s. With a strong sense of identity and loyalty to a state, many world powers boldly asserted authority over other tenitori .es. Building an empire in Asia or Africa was one way for a country to assert its national identity iu the global arena . Britain , France , Spain, Portuga l, and the Netherlands wou ld long :possess overseas colonies. European Nationalism After losingitsAnierican colon.ies, Bri tainlooke d for new lands to open to settlement. In 1788 the first British settlers an·ived in the colony of New South Wales on the east coast of the island continent of New RATI.ONALES FOR IMPERIALISM 367 I-lolland-today's Aust ralia. (See Topic 6.2.) Britain was also expanding its influence in South Asia , gradually talcing contro l of Indi a fron1 the East India Company . By 1857 Britain controlled the entire Indian subcontinent. Ceylon (Sri Lanka) , Bw;ma (Myanmar), the Malay States (which included Singapore), and parts ofB0111eo in Southeast Asia were also under British contro l. France compensated for its humiliating · defeat by Prussia in the FrancoPrussian War (1870-1871) by expanding its overseas territorie ·s. It had already occupied Algeria in Northern Afr ica, New Caledonia and other islands in the South Pacific, Senegal in Western Africa, and Indochina in Southeast Asia. Italy and Gennany were new ly unified states in the late- 19th c.entury. Each wanted co lonies not only for economic .and strategic reasons but also for prestige. However, neither began acquiring an empire until the mid-l 880s. While Spain had led the quest for colonies in the first wave of imperialis1n during the 16th and 17th centuries , its power was greatly di1niuishe.d by the 19th centw·y. It did not play a dominant ro le in this second wave of imperialism. Japan in East Asia Japan asserted its nationalist pride through incursions into Korea . This irritated China , a country that had exe1ted a strong presence in Korea for centuries. The conflict grew into the Sino-Japane se War (1894-1895). Japan 's victory gave it control of Korea. Japan also seized Taiwan , which was known as Formos a from the tune of Portuguese colonization in the l 6th century until the end of World War IT. (Connect: [denti:fy three events Qf the late 19th an.d eai.:ly 20th centuries that encouraged the .grt>wth of Japanese nationalism. See T~pte 5:tt) Cultural and Religious Motives for Imperialism The Kipling •quotation that opens this topic epitomized the condescending attitudes sha red by in1perialis1n's proponents. ReferTing to co lonized peoples as chi ldren reflected bow co lonizers saw themselves as benevolent protectors on a ''civilizing mission " rather than invaders . Racial Ideologies and the Misuse of ·scie nce The attitudes of whites toward others were a fonn of racis 1n. Co lonial powers generally be lieved that they were inherently superior to those they subjugated. Pseudo.scientists , people who present theories as science that are actually -incompatible with the scientific method , strengthened these attitudes. They clain1ed to have proof of the inteUectuaJ .and physical inferiority of nonwhite races .. Phrenologists , people who studied skull sizes and shapes, believed that a s1naller skull size proved the n1ental feebleness of Africans , indigenous Ainericans , and Asians. These ideas have been proven false. Legiti1nate science was also subverted to support imperialism . British scientist Charles Darwin 's I 9th~century theory of evo lution by natural selection stated that over n1illions of years , biologicaJ competition had "weeded out' ' the weaker species in nature and that the "fittest " species were the ones that survived . Some thinkers adapted Danvin 's theory of biological evolution to society, creating the theory known as Social Dar,vinism. While Dan,vin 368 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Sou:rce; ?"heBQy 7i·avelers in Australa.ua~·Atlwml w:es of 7\~•o 'lPutlis hra Jou111ey to the.Sfl11d 1ricl1, At/.arqu es(Js,. Socrc~ IJ,!Sam,ow, rmd Fee1ee Jsh111 c/s, and 71wm1g/, 1/w Colonies nf Neu-Z~a/u11 cl, t./f w South Uitle.,· [ 1889), T he image of a New Zealand v.iUagc reflects how European s v.iewed native vi.llage people as simp le . himself was not a Socia l Darwinist , advocates used the "survival of the fittest" theory to argue that th e spread of European ·and U.S. power proved the biological superiority of whites. Writ ers and politicians then used Soc ial Darwi1lisn1 to justify ftu-ther imperialism by powerful countries. Cultural Id eologies Based on technological superiority over indigenous societies, colo1lial powers felt justified in superimposing aspeets of their own cuJture·s oil their coloni es. For administrative purpos es, n1any colonies combined into a single co lony peop les from several cultures who often spoke different la.ng,uages and bad differen t customs. Colonizers introduced their own language , which helped to unify these often dive rse colonies. They also introduced their political, educational, and religious institutions and exerted other cultural influences 011a:rchitecture and recreational activities . Expressing the belief of n1any, Congregationalist minister Jos iah Strong wrote in 1885, "Is there Joon1 for reasonabl e doubt that [the Ang lo-Saxon] race ... is destined to disposse ·ss many weaker races , assimilate others , and mold the remaind er, until , in a very tru_e and important sens.e, it has Ang lo-Saxonized mankin<l?" Religious Motives Miss ionaiies were among the niost tireless "civilizing " influences. Like the Spanish and Po1tugue se Catholic missionaries who co1nbined conquest and evange lism during the Age of Discove1y, British RATIONALES FOR IMPERIALISM 369 Protestant 1lllss1onaries of the 18th and 19th centuries also participated in colonization. Critics charged that missionaries supported imperialism by persuading peopl e to give up their traditional beliefs, s11ch as ancestor veneration, .and adopt the faith of most Europeans , Christi<lllity. This change in l'eligion could pave the way for others who weremo re focused on econo1nic gain. In response , missionaries pointed out that they commonly combined religious .and hun1anitarian efforts: • Missionaries often set up schoo ls for instruction in religion that also taught secular subjects , which prepared students to become teachers , lawyers, and other professionals. • Many 1nissionaiies provided improved medicines and medical cai·e. • Som _e missionruies , most famously D~vid Livingstone from Scotland, worked in Sub-SaharanAfrica to end the illegal slave ttade . Economic Motives for Imperialism Some people believe the ideologica l motivations were more .accurately justifications for pursuing economic motives . Seeking ways to maximize profits , con1panies chrutere d by the Briti sh, French , and Dut ch gove rnm ents signed commerc ial treaties with local 11.1lers in lndia , East Africa, and the East Indies. These treaties gave the Europeans the right to establish trading posts and forts to protect their interests. Originally, these companies fo1med primarily for the spice trade. Many companies had quasi-governmental pow ers, raising armies and conquering te1ritory to form cotonies. As the Industrial Revolution transformed European economies, the desire for the sow·ces for raw materials and markets for manufactured goods provided by coloni es enticed i1nperial powers to incr ease their expansion. llnp erial powers often competed with one another over the best potential resources, markets , and trade as den1ands for low-wage labor , aoce·ss to markets , and control of nat11ralresources increased. East India Com.pany The English monarch granted the E ast India Company (EIG) a roya l charter in 1600 giving it a monopoly on England's trade \.vithIndia. After driving the Portugues e out of India, the co1npany traded primarily in cotton and silk, indigo , and sp.ices. Eventually, the EIC expanded its a<,tivities from the 'Persian Gulf to East Asia. By the beginning of the 18th century, it had becom e the major agent of British imperialisn1 in Indi a, and afte r 1834 it became the British _gove rnn1ent's managing agency in l11dia. Starting in 1620, the EIC engaged in the sla ve trade , and du.ring the 19th century it illegally exp o1ted opruni to China in exchange for tea. The East India Company is often refen·ed to as the English East Indi.a Company or, after 1707 , the British E.ast India Company to distinguish it from the Dutch East India Co1npany. 370 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Sou ree: Gett)' Images The London office o f the Eas t Indi a Co mpany was the headquarters for rulin g Briti sh fodia until the Briti sli government rook char ge of the colony In 1858. Dutch East India Con1pany In 1602 the Dutch government gave the Dutch East India Company (Vereenig d_e Oost-Indis .che Compagnie, or VOC) a n1011opolyon trade between the Cape of Good Hope aJ the southern tip of Africa and the Straits of Magellan atthe southern tip of South America. The V OC concentrated on the islands around Java, replacing the Portuguese who had contro ll ed the region. Con:uption and debt led the government to take control of1 he co1npany 's possess ions in 1799, creating the Dutch East Indi es (today 's Indonesia). The- "New Imp erialism " After the Indu strial Revo lution and the Napo leonic Wars, Britain was the leading economic power throughout the fir.st half of the 19th century and already had a sizable colonial empire . Its colonies provided raw materials such as cotton, wool, jute, vegetab le oils, and rubber for its factories, as well as foodstuffs .such as wheat, tea, coffee, cocoa, 1neat, and butter for its grow ing cities. Its colonies-especially settler colonies such as Australia, Ne\v Zealand, and South Africa-also provided markets for British manufactured goods. As the Second Industrial Revolution progressed , other nations began to challenge Britain's econornic lead. They looked to Asia, Africa, and the Pacific to expand their n1arkets, provide raw materials for their factorie·s, and food for their growing urban populations. KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNM .ENT: Ideas imper ialism nationalism GOVERNMENT : Wars Sino-Japanese War GOVERNMENT: Countries Formosa CULTURE: Ideas phrenolog ists Char les Darw in Soc ial Darwinism ECONOMICS : Com panies East .India Company (EiC) Dutch East India Company (VOC) CULTURE: Religion David Uvingstone RATIONALES FOR IMPERIALISM 371 MULTIPLE- CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passag e below. ''The English in India had always been somewhat more detached from the indigenous environment than the Dutch in Indonesia. After the 1780s, their isolation gradually intensified and became obvious with the deeline in s_tatus of Eurasian Anglo-Indians .. . . The club becaine the center of British social life in India and the other Asian colonies during the Victorian era. In clubs , one could feel like a gent leman among other gentlemen while being served by a native staff ... . Tbelarge clubs of Calcutta remained closed to Indians until 1946. This type of color bar was especially disturbing because it excluded from social rec::ognitionthe very people who had catTied their self-Anglicizing [beco1ning n1ore like the British] the furthest and loyally supported British rule .... In n1ost regions of Africa ... the Europeans saw the1nselves as foreign rulers separated from the African cultures by an abyss ... . A process of great sy1nptomatic significance was the rejection of the highly educated West Africans who had worked with the early 1nission. They had envisioned the colonial takeover as an oppo1tunity for a joint Ew·opean-African effo1t to modernize and civilize Africa. Instead , they were now, as 'white Negroes ,' despis.ed by all." Jurgen Oste rllammel , Coloni'alism-, 1997 l. Which theory did Europeans use 1nost directly to just ify the social patterns described in the passage? (A) Social Darwinism (B) Pan-Africanism (C) popular s.overeignty (D) laissez-faire capitalism 2. Which statement best provides the context for the racial policies described in the passage that shaped imperia lism in India and Africa? (A) In both places , the English did not encourage highly educated native people to prepare for self-rule. (B) In both places , a smooth transition of power helped the highly educated native people gainpoliticaJ power . (C) In both places , social clubs were the meeting places for native people planning to fight for self-ru le. (D) In both places , the colonizers finally began to respect educated natives , thus weakening their own colonia l rule. 372 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 3. The conte,xt for the European attitudes noted in the passage was that (A) Ame ricans were telling the British that "all men are created equal' ' (B) so1ne scientists clai n1ed Europea ns were a biolo·gically super ior race (C) most In dians and Africans preferred to create non-British clubs (D) some Europeans wanted native people to leave India and Africa SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passag e belo, v to ans we r all part s of the qllestion that follo,vs . "Gentlemen, we 1nust speak more loudly and 111orehonestly! We must say openly that indeed the higher races have a right over the lower races .... I .repeat, that the superior races have .a right because they have .a duty. They have the duty to civilize the inferior races .... In the history of earlier centuries these duties, _geutlen1en, have often been 1nisunderstood; and cettainly when the Spani.sh solcliers and explorers introduced slavery into Central America , they did not fnl:fill their duty as m_ea of a higher race .... But , in our time, I maintain that European nations acquit the111s ·e1ves with generosity, with grandeur, and with sincerity of this superior civilizing duty. l say that French colonial policy , the policy of colonial expansion., the pelicy that bas taken us under the Empire [the Second Empit:e, of Napoleon ill) , to Saigon, to lndochina [French Southeast Asia], thathasJed us to Tunisia, to Madagascar - I say that this policy of eolonial expansion was inspired by . . . the fact that a navy such as ours cannot do without safe harbors, defenses, supply centers on the high seas ... . Are yen unaware of this? Look at a map of the world ." Jules Ferry, speech on French colonial expani;iou, .1884 (A) Describe ONE 1notive Ferry offers for i1nperial expansion in the period 1750- 1900 other than an economic motive . (B) Explain ONE way .mwh ich Ferry 's argument is silnilar to other argun1ents of the period 1750-1900 . (C) Explain ONEway in wh.ich the French Revo lution influenced French imper ialism in the period 1750-1900. 2. An swer all parts of the question that follo ws. (A) Explain ONE economic motivation behind European in1perialism in tbe 19th century. (B) Explain ONE way in which European colonizers committed a failure of duty, according to .Ferry. (C) Explain ONE reason , bes ides religious conversion , n1issionar ies believed they were he lping the colonized lands . RATIONALES FOR IMPERIALISM 373 THINK AS A HISTORIAN: EXPLA[N THE CONTEXT : . OF TrlE COLONIZAT ION QF AFR ICA ,- Jn 1884-1885, .inresponse t0 Gennany. 's an=iva1~s·a e0mpetitive foree in Africa, amoa.ssadots from tfuoughout Europe 1net ·at the Berlin Conferenee to deye lop som~ .gµidelines .and agreements for c,olonizi'og Africa. (S;ee Topic 6.2.) R eqd the fotlowing exce1ptfro1;ntfreGenerpi Act of 'the B erlin Conf'ere'fzce.Then e:l,-'p[ain how it artie11lcttesthe poU tie al , eeonotnic, q,nd ideological co11t exit.~for tlu~.dev.elopment o_fEin:opea'n cooperati011 . on oolor,,izingand partitioning '11.fi·iea "WISHING, in a spirit ot good and ri1utual accord, to regu late the conditi<; _H1~most[favorable] to the development oft;racle~d civilization .in e.ertaini:egi0ns 0f Africa , and to assure to all.nations fue ·advan:tages of free-navigation on the two chief rivers of ,Afric~ flowing info the Atlanti c Ocean; , BEilfG DESIROUS, on the other hand , to obviate [remove] the misunderstanding ·and disputes which niiglit in the futllre aris~ from new acts of occupation .on tJie co~st of.Africa; and conc.emed, at the same t,i,me,a·s t0 the meansoi.further.i.rrgthe mo:Falanrl material we ll-be ing of the native p.aptllations ; H.AVE RESOLVED , on the .:inv itation addressed to them PY'the Imperial Government of Ger-many) .in agreement with the Govetmnent of the French.Republic-, t.0 meet for thos e-purpo ses in Conference at Berlin ... " General.Actof the Conference atBerlili, l885 REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to thre e paragraphs , explain the part ideolog ies played in the deve lopment of imperia lism betwee n 1750 and 1900 . 374 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 6.2 State Expansion You must singularly ihsist on their total submission and obedience , avoid developing the spirits In the schools , teach students to read and not to reason. - King Leopold II (1835- 1909), Letter to Christian Missionaries , 1883 Esse ntial Questi on: By.what processes did state power shift in various parts of the world between 1750 and 1900? Kmg Leopold Il of Be.lgium wanted the Be.lgian government to conquer colonies in a lar ge swath of central Africa-the Congo Basin. The govem n1ent was ambivalent, so Leopold established a private colony hi1nself. Howev er, the Belgian Parliament found the king 's rul e so abusi ve that in 1908 it took contro l of the region away from him. Similar ly, the Dutch government revoked the charter of the Dut ch East [nd:ia Cotnpany for abusing its power to make treaties , bttild forts , and maintain armed forces in Southeast Asia. Whi le these unusual shifts of powe r were taking place , other European gove1nments, as. well as the United States , Russia, and Jap an, continued territorial expansion through conquest and settlement. Imperialism in Africa Europe had a long-standing relationship with Africa because of the slave trade . Although n1ost European countries had declared the importation of slaves from Africa ill.egal by the early 1800s, Eu ropeans continued to export guns , alcohol , and other n1anufactured goods to Africa and import African natural resources , such as palm oil, gold, and ivory. England desired palm oil in particu lar because it kept the machine1y in its texti le facto1ies from becoming n1sty. In the last part of the 19th centu ry, European tastes for Afi-ican dirunonds and ivory kept European empires thriving thToughout the African continent. (Connect: WEite a para,graph coJinectingJate l.2thoentury impeEialls:m.wifu .the African slave trade. See Topic 4.4.) Expanding Be yond Trading Posts For most of the 1800s , European p resence in Africa was restricted to trading posts , with a few exceptions. The French seized Algeria in 1830 , declaring they wanted to prevent pirate attacks . Du tch imtnigrants had lived in South Africa since the 1600s and British colonists became more numerous starting in the early 1800s. In the second STATE EXPANSI.ON 375 half of the 1800s , European nations expanded their presence in Africa with the help of better military technology. For example, the discovery of quinin e, a medicine that treats the tropical disease ma laria, reduced the danger of living in w<_1rm ., humid regions . Th e steamship assisted the early trips of inclividual explorers and business owners. British Control of Egypt E1u:opeans had long dreamed of dramati cally sho1tening the water route to Asia by building a cana l connecting the Red Sea \vi'th the Mecliten·ane.an Sea . A 100-mil e-long canal could save a trip around the entire continent of Africa. Thi s feat was finally accomplished in 1869 'vvhen the Suez Canal was cornpleted. A French con1pany n1anaged the project , but most of the labor \Vas performed by .as many as 1.5 million Egyptians. Many of them were corvee laborers, unpaid workers who were forced to work on the project as a form of taxation. Thousands died in the cou rse of ten years. When unrest in the region threatened British commercial interests and the operation of the canal in 1882, Britain seized control of Egypt away from the Otton1an Empire. British West Africa Great Britain established several colonies in West Africa before the mid-19th century. In these colonies, Britain spread Western education, the Eng lish language, and Christianity: • Sier1·a Leon e was estab lished in 1787. It was a home for fr_eed people from throughout the British Empire who had been enslave:d. • Gambia was estab lished in 1816. It , and Sierra Leon e, wer_e used as bases to try to stop the export of enslaved peop le from the region. • Lagos became a crown colony in 1861 and served as a base for the annexation ofn1uch of the rest of what is now Nigeria. • Britain acquired parts of what is now Ghana in stages. For exa1nple, the Gold Coast bec<_lfile a crown colony in 1874 , but the Asante Empire to the north did not come under British contro l unti.l 1901. Britain used both diplomacy and warfare to expaJ1d its e1npire. For examp le, in 1873, B1·itain signed a treaty with Kin g Jaja of Opobo in presentday Nigeria-an area rich in palm oil-recognizing him as ruler and agreeing to trade tenns favorable to both sides. Other African rulers agree:d to sinlilar diplomatic treaties with foreign powers ; believing they were prote cting their sovereignty and trade rights. However, as Ew·opean competition increased for control of African lands, the treaties came to be meaning less and warfare was the inevitable result as Africans resisted takeover but n1et with overpowering rnilitary strength. The French in Af rica France drove the Ottomans out of Algeria in 1830. By 1870 Algeria had be.come a settler colon y, attracting Spanish , Italian, and Ma ltese as well as French i1uo1igrants. In the l 870s the French also established trading posts in Guinea , the Ivory Coast, and Niger to compete with British WestAfiican colonies. 376 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION The European Scramble for Africa Tensions 1nounted among industrialized European nations as they competed for natural resources in Africa. Leaders feared that the "Scramble for Africa," the competing efforts of Europeans ·to colonize Africa, would lead to war. Berlin Confere nce Otto van Bismarck of Germany had little interest in colonies, but he did want to keep the peace in Europe . In 1884-1885, he hosted the Berlin Conference, a meeting of European powers to provide for the orderly colonization of Africa. No Africans were invited to the conference. Etu·opean powers peaceably agreed to colonia l bouudruies and to the free movement of goods on Africa's n1ajor rivers such as the Niger Riv er and the Congo River. In most of th e continent , Europeans established colonial borders that were merely artificial lines that n1eant little to the people who lived within them. These borders divided long-unified s.ocieties into different colonies and united longtim e rival groups into the same colonies. When these colonies became independent states in the later 20th century, these borders beca1ne the cause of extensive warfare by making national unity very difficult . Sooth Africa and the Boer Wars During tl1e Napoleonic Wars (1799- 1815), the British replaced 1he Dutch in 1he Cape Colony in the southern tip of Africa. The British :introduced the use of English but allowed people to use the Dut ch language as well. Many of the Dutch -speaking Afrika ners, th e descendants of 17th-century Dut ch settlers, move:d east of the Cape Colony, where they can1e into conflict with indigenous groups, including the Zulus , \vith whom they fought several wars. Tlu:oughout the 19th century, the British and Afrikaners continued to fight over land. This conflict can1e to a boil in tl1e Boer Wars ( 1880--188 1, 1899-1902). These conflicts were bloody and brutal. In the end, the British a1my drove the Afrikaners and the Africans fro1n their lands , forcing many into refugee camps. These settlements , which were segregate d by race , came to be known as concentration camps. Medical care and sanitation were very poor, and food rations were so n1eager that nuiny of the interned died of starvation. Once news .arrived in Britain about the wretehed conditions . of the camps , activists tried to improve the lives of displaced refugees. However, while white camps received some attention , conditions in black can1ps re1nained tenible. Of the 100,000 black s interned in concentration carnps, nearly 15,000 perished. By the end of the Boer Wars, the British had absorbed the settler colonies of British and.Afrikaner peoples and the black Africans in the southern tip of Africa into its e1npire. Millions of Afrikaner and black African farn1ers had been displaced onto poor land, making it hard for th.em to ea1n a decent living. Congo By 1875 , Western Ernopean nations were poised to penetrate Africa's interior. King Leopold II of Belgium (ruJed 1865-1909) oversa\v the invasion _and pacification of the Congo in central Africa in order to persuade the Belgian govemn1ent to snpport colonial expans ion. Unlike other European STATE EXPANSI.ON 377 rulers , Kin g Leopold owned the co lony personally , using co lonia l officia ls against indigenous Congolese and a ruthl ess system of econo tnic exp loitation that allow ed him to keep the profits made by the Congo Free State, which totaled so1ne 220 mil lion francs ($ 1.1 billion in today 's dollars). Visitors to the co lony i-epoited on the b11.1ta l conditions for the laborers who vvere forced to harvest ivory and rubber. For examp le, Leopold's agents seve red the hands of Congo lese wo rkers in order to teno rize othe rs into subn1ission. Workers who could not meet their qu.otas were beaten or killed, while others were worked to death . Although the term slavery was no1 commonly used \Vhen describing imper ia l activities , Laborers in the Congo often received no paym ent for their backbreaking work , .and their spouses were held captive so that the workers wou ld not run away. As tnany as 8 1nillion people perished under King L eopo ld 's reign of terrorin the Congo . In 1908, Belgium took over conti-ol of the Congo as a regular colony, and conditions improved. (©0nnect: Cre.ate an ,outline comparing conditions' in the Congo w ith conditions in European c-0kn1ies in South Amer iqa. :$ee .T0pie 4.5.) Africa in 1914 -· ,-' i - \,l ' ' "\ r.,r,•·- \ . [A ~ • CZJ Belgian D D British French - German - Italian D .:,HE'RN Portuguese · 0E>ESlk ,,,~ ' 6N GERMAN SOUT HWEST AFRICA . ••✓ (NAMIIIA ) - 0 O 378 6!, t~~~D Spanish ~ Independent 1,000 Miles 1,000 Kilometers WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION " ....,,. :a UTH . ~- l,>; Ci\, • J N DIA ,N OCl? , ! N Ind ependent Countri es By 1900 , the only African countries unclaimed by Europeans were Abyss inia (modem~day Ethiopia) and Liberia , a country founded by formerly enslaved people fr.om the United States . Because Liberia had a dependent relationship with the United States , it was not fi,Illy independent . Ita ly attempted to co11quer Abyssinia in 1895, but the native forces we re too strong for the Italians. Imperialism in South Asia Portugal , France , and England competed for control of India 's spices , gems , and trade with regions to the east. Portugal established a coasta l trad ing port on the southwestern coast, in Goa, in the early 16th eentury . However, it never extended its control inland . .France established trading ports in the 17th centw)'. However, its loss to Britain in the _global conflict known as the Seven Year~' War ( I 756-1763) drove the French out of lndia. England's East India Company (EIC) , steadily encroached on the land of the weak M:ughal Empire. Eventual ly, Britain controlled the entire Indian subcontinent, from Pakistan in the west to Kashnlir in the no1th to Bengal in the east to the island of Cey lon (Sr i Lanka) in the south . At first , the EIC 's small forces ofB1itish so ldiers protected the :fu:m's employees. As the British crept into India 's inte1ior, they began recruiting native Indian soldiers, called sepoys, to join the British co loni al army ; However , as explained in the next topic , the sepoys ignited an unsuccessfu l rebellion against the British in 1857 . Imperialism in East Asia China did not expe1ience imperia lism in the same way that South Asia or Africa clid. It maintained its own government throughout a period of Ew ·opean economic domination. As a resu lt of superior rnilitaiy strength, European nations carved out spher es of influen ce within China over \Vhich they had exclusive trading rights and access to natural resources. (See Topic 6.5 .) Internal problems within the Qing government , such as the Taiping Reb elJion, made it easier for foreign countiies to dominate the economie a_ffairs of China . During the Taiping Rebellion, which began in 1850, failed civil servant appl icant Hong X:iuqnan and starving peasants , worke rs, and n1iners atten1pted to overtlu·ow the Qing Dynasty . With the help of some warlords along with French and British intervention , the Qings prevailed in 1864. In the midst of the war, adding to China 's internal problems , the Yellow River (Huang I-le) changed course , flooding farmland in some areas and leaving others open to drought. With agric ultura l lands devastated , famine followed during which many Chinese starved to death. Adding to the troubles, the bubonic plague broke out at this time. By the end of the fighting , the rebellion was probably responsible for the deaths of more than 20 million people , more than half ofwho1n were civilians. Between 1899 and 1901, an anti-imperialist group ca lled the Boxersnamed because many of their members practiced martial atts , which were STATE EXPANSI.ON 379 kno\.\rn as. Chinese boxing-was attacking Chinese Christians and Wes.tern missionaries . The Empress Dowager Cixi (see Topic 5.8) encouraged the Bo~ers and in 1900 ordered that all foreigners be killed. Ifowever, 1nost of the estimated 100,000 people who were killed were Chinese Christians. Only about 200-250 foreigners died during the Boxer Rebellion. The empress and the Qing court suffered a humiliating defeat that undermined their legitimacy. Western powers and influence continued to erode Chinese sovereignty in subsequent years . Japan Industiialized countries outside of Europe also desired colonies. Japan had sharply litni ted its contact with other co untri es since the early l 600s . In 1853, United States Commodore Matthew Perry came to Japan in large warships to secure a treaty that opened Japanese ports to trade. In the following decade, Japan overthrew its ti-adit ional governn1ent in an uprising called the Meij i Restonition and began to rapiltly industrialize , hoping it cou ld become strong enough to protect its distinctive culture. As part of this change , Japan began to look outward for ten·itorial gains. An island nation with few n.atural resousces and little arable land , it sought lands and natura l resources to fuel its own growth. Pa1tly to relieve population pressures in rural areas. and partly to gain knowledge of foreign places , Japan 's government began to encourage agricultural wo rkers to take seasona l contract work on Ifawaii, Guan1, and .other locations. Through .a Colonization Society established m 1893, Leaders began plans to e·stablish co lonies in Mexico and Latin America. Japan set up an empire in East Asia that included parts of China , Korea , Southeast Asia, and Pacific islands that laste:d fron1 the 1890s until the end ofWodd War II. Imperialism in Southeast Asia Portugal and Spain originally controlled European trade with SoutbeastAsia. After 1600, the power shifted and the English and Dutch supplante:d them. The Dutch in Southeast As ia Dutch imperialism in Southeast Asia began with a pLivate company, just as English imperialism -inSouth Asia had. In 1641 the Dutch seized contro l of the Spice Isl ands (now part of Ind onesia) , so called because they produced spices such as cloves and nutmeg that were in great demand inEurope. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) took over the spice trade fro1n the Portuguese, setting up several trading posts on the archipelago . Although the trade was very profitable for the VOC , corruption caused the company to go bankrupt by 1800. Once the VOC folded , the Dutch gove1nment itself took control of the Dutch East Indies. By the mid-19th century , the islands were producing cash crops to support the Dutch ec::onomy. Plantations produced tea, rubber , and sugar for export purposes , a situation that limited rice cultiv.ation .and eventually created enonnous bardships for Indonesian .farmers who relied on 1ice to survive . Although c1iticism of this agricultural policy forced the Dutch gove1ument to imp lement humanitarian reforms , the reforms failed to meet the ne.eds of the Indonesian people. 380 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION The F rench in South east Asia The French gove111mentalso wanted an imp erial presence in Asia. After it defeated China in the Sino-French War of 1883-1885 , France gained contro l of north ern Vietnam'. France later pressured Siam to cede control of the territory of mod _em -day Laos to the French. By the 1890s, France controlled Ca1nbodia, Laos, and all of modem.-day Vietn.am . Together , these nations became known as French Indo china . French motives for imperialism were like thos e of tbe Dutch -a des.ire for cash crops. Soon rubber plantations dotted the landscape of Cambodia and Vietnain . The British in South eas t Asia British influence in Southeast Asia began when the East India Company acquired the island ofPenang off the .northwe st coast of the Malay Peninsula in 1786. In 1824, the British founded the port of Singapor e. Chinese immigrants soon mad e it th e most i1nportant seapo1t in Southeast Asia . Eventually , Britain controlled all of the Malay Peninsula , Burma (Myanmar) , and northern Born eo. British investors were originally attracted by the region 's min eral wealth , espec ially tin and gold. In addition , Britain promoted the planting of cash crops such as pepper, tobacco , pahn oil, and rubb er. By the end of the 1'9tb century, Malaya was the world 's greatest produc er of natura l rubb er. Siam On ly one Southeast Asian nation , Siam -modern-day Thailandmai1age d to esc ape the clutche s of 19th-century Europeanimperialism. Siam 's mona rchs deftly hand led diplon1atic relations with the British a11dFrench, who se coloni es bord ered Siam. The Siamese goven1ment also instituted a series of modernizing refoims , simi lar to Japan 's Meiji reforms . The government began to indusuializ e by building railroads , and it set up Westernsty le schoo ls in order to create an educa ted populac e who could fill the ranks of an efficient gove 1nment bw·eaucracy. Australia and New Zealand Aft er the loss of its Ame1ican colonies, Britain hegan to consider the possibility of establishing various kind s of settleinents in Australia , finally deciding to locat e a penal colon y there. In l 788 the first conv icts, along with some free settlers, arrived in Australia, and the east coast became known as New South Wales. In the 1820s, Sourct : l:lis f.lighocss Pcinccl'ravij J w11: s:ti. from Wiltuncdia Commons . On the royal coat of aans for Siam, the kingd om was ·represent ed by a three-hea ded elephant. STATE EXPANSI.ON 38 1 Britain took possessio11of the entire continent. For decade s, the chief eco11omic activity of the colony was to house convicts. The discovery that Australia was well-suited to producing fine wool provided a new industry, and in the 1830s Larger nwnbers of fre-esett lers began to a1Tive. The discovery of copper in 1842 and go ld in 1851 helped spur growth. When Britain annexed the settler colony of New Zealand in 1839, it was made a part of New South Wales. Two years later, after the Treaty ofWaitangi guaranteeing that the rights of the origina l Maori inhabitants would be protected by the British crown , it became .aseparate colony. Neve11heless, open war broke out as European settlers encroach ed on Maori land s. The Australian gold rushes provided a 1na rket for foodstuffs rais ed by New Zea land farmers , both European and Maori . For many years, sheep grazing and daily farming provided the base for the colony 's economy. U.S. Imperialism in Latin America and the Pacific During the 19th centu1y, the United States continued ta.king land fro1n indigenous peop les, as Europeans had done since Columbus arrived . One notorious episode was the forced relocation of Easten1 Woodlands peoples from the Southeast to a new Indian Territory in what is now Oklahoma. So many Native Ameri cans died from exposure, 1nalnutrition , disease , and exha ustion that this forced migration becan1e known as the Trail of Tears. In 1823, Pre sident James Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine , which stated that European nations should not intervene .in tl1e affairs of t he countr ies in the Western Hemisphere . Implied in the doctrin e was a desire to be an imperial power in the A1nericas. This desire played out in the U .S. war with Mexico ( l 845-1848) , through which the United States gaine d vast territories in the Southwest from Mexi co. Expans ion on Land White Americans believe d that they had a Manifest Destiny-a natural .and inevitable right to expand to the -Pacific Ocean. The United States bought Alaska fron1 Russia in 1867. Two years later, in 1869, the completion ofa transcontinental railway spurred development of the American West. As white settlers moved westward to take advantage of offers of free land, NativeAn1ericans were forced onto reservations. By 1893, the U.S. Bureau of the Census de.clared that the western frontier was now closed. Expansion Overseas The United States turn ed its focus to lands overseas. The United States was not .a global power for most of the 19th eentwy. The Second Industrial Revo lution brought newfound prosp erity to the young republic. Economic considerations , as we ll as feeling s of nationalism and cultura l superiority , drove Americans ' desire for territorial conqnest. A group of American planters overthrew Hawaii 's constitut ional tnonarchy in 1895, but the islands did not beeome a Q.S. territory until 1900. ln the meantime, the U .S. victory jn the Spanish-American Wat jn 1898 brought Guam, Cuba, Pue1to Rico , and the Philippin es under U.S. control. Pr esident Theodore Roosev elt, a propon ent of Social Darwinis1n, was especially eager to expan d U.S. influence 382 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION thToughout the Weste1n Hemisphere . The 1904 Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine stated that if countries in Latin Ame1ica demonstrated '•instability;" the United States would intervene . It did several times. For example, in 1904 Roos evelt sent U .S. t:1 :oops to occupy a Caribbean island nation , the Dominican Republic , until it repaid its foreign debts. Comparing Three Types of Imperialism Type ahd E~amples Features Outcomes State:-Run Colony • Western Institutions slowly replace the loca l culture • Exploitation of indigenous labor • British West Africa • Belgian Congo Settler Colony • Brit ish South Africa, Australia , and New Zealancl • French Algeria • Otten defended by claims o.f helping the indigenous popu lation • Loss of Indigenous culture • Creation of non-native elite and mixed native and non~natlve middle cla_ ss • Imperialist countries rule by corporations or states guided by Western policy • Focus on control ,and use of land • Loss of ln.digenous culture • Settlers remove or dominate the indigenous population • Spread of disease • Most common in sparsely populated lands • Genocide • Forced conversion to Western business, political, and religious ideas • Exploitation of indigenous labor • Indigenous popu lations forced into ex1reme poverty and addiction Economic Domination • British in China • French in China • United States in Latin America • Common ly based on exp loiting raw materials and hiring low-wage labor • Social destabillzatlon based on economic exploitation • Loca l government remains in control but becomes weak • Soil depletlon and environmental damage • Monocul ture and lack of agricultural diversity Russian Expansion Empress Catherine Il ('' the Gr eat") set out to expan d the Russian Empire in all directions durin g her reign (1762- 1796), annexing about half of Poland as well as territory won fron1 the Ottoman Empire. I-Ier grandson ., Alexan der I, annexed Finland , Moldova , Georgia ; Azerbaijan , and part of Armenia during his reign ( 1_815-1825). Beginnin g in the 1740s, Russian merchants sponsored voyages to Alaska . In 1808 the Russian-Atn erican Co1npany, which was silnilar to the Briti sh and Dutch East India companies ; es_tablished permanent headquarters in NovoArkhange lsk (mode 1n-day Sitka). Fro1n there they explored the west coast of STATE EXPANSI.ON 383 North Amelica. In 1811., they selected the site for a settlen1ent at Fo1t Ross in California. They abandoned .Fort Ross in 1839 and in 1867 sold Alaska to the United States , ending Russian plans to make the North Pacific a Russian sea. Russia continued to push into Central Asia dw·ing the 19th centwy, leading to an intense rivab-y between the Russian and British e1npires as they competed unsuccessful ly for dominance in Afghanistan-a rivalry that came to be knovvn as the Great Game . Russia also succe e:ded in .annexing lands fron1 China , most notably a large portion of Manchuria. So urc": Wikimcdia Commons "The Great Grune: The Afghan Emir Sher Ali Khan with his ·fr iends' Russia and Great Britain' " (1878) reveals 1l1eco11.fro11 ration .between the B.ritisb Empire and the R\L~sianEmpire over .Afgba11istan.The politic;alcarloen illustrates ru1 annosphere of te11sio11 and dis.trust1l1atexisted between. the t\vo empires. KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNMENT: Rulers King Leopold II Clxi GOVERNMENT: Treaties Berlin Conference Trel!ty of Waitangi GOVERNMENT: Countr ies Sierra Leone GoJd Coast Cape Colony Congo Free State Abyss inia Liberia Ceylon Dutch East Indies Indochina Malaya Siam Australia New Zealan.d GOVERNMENT: Ideas Scramble for Africa Monroe Doctrine Manifest Desti_ny Rooseve lt Corol lary Great Game 384 GOVERNMENT: Systems concentration camps penal colony GOVERNMENT: Wars and Rebellions Boer Wars Seven Years' War Taiplrig Rebellion Boxer Rebellion Spanish ~Americari War WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION ECONO.MICS : Systems c.orvEie laborer spheres of influe_nce settler co lony ECONOMICS : Companies East .India Company (EiC) Dujch East lndi~ Company (VOC) SOCIETY : Peoples Afrikaners Maori SOCIETY: Organ izat ion Colonization Society Indian Territory Trail of Tears ENVIRONMENT: Trop ics qu inine Suez Canal MULTIPLE- CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 ref er to the pass age below. "The American continents, by the free and independent condition which th ey have assumed and maintain, are hencefo1th not to be considered as .subj ects for future coloniz ation by any European powers .... We shou ld consider '111Y attempt on their [Europeans'] part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphe re as dan gerou s to our peace and safety . With the existing colonies or dependenc ies of any European power we hav e not inte1fered and sha U not ilnerfere. But ,.vith the Governments 'vvho ha ve declar ed their independence and maintain it, and whose independence we have, on great consideratio11 and on just principles, ackn,owJedged, we could not view ·any interposition for the purpose of oppress i11gthe1n, or contt0Uil1g in any other 1nanner their destiny , by any Europe an po wer in any otl1er Light than as the manifestation of an tu1friendly disposition toward the United States." James Monroe, annual presidential messageto Congress, 182~ 1. Which stateme nt snnm1arizes the 1nain id ea stated in the passage? (A) Many former colonies of European nations in the West ern H e1nisphere desired a return to colonial st atu s. (B) The Unit ed States int ended to interfere in the aclmin istrat ion of existing European colonies. (C) The Europ ean powers n1ust respect the sovereignty of ind epe nd ent nation s in the Western Hemisphere. (D) The United States must remain neutral in any attempt of a European nation to claim laud in the Western }lemisphere. 2. Which eve nt indicates that the Monroe Doctrin e might h ave included a d esire of U.S. lead ers to engage in economic imperialism? (A) the War of 1812 (B) th e Me xican-Ame rican War (C) th e Civil War (D) the Seven Years ' War 3. Which aspect of the Spanish-An1erican War most dir ectly demonstrated that the United States wanted to b ecome au ilnperial power? (A) declaring war against a country in Europe (B) seizing territories from M exico (C) helping Cuba bec61ne ind epend ent of Spain (D) taking cont rol of the Philippin es STATE EXPANSI.ON 385 SHORT-ANSWER QUESTION S - 1. Use the cartoon below to answer all parts of the question that follows. ,Snurco: Wikipcdla Ca mm(lll~ Tl1c cha:ractors i:eprescn!e<lare (le.ft to eight in the foreground ) Qlleen Victoria of England , Willlam 11of German , Nicholas 11of Russia , Mariann e (t hc•symboi of F rance), and a Japanese samurai . Behind them, a Qing officia l throws up bis hands but cannot stop them. (A) Explain wby the artist who created the cartoon would cho.ose to use caricahires to portray the representatives of the nations shown. (B) Explain ONE historical development represented in the cartoon. (C) Explain .ONE reason vvl1yChina was unable to withstand the development represented in the cartoon. 2. Answer all parts of the question that follows. (A) Explain ONE way in whieh imperialism in Africa was similar to itnperia.lism in East Asia in the period 1750-1900 . (B) Exp lain ONE way in which imperialism in Africa and imperialism in Southeast As.ia differed in tbe period 1750-1900. (C) Explain ONE way in which imperialism in state-run colonies was simi lar to imperialism in settler colonies in the periodl750-1900. 386 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION l'HINK AS A HISTORIAN: SITUATE THE MONROE DOCTRINE . , IN CONTEXT . . Foll'ow:ing on the heels of fhe An1er:i'Can and French revo lutions, Argentin~ declared its _i-nd~pend~ncefrom Spain in 1816and Mexico d.eclaretl l~ independence in 1821. Use the infarn,iatignabove as well as.y9z1rknowledge. qf state ~xpa11.sion to descr'ibe the con.text in whi'Ch President J..1.0-,z1·()_e -issu'e:dhi.s doctrine on Latin A,nerican countriet.·: In t.1.10 or three. sentences, eX.plai111wV h}! he rJt_ ay have issued th~p.1;oc1a(!1 ,tJ.tionc,.tthe·ti nte he did. REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , deseribe the processes by which state power shifted in various parts of the world betwee n 1750 and 1900. Sourct: watchin,b 'llmtcica.0001 Newspaper c.artoo11from 19 12 STATE EXPANSI.ON 387 6.3 Indigenous Responses to State Expansion There have been repeated outcries directed to me by the indigenous peoples of this and surrounding provinces , outcries a9ainst the abuses committed by European -born crown officials. ... Justified outcries that have produced no remedy from the royal courts: -Tu pac Am ai u II, C. 1780 Essential Question: How and why did interna l and external factors influence st~te bui_ ldi_ng between 1750 and 1900? In response to Ew·opean imperialism , nationa list movements emerged throughout South America, Africa, and Asia. Often the movements' leaders , such as Tupac Amaru II in Peru, had European style educations. Many had developed a deep understanding of such Enlighterunent ideals as natural rights, sovereignty, and nationalism. Some worked in official posts in colonial govermnent. Some colonial e.lites used the education that imperiaJis1n provided 'them to drive out their conquerors in the 20th century. Anti-itnperial resistance often created n.e'vvstates. Nationalist Movements in the Balkans At its most powerful ~the Ottoman Empire stretched deep into Europe. However , qy the early 19th centu1y, it was losing its hold on its remaining European territories in the Balkan Peninsula. Inspired by the French Revolution , ethnic nationalism e1nerged as the peoples of the Balkans sought ind_ependence. The grovving ethnic tensions in the.region set the .stage for World War I. Serbia ( 1815) and Greece ( 1832) won independence 011.l y after long wars. Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Bulgaria .aU rebelled against Ottoman rule . In 1877 , Serbia and Russia came to their aid in what was to be the last and most important Russo-Turkish War. After the war ended in 1878, the Treaty of Berlin fre.ed Bulgaria, Ro1n<lllia; and Montenegro but placed Bosnia and Herzegovina under the control of Austria-HungaTy. 388 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Resistance and Rebellion in the Americas In North.America, fo llowing the British victory over the French in the French and Indi an War, the Briti sh issued the Proclamation of 1763. This act reserved all the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi Ri ver for Nati ve American s-the first time a European govemment h ad recogniz ed the territoria l rights of ind igenous people s. 11oweve r, the British colonists resented this interfe rence in colonia l affairs . Afte r winning ind epende nc e, citizens of the new United States soon overran the Ohio and Illin ois river valleys , displacing Native Amer icans. Cherokee Nation After 1800, the Cherokee assimilated to whit e settler culture , adopting colonial methods of fanning , weaving , and building. They developed a syllabic alphabet for writing their language . Within a short time , aln1ost the entire tribe was literate , and the Cheroke e Pho enix became the first Native Am erican newspaper in the United States . The Cherokee nation adopted a constitution based on the U.S. ConstiMion. But assimilat ion did not save the Che rokee from white Atn ericans ' greed. After the discov ery of gold in 1829 on Cherokee land in Georgia , atte1npts began to force the Cherokee off their land. After Congress passed the Indian Removal Act of 1830, the Cherokee and other Southeast Native Amer ican tribes \.Vere forced to relocate to whaJ is novv Oklahoma . U .S. expansionism continue d, affecting 1nany Native Ame1ican peoples. G·hos.t Dance In the north\.vestern .United States around 1869, prop hetdrean1ers an1ong the Northe1n Paiut e Indians announce d that the dead would soon come back and drive out the whites, restoring the lands and tradit ions of Nat ive Americans . The Ghost Dance rituals of dances and songs vvere meant to hasten tlris event. The Ghost Danc e spread from tl1e Sieffa Ne vada to the Missouri River and from no1the1n Texas to the Canadian bord er. It reached the Sioux by 1890, coinc iding with the Sioux revo lts. Sioux warriors wore "ghost shirts. " However , the Ghost Dance resistance movement fell at the Wounde d Kn ee Massacre in 1890, markin g the end of the Indian Wars . Tupac Amaru II :Jose Gabriel Condorcanqui was a cacique (hereditary chiet) in sou th ern . Peru. He was desc.ended fro1n the Last Inca 111ler,T(tpac Atnaru , and took the name T(1pac Amaro II. Born around 1740 , he continue d to identify with his Inca heritage in spite of having received a formaJ Jesuit education. In 1780 he arrested and executed a colonia l ~dn,iuistrator , charging him with cruelty. Thi s act ion led to the last general Indian revolt against Spain , which .at first was sup ported by some criollo s (Spaniards bo1n inAmerica ). The revo lt spread throu ghou t southern Peru a.lid into Bolivia a.lidArgentina before Tupac Amaru II and his family wer_e captured in March 1781. Th ey \Vere taken to Cuzco, the forn1er capita l of the Inca empire. Th ere Tupac Atnaru II was forced to watch as his wife and sons were exec uted before he was torn 1red and executed hi1nself. INDIGENOUS RESPONSES TO. STATE EXPANSI.ON 389 French Intervention in Mexic o In 1863 a group of M exican conservatives conspired with Emperor Napoleon III of France to overthrovv the lib eral govermn ent of Benito Juarez, a full-blooded Zapot ec . M exico owned France 1noney, and Napoleon IIl wan ted to further his imp eriali st ambitions. H e offered to make a Euro pean noble , Archduke Maximilian , the emperor of Mexic o. Maximilian was crowned on Jun e l 0 , 1864. After thr ee mor_e yea rs of 'Vvar,Mexic ans forced th e French to withdraw from Me xico . Ma xi mili an was execute d on June 19, 1867 , and Juar ez resu med the pres idenc y. South Asian Movements B y the 1nid-l 9tb century, sepoys, Indian soldi ers und er Briti sh employ , made up th e majority of the Briti sh arn1ed forces in co lonia l India. Mo st were l-Iindus or Mu slim s. In 1857 , the B1itish began usin g rifle cartridges that had been grease d vvith a mixture of the fat of cows and pigs. Ii indus, wl10 view ·th e cow as sacred, and Mus lin1s, wh o refuse to slaughter pigs , we re both frtriou s. Both we re convinced that the Bi-it ish we re trying to conve1i th em to ChTistianity . Their vio lent uprisin g, kn own as the Indian Rebellion of 18.57 or the Sepoy Mutiny , sprea d throu gho ut citj es in no1ihern India . The British crushed the rebeUion , killin g thousands, but the even t 1narked th e emergence of Indian nationa lism . Aft er the Indi an Rebellion , Britain also exile d the Mu.gha t em peror for h is invo Jvement in the reb eil io11 and ended the Mughal Empir e. In its place, the B1itish gove rnment took a more active role in rulin g India . From 1858 until. India \•\7 0n ind epe nd ence in 1947, th e Br itish Raj , the colonial gove n1ment , took its order s direct ly from the B1iti sh gove nun ent in London. Under the Raj , man y Indians attended Briti sh universities . In 1885 , seve ral Bri tish-educated [ndian s established the Indian National Congress. Thou gh beg un .as a forum for a:iring grievances to the colonial gove rnm ent, it qui ckly bega n to call for se lf-rule. (Co-nne-ct: C:on1pare.the motives and outcomes of the I-;lt,1-itianR:evoluti0nwith those oJ tbe JndianR e bellifln 0f 1851. See To,pie ~.2.) Source: Wlkimcdia.C<lmmons, The first rneeti'ng of the Indian Na rionaJ Co ngress in 1885 was domina ted by Hindu representatives.As n result. many Indian . Muslims were suspicio us of iL 390 WORLD HISTORY MOD ERN: AP® EDITION Southeast Asian Resistance By the 1880s, the onJy.independent country rema:ining in Southeast Asia was Siatn (Thailand). The rest of the region was under the control of the Spanish , Dutch, British, and French. Vietnam From the beginning of French colonialism in the region , 1nany Vietnamese resisted. By 1884, when 12-year-old Barn Nghi became emperor , his top advisers were vocal critics of the French. The French soon tried to assert their control by raiding the roya l palace , but the young en1peror had been remo _ve.dfor safety. Ham Nghi's supporters continued to resist French rule until he was captured in 1888 and exiled to AJgeria . Tue re·sistance continued until 1895 under Phan Dinh Phung , who becam _e a hero to future revolutionaries in the Vietnamese resistance moveme1it. Philippin e Re sistan ce The Philippin es came under Spanish control in the 16th century, but there was no public education there until 1863. Hovvever, wealthy Filipinos sent their sous to Ernope t6 study. One of those young men, Jo se RizaJ, started a reform movement called Liga Filipina (Philippine League) in 1892. Though the Liga was loyal to Spain , the Spanish feared it. They promptly arrested and executed Rizal, an action that shocked 1nany Filipinos . There had been numerous rebellions throughout the history of Spanish rule, but now, for the first time, Filipinos had nationalist ambitions and the education needed to carry them out. ln 1896 several revolts broke out in provinces around Manila , n1ark:ing the beginning of the Philippin e Revolution . The SpanishAm erican War broke out in 1898, and after a decisive American victory in the Battle of Manila Bay, exiled Filipino revolutionaries returned. Based on U.S . sympathy for Philippine independence , the rebels expected freedom. However, the Treaty of Pari s. ending the \1/fil merely transferred control of the Philippines froni Spain to the United States. By the time the treaty was 1·atified in Febn1ary 1899, hostilities had broken out in what was to be known as the Philippin e-Ame rican .War. The war ended in a U.S. victory in 1902.An estin1ated 20 1000 Filipino troops were killed , and more than 200 ,000 civilians died as a result of the \Var. Of the 4,300 Amedcans who lost their lives, nearly two-thirds of the1n died of disease. Organized resistance continued until 1906, but the Phil ippines remained a U.S. possession until 1946. Resistance in Australia and New Zealand The A boriginal people have been in Australia for an estin1ated 50,000 years and have the oldest continuous culture on Earth. At the tin1e of European settlement, there may have been as many as 1 million people in 500 clans , speaking 700 language·s. Australia ln 178"8, the British began sending convicts and soldiers to establish colonies in New South Wales. The government instructed the settlers INDIGENOUS RESPONSES TO. STATE EXPANSI.ON 39 1 to treat the indigenous inhabitants kindly. However , the colonia l government did not recognize indigenous land ownership . .Further, because the indigenous inhabit ants were not considered British subjects, they were not protected by law. Thousands of Aboriginal people were killed as they tried to defend their territory and resouToes from European settlers. Ne,v Zealand Compared to_theAboriginals in Australia, New Zealand 's Maori were newco1ners, having arrived from Po lynesia in the 14th century . Under the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, Britain had promised to protect the property rights of the Maor i. Within a short time , the Maori became alann.ed by British sett lement patterns , and the first of a series of Maor i. Wars broke out. The British were eventually able to overcon1e the Maori in 1846 . Re lations deteriorated again in the 1850s as the Maori became reluctant to .seU more land to settlers , feating for their futu re. Ignorin g the promise of the Treaty of Waitangi , the goverrunent _attempte d to presstu-e the Maori to se ll land , sending troops .in 1861 to dislodge the Maori froni the property .in question . Another decade of fighting ensued. The war ende d in an uneasy peace in 1872, but by 1900 the Ma.ori had lost most of their land. African Resistance Organize d African resistance to imperialism developed .later than Indian resic;tance. One reason for this difference .in timing is that European powers had been in India much longer than they had been in Africa . In addition , British colonial gove1nments in India were partially run by Indians, while colonial governments in Africa were la:rge.ly run by military officials from Europe. Ilo weve r, by the end of the World War I (19 14-1918 ), Western-educated Afr icans had a shared identity '-1Ildnationalis1n known as Pan-Africanism. Sokoto Caliphate In West Africa in the 18th century; rulers often mixed Islamic and traditional religious practices . ln 1804 , a group of Muslim intellectuals led by Usman dan Fodio ( 1754-18 17) starte d a drive to purify I_slam among the Hausa tribes of the region. JI.e created a caliphate with its seat at the new town of Sok_oto. The Sokoto Caliphate established the .slave trade as a means of economic ' growth at a tim e when th e British were trying to stop it. The British navy attempted to intercept ships carrying slaves , freeing them and relocating them in their colony Sierra Leone. The Sokoto Caliphate was the largest African en1pire since the 16th centu1y. It was finally snbdued in 1903 when the Briti sh made it part of their colony of Nigeria . South Africa From 1811 to 1858, the British fought th e native Xhosa pe-ople, who did not want to be ruled by Europeans , whether Dutch or English. In 1856-1857 , in the region east of the Cape Colony , some of the catt le of ·the local Xhosa were getting sick and dying , perhaps from diseases caught :Ii-omthe cattle of the British sett lers. ·The Xhosa began to kill their cattle and destroy their crops in the beli ef that thes e act ions would cause sp.irits to remove the British settlers from their land s. Some 400,000 head of Xhosa 392 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION cattle may have been killed. The i1mediateresult of the Xh osa Cattle K illing M ove ment was famine and the deaths of thousands of people. However, the British were not driven out of the area. In the 1870s , the British fought the Zulu Kingdom, located on the South African coast of the Indian Ocean , which had become a well-organized and centralized state. Atfust , this Ang lo-Zulu War went in favor of the Zulus , but eventually the British defeated them , and their lands became part of the British colony of South Africa. Samo ry Tour·e's War In West Africa in 1868, Mande chieftain Samory Toure (1830-1900) led a group of warriors to establish a powerfi.1.l kingdotn in Guinea, extending it until the early 1880s. R e opposed French attempts to annex West Africa , first fighting the1n in 1883. The French finally succeeded but offered Samory their protection . When he was nnabl e to extend his kingdom to the east, he aga.in went to war with the French in 1891. After his forces were ejected, he tried to reestabli sh his kingdom in the upper Ivo1y Coast. The French finally captur _ed him in 1898 and sent him into exile. Source: Arcbicves Bordeaux M6trop1>lc Samory Toure after his capture by the Friencl-1 , September 1898. INDIGENOUS RESPONSES TO. STATE EXPANSI.ON 393 Mahdist Revolt In East Africa in 1881, a Sudanese [sla1nic cledc , Muhammad Ahm ad ( 1844-1885 ) , declared "hin1se1f the Ma hdi, or "guided one," who would resto re the glory of Islam. The Sudanese had res ented Egyptian rule for decades , and the arriva l of the Bi-itish :in 1873 only :fi.1eled thei r resentment. Ahmad turne d the political move1nent into a l'eligious one , forming an army to fight against Egypt. By 1882, the Mahdist army had taken control of the area around the capital , Khattoum. The next year, a jo:int BritishEgyptian n1ilitary expe dition launched a counterattack against the Mahd ists. The Mahdists finally overran the British-Egyptian forces in January 1885. After Ahmad's death in June of tha t year , the Mahd i st movement disintegrated, weakened by infighting an1011grival leade rs. The Briti sh ret1.1111edto Sudan in 1896, and finally defeare d the Mahdists in September.1898 . Yaa As-antew aa War B eginnin g in 1823, theBritishn1ade several attempts to subjugate the Asante Empire in present-day Ghana in West Africa . The first foui-we re unsucce ·ssful . The fifth and final war is known as the Yaa Asantewaa War or the War of the Golden Stool. It began in March 1900, when "the British governoT of the Gold Coast den1anded the Gold en Stoo l, a symbol of national unity. Yaa Asantew aa (1840-1921 ), a 1nighty warrio r queen , led a rebellion against the Briti sh . lt was the last Afucan war led by a woman , and it i-esulted in the deaths of 2 ,000 Asante and 1,000 British . The death toll was higher than in the first four wars combined. Th e war ended in Septe1nber 1900 with a Briti sh victory. Yaa Asan tewaa was exi led, and Asante (as Ashanti) became part of the Gold Coast colony. KEY TERMS BY THEME GOVERNMENT : Rebe l Leade rs Tupac Amaru II Jose Rizal Usman dan Fodio Samory Toure Muhammad Ahmad Yaa Asantewaa GOVERNM .ENT: States Balkan Peninsula Vietnam Philippines Sokoto Caliphate Sudan Asante Emp ire 394 GOVERNMENT : Wars and Rebellions Ghost Dance lndtan Rebellion of 1857 Philippine Revolutio n Spanish-American War Philippine-American War Maori Wars Xhosa Cattle Killing Movemen t Anglo-Zulu War GOVERNMENT : Treaties Treaty of P-aris Treaty of Waitang i GOVERNMENT : Relations wit h Indigenous Peoples Proc lamation of 1763. ln_dlanRemoval Act WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION GOVERNMENT: Organ izations Indian Nation-al Congress CULTURE : Peoples Cheroke .e nation Aboriginal Maor i Xhosa Zulu CULTURE : Ideas Mahdi Pan-Africanlsm SOCIET Y: Britis h in India sepoys Raj MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 ref er to the passage below. "I have warned you again and again not to dally in those villages, where there is nothing to do-but you continue to saunter, jgnoring the fact that soldiers are running short of food. They are receiving their pay, but the 1noney will not last forever . Then they will all depart , leaving us to pay with our lives, because you must have learned by this tin1e that they came only for reasons of self-interest , and to get all they can out of us. They are aheady beginning to desert. .. .Thus we will lose all the people that I have gotten together for the descent on Cuzco .... I gave you plenty of warnings to 1narch immediately on Cuzco , but you took the1n.all lightly , giving the Spaniards time to prepare as they have done, placing cannon on Picchu Mountain , and devising other n1easures so dangerous that you are no longer in a position to attack the1n.. .. God n1ust want me to suffer my sins. Yow·wife. P. S After I had finished this letter, a n1essenger an-ived with the definite news that the enemy fi:om Paruro is in Acos ; Iai n going forward to .attack them, even .if it costs me my life." Mi.c.aela Bastidas , J'erter to.Tupa c Amaru n, J780 1. What does the above letter inclicate about the author 's point of view? (A) She had little ability to irrfluenc·e her husband 's tactics . (B) She did not understand tl1e in1portance of planning for rebellion. (C) She bad a powerful role in the rebellion of indigenous people in Peru. (D) She was too anxious to be a valuab le contributor to the rebellion . 2. Which staten1ent provides the most useful context in eva luating the author 's argument .about tbe Spanish? (A) She and her husband were able to escape the Spaniards and flee into the Andean wilderness. (B) She and her husband were brutally executed by the Spaniards . (C) She and her husband's forces defeated the Spanish conquerors . (D) She and her husband made peace w ith the Sparuards and were given a role in the colonial government. 3. How was the rebellion of T(1pac Aman1 II different from other Latin American rebellions? (A) Its leader identified as a person of European ancestTy. (B) It was effective in changing governn1ental p.olicy. (C) Its.leader identified as an Incan. (D) It received support fi-0111 Spain's rivals for influ ence. INDIGENOUS RESPONSES TO. STATE EXPANSI.ON 395 SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Use the passage below to answer all parts of the question that follows. "It is well known to all that in this age the people of Hindustan [northern India] , both Hindus and Muslims , are being r uined tmder the ty1·anny and oppression of the infidel [unbeliever] and the treacherous Engl ish. lL is therefore the bounden duty of all the wea lthy people of lnd ia, especia Uy of those who have any sort of conneetion with any of the Muslim royal families and are cons idered the pastors an.clmasters oftheirpeople , to stake their l ives and property for the weU-being of the public .... 1, who an1 the grandson of Bahadur Shah, have .. . come here to extirpate [destroy ] the infidels residing in the eastern pa.rt of the counti"y, and to liberate and proteet the poor helpless people now groaning under their u-onrule ... . Several ofthe Hindu and Muslim chiefs who . . . have been trying their best to root out the English in Jndia , have presented themselves to me and taken part in the reigning Indian crusade .... [B]e it known to all, that the ancient works both of rhe I-Iindus and the Muslim:-;,the wrrlings of the mirac le-workers , and the calculations of the astrologers ; pundits [learned persons] and ramma ls [forhme-teUers], all agree, asserting that the English will no longer have any footing in India or elsewhere. Therefore , it is incumbent on all to give up the hope of the continuation of the Bri1ish sway, [and to] side with me . . . .'' Firoz Shah. Proclamation in the Delhi Gazette, 1857 (A) D escribe ONE reason for Mughal E1nperor Bal1ad ur Shah 's point of v iew of the Eng lish . (B) Exp lain ONE way in which the ideas in th e proclamation affected political st ruc tur es in In di a in 1857. (C) Explain ONE way in whie h po litical developments in Indi a in the per io d after 1750 affected Indian society in 1858. 2. Ans"'Ter all parts of the question that follows . (A) Explain ONE way in wh ich Enlightenment ideals inf luenced the series of revolts throughout India in .1857. (B) Exp lain ONE way in wh ich 11at io11a list move1nents in Africa di ffe1·ed fron1 nationalist moven1ents in France in the period 1750- 1900 . (C) Exp lain ONE way in wh ich nationa list movements in Southeast Asia were similar to 11ationalistmovements in South American states in the perjod 1750-19 00. 396 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION l'HINK AS A HISTORIAN: Sl~NIFICANCE OF POINT OF VIEW IN SOURCES Perspecti ve, orp6intofview, is a powerfttl filter ofexp .erience:. I-Hstotical accounts from varying p~rspectives require historians t0 understand th:e signifi:canee of the- point of \tlew ancl use- that unde1'Standing te ,detem1ine how useful a sotttee-·is. and forwhat purpose . For example 1 firsthand indigen0us responses to state ex.p,ansi:0n petw:een 17 5d and 19.00 provide historians with a perspective of the peop le whose lands ~d culfures wen~ being taken .over . At tile, same tinl~, a.ccounts of eolohization solely tb:roug!Lthe lens of the colonizers W<>-u!d also pn ~vide ·a limited persp ective. A-sthennal word on whalh'appened ~eauh type of source has limitations. For this -reason,, historians are able to p.i:esenta :more ac.curate picJtwe of the pa st when they examine s.eur .ces with varying points of views an d appseciate the significance of those perspectives. Reread the exce,pt fi-om tlie procla,nation by Piroz Shah on the pre,vi0us p age. E:rplain the significance oj'th~ e-~cerpt!spoint :of view. Then read the follo1,ving Getiera l On:ler_f,-o'rn the B.ritish Ldi-d Canning t9 thel9t h.Regin1~nt <?} 'Bengal on iVJaroh27, 18'57. Co1npq,te Lhe $igtiffica,nee o.f Carrrifrtg sp0int qf vier,vto th'Ctto.f Firoz Shah and explainhO'W ede,h so·urce ,,i,,ayhave lin1itations because 0/' its paint of v iew. "Neith er the 19th Regiment nor any regim:ent in the service of the Government of lndia nor any Sepoy Hindoo [Hindu] or Wussulm~ [Muslini] has reason te pr-etend that the GovemmenJ has shomJ direetl y ,or indirectl y a desire to interfere with the religi'on of its troops. It has b'een the tlll varying ntl e o:fthe Goyer nme,nt 0f fudi~.t,otre~tthe _rel:ig i011s fee lings of a U its -s.e rvants of eve ry creed with ca.refnl respe ct anEI t@ r ~pres~n ~ations or comglaiQ,ts put foi:ward in a dutiful and 1:>ec0m i11g ~irit whether up01).this or upol).ainy01her, S'tlbject it ha ·s neve r tum ·~d a pe cts to recei.ve in return f0i deaf ear. But the Government 0£ India esx this· treatmen1; the .confi_denee of those. who serve it. From its. s0Jdiers, .of ev:ery i:ank. and race, it will at a□ times .and in all cases enf0nie ,obedience : They. have sworn to give, it and the, Gove rnor General in Council neve r ceas·es io ·exact .it. .T0 nQ mttn who prefer cqmp 1aintswith arms in their hands will he ever liste n." ' REFLECT ON THE TOPI C ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to thr ee paragraphs , describe the internal and external facto rs that influenced state building between 1750 and 1900. INDIGENOUS RESPONSES TO. STATE EXPANSI.ON 397 6.4 Global Economic Development Peruvian guano [bird droppings] has become so desirable an article to_the agricultural interest of the United States that it is the duty of the Gov.erhrhent to employ [;1/Ithe means properly in its power for the purpose of causing that article to be imported into the country at a reasonable price . -U .S. President Millard Fillmore, December 2, 1850 Essential Quest ion: How did environmental ·tactors contribute to the globa l economy between 1750 and 1900?. Economics was a1nong the most influential of the several motives driving imperialis1n. Britain industrialized rapidly during the l 700s and 1800s. In .order to feed industr ies' desires for raw mater ials, SLL ch as cotton, coppe r, and rubber , Europe looked to Asia and Africa . An1erican agi-iculture, as noted by President Fillmore , looked to South America for _fertilizer. The people of these continents were .also potential consun1ers of European and Am.ericau 1nanufactured goods . Finally , colonial peoples provided the labor for large-scale projects , such .as building railroads or telegraph lines . Colonial workers were paid meager wages for difficult and dangerous labor. In short , natural resources , new markets, and low-wage labor drove economic imperialism. Technological Developments The Industrial Revolution did not just take place in factories. It affected transportation .and co1nm1mication as well. Railroads Before the introduction of railroads, transportation fron1 the inte1iors of colonies to coastal po1ts was by water or by roads. Most col onies had few roads, and those that existed were usually poorly maintained and often unusable during rainy seasons. Transportatjon by wat_er was limited to coastal areas and river basins. The introduction of railroads lowered the cost of transporting raw 1naterials for ship1nent to Europe. At the sa1ne ti1ne, ra ilroads helped open up colonial n1arkets for manufactured goods. Europeans often pointe d to their railroad projec ts as evidence that imperialism helped the peop les of Asia and Afiica. However, providing new· transportation technology to the colonies primarily served the interests of the 398 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION colonizers. In India, the British built a complex railway network that stretched from the interior to the coasts in order to ship raw materials out of the country easily. British-born Cecil Rhod es (1853- 1902) , founder of De Beers Diarnonds , was an e·specia lly enthusiastic investor in a raih-oad project that was to stretch from Cape Town, in the Cape Colony of South Africa, to Cairo , Egypt. Connecting all of the British-held colonies 'vvith.a tTansportation network could make goven1ance easier and aid in 1nobilizing for war, if necessary . The project \Vas never eomp leted because Britain never gained control over all the land on which it was to be built. The oven ,vhelming majority of railway wor-kers in Africa were natives who were paid far lower \.\1ages than their European counterparts . Thus , railroad technology was a means of extracting as 1nany resources as possible from subject lands while paying cotonia l laborers as little as possible. Stean1sbi1>sBecause they I'equired huge quantities of coal as fuel, early steamships could travel only limit_eddistances. However, steamboats could transport people , mail , and goods on nav igab le rivers such as the Ganges in South Asia and the Congo in Africa. After the develop1nent of m.ore efficient steam engines in 1870, steamships becaine praetiea l for long distances. In the l 870s, the development of compression refrigeration equipment made it possible to ship perishables such as n1eat and dairy products across oceans. Telegraph Invented in 1832 , the electric telegrapb transformed con1munications. fnst ead of taking days, weeks , or even months , news could travel instantaneous ly. Telegraph serv ice was introduced in India in 1850 , just five years after it started in Britain. Telegraph lines often followed railroad routes. Submarine (U11derwater)telegraph cables soon crossed oceans. fu J 866 the first permanent transatlantic cable \.Vas.laidbetween the United States and England. Telegraph service between Eng land and Australia was introduced in 1872, and in 1874 service behveen Portugal .and Brazil allowed instant coID1nunication between Europe and SouthAme1ica. Agricultural Products When Europeans arrived in Asia .and Africa , they found mainly agiicultural econo1nies, with most people raising enough food to live on-subsistence farming-w ith perhaps a little left over to sell. Subsistence farming is still common throughout Sub-Saharan Afr ica, S.outbeast Asia, and pa.its of Latin America. Under contro l of imperialist powers, subsistence farmers abandoned their traditional ways and grew cash crops instead. These \Vere crops such as tea, cotton , sugar, oil pa lms, 1ubber, and coffee that were grown for their c61nn1ercial value rather than for use by those who grew them. Imperia l den1ands for easb crops had a damaging effect on subj ect nations. As cash crops replaced food crops, food prices rose. GLOBAL ECONOM IC DEVELOPMENT 399 The gro,ving European middle classes. ereated a de1nand for meat. Cattle ranches in Argentina, Brazil , and Uruguay produced beef for expo1t. Sheep herders in Australia and New Zealand exported lamb and mutton. New technology allowed meat to be shipped over long distances. Meat could be proce·ssed and canned in packing p lants or shipped fresh or frozen in refrigerated steamships. Guano, bat and seabird excrement, is rich in nitrates and phosphates. These make it an exce llent natural fertilizer. Because of the dry clunate in Peru and Chile , vast quantities of guano had accumulated before people began n1ining it in the 19th century. Between 1840 and 1880, millions of tons of guano were dug by hand and loaded onto ships for export, often by indentured Chinese or Polynesian laborers. Som·c,,: Americ a□ M!JSCum of Natural H)slo ry Guano mining in the ccntl'lll Chincha Islands, off the coast of Peru. c. J 860. 400 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Raw Materials The den1and for raw marerial ~ that could be processed into manufactured goods and shipped away-often back to the providers of raw 1naterialsturned colonies into export economies. bnperial attention focused on the tropica l cLimates that were conducive to the presence of raw materials, unlike some in1perial countries. Cotton B1itain's Parliament banned Indian cotton textiles in 1721 because they con1peted with the native wool indust1y. Soon after, cotton from Britain's southe111colon ies in America shifted production. The colonies would provide the raw materials , and England would 1nanufacture textiles. Durin g the Industrial Revolution, Britain's great textile 1niIls got 80 percent of their cotton from the United States. When the Alnerican Civil War erupted , northern warships blockaded Confederate ports, cutting off the supply of cotton. As a result , fanners all over the world, .fro1n Australia to the West Indies, replaced food production with cotton to n1ake up for the shortage. Cotton farmers in India were able to benefit from the shortages caused by the Civil War, but Egypt benefited most. Egypt had already developed a fine long-stap le variety of cotton and 1·amped up production. By the end of the 19th century, 9 3 percent of Egypt 's expo11 revenue came from cotton. Raw cotton production from Egypt and India supported the 1nanufacturing of textiles that Britain exported all over the \vorld. Rubber Natural rubber is 1nade from the latex sap of trees or vines . It softens when warm and hardens when cold . 1n 1839, .Charles Goodyear developed a process known as vulcanizatio11 that eliminated these problems and helped create the n1odern rubb er industry. Rubber was used to produce tires for bicycles (and evenhtally auto1nobiles), hoses , gaskets, waterproof clothing , and s.hoe sole·s, among other ite1ns. Rubber trees are native to the Amazon rainforest of South America, where they grew wild but wide ly dispersed . Latex could also be extracted fi·om vines native to CentralAfrica , though they were destroyed in the process. Each source provided about half the world ' s 1ubber supp ly, but they soon \Vere inadequate to meet the demand as rubber became an important industrial material. In both sources, "ntbber barons " ·forced indigenous people into vi1tual slave 1y . ln so1ne cases, co1npanies mutilated or killed workers who failed to meet their quotas . In 1876 , the British India Office obtained ntbber tree seeds from Brazil. After being propagated in England , the seedlings were sent to Ceylon (Sri Lanka ) and Singapore. Before long, thou.c;andsof acres of forest were cleared to make room for ntbber plantations in Malaya , Indochina , the Dutch East Indies, .and elsewhere in Southeast Asia . Palm Oil The machinery in Europe's factories required constant lub1jcation to keep it working, creating a demand for palm oil, which was. GLOBAL ECONOM IC DEVELOPME NT 40 1 also used for candle making . The oil pahn originated in West Afr ica, where it vvas used as a staple food product for 5,000 years. Palm oil was so valued that it was used in place of 1noney in n1any African cultures. Paln1 oil becrune an important cash crop in West Afr ica, where prisoners of tribal war were often enslaved to belp with the palm oil crops. European colonists estab lished oil palm p lantations in Malaya ru1dthe Dutch East Indies. Ivory The tusks of e-tephants prov ide the pro duct ivory . Most of the ivory trade was with Africa, since both male and _femaleAfrican elephants have .large tusks , which .average six feet in length . Ivory was prized for its beauty and durability . It was used p1irnarily for piano keys , billiard balls, knife handles , and ornamenta l carvings . In the mid-19th century, the European scramble for ivory preceded the scramble for colonies . The Ivory Coast (Cote d 1 Ivo-ire) got its nan1e from the fact that the French origina lly set up trading posts there for the acquisition of ivory '-1Ildslaves. Min erals Some of the most valuable products were nlinera l ores used in 1nanufactming . They came fro1n ru·ound the world: • M exico produced silver . • Chile produced copper , which was used for telegraph cables and elect rica l power lines. • Northern Rhodes ia (now Zambia) .and the Belgian Congo produced copper . • Bolivia, Nigeria, Malaya , and the Dutch East lndies produced tin, which helped 1neet the growing demand for food products in tin cans. • Australia and South Africa, as well as parts of West Afriea and Alaska , produced large depos its of gold. Diamonds Because of his frail health, Cecil Rhodes was senl to South Africa in 1870 to join a brother on a cotton farm. In 187 1 the brothers joined the diamond rush and \Vent to Ki1nbe rley, the center of 1nlniog activity. After completing a degree at Oxford University, Rhodes acquired some of the De Beers n1ining claims and forn1ed the De Beers Minin g Company in 1880. By 1891, De Beers accounted for 90 percentof the world 's diatnond production. Rhodes alsa. bad a large stake in the world 's largest go ld fields , which were discovered in 1886 on South Africa 's Witwatersrand . (Conneo_t: .Ana..L~e Mrica ~s-changes in tradefr0.m the trans,..Sahara:n tracle,incli:rdin:g-fu.e effects @f the slave .trade , through the industria l ·era. See Topics i.4 -and·4.4.) By the age of 29 , when Rhodes was elected to the Cape Parliament , he vvas the most powerful man in Southern Africa. He sought to expand to the north, into Bechuanaland (Botswana) and what becrune known as Rho desia and is now Z.imbabwe and Zambia , with the dream of building a railroad fro1n Cape Town to Cairo-and claiming alJ the land along the route for the British Empire. In 1890 , Rhodes became the prime minister of the Cape Colony where his racist policies paved the way for the apartheid, or racia l segregation, that plag ued South Africa during the 20th century. 402 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Global Consequences Industrialization was accompan ied by the need to find raw materia ls that cou ld be turned into finished products to be sold globally-often bought with the profits from raw materia ls . As urban populations grew, the demand for food was increasingly met by imports made possib le by new techno logy s.uch as refrigeration. As the industrialized nations grew wealthier , stock exchanges deve loped, a llowing more peop le to invest their capital, and the need to protect global markets and investments grew rapidly. Consequenc es of Commercial Ex traction Farme rs were allowed to raise only cash crops , such as sugar, cocoa, or groundn uts , at the expense of other agiicuJtura l products. This use of land led to monocultures, or a lack of agricultura l divers ity, particularly in developing nations. Large areas were often cleared of forests to make romn for farming , which took its toll on both biodiversity and the climate. Cash crops such as cotton rapid ly depleted the soul's natural fertility . Moreover, crop disea .ses and pests spread more easily when there was only one crop planted in an area. Today, many former colonies have been unable to rediversify theiT land use because the deve lopment of monoculta.res has badly damaged croplands . As a result , they often must import basic agricultural goods in orde r to feed their peop le. KEY TERMS BY THE.ME ENVIRONMENT : Nat ur al Resources guano cotton rubber palm oil ivory copper tin gold Qiatnonds ECONOMI CS: People Cec il Rhodes ECONOMICS : Co mpa nies De Beers Mining Company ECONOMICS : Acti vi ties cash crops export econ9mies monocultures TECHNOLOGY : ln ventiens . railroads steamships telegraph SOCIETY: Hierarchy apartheid GLOBAL ECONOM IC DEVELOPMENT 403 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Qu estions 1 to 3 refe r to the passag e below. .,'Fennented drinks such as alcohol also_have the benefits of killing parasites and bringing liquid calories to the diet, but by the start of the 18th century beer produ_ction was eating up nearly half of the wheat harvest in Britain. There was no possible way for Britain 's domestic agriculture to feed therapidly expanding population and keep then1 in beer, too. There just \.\rasn't enough farmland for every new mouth in the industrial era. Calories had to come from an outside source , one heyond the boundaries of the British Isles, :froth the wider shores of the empire. The pursuit of food has always shaped the development of society, and in .the days of the V(ctorian empire, the very starr of our moden1 industria lized global food-chain, tea with 1nilk and sugar becan1e the answer to Britain 's growing need for cheap nuttition ." Sarah Rose. For All the Tea in China: Espionage , Empir e and the Secret Formula.for the ff1orld's Favourile [Favorite} DFink, 2009 1. The examp le in the passage highlight,;; which COffilnoni.tnperial patten1? (A) the i.tnportation of cash crops from the colonies (B) the development of new shipping capacities (C) the export of foodstuffs to colonial holding s (D) the transfer of industrial developments to colonies 2. I-low does Britain 's answ er to the ;'growing need for cheap nutrition " relate to the Western Hemisphere ? (A) the Americas provided d.ai1·yproducts for Britain (B) the Americas provided tea for Britain (C) the Americas provided indentured servants for Britain (D) the Americas provided sugar for Britain 3. What impact did the Indu strial Revolution have upon nonindustrial countri es? (A) Th ey became export countries. (B) The [ndustiial Revolution spread to these areas . (C) The colonia l economy became self-sufficient. (D) Profits earned by these nonindustrial counthes were used to create a growi.tig middl e class. 404 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. ·use the ·passage below to answer all parts of the question that follows. " Around the midd l.e of the 19th centtuy Un1guay 1vvasdominated by the latifundium [a large .landed estate or ranch, typically worke.d by enslaved people], with its ill-defined boundaries and enormous herds of native catt le, froln which only the hides were exported to Great Britain a:ild part of the meat, as jerky , to Brazil and Cuba . There was a shifting rural population that worked on the large _estate s and lived largely on the parts of beef carcasses that could not be n1arketed abroa:d. Often the land owners were also the caudillos [military or political leaders] of the Blarico or Colorado -political parties , the protagonists of civil wars that a weak govemn1ent was unable to prevent '(Ban an and Nahum , 1984 , 655). This pjcture still holds, even if it has been excessively stylized , neglecting the importance 0f subsistence [the act of suppo rting oneself] or domestic:..market oriented peasant production. " Luis Bertola , An Overview of the Economi c HisL01y of Uruguay since the 1870s., 2008 (A) Descr ibe ONE way in which Ur uguay 's resource export economy was similar to the economy in Argentina. (B) Explain ONE way.mwhich the conse quences of developme nts in Oruguay in the period 1750- 1900 remain present today. (C) Explain ONE historical situation .in the period 1750-1900, other than the one illustrated in the passage , in which resource export economies impacted the politica l str uctur es 0f other states . 2. Answer all parts of the question that follc;rws . (A) Explain ONE way that urbanization affected the growth of export economies in the perio d 1750- 1900. (B) Explain ONEway in wh.ich the profits from raw materials affected global economies in the per iod 1750-1900 . (C) Explain ONE way in which co-mmercial extract ion of raw materials in Egypt was different from the co1runercial extract ion of raw materials in the Amazon in the period 1750- 1900 . GLOBAL ECONOM IC DEVELOPME NT 405 THINK AS A HISTORIAN: EXPLAIN PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE OF SOURGES Secondary s_ources, . Like pri roar¥ ,$our.ces.,are oreated for a variety of purpos .es .and audienc,es. Being able t@ explain those purposes .and audiences is a key step in unde rstanding the usef u.lne.cisand reliability of a sour:e,e. F·or ex-ample, s.ocµebQoks are,writte11for a popular auc;lienee to entertain as we ll as:inforrn; some are written fot ,asc hblar-ly a11d:i enee to further under;;t~ ding in an a~ademie disQipline; some ~e w1;ittenas propa:ganda to sway peopl e!s' €)pinionS'. Rer(:}.r,td the two ·sources assqcir.~tedwith the questlons on pages 404 and 4QS.Based on; the ex.ee:rpt"$ .tnrdtnf°'rn1 .aUonprovid.ed , 1,vhardo y 0u thihk each so urces pzirpose and aud ience ate? Give reas01is.for yo ur a11swe.rbased on detcrilsfi·onz the exce rpts. T11enreseqreh the w0rks anti their ttutlior:i. ; to c.0nfirm ycn,;ra1·zswe1"8 . REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIAL QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , exp lain how env irontnental factors contributed tQ th e global economy between 1750 and 1900. Sourc~: G~lty J1uagQs Cattle in Uruguay 406 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 6.5 Economic Imperialism Let us ask, where is your conscience? I have heard that the smoking ·of opium is very strictly forbidden by your country ; th.atis because the harm caused by opium is clearly understood . Since it is not pern,ftted to do harm to your .own country, then even less should you let it be passed on to the harm of other countries - how n,uch less to China! - L!n Zexu, Chinese. Commissione r In Canton , lette r to British Queen Vict 0rla, January 15, 1840 Essential Questi.on: What econom ic factors contributed to the imperialism in the glob.a l economy between 1750 and 1900? Forcenturies, India was the world 's leading supplier of finished cotton textiles. By the Late 18th century , the Industrial Revolution and a new source of cotton from America had allowed Britain to flood the market with inexpensive textiles, pushing independent Indian texti le artisans out of business. By the late 19th cenhtry , India was producing only raw cotton for Britain , not cotton textite•s. After Britain 's textile factories processe d India 's cotton , the colonial government sold some of its factory-made or "finished " texti l_es back to the Indian subcontinent at inflated prices . Another critica l raw material for Britain was the drug opiun1, The poppies from which it is obtained grew easily on South Asia 's fertile lands , and selling it to the Chinese became very profitable for Britain . The Chinese , as Lin Zexu expressed in the letter to Queen Victolia , objected to the export of opium to their co1u1try,and the conflict resulted in the first Opium War. The Chinese paid a heavy price for their atte1npt to curtail the opium trade and ended up losing much trading independence. The Rise of Economic Imperialism The agricultura l influence and power of raw materia ls shifted away ftom Asia and Latin America to industrialized states such as Britain, the Uni ted States, France, Japan , a:nd Ge1many bet\.veen the late 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, Ec onom ic imperialism, a situat ion in which foreign business interests have great economic power or influence, developed as. businesses took advantage of natural resources beyond their borders . People , raw materials , and refined n1aterials were the 1nain resources exploited. Cash crops and mineral resow·ces were produced on a large scale. As in the colonial ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM 407 era of the 15th and 18th centuries, colonial powers served their o,vn eco11omic interests by turning colonies into export economies tbat produced goods not for domestic use but to be sent to colonia l powe rs to sell fo r profit. Economic Imperialism in Asia England's defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 created an opening ·for the British and Dutch to take over the spice trade in As ia from the Spanish and Portuguese, who forme rly bad a monopoly on it. India The English East India Compan y formed in 1600 to engage in the Lucrative spice trade. However, the company soon r-an into opposition fi:om the Dutch . By the 1nid-1600s cotton and silk textiles from India had replaced spices as the East India Company's major import, and by the 1700s the company dominated the world textil.e trade . Indian weavers leame:d to create fabrics with patterns that wou ld appeal to European tastes . With the Industrial Revalut ion, India began supplying raw cotton to the textile mi lls ofB.ritain, and tbe demand for finished Indian textiles decreased. l)utch East Indies The Dutch Eas t India Compan y had a monopo ly on trade with the Dutch East Indies in present-day Indonesia, where the Spi ce Islands were located. By the second half of the 18th centu ry, it had switched its focus from shipping to agr icultural production . The Dutch government revoked the company's charte r in 1799 and took direct cantro l of the Dutch East Indies. In 1830, the Dutch government introduced the Culture System, which forced farmers to choose between growing cash crops for export or performing co.rvee labor , compulsory unpaid work. Under this syste1n, villagers either had to set aside one-fifth of their rice fie lds for such export crops as sugar, coffee, or indigo, or work in a government field for 66 days if they had no land. If the crops failed, the village rs were held respons ible for the loss. The practice was :finally abolished in 1870. China Chinese goods such as porcelain , silk , and tea were in great demand in Great Britain . Howeve1~the Chinese were not iuteres .ted in British goods, and in this trade .imbalance , British silver t'eserves became very low. To 1nake up for this shortfall, the East India Company began fo rcing farmers in India to grow opium , an addictive hallucinogenic drug that also relieves pain and reduces stress. The co1npany then sold it for silver in China , where there were 1nillians ofpeople addicted to the il legal drug . The company then used its.profits to buy tea and other goods. The Chinese empe ror cri1ninalized the use of ophnn in 1729. However, the ban had little effect. The Chinese objection to the importa tion of this drug led to th.e first Opium War (1839-1842). The Chinese government seized the British opium warehoused in the port of Canton (Guangzhou). War broke out when British warships destroyed a Chinese blockade keeping ships from Canton, the only port China allowed to trade with foreigners. The British attacked and occupied Canton and engaged in several other successful batt les, finally capturing Nanking (Nanjing). 408 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION TheconflictbetweenBritai.nand .Chinarevealedthefateofuonindustrialized nations. China bad not anticipated the power that industrialized nations were gainin g or the shift in the balanc e of power that was taking place. Industrializ ed natio ns in Europe wou ld begin to do1ninate and defeat states that lacked the militaiy technology needed to stan d against Briti sh steamsh ips and weaponry . The resulting Treaty of N ankin g requir_ed China to open up four additional ports to foreigners, cede the island ofHong Kong to Britain, and pay damages . It also forced the Chinese to allow free trade , wh ich the Briti sh took to inclu de trade in opium . N eithe r Brit ain nor China was completely satisfie d with the Treaty of Nanking. The British wante d the use of opiun1 legalize d, whil e th e Chinese were unhappy about the concessions they had been forced to make. Hostilities erupted in October 1856 after Chinese officers boarded a Bri tish trading ship , searche d it, lo,vered the flag, and arrested some Chin ese sailors. The French j oined the British in what came to be known as the secon d Opium War (18561860) . The Treaty of Tientsin {Tianjin) following that war allowed foreign envoys to reside in Beijing, opened seve ral new ports to Western trade and residence , and allow ed freedom of move111entfor Christian missionaries. After additional negotiatjons, opium was !egalized, and China ceded to Brita in the southe rn portion .of Ko wloon Peninsu la, whic h .was adjacent to Hong Kong. (Gonnect Go1npare how Weste1n states and the Qin g D ynascy treated the Chinese popul ation. See Topi~ 4.7.) Spheres of Influence Japan, France , Gennan y, Russia, and the United States sought the same trading privil eges that Britain attained after winn ing the Opium Wars. By the end of the centu ry, these nations began for cing China to give them exclusive trading rights in areas known assph eres of influence. It was at this time that the Open D oor poliey, proposed by the United States, allowed for a sys tem of trade in China to be open to all count ries equall y in order to keep any one power from total control of China . .(See the map on the next page.) Economic Imperialism in Africa Before colonization, 1nost farn1ing in Afric a was to raise food crops. After coloniza tion, land that had been devote d to gro.wing food was converted to cash crop produ ction to provide raw materials for European industries and goods for European tnark ets. [n excha nge, the Africans received cotton textiles, canne d food, and alcoholi c beverages. Thls unequal trade structu re mad e the colonies econom ically depen dent on the in1perial powers . Reliance on a single cash crop, one grown to be sold, m a count1y or region left mai1y Africans vuln erable during ·periods of drought, economic declin e, or falling world prices. Food production decline d as farn1ers chose to plant cash crops such as cotto n, whlc h would increase the value of their Land. Food shortages , even fan1ines, could arise because the 1nost arab le land was devoted to growing crops for expo1i. ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM 409 Spheres of Colonial Influence in Asia I VDJ.'1 N OCEAN Country Exerting Colonial Power D France - Germany ~Ja ~ Th.e Nethe(lands CT] Russia United States Great Bri1ain 111111 pan 0 0 1,000 mUes 1,000 k11 6motel"$ Egypt had embrace d cotton as a cash crop before the Alnerican Civil War and more than doubled production between 1861 and 1863. By the end of the century , cotton accounted for 93 percent of Egypt 's exports. It w.as also the leading cash crop in ~.udan, where the Plantation Syndicate, a group of British 'vveaving companies, dictated l and use to farmers. When the B1itisb colonized Uganda , they encouraged cotton as a cash crop there as well , and it soon replaced enslaved people and ivory as the chief export. In Kenya , most nati ve peoples were herders . Groups like the Kikuyu were mov ed to reserves with poor soil and bad clin1ates. In the ferti le Rift Valley, the colonia l government gave the land to white sett lers, forc in g most Africans to relocate . Those who remained were forced to provide cheap labor for white farme rs. African farmers were also forbidden to par ticipate in export of any cash crops, and prohibited from growing s01ne cash crops , such as coffee and tea. 41Q WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION After nlissionaries introduced it to the area in the 1880s, cocoa became the major cash crop on the Gold Coast . This regio11soon became the large st cocoa p roduce r in the w orld. Cocoa was also an important cash crop in the Ivory Coast, Nigeria , and the Po1iuguese colonies of Sao Tome and Angola. Palm oil, palm kernels , and peanuts (also called groun dnuts) were already major exports from West Africa before coloniz .ation. It \Vas a valuable raw material becaus e it was used as a lu bricant for the machines of the industrial revolut ion in Europ e. Slaver y.in Africa Slavery was outlawed in Bri tish coloni.e·s in 1833, but it persisted elsewhere in Africa. The French army often pa id its African soldiers in slaves, and French colonial.ad 1ninistrators relied on slaves for many of their staff . It was not until 1912 that slave raiding and trading was supp1·essed in n1ost of Afiica. Slavery . was not abolished by law throughout Africa until the first quart er of the 20th century. Slave labor was used to produc e n1any of the cash crops , especially oil palms (whic h produced palm kerne ls as well as palm oil), coffee, and cocoa . Some co1npanies felt a moral responsibility to oppose the use of ensla ved people in the production of the raw materia ls they used. For example , cash crop production in French-ruled colonies in Africa c~e about as a result of the end of the slave trade in the .French Empire in 1848, along with the economic transformations brought abou t in France by the Industrial R evo lution. Quake rowned Cadbury's , for example, stopped buying slave-grown cocoa from Portugues e African colonies in 1908 after the slave trade was exposed. Imperial Exploitation of Colonial Crops Commo'tlity lmp~rial States Opium Great Britain Origin of Commodify Consequences Middle .East or South Asia • Opium addiction weakened many people in China. • China'.s economy weakened as massive amounts of silver went to Britain to pay for op i.um. Cotton Palm Oil Great Britain and other European coun tries South Asia, Egypt, Sudan All industr ialized countries in Europe Sub-Saharan .Africa • Cotton became 0entra l to the globa l slave economy. • Food supp lies declined as farmers switched to growing only cotton. • European states created and controlled a monocrop economy , wh ile loca l populat ions did not profit from the industry. • European powers met native resistance with bruta l retaliation. • Imperial states created railroads and pathways to transport goods back to Europe. ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM 411 Economic Imperialism in Latin America In the second half of the 19th century, Latin America was subjected to imperialist aggression from both Europe and the United States . The "new imperiali sm" was concen1ed with a world capitalist economy as the industrialized nations of Europe and the United States sought raw materials, low-wage labor, and new markets for their goods . The emerging middJe classes of Latin America were hungry for the latest European news and fashions. Britain rep laced Spain asLatinAmerica 's major trading partner. Companies based in Britain became the largest investors in Latia America, fo □ owed by ones from France and Gennany. Europeans invested over $ 10 bi llion in Latin America between 1870 and 19 19, prima.rily inArgentina , Mexico, and Bra.zil. Role of the United States The United States was not yet as established a world :power as Britain or France . However , the Second Industrial Revolution brought newfound prosperity to the young republic. U.S . corporate investments can1e later and were concentrated at first in Mexico and Cuba. These investments supported infi·astructure and industry, especially railways, shipping, and th.e emerging banking and financial sectors. They also financed mining, guano , and meat processing and pa_cking plants. In 1823, the Momoe D octrine, the U .S. policy of opposing European colonialism in the Americas, told the world that Latin America was in the U.S. sphere of influence. Investments in Argentina [n the late 19th century, Britain had inv ested more in Arge ntina than in its own colony of Indi a. As 1nuch as 10 percent of BTit ish foreign investment was in Argent.ina. Br.itish investors, entreprene urs, and business leaders helped turn Argentina into the richest country in Latin An1erica and one of the dozen richest in the world by the outbreak of World War I. They improved breeding stock and deve loped large-scale fa.n ning throughout the grassy p lains , known as the Pampas. They also financed infrastructure and building projects , such as ·the railroad and telegraph systems. Because of its location on the shallow Rio de la Plata , Buenos Aires needed to build .a.new port to facilitate passenger service and the 1nassive ilnport and export of goo ds and services. The Briti sh finance d and designed the new port, Puerto Madera. Mining in Chile Spain colonized the region of present-day Chile between 1540 and 1818. Chile 's eeonomic development was initially dependent on the export of agricultural produce. The vvealth of these raw materials brought dependency on Spain and tension an1ong neighboring states . Coppe r would come to domin ate Chile 's exports . The mining sector in Chile would come to be one of the pillars of the Chilean economy, making up for more than onethird of government income. Rubber Industry in Brazil Brazil once had a booming rubber industry. However, it declined after peop le began growing rubber in Malaysia at a lo\ver cost. The shift of rubber production demonstrated how ttade was organized to the advantage of companies based in Europe and the United States. Econo1nic competition bTought prosperity to some regions , but it was al\vays fragile . 4 12 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION Central America and the Caribbean Foreign investors often us.ed their gove rnments to act as "strongmen '.' to help them achieve the ends they wanted. The U nited Fruit Con1pany was anAn1erican corporation that traded in tropical fruit, p1imarily bananas , grown on Latin American plantations and sold in the United States and in Europe. The UnitedFruitCompany allied itself w ith large landowne rs to pressure .governmen ts to maintain conditions that would be favorabl e for the U.S. company. In a short story, the writer 0. Heruy co.ined the tem1 "banana republic s" to desc1ibe small Central Atnerican countri es under the economic power of foreign-based corporations. The banana republics were politica □y unstable states with an economy dependent upon the exportation of a lintited-resourc e product, such as bananas or 1ninerals. Pan erns of imperial control over territories and transportation netvvorks in Centra l Alnerica , the Caribbean coast of Colo1nbia, Ecuador , and the West Inclies continued as companies sought politica l dominanc e to gainmonopolies over natural resources. Economic Imperialism in Hawaii The power of investments to transform and dominate small or weak states could .also be seen in the Pa cific .islands. A group of American businesses and sugar planters in Hawaii went so far as to overthrow the constin 1ti611 al monarchy in 1893, hoping that the islands would be .annexed by the United States. In 1898, Hawaii became a ter1itory of the Unite d States. Contextualizing Economic Imperialism The Indu strial Revolution develope d the demand for ra\v matedals an.d the technological ability through steams hips, railroads, and military weapons to control other territor ies. These set the stage for economic imperialisn1. KEY TERMS BY THE.ME GOVERNMENT : Colonial Hold ings Spice Islands Egypt Sud-an Uganda Kenya Gold Coast Argent ina GOVERNMENT: Treaties Treaty of Nanking GOVERNMENT : Wars a nd Rebellions Op ium War ENVIRONMENT : Nat ural Resources opium Pampas ECONOMICS : Compan ies East India Company Dutch East India Company ECONOMICS: Systems economic imperialism Culture System corvee labor spher es .of influence cash crop banana rep ublics ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM 4 13 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS Questions 1 to 3 refer to the passage below. "It appeared that the Laws of the Chinese Empire forbid the importation of opium into China and declare that all Opiun1 which 1nay be brought into the countty is Liableto confiscation. The Queen of England desires that I-IerSubjects who may go into foreign countrie ·s should obey the Laws of those countries ; and Her Majesty does not wish to protect them from the just consequences of any offenses which they may commit in foreign parts. But, on the other hand , Her Majesty cam1otpern1it that I-Ier Subjects residing abroad should be h·eated with violence, and be exposed to insult and injustice ; and when wrong is done to them , 1-Ier Majesty vvillsee that they obtain redress. " British Foreign. Secretary Lord Palmer sto11, Letter to the Minister of the Emp.eror of Chinese , 1840 1. What is the context of the letter above? (A) Britain is seeking to gain permission for Christian missionaries to enter China. (B) Britain is upset that the Chinese governn1ent bas denied British sh ips free trade privileges . (C) Britain bas just defeated the China in the :fisst Opiwn War. (D) There is a civil war going ·on in China. 2. Ho.w did the Chinese gove1nment react to. this letter? (A) They continued to prevent the importation of opium. (B) They acquiesced and agreed to all its demands. (C) They .aJlowed only Du tch and French ships to enter their ports. (D) They declared all E1uopea11ships quarantined . 3. Which of the following is an accurate reflection of the re lationship between China and Britain at the time of the passage? (A) Britain knew China was a fust-rate military power . (B) Britain viewed China as a,n econo1nic super power. (C) China and England both sought the support of Japan. (D) China was unawa re of Britain's military power. 4 14 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. ·use the ·passage below to answer all parts of the question that follows. "Jt was at this mo.men! that the East Jndia Company (E IC) ceased to be a conventional corporatjon , ttacling and silks and spices, and became something ,nu ch more unusual. Within a few years, 250 conlpany clerks backed by Lhe military force of 20,000 locally recnijted lndian soldiers had become the effective rulers of Bengal. An international corporat ion was 1Tansfo1ming itself into an aggressive co lonial power . .. . Westill talk about the British conquering lnclia, but fhat -phrase dis guises a .more siniste r reality. It wasnot the Brit ish gove rnment that seized lnru a at the en d of the 18th century , but a dangerously unregulated private c.ompa.ny headquait ered in one smaH office , five windows wide, in London , and managed in 1.ndia by an unstable sociopath - [Robert] Clive. In rnany ways the EIC was a n1odel of corporate efficiency: 100 years into its histot-y, it bad only 35 permanent employees in its head office. Neverthe .les~. that skeleton staff ex.ecuted a corporate coup unparalleled .in history: the n1ilitary conquest, su bju gation ,'ind plunder of vast tracts of south ern Asia. It ahnost ce1tainly ren1ains the supreme act of corporate violence in wo rld hi.stot-y.For al l the power wie lded today by the world 's largest corporations whether Exx.onMobil,Walm art or. Goagl e-t hey are tam.e beasts compared with the ra vaging territorial appetites of the [militarized ] Eastlndia C6mp,'iny. Yet if histor y shows anythi ng, it is that in the intirnate dance between th e power of the state and that of the co rporatio n, while rhe latter can be regulated , it will use all the resources .in its power to resist. " H.ist.orianWilliam Dalrymple, The East J11dic1 Compan y: The Original Corpora re RQ!ders, 40 15 (A) Describe Dalrymp le's argument about Bri tish pre sence in Indi a in tbe :pe1iod 1750-1900. (B) Explain ONEway in wh.ich the East India Compan y affected global economies in the per iod 1750- 1900. (C) Explain ONE way in which the East lnclia Company committed a "supreine act of corporate violence" in Ind ia in the period 1750- 1900 . 2. Answer the following questions. (A) Explain ONE reason.for the shift in agricultural in.fluenoe in Asia or Latin Amer ica to ind ustrialized states. (B) Explain ONE way.in which the re lationship between companies and industri alized states impacted colonized states. (C) Explain ONE way in wh.ich economic imperialism in the period 1750-19 00 contr ibuted to native resistance. ECONOMIC IMPERIALISM 415 THINK AS A HISTORIAN: EXPLAIN THE CONTEXT C>F EC'ONO MIC IMREAIALJ~ M ~ ,- - - $ Th e passa ge on the previous page proviaes an incis ive aescription of th_ehisto r:ica l developp)ent of .economie imperialism. ,Like allhi storical dev elopments, it did net 0c'.cur in a vacuum but1:athe r devel0peclwithin a broader historical context Exp/ti.in how the hist<Jr'i ca/ dt?vel@prnentof e.c0nom.i r: i1nperialisn1is situated withfrz a br0ader historical context. To ·do .'SO, explain what ' ' eo11diliQJ'ISrJt.ade it p0ssible a1idwhat eonsequences i.t had. ' REFLECT ON THE TOPIC ESSENTIA _L QUESTION 1. In one to three paragraphs , describe the economic factors that contributed to in1perialism in the global econon1y between 1750 and 1900. :111111111111,111111,,,. lttiiitiitiiittiittiifl Sour ce: Wikin1edla Comn101is Portrair of an East lndia Company official. c. 1760-c .J 764 416 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION 6.6 Causes of Migration in an Interconnected World I would advise all my friends to quit Ireland - the country most dear to me; as long as they remain in it they wHIbe In bondage and misery. - An Irish settler who l1ad liv~ rn Wis-consin for a year, in a letter to The Tim.esof L9nclon, May 14, 18 50 Esse nt ial Questio n: How did environn1ental and econom ic factors contribute tb patterns of migrat ion between 1750 and 1900? An increasingly global economy characterized by economic imperialism and the ava-ilabili ty of different m.odes of ti'ansportation pro.rooted a new era in migrations. As industrialization grew , populations moved to tu-ban eenters . S01ne workers who left their homelands , such as the Lebanese merchants in the United States or the Italian laborers in Argentina, could travel back to their native co1u1tryfor visits or to retire . Oth ers, like the Irish settler quoted above , chose a pe 1manent resettle 1nent as relief from economic and po litical difficulties. Other movements of people were coerced . To 1neet the demands for workers , coerced a:nd semi-coerced migration of peop le resulted in slavery, indenture d ser vitude , and convict labor. Migration through Labor Systems The desire for low-wage labor was linked to the exp loitation of natural resources in the system of economic in1perialism. Eve n though slavery was gradually being abo lished in ilnperia l territories in the 19th century, the demand for the agricu lturaJ goods that enslaved workers had produced was still increasing. European states recruited new · laborers to work on p lantat ions, where they produced enormous wea lth that fuele d industrial growth at home : • Indian laborers 1nigrated to BTitisb colonies in the Caribbean , South Africa, East Africa , and Fiji. • Chinese laborers 1nigrated to California and British Malaya to build railroads and serve as farmhands, gardeners, .and domestics. • Japanese laborers migrated to I-Iawaii , PeTu, and Cuba to work on sugar plantations. CAUSES OF M IGRATI.ON IN AN INTERCONNECTED WORLD. 417 Cb.inese co ntractworkers 0 L1a sugar plantati o11i1119th-century Hawaii. Slavery Most countries in the Americas abolished the Af1ican slave trade in the early 19th century . Slavery itself continued, but without a fresh supp ly of ens laved people ., the institution declined. Only in the United States did the number of enslaved people increase after the .abolition of the .slave trade . The last countries to abolish slavery in the An1ericas were the United States (1865) , Cuba (1886) , and Brazil ( 188 8). In spite of prohibitions, Africans continu ed enslaving one ·another weU into the 20th century . As slavery was being abo lished , labor was still desired , so.imp erial co1u1tties turned to .other forms of coerced labor. Indentured Servi tude People who wo rked for a set nun1ber of years before becoming free were indentured servants. Many people beca.me indentured as a way to pay for their transportation ftom a desperately poor community to one with more oppo1tunity. Others were forced to do so to pay off a debt. So1ne of these servants intended to work te1np6raril y, earning money for their family , and then return home. But many stayed in their new country . As a result, indentured laborers brought their home cultures to their new lands and altered the den1ographics of these lands. For exrunple , the cultures ofMalu-itius (in the Indian Ocean off Southeast Afi·ica), Fij i (in t11e South Pacific) , and Trinidad (in the Caribbean) added a stTong Indian influence. Asian Contract Laborer~ Many Chinese and Indian workers were an early substitute for the slave trade . They were forced or tricked into 418 WORLD HISTORY MODERN: AP® EDITION servitude. Britain fust tried this fonn of labor after ending tbe slave trade in 1806. They imported 200 Chinese to Trinidad. Between 1847 and 1874 , the Briti sh, French, Dutch, and Spanish had ilnported between 250,000 '-1Ild500,000 Chinese workers to their colonies in Southeast Asia , Africa , and the Caribbean. About 125,000 Chinese were sent to Cuba alone, where 80 percent worked the sugar plantations. The life of .an Asian contract workers was riddled with difficulty and unjust treattnent. While they were not prope rty, they were unskilled laborers or porters who were exploited as substitutes for slave labor, often working for s11bsistence wages. The media of the time brought the treat:Jnent of the1n to the attention of the public by c1iticizing the syste 1n as a new fonn of slave1y. In 1855, Britain stopped its trade. In 1862 Congress banned the contract Asia labor trade in the United States , and in 1874, under inten1ational pressure , Portuga l ended it. A treaty between China and Spain in 1877 terminated the contracts of Chinese workers still in Cuba. British Pen~l Colonies In the lat_e 1700s, Great Britain estab lished a penal colony in Australia after losing its original one in Georgia as a result of the American Revolution. The British govenm1ent shipped convicts fron1 England, Scotland, and Ireland .as well as British coloni es sucb as India , to Australia. There , they performed hard labor and suffered harsh treatment. Actual imprisonment of the convicts was rare. Most perfonned lab or for ·free settlers, wo1:ked for the government in record keeping, or worked on gove1runent projects such as road and railwa y building. The majority of convicts earned their freedom after a prescribed

AP World History Modern AMSCO Textbook

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